7/24/2017 Lug Analysis | MechaniCalc

Lug Analysis
Instructions (/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/instructions)

A lug, also known as a lifting lug or a padeye, is essentially a plate with a hole in it where the hole is sized to t a clevis pin. Lugs are used in combination with clevis pins
to transmit load between di erent mechanical components. Common applications where lugs are used include:

strongbacks with padeyes, lifted with shackles and other rigging

connections between actuators and other structure (i.e. trunnion joint, clevis joint)
door hinges

Advantages of lugs over other types of connections that are used to transmit load include:

rotation between components is possible

quick and simple installation

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Contents

Lug Analysis Overview (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#analysis-overview)

Simpli ed Analysis (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#simpli ed-analysis)
Tension Failure Across Net Section (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#simpli ed-tension-failure-across-net-section)
Shear Tear Out Along Two Planes (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#simpli ed-shear-tear-out)
Bearing Failure (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#simpli ed-bearing-failure)
Air Force Method (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-method)
Axial Loading (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-axial-lug)
Transverse Loading (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-transverse-lug)
Oblique Loading (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug)
Double Shear Joint Strength (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-double-shear-strength)

ASME BTH Method (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-bth-method)

Correction Factors (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-correction-factors)
Design Factor & Service Class (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-design-factor)
Lug Strength Calculations (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-lug-strength)
Appendix (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#appendix)
Notes (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#notes)
References (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#references)

Lug Analysis Overview

Analysis of a lug is deceptively complex since there are several simultaneous, interacting failure modes. These failure modes are associated with di erent areas of the
lug, as illustrated in the gure below (Note: Figure not to scale (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-pin-size)):

The failure modes for the lug are listed below. The numbers correspond with the labeled sections from the above gure:

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1. Tension failure across the net section
2. Shear failure along two planes
3. Bearing failure
4. Hoop tension failure / fracture on single plane
5. Out of plane buckling ("dishing") -- (not shown in the gure)

There are several common methods of analyzing a lug:

Simpli ed analysis - This method is based on rst principles and involves making simplifying assumptions about the nature of the failure and calculating factors
of safety. This has the advantage of being relatively easy, but it only gives an approximate determination of the adequacy of the lug.
Air Force Method - This method considers most of the failure modes above, and uses empirical curves to determine more accurate allowable loads. This method
allows for lugs under axial loading, transverse loading, or oblique loading. This method also accounts for the interaction between the lug and the pin.
ASME BTH - This method considers most of the failure modes above, and uses simpli ed equations with correction factors based on empirical data to determine
more accurate allowable loads. This method is simpler than the Air Force Method, but it only allows for lugs under axial loading and does not account for the
interaction between the lug and the pin.

All of these methods are described in the following sections.

Simpli ed Analysis
This method is based on rst principles (as well as on the simpli ed method outlined in Bruhn (https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-
Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7)) and involves making simplifying
assumptions about the nature of the failure. While it is relatively easy to perform, it only gives an approximate determination of the adequacy of the lug and should not
be employed for critical structure.

In the simpli ed analysis, the following failure modes are considered:

Tension failure across the net section

Shear failure along two planes
Bearing failure

A factor of safety (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) is calculated for each of the failure modes, and as long as each
factor of safety is acceptable then the lug can be considered to pass. The gure below shows the lug in blue and the pin in green.

The dimensions in the gure are:

Dh = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
R = edge distance (distance from center of hole to edge of lug in direction of applied load)

r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R)

a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = R 0.5Dh

w = width

t = thickness (not shown in gure -- thickness is into the page)

Z = loss in shear plane length due to curvature at end of lug

= shear plane locating angle = 40

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Tension Failure Across Net Section

Tension failure across the net section occurs over the cross-section highlighted in red in the gure below:

The area of the net section is given by:

At = (w Dh )t

The ultimate tensile load is the load that would result in tensile failure across the net section, and is given by:

Ptu = S tu At

where Stu is the ultimate tensile strength (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/material-properties#stress-strain-curve) of the lug material. The equation above assumes
a uniform tensile stress (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#stress-and-strain) over the cross-section. In reality there will be a stress
concentration (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#stress-concentration) due to the ow of stress around the hole.

The factor of safety is given by:

Ptu
F S tu =
Fapp

Shear Tear Out Along Two Planes

Shear tear out occurs over the two shear planes highlighted in red in the gure below:

The total shear plane area is given by:

As = 2Lsp t

where Lsp is the length of the shear plane and t is the lug thickness. A simple and conservative approach is to calculate the length of a single shear plane as:

Lsp = a

where a = R 0.5Dh , as shown in the gure above. If it is desired to account for a slightly longer shear plane, it is common practice to consider a 40 degree line
extending from the center of the shear pin. At the point where that 40 degree line intersects the pin hole, extend the shear plane horizontally to the outer edge of the
lug. In this case, Lsp is calculated as:

Dp
Lsp = a + (1 cos()) Z
2

where is the shear plane locating angle of 40 and Z is the loss in shear plane length due to the curvature at the end of the lug. This loss is calculated as:

2
Dp
2
Z = r r ( sin())
2

Note that if the lug end is at then r is in nity and Z is zero.

The ultimate shear load is the load that would result in shear tear out along the two planes, and is given by:

Psu = S su As

where Ssu is the ultimate shear strength of the lug material.

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The factor of safety is given by:

Psu
F S tu =
Fapp

Bearing Failure
Bearing occurs between the surface of the pin and the inner surface of the hole in the lug, as shown in the gure below:

The bearing area is given by:

Abr = Dp t

Note that since the length of the bearing surface is equal to the diameter of the pin, and since the circumference of a circle is given by C = D , then:

the length of the bearing surface is also equal to 1/ times the circumference of the pin
the swept angle of the bearing surface is equal to 2 radians 115

The ultimate bearing load is the load that would result in bearing failure, and is given by:

Pbru = S bru Abr

where Sbru is the minimum of the ultimate bearing strength of the lug material and the ultimate bearing strength of the pin material. The ultimate bearing strength can
be approximated as 1.5Stu .

The factor of safety is given by:

Pbru
F S bru =
Fapp

If a bushing is pressed into the lug, then bearing needs to be calculated for both sets of contact:

Pin on bushing
Bushing on lug

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Air Force Method

The Air Force Method is widely used in industry and is documented in the Stress Analysis Manual of the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory (FDL). This method follows
closely with the methods presented in Melcon & Hoblit and Bruhn (https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?
ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7), and it relies heavily on curves generated by empirical data. Although this
method is somewhat more complex than other lug analysis methods, it is incredibly useful because it allows for lugs under axial loading, transverse loading, or oblique
loading, and because it accounts for the interaction between the lug and the pin.

Lug Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)

Check out our lug calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/) based on the Air Force Method described here.

This section discusses axial loading, transverse loading, and oblique loading separately. These sections disregard the e ect of the pin on the lug strength. A discussion
of the pin and lug interaction is given at the end.

Axial Loading
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Axial Loading
For axially loaded lugs, the Air Force method evaluates the lug for bearing failure, shear-out failure, hoop tension failure, and failure across the net section. Three of the
failure modes are actually combined into a single failure mode -- the "bearing strength" accounts for bearing, shear-out, and hoop tension. This is consistent with Bruhn
(https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-
20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7) and Melcon & Hoblit.

The dimensions of interest for an axially loaded lug are shown in the gure below:

The dimensions from the gure include:

D = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
e = edge distance
a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = e 0.5D

w = width

t = thickness

Bearing Strength Under Axial Load

The ultimate bearing load, accounting for bearing, shear-out, and hoop tension, is given by:

Fbru.L Dt ifS tu 1.304S ty

Pbru.L =
1.304Fbry.L Dt otherwise

where D is the hole diameter and t is the lug thickness. Fbru.L and Fbry.L are the lug ultimate and yield bearing stresses, respectively, and are given by the following
equations:

e/D < 1.5 e/D 1.5

a
Ultimate Bearing Stress, Fbru.L : K S tu K S tu
D

a
Yield Bearing Stress, Fbry.L : K S ty K S ty
D

The equation for ultimate bearing load can be condensed down to:
a
ife/D < 1.5
D
Pbru.L = K min (S tu , 1.304S ty ) Dt
1 otherwise

For ratios of e/D less than 1.5, the hole is close to the edge of the lug and so shear-out and hoop tension are likely to be the most critical failure modes. For larger
values of e/D, the hole is spaced farther from the edge and so bearing is likely to be the critical failure mode.

The factor K in the equations above is the allowable axial load coe cient which accounts for the interaction e ects between the di erent failure modes (bearing,
shear-out, and hoop tension). The value of K is read o of one of the following two plots. The rst plot is used for D/t 5, which is the most common case. If
D/t > 5 then the lug is thin, and in that case the value of K is read o of the second plot below. (Note 2) (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-axial-load-coe cient-plot)

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Bushing Bearing Strength Under Axial Load

If there is a bushing in the lug, then the bearing strength for the bushing must be calculated. The bushing ultimate load is given by:

Pu.B = 1.304S cy.B Dp t

where Dp is the pin diameter, t is the bushing thickness (assumed to be equal to the lug thickness), and Scy.B is the compressive yield strength of the bushing
material. The Air Force manual assumes the compressive ultimate strength of the bushing material, Scu.B , to be equal to 1.304Scy.B .

If there is no bushing in the lug, then the calculation should still be performed assuming that the lug material is the bushing material.

Net Section Strength Under Axial Load

The net-section ultimate load accounts for tension failure across the net section and is calculated by:

Fnu.L (w D)t ifS tu 1.304S ty

Pnu.L =
1.304Fny.L (w D)t otherwise

where w is the width and D is the hole diameter. Fnu.L and Fny.L are the ultimate and yield net-section stresses (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-
materials#stress-and-strain), respectively, and are given by the following equations:

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Ultimate Net-Section Stress: Fnu.L = K n S tu

Yield Net-Section Stress: Fny.L = K n S ty

The equation for net section ultimate load can be condensed down to:

Pnu.L = K n min (S tu , 1.304S ty ) (w D) t

The factor Kn in the equations above is the net tension stress coe cient which is a knock-down on the allowable stresses. The value of Kn is determined by
interpolating between the following plots:

Design Strength Under Axial Load

The design ultimate load for an axially loaded lug is the minimum of the ultimate bearing load, the ultimate bushing load, and the ultimate net-section load:

Pu.L.B = min (Pbru.L , Pu.B , Pnu.L )

Transverse Loading
The analysis for a transversely loaded lug is similar to that for an axially loaded lug. However, the failure mode for transverse loading is more complicated than for axial
loading, and di erent dimensions are critical for determining lug strength. The dimensions of interest for a transversely loaded lug are shown in the gure below:

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where h1 , h2 , h3 , and h4 are failure planes of interest. If the lug is symmetric, then the values for these dimensions can be easily obtained from the dimensions for an
axially loaded lug:

h2 = 0.5(w D)

h1 = h4 = h2 + 0.5D(1 cos 45 )

h3 = a

It should be noted that h3 is de ned as the smallest dimension on any radial section around the hole, but it will typically be equal to a. From the above dimensions, the
e ective edge distance is calculated:

6
hav =
3/h1 + 1/h2 + 1/h3 + 1/h4

The equation above is simply a "reciprocal average" that gives more weighting to dimension h1 since that section takes most of the load. (Note 3)
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-reciprocal-average)

Lug Strength Under Transverse Load

The ultimate transverse load is given by:

Fbru.L Dt ifS tu 1.304S ty

Ptru.L =
1.304Fbry.L Dt otherwise

where D is the hole diameter and t is the lug thickness. Fbru.L and Fbry.L are the lug ultimate and yield bearing stresses, respectively, and are given by the following
equations:

Ultimate Bearing Stress: Fbru.L = K tru S tu

Yield Bearing Stress: Fbry.L = K try S ty

where Ktru and Ktry are the transverse ultimate and yield load coe cients and are determined from the following plot:

Bushing Bearing Strength Under Transverse Load

The bearing strength for the bushing in a transversely loaded lug is the same as for an axially loaded lug:

Ptru.B = Pu.B

where Pu.B is the bushing bearing strength for an axially loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-bushing-bearing-axial).

Design Strength Under Transverse Load

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Design Strength Under Transverse Load
The design ultimate load for a transversely loaded lug is the minimum of the ultimate lug load and the ultimate bushing load:

Ptru.L.B = min (Ptru.L , Ptru.B )

Looking for a Lug Calculator? (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)

Check out our lug calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/) based on the methodology described here.

Allows for axial, transverse, or oblique loading

Performs calculations for lug strength, pin strength, and double shear joint strength

(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)

Oblique Loading
In an obliquely loaded lug, the applied load has both axial and transverse components, as shown in the gure below:

For an obliquely loaded lug, the applied load should be broken out into the axial and transverse components, Pax and Ptr , and the strengths in the axial and
transverse directions should be calculated as discussed in the previous sections. An allowable load curve can then be de ned which takes the form of an interaction
equation, and is given below:

1.6 1.6
Pax.ult Ptr.ult
( ) + ( ) = 1
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B

The allowable load curve de nes the limits at which the lug is expected to fail -- it de nes the ultimate load for a given combination of applied axial and transverse load.
In the equation above, Pax.ult is the axial component of the ultimate load, Ptr.ult is the transverse component of the ultimate load, Pu.L.B is the design strength under
axial load (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-axial-design-strength), and Ptru.L.B is the design strength under transverse load
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-transverse-design-strength). The allowable load curve is shown below:

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In the gure above, the values along the y-axis are the ratios of the transverse applied load to the transverse strength, and the values along the x-axis are the ratios of
the axial applied load to the axial strength.

Axial Load Ratio Transverse Load Ratio

Pax Ptr
Rax = Rtr =
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B

The point for the applied load with coordinates of (Rax , Rtr ) should be plotted. Any point that falls within the allowable load curve has a factor of safety
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) 1 with respect to the ultimate load. Note that if the applied load is completely
axial, then the value for Rtr is 0 and the point (Rax , Rtr ) lies along the x-axis, and so the ultimate load is simply the axial design strength. Likewise for a completely
transverse applied load; in this case, the point lies along the y-axis and so the ultimate load is the transverse design strength.

For an applied load with both axial and transverse components, the ultimate load is calculated by drawing a line from the origin, through the point (Rax , Rtr ), and
then through the allowable load curve. This is the load line, and it has a slope of:

Rtr Ptr Pu.L.B

m = =
Rax Ptru.L.B Pax

The ultimate load ratios are given by the intersection of the load line with the allowable load curve. These ultimate ratios can then be used to calculate the ultimate load
values in the axial and transverse directions.

Ultimate Axial Load Ratio Ultimate Transverse Load Ratio

Pax.ult Ptr.ult
Rax.ult = Rtr.ult =
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B

It should be noted that the equation for the slope given above disagrees with the slope speci ed in the Air Force Manual. A discussion is given in the Appendix
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#oblique-discrepancy).

Instead of determining the ultimate values by plotting, they can be calculated directly by noting that the ultimate load components, Pax.ult and Ptr.ult are related by:

Ptr.ult = Pax.ult tan ()

where is the angle of the applied load with respect to the axial direction. (Note 4) (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-ultimate-components-oblique) The equation de ning
the allowable load curve can then be solved for the ultimate axial load, with the relationship above substituted for the ultimate transverse load:

0.625

1.6 1.6
Pax.ult Ptr.ult 1
( ) + ( ) = 1 Pax.ult =
1.6 1.6
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B 1 tan ()
( ) + ( )
P u.L.B P tru.L.B

The ultimate applied load can then be determined by:

2 2
Pult = P + P
ax.ult tr.ult

The factor of safety is calculated by: (Note 5) (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#note-factor-of-safety-oblique)

P
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Pult
FS =
Papp

Double Shear Joint Strength

It is important for the pin in the joint to be strong enough that it will distribute the load evenly over the lugs. Even though a weak pin will not commonly break in
practice, excessive exure of the pin will cause the load to "peak up" near the shear planes such that the outer edges of the lugs see high loads and the inner portions
of the lugs are relatively unloaded. This can cause the material around the holes on the outer surfaces of the lugs to stretch far enough to initiate a fracture, and the lug
will fail at a lower load than predicted.

One e ect that helps the situation is that as the load concentrates near the shear planes, the bending arm is reduced, and therefore the bending moment in the pin is
reduced. However, a study cited by Molcon and Hoblit found that this decrease in bending moment is "seldom more than 25 percent and usually much less."

Since bending in the pin a ects the strength of the lug, it is critical to account for the pin strength when analyzing the joint. In this section, a method for calculating the
allowable load for a double shear joint is presented. An example of a double shear joint is shown below:

In a double shear joint, there are two outer (female) lugs, a single inner (male) lug, and a pin.

The overall process of determining the allowable load is illustrated in the diagram below:

Calculate Joint Strength Ignoring Pin E ects

Initially ignoring the e ects of pin bending, calculate the ultimate load of each lug in the joint using the methods described in the previous sections
(https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug). Then calculate the nominal ultimate joint load (which does not account for the pin strength):

Pu.J .nom = min (2 Pult.F , Pult.M )

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where Pult.M is the ultimate load for the male lug and Pult.F is the ultimate load for a single female lug. Since there are 2 female lugs supporting the load, then the
ultimate load with respect to the female lugs is 2 Pult.F .

Calculate Pin Shear and Bending Strengths

The shear strength and the bending strength of the pin should both be calculated.

Pin Shear Strength

The ultimate shear load is calculated by:

2
Pus.P = 2 ( Dp ) S su.P
4

where DP is the pin diameter and Ssu.P is the ultimate shear strength of the pin material. Note that twice the area is used in calculating pin shear strength since there
are two shear planes.

Pin Bending Strength

The ultimate bending load is the applied load that would result in bending failure of the pin, and is calculated by:

2Mu.P
Pub.P =
Larm

where Larm is the moment arm and Mu.P is the ultimate failing moment for the pin. If the load is distributed evenly across the entire width of the lugs, then the
moment arm is calculated by:

t1 t2
Larm = ( + + g)
2 4

where t1 is the thickness of a single female lug, t2 is the thickness of the male lug, and g is the gap between the male and female lugs when the male lug is centered
between the female lugs.

The ultimate failing moment for the pin is calculated by:

3
D
P
Mu.P = kb.P S tu.P
32

where Stu.P is the ultimate tensile strength of the pin material and kb.P is the plastic bending coe cient. According to the Air Force Manual, "the value of kb.P varies
from 1.0 for a perfectly elastic pin to 1.7 for a perfectly plastic pin, with a value of 1.56 for pins made from reasonably ductile materials (more than 5% elongation)."

Pin Strong or Weak in Bending?

Once the pin strengths are calculated, determine whether the pin is strong or weak in bending. If the pin ultimate bending load (Pub.P ) is greater than either the pin
ultimate shear load (Pus.P ) or the nominal ultimate joint load (Pu.J .nom ) , then the pin is relatively strong and is not critical in bending. Otherwise, the pin is weak and
is critical in bending.

Yes Strong Pin

Pub.P Pu.J .nom or Pub.P Pus.P ?
No Weak Pin

Strong Pin
If the pin is strong, the joint strength will be limited by either the pin shear strength or by the nominal joint strength. In the case of a strong pin, the pin ultimate
bending load is calculated assuming that the load distributes evenly over the full width of the lugs:

3
D kb.P S tu.P
P
Pub.P =
t1 t2
16 ( + + g)
2 4

The equation above is the same as the equation presented earlier for the ultimate pin bending load, but with the terms combined into a single equation.

For a strong pin, the pin bending does not a ect the joint strength and the ultimate joint load is equal to the nominal ultimate joint load:

Pu.J = Pu.J .nom

Weak Pin
If the pin is weak in bending, then the load will not be distributed evenly over the lug widths. Instead, the load will concentrate toward the shear planes, and the inner
portions of the lugs will be relatively unloaded. Because of this, the lugs will fail at a lower load than predicted.

To account for the low pin bending strength, a "balanced design" ultimate load is calculated. The goal is to determine the actual bearing widths over which the lugs
support the load. Instead of the load being supported over the full lug thicknesses, t1 and t2 , the load will instead be distributed over some smaller widths, b1 and b2 ,
as shown in the gure below. It is assumed that the load is uniformly distributed over these widths.

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Reducing the bearing width has two e ects:

The ultimate load is reduced for the lugs (the lugs fail at a lower load).
The moment arm for the pin is reduced, which increases the pin's ultimate bending load (the pin fails at a higher load).

The new, increased value of the pin ultimate bending load is calculated by:

3
D kb.P S tu.P
P
Pub.P =
b1 b2
16 ( + + g)
2 2

where, in the equation above, b1 and 2b2 were substituted for t1 and t2 from the previous pin bending equation.

The trick is to nd the values of b1 and b2 that result in the "balanced design" ultimate load. To determine the balanced design ultimate load, reduce the bearing widths
of each of the lugs until the ultimate load for the lugs are equal to one other as well as equal to the ultimate bending load of the pin. This requires an iterative process.

Once the balanced design ultimate load is found, the ultimate joint load and the pin ultimate bending load are each equal to the balanced load:

Pu.J = Pub.P = Pbalanced

Calculate Allowable Load for Joint

The ultimate joint load (Pu.J ) should have been calculated in one of the two previous sections, depending on whether the pin was strong or weak in bending:

Strong pin: Pu.J = Pu.J .nom

Weak pin: Pu.J = Pbalanced

The overall ultimate load accounting for both the ultimate joint load and the ultimate pin shear load is calculated by:

Pult = min (Pu.J , Pus.P )

The factor of safety is calculated by:

Pult
FS =
Papplied

Looking for a Lug Calculator? (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)

Check out our lug calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/) based on the methodology described here.

Allows for axial, transverse, or oblique loading

Performs calculations for lug strength, pin strength, and double shear joint strength

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(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)

ASME BTH Method

The ASME method of lug analysis is described in ASME BTH-1, "Design of Below-the-Hook Lifting Devices." This method considers the following failure modes, where the
numbers correspond to the gure:

1. Tension failure across the net section

2. Shear failure along two planes
3. Bearing failure
4. Fracture on single plane

While the factor of safety (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) on dishing (out-of-plane buckling) is not explicitly
calculated, the e ective width calculation accounts for the lug thickness in an attempt to protect against dishing failure.

The dimensions of interest for the lug analysis are shown in the gure below:

The dimensions from the gure include:

Dh = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
be = net width (distance between the edge of the hole and the edge of the lug in the transverse direction)
R = edge distance (distance from the center of the hole to the edge of the lug in the direction of applied load)
r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R)

a = distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of the lug = R 0.5Dh

t = thickness (not shown in gure -- thickness is into the page)

Z = loss in shear plane length due to curvature at the end of the lug

= shear plane locating angle

Correction Factors
The analysis in ASME BTH is very similar to the simpli ed analysis (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#simpli ed-analysis), with the exception of several
correction factors that are calculated based on test results. These correction factors are discussed below.

Strength Reduction Factor

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The lug strength is reduced as the t between the pin and the hole is loosened. The lug strength is not much a ected as long as the pin and hole are a relatively tight t.
ASME de nes a strength reduction factor that can be used to account for the pin-to-hole clearance as:

1 ifDp /Dh > 0.9

Cr = 2
Dp

1 0.2751 2
otherwise
Dh

where Dp is the pin diameter and Dh is the hole diameter.

Shear Plane Locating Angle

A shear plane locating angle, , is used to locate the two planes along which shear tear out occurs, as shown in the gure:

A larger value of results in a larger shear plane area. Other methodologies commonly take as a constant value (typically 40), but ASME relates it to the ratio of the
pin diameter to the hole diameter such that a loose- tting pin has a smaller shear plane area than a tight- tting pin:

Dp

= 55
Dh

E ective Width
The term be is referred to as the net width and is the distance between the edge of the hole and the edge of the lug in the transverse direction, as shown in the gure:

In the tension calculations, an e ective width is calculated and is the smallest of the following:

bef f .1 = be The e ective width should not be larger than the actual net width.

bef f .2 = 4t This limit is intended to protect against dishing failure (once the lug thickness drops below 1/4 of the net width be , the
e ective width is driven down). This limit can be ignored if the lug is sti ened or constrained against buckling.

bef f .3 = 0.6be
S tu

Dh This equation is empirical, tted to test results.
S ty be

The e ective width is calculated as:

bef f = min (bef f .1 , bef f .2 , bef f .3 )

Design Factor & Service Class

A design factor (i.e. required factor of safety), Nd , is used in the strength calculations. The value for Nd can be found from the table below:

Design Factor Condition

Nd = 2.00 Design Category A lifters (predictable loads, accurately de ned or non-severe environmental conditions, no more than 20,000 load cycles)
Nd = 3.00 Design Category B lifters (unpredictable loads, uncertain or severe environmental conditions)

A service class is used to account for fatigue life and is de ned based on the table below:

Service Class Load Cycles

0 0 - 20,000
1 20,001 - 100,000

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2 100,001 - 500,000
3 500,001 - 2,000,000
4 Over 2,000,000

Lug Strength Calculations

These strength calculations are only applicable for axially applied loads, as indicated by the applied force arrow in the gure below:

To determine whether the lug has su cient strength, calculate a factor of safety (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/strength-of-materials#allowable-stress-design) for
each of the failure modes described below. As long as the applied force is within the allowable load, and as long as each factor of safety is acceptable, then the lug can
be considered to pass.

Tensile Strength
The ultimate tensile load is the load that would result in tensile failure across the net section, and is given by:

Pt.u = Cr S tu At

where Cr is the strength reduction factor (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor) and Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of
the lug. At is the area of the net section and is calculated by:

At = 2 t bef f

where bef f is the e ective width (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-e ective-width) and t is the lug thickness.

The allowable tensile load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:

Pt.u
Pt =
1.20Nd

Note that the allowable tensile load is based on the design factor multiplied by 1.20. ASME requires the design factor for some of the strength calculations to be higher
than the nominal value. The factor of safety is given by:

Pt.u
F St =
Fapp

To meet ASME BTH, the factor of safety must be at least 1.20Nd , but the required factor of safety may be larger depending on customer requirements or engineering
judgement.

Single Plane Fracture Strength

The ultimate single plane fracture load is the load that would result in failure along the plane collinear with the applied load, and is given by:

Pb.u = Cr S tu Ab

where Cr is the strength reduction factor (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor) and Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of
the lug. Ab is an e ective area that is calculated as:

Dh 0.92be
Ab = [1.13 (R ) + ] t
2 1 + be /Dh

where R is the edge distance, Dh is the hole diameter, be is the net width, and t is the lug thickness.

The allowable single plane fracture load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:

Pb.u
Pb =
1.20Nd

The factor of safety is given by:

P
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Pb.u
F Sb =
Fapp

Double Plane Fracture Strength

The ultimate double plane shear load is the load that would result in shear tear out along the two planes, and is given by:

Pv.u = 0.70S tu Av

where Cr is the strength reduction factor (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor) and Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of
the lug. Av is the total area of the two shear planes and is given by:

Dp
Av = 2 [a + (1 cos ()) Z ] t
2

where is the shear plane locating angle (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-shear-plane-angle) and Z is the loss in shear plane length due to the
curvature at the end of the lug. This loss is calculated as:

2
Dp
2
Z = r r ( sin ())
2

Note that if the lug end is at then r is in nity and Z is zero.

The allowable double plane shear load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:

Pv.u
Pv =
1.20Nd

The factor of safety is given by:

Pv.u
F Sv =
Fapp

Bearing Strength
The ultimate bearing load is the load that would result in bearing failure on either the lug or the pin. This ultimate load is dependent on the number of load cycles that
the connection will be subjected to, and is given by:

1.25 S ty.min Ap for Service Class 0

Pp.u =
0.63 S ty.min Ap for Service Class 1 or higher

where Sty.min is the minimum yield strength between the lug and the pin (i.e. Sty.min = min (S ty.lug , S ty.pin ) ). Ap is the pin bearing area and is calculated by:

Ap = Dp t

The allowable bearing load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:

Pp.u
Pp =
Nd

The factor of safety is given by:

Pp.u
F Sp =
Fapp

Need Structural Calculators? (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/)

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Beam Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/beam-analysis/)

Bolted Joint Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/bolted-joint-analysis/)
Bolt Pattern Force Distribution (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/bolt-pattern-force-distribution/)
Lug Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/lifting-lug-analysis/)
Column Buckling Calculator (https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/column-buckling/)

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(https://mechanicalc.com/calculators/)

Appendix

Discrepancy With Air Force Manual - Oblique Loading

The Air Force Manual speci es to calculate the factor of safety for an obliquely loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug) by
drawing a line from the origin that intersects with the allowable load curve, where the slope of the line is given by:

Pu.L
m =
Ptru.L

where Pu.L is the ultimate load for an axially loaded lug and Ptru.L is the ultimate load for a transversely loaded lug.

The problem with using the above equation for the slope is that the intersection line is the same regardless of the angle of the applied force. This problem is illustrated
in the gure below:

If the applied force is at an angle of 5 such that it is almost entirely axial, then the point for the applied load would lie along the blue line as shown in the gure, and
the intersection point should re ect a factor of safety that is very close to that of a pure axially loaded lug. Likewise, if the applied force is at an angle of 85 such that it
is almost entirely transverse, then the point for the applied load would lie along the red line as shown in the gure, and the intersection point should re ect a factor of
safety that is very close to that of a pure transversely loaded lug. Based on this reasoning, the slope of the line should re ect the applied loading condition:

Ptr /Ptru.L Ptr Pu.L

m = =
Pax /Pu.L Ptru.L Pax

Notes

Note 1: Lug & Clevis Relative Sizing

It should be noted that the gure showing the lug with the clevis pin (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#plot-lug-failure-modes) does not accurately depict
the relative sizing. The clevis pin should be a relatively tight t in the lug. Per ASME, the pin diameter should be at least 90% of the lug hole diameter to avoid a
reduction in the joint strength (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#asme-strength-reduction-factor).

Note 2: Axial Load Coe cient Plot

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Note 2: Axial Load Coe cient Plot
The variable names used in the Axial Load Coe cient plot (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#plot-axial-load-coe -thin) from the Air Force Manual are
inconsistent with the rest of the variable names throughout the manual. This plot originated in Melcon & Hoblit, and the variable names from the plot were not updated
to match. The Air Force Manual uses the variable e for edge distance (center of hole to edge of lug) and a for the distance between the edge of the hole to the edge of
the lug. However, the plot uses a for the edge distance (center of hole to edge of lug).

Note 3: Reciprocal Average for Transverse Lug Dimensions

The e ective edge distance for a transversely loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-transverse-lug) is calculated using a reciprocal
average. The e ect of the reciprocal average is that the result is dominated by the smaller terms such that a disproportionately large value will not drive up the average
much, but a disproportionately small value will drop the average signi cantly (i.e. a weak link -- this is the same e ect seen by placing springs in series). The use of this
equation for calculating the e ective edge distance for a transversely loaded lug originated with Melcon and Hoblit. They stated that the reason for the coe cient 3 on
the h1 term was to reduce scatter on their test data, but that it made sense because in a transversely loaded lug the h1 section will be taking most of the load.

Note 4: Relationship Between Ultimate Load Components for Oblique Loading

To calculate the ultimate load components for an obliquely loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug), it is necessary to
determine a relationship between the ultimate components. It is known that the actual load ratios are proportional to the ultimate load ratios since these ratios lie
along the same load line:

Rtr Rtr.ult
=
Rax Rax.ult

Express the ratios in terms of the load components and simplify:

Ptr Pu.L.B Ptr.ult Pu.L.B

=
Ptru.L.B Pax Ptru.L.B Pax.ult

Ptr Ptr.ult
=
Pax Pax.ult

The load components are related by the angle of the applied load:

Ptr Ptr.ult
tan () = =
Pax Pax.ult

Note 5: Factor of Safety for Oblique Loading

It should be noted that the factor of safety for an obliquely loaded lug (https://mechanicalc.com/reference/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug) can be incorporated into
the allowable load curve itself by:

1.6 1.6 1.6

Pax.allow Ptr.allow 1
( ) + ( ) = ( )
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B FS

The factor of safety can then be calculated directly by:

0.625

1
FS =
1.6 1.6
P ax.allow P tr.allow
( ) + ( )
P u.L.B P tru.L.B

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References
1. ASME BTH-1, "Design of Below-the-Hook Lifting Devices," The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2014.
2. Bruhn, E.F., "Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures," June 1973. (https://www.amazon.com/Analysis-Design-Flight-Vehicle-
Structures/dp/0961523409/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=07e81dbba299931f7bd1e56051ab5df7)
3. Melcon, M.A and F.M. Hoblit, "Development in the Analysis of Lugs and Shear Pins," Product Engineering, June 1953.

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4. Niu, Michael C., "Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing," October 2011. (https://www.amazon.com/Airframe-Stress-Analysis-Sizing-
Michael/dp/9627128120/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=mechanicalc-20&linkId=26f036fabf25f12b0ef3e84bcaa55668)
5. "Stress Analysis Manual," Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, October 1986.

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