Facilitating Reflection: A Manual For Leaders and Educators

Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Leaders and Educators
Facilitating
Reflection
A Manual for Leaders and Educators
Written and Compiled by

Julie Reed & Christopher Koliba
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> Table of Contents

About Reflection
1. Understanding Reflection
2. Facilitating Reflection "Reflection" is a vital component of service-
learning. This manual was designed for
Attitude educators and leaders of service groups who
have an interest and a commitment to provide
Communication
reflection opportunities for students and
Group Dynamics community partners alike. College professors,
K-12 teachers, community organization
Trouble-Shooting
leaders, and leaders of service organizations
3. Getting Started have all found, "Facilitating Reflection: A
Manual for Leaders and Educators," a useful
4. The Reflection Circle supplement to their work.
5. Activities
Reflection Starters
This manual was written during the summer of
1995. The primary author, Julie Reed, was
Role Plays interning at the Georgetown University
Quotes Volunteer and Public Service Center at the
time. I had asked her to pull together a
Group Exercises
compendium of reflection activities that would
6. Additional Forms of Reflection be useful for educators and leaders of service
groups. None of the ideas represented in this
7. Acknowledgements manual are original. We borrowed examples
from a variety of sources, which you will find in
the "Acknowledgements" section at the end of
the manual.
Special thanks go out to Sharon Morgenthaler,

and the Georgetown University Office of
Volunteer and Public Service, for their
permission to finally post this manual on the
Internet. Any comments about the manual
should be sent to:
Christopher.Koliba@uvm.edu
Christopher Koliba, Ph.D.

Research Assistant Professor
John Dewey Project on Progressive Education
A Student's Thoughts on Facilitating Reflection

As a student leader, a future educator and a member of my community interested in community

service and service learning, I found this manual to be a helpful guide to understanding and
implementing reflection. Reflection is possibly the most important part of service and definitely
essential to any type of Service-Learning. The information here helped me think about what role I
want reflection to play in my life but also it gave me the tools to integrate meaningful reflection into the
work I do with others. This tool of reflection is like a gift that I am now able to present to all people I
work with. I have learned the value of it and how to apply it. Reflection is a treasure that I now
possess and will value for time to come.
- Sierra Melcher, 2000-2001 Director of University of Vermont Citizen Awareness and Training for
Students (CATS)
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Chapter 1: Understanding Reflection - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Higher Education
> Return to Table of Contents
Understanding Reflection
What is reflection?
Most people who are involved in community service and service learning programs are
familiar with the term "reflection." In fact, we are all familiar with reflection... Every time
we look in the mirror. The term "reflection" is derived from the Latin term reflectere --
meaning "to bend back." A mirror does precisely this, bend back the light, making visible
what is apparent to others, but a mystery to us -- namely, what our faces look like.
In service learning, we look to develop processes that allow the people doing service to
bend the metaphorical light of their experiences back onto their minds -- to make careful
considerations about what their experience were all about: what did they see, who did
they meet, why is there a need for such services in the first place, etc. The act of
reflection, therefore, becomes crucial to their education. It serves as the bridge between
experiences and learning.
Reflection is more than "touchy-feely."

Many students, staff and faculty in university and college settings think of reflection only
in terms of"touchy-feely" group discussions. Consequently, they resist opportunities to
reflect on the nature of their service work. This, aversion stems from what appears to be
a barrier to talking about one's feelings, thoughts, and emotions. However, reflection
need not be limited to the release of emotional energy, the sharing of feelings, or
attempts to "feel good" about the service performed. Rather, reflection is decidedly
educational. It is simply an opportunity through which one can learn from experience.
Reflection can take numerous forms, and touch on an endless variety of issues. It
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furthers learning and inspires, provocative thought and action. Most of all, it can benefit
the individual and the community.
Why learn from experience?

Most of what we know about the world and our place in it is derived from learning
through our experiences. Certainly we learn a great deal from formal education -- from
lectures and books. But are we merely memorizing and absorbing the facts and figures,
or are we experiencing them? Do we not engage in an internal dialogue with the subject
matter and, as one student claims, "experience a book"? Aren't we, in fact, reflecting on
the subject matter? Answering "yes" to these questions allows us to recognize that we
are, learning all the time. When related to service, the opportunity to reflecton experience
is crucial. As David Sawyer of Berea College explained, "Service action does not
automatically become service attitude. The depth of reflection determines the, quality of
the attitude, and the quality of the action." This reflection module encourages us not to
take these learning opportunities for granted.
What is it that we take for granted?

Questioning what we, take for granted involves more than thinking about how privileged
we might be compared to others in a diverse community. We need to look at the
mundane world around us. Donald Schon, in his widely read book entitled, The
Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action (1983), calls for professionals
to better understand their actions by thinking about their actions. This is hardly news,
since we do it all the time. What is different, and out of the ordinary, is getting into the
habit of thinking about our thinking. Schon suggests several properties related to
thinking:
1. There are actions, recognitions, and judgements, which we know how to carry out
spontaneously; we do not have to think about them prior to or during their
performance.
2. We are often unaware of having to learn to do these things; we simply find
ourselves doing them.
3. In some cases, we were once aware of the understandings which were
subsequently internalized in our feeling for the stuff of action. In other cases, we
may never have been aware of them. In both cases, however, we are usually
unable to describe the knowing which our action reveals.
(Schon 1984: 54)

Schon argues that "as practice becomes more repetitive and routine...the practitioner may
miss important opportunities to think about what he is doing... [H]e learns, as often
happens, to be selectively inattentive to phenomena that do not; fit the, categories of his,
knowing-in-action, then he may offer from boredom or 'burn-out' and afflict [the people
around him] with the consequences of his narrowness and rigidity." (Schon 1984:61)
Why should I be attentive to my thinking?

Do you want your service to be a part of your education? Do you want to serve well? Do
you want the organization or club you work with to be effective? Do you want your work
to mean something? Do you want to learn, improve, and grow? If you answered "yes" to
any of these questions, you have provided yourself with good reasons to make reflecting
into a habit.
How can I be more, conscious of "doing no

harm."
Studies have been done about why college students do community or public service
work. Most often students cite altruism, "the selfless concern for the welfare of others,"
as the reason. They feel that the work they do promotes the welfare of those they are
serving, be they newly immigrated children needing to learn English, homeless people
needing meals, or a campus needing educational programs about diverse cultures.
However, we must question whether even these altruistic people can and should
determine what is best for others. Many of us believe that we determine our own "best"
interests; why should the people with and for whom we serve be any different?
Reflection provides an opportunity for people who are serving to open their hearts and
minds to the experiences of others, to acknowledge their wisdom and understand their
resources strengths and needs, and to develop action plans that involve partnership with
communities, and prevent doing harm.
It is often difficult to imagine that an act of benevolence can actually end up having
negative consequences. But this question must be constantly asked if we are considering
community members as equal partners in a service learning experience. Raising the
specter of negative consequences forces us to look at the underlying reasons for the
social conditions that gave rise to the need for service in the first place. Such attention to
the root cause of social problems, thus becomes a critical element to successful
reflection. Examining these causes in light of service experiences merges education and
action in unique ways.

But how can reflection appeal to my self-

interests?
The self-interests of people who serve are also met when these people reflect on how
their service work has had an impact on their own lives and learning. These impacts
involve one's growth and understanding in areas such as:
career exploration
social change/justice
civic responsibility
leadership development
intellectual pursuit
spiritual fulfillment
professional development
political consciousness
More often than not, this kind of self-learning is taken for granted. We tend to pay
attention to it on specific occasions. Questions of career exploration only arise when life
after college is contemplated. Spiritual fulfillment may only be a concern during periods
of worship. Civic responsibilities may only come to mind when and if we vote. The kinds
of structured reflection outlined in this module are designed to link one's service
experiences to personal, as well as community, development.
The first section of this manual will introduce reflection leaders to the proper technique
for effective facilitation. Although facilitation is not a new concept, and is used in a
variety of situations, many individuals are unclear about it. Facilitation skill is especially
important for reflection pertaining to service experiences, as a wide range of opinions
and emotions can be expressed, and many of the topics of discussion are controversial.
The facilitation section of the manual also includes samples of challenging situations for
facilitator and describes appropriate responses.
Once facilitators have this fundamental understanding of facilitated reflection, they can
begin to plan the reflection activities for their group. The second section of this, manual
outlines the steps to take, and things to consider, in developing reflection sessions.
The most basic form of structured externalized reflection is the "reflection circle.' The,
manual's third section explains this form of reflection and proves the reader with a
selection of sample questions that can be used to initiate reflection. This type of

reflection is not immediately appropriate for all groups, however, so the fourth section
describes a variety of other reflection activities for groups.
Understanding that reflection can take many, many forms and that good facilitators are
those that promote creative reflection activities, the final section of the manual includes
brief descriptions of alternative forms of reflection that need not take place with a group
present. Most of these ideas are popular in the classroom, and have been adapted to
service experiences that are independent of academic courses. Samples include journals,
portfolios, and presentations.
Individuals and groups will determine which form of reflection will be most meaningful
for them. Across the many types of reflection taking place, and its infinite outcomes, we
hope reflection becomes a habit of being for people engaged in service. The connection
of theory and practice thought and action, can educate and transform.
...reflection is so critical; there can be no higher growth for individuals

or for society without it. Reflection is the very process of human
evolution itself.
-- David Sawyer, director of Students for Appalachia at Berea College
> Next Section: Facilitating Reflection

Chapter 2: Facilitating Reflection - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Higher Education
Facilitating Reflection
What is Facilitation?
[Silhoutte Drawing of Group Discussion]
The Difference between leading and facilitating
Understanding facilitation begins with an awareness of the difference between

facilitating and leading. It has been said that leadership is something you do to a group,
while facilitation is something you do with a group.
Although many leaders can (and should) be effective facilitators, the facilitator differs
from a leader in that the former is cognizant about the use of power, authority, or
control and places limitations on uses of it. A facilitator should be "a neutral mediator
whose job is to provide information and accommodate the exchange of dialogue among
... participants" (from Catalyst).
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Facilitators assist groups as they work together toward achieving group goals, and in
most instances do not interject their own personal opinions or agenda. By expressing
their opinions to the group, facilitators risk discouraging others with differing opinions
from speaking. They remain alert to group dynamics and encourage challenging
reflection while maintaining respect and safety within the group. Although facilitators
may help guide a discussion, they also recognize and foster the groups own ability to
lead itself. Thus unlike authoritative leaders, good facilitators relinquish control to the
group and promote open, democratic dialogue among group members.
Effective reflection requires that facilitators demonstrate an open-minded attitude,

communicate appropriately, manage group dynamics, incorporate diversity, and provide
closure. Developing skill in each of these areas involves learning and becoming
comfortable with numerous facilitation practices. An explanation of practices pertaining
to each area follows. Also refer to the "Activities" section of this manual for ideas about
promoting certain behaviors in the group.
Attitude
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful,

committed citizens can change the world: indeed, it's [Margaret Mead
the only thing that ever has. Photograph]
-- Margaret Mead, Anthropologist
* Be honest: Effective facilitation requires that he facilitator be honest with him/herself

and with the group. This includes being honest about the limits of one's own abilities and
knowledge. If the facilitator doesn't know the answer to the group's questions, s/he
should admit it and work on finding the answer. Honest facilitators gain the trust of the
group and model the importance of honesty from all participants. However, facilitators
should be careful not to stray from preventing a neutral stance while maintaining
honesty.
* Managing dual roles: There is some disagreement among expert, facilitators as to

whether a facilitator should always maintain a neutral stance, particularly if the facilitator

is, an active member of the group and a decision making is taking place. A skilled
facilitator will calculate the potential impact of his or her interjections into the group and
determine if it will result in a misuse of power. Sometimes, a skilled facilitator will state
that s/he wants to suspend his or her role as facilitator for the sake of making an opinion
or perspective heard. These instances should be handled with extreme caution and some
forethought.
* The facilitator is not an expert: Facilitators must keep in mind that their role in the
reflection is to moderate and guide communication, not make personal contributions to
it, or push their own agenda. By controlling the group, facilitators threaten the open
sharing of thoughts and feelings, and may close themselves off from the group's
feedback. Instead facilitators should remain flexible and responsive to the group, and
encourage evaluation of the, process. The facilitator's neutrality throughout the process is
crucial. An effective way for facilitators to avoid voicing their personal opinion is to
reflect question back to the group. For example, when asked whether s/he supports the
death penalty, a facilitator may say "The death penalty is, a controversial topic. What do
you think are the main issues for and against it?" By responding in this way the facilitator
has remained neutral and encouraged further reflection by the group.
* Everyone can learn: Facilitators should view reflection as a learning opportunity and
should communicate this attitude to the group. This means that facilitators themselves
remain open to learning from others, and that everyone's contributions are treated as
credible and educational. This serves to validate group members and helps to avoid
arguments between them.
Other qualities of an open-minded attitude include:
Somewhat informal
Be empathetic
Maintain a sense of humor
Stay interested in group discussion
Be, real, direct, and genuine
Communication

If I do not speak in a language that can be understood there

is little chance for a dialogue.
-- bell hooks, Writer and Educator
* Set ground rules: Ground rules establish a foundation upon which the group's
communication will occur. They help to create a safe environment in which participants
can communicate openly, without fear of being criticized by others. Ground rules that
have been arrive at by all members are the most useful and can be repeated if tension
rises during reflection. Sample ground rules follow.
Be honest
Listen, even if you disagree
Avoid prejudicial comments
Criticize the idea, not the person
Pass if you're not comfortable
Use "I" statements
Don't interrupt
Be brief
Everything is confidential
Agree to disagree
* Use "vibes watchers": In order to monitor ground rules the facilitator may choose to
identify one or more "vibes watchers". The vibes watcher observes the reflection and
takes not of group dynamics that are potentially problematic (for example, one person
dominating the discussion, a participant's ideas being attacked, etc.). S/he can interrupt
the discussion if the situation is particularly problematic, and explain, in a non-accusatory
tone, what s/he observed. The facilitator can decide if all participants should be
encouraged to voice such concerns during the session. At the conclusion of the session
the facilitator should ask for a report from the vibes watcher, so that future session may
be improved. Participants should not be forced to vibes watchers, but should volunteer.
Ideally, all members of the group will become sensitive to group dynamics, and, in a
sense, monitor themselves.

* Promote "active listening": Staying quiet and considering others remarks can be
challenging when controversial topics are discussed, but is crucial to respectful
communication. Facilitators should discourage participants from professing their
opinions without considering and responding to others' comments. Instead, facilitators
should model communication in the form of a dialogue, in which participants listen and
respond to each other. The type of communication used (whether "polite conversation"
is favored over informal or slang conversation) can very, and should be determined
according to such factors as the group's cultural background, familiarity with each other,
goals for reflection, etc.
* Encourage participation by all: Facilitators should clearly communicate that

reflection is an egalitarian process in which everyone has a right to speak, or to choose
not to speak. Group members who have not spoken should be encouraged to do so, if
they wish. This can be accomplished by creating a space for more introverted group
members to speak. This can be accomplished by stating something like, "Let's give an
opportunity to hear from some people who haven't spoken yet..."
* Use "stacking": In order to promote full participation, the facilitator should guide the
allocation of speaking time by "stacking" (or "queuing"). This involves the facilitator
identifying and placing in some order those individuals who wish to speak. One example
of this technique is to list the names of the four people who have raised their hands,
invite them to speak in order, and then indicate that you will recognize others who whish
to speak after the four people have finished. Another technique is to simply give a nod to
a person who wants to speak, acknowledging that they have been noticed and will be
called upon soon. Additional strategies for inclusion can be found in the "Activities"
section of this manual.
Other practices for effective communication include:
DO:
use open-ended questions (not "Should the welfare system be reformed?", but
"What aspects of the welfare system would you change?")
ask for specifics and examples
paraphrase and summarize ("So what you're concerned about is who defines
what's best for the se communities?)
acknowledge contributions
redirect questions to group ("Rehabilitation may not be occurring in our prisons,
should that be the goal of the criminal justice system?")
be creative
take some risks by posing provocative questions

DON'T:
refute people's ideas

put people on the spot
downplay thoughts, feelings
force people to speak
Group Dynamics
Each of us guards a gate of change that can only be unlocked from the
inside. We cannot open the gate of another, either by argument or by
emotional appeal.
-- Marilyn Ferguson, Educator and Writer
* Create a safe space: The key to open and honest reflection is an environment in
which participants feel safe and comfortable. In order for group members to express
their thoughts and opinions they must feel that they can do so without fear of attack or
condemnation. It is the facilitator's job to create such an environment, to monitor
participant's comfort levels, and to take the necessary steps to maintain safety. This
includes understanding and planning for individual differences in needs, abilities, fears,
and apprehensions. Participants who feel safe are more likely to make honest and
genuine contributions and to feel camaraderie and respect towards other group members.
* Manage disagreements: It has been said that "whatever resists will persist."
Facilitators must be adept at recognizing tension building in the group, and respond to it
immediately. Among the most useful strategies is to repeat the ground rules established
by the group, including a reminder that criticism should pertain to ideas not to people. In
addition, facilitators should not permit any disrespect or insults and should clarify
misinformation. It is important that negative behavior be handled immediately so that
participants do not get the impression that the behavior is condoned by the facilitator.
* Promote equality: As indicated, effective reflection is not designed around the

leadership of one person. Equality of participants should be communicated and modeled
by the facilitator. Again, the facilitator must be an alert observer, identifying signs of a
developing hierarchy, or of divisive factions within the group. S/he should not permit
arguing up against any group member(s), and should not take sides in any developing

debate. Such situations can be counteracted by recognizing all members, and encouraging
their participation equally.
* Be mindful of power, and who has it: All groups have opinion leaders or people
who most others look up to. Often, these opinion leaders will set the tone for a
discussion, thereby limiting active involvement of the more reserved members. Identify
who these opinion leaders are and if it appears as though their power and authority is
dominating the discussion, ask them, politely, to entertain other opinions.
Other keys to managing group dynamics include:
know the group

keep the group on track
don't avoid topics
reflect responsibility back on group
be prepared for disagreements
encourage challenging issues
* Build in diversity: In order to appropriately handle diversity issues in reflection

sessions, facilitators must begin by recognizing their own attitudes, stereotypes, and
expectations and must open their minds to understanding the limits these prejudices
place on their perspective. The facilitator will be the example to which the group looks,
and should therefore model the values of multiculturalism. It is important that diversity
be integrated throughout the reflection programming, rather than compartmentalized
into special multicultural segments.
Monitoring communication for expressions of bias requires the facilitators attention and
sensitivity. Facilitators should be aware that some language and behavior has
questionable, different or offensive meaning to some people, and they should encourage
them to share their perspectives and information. Specifically, facilitators should watch
out for statements or situations that generalize groups, or that identify race, sex, age
unnecessarily (for example, just as it is inappropriate to say "Bob Dole, White presidential
candidate," it is also inappropriate to say "Colin Powell, Black political hopeful"). When
qualifiers are used that reinforce stereotypes by suggesting exceptions to the rule,
facilitators should ask for clarification. For example when a participant describes his/her
experience working with a "respectable gay resident" of a shelter, the facilitator should
ask the participant why he/she included the word "respectable." Is this a statement about
gay people's respectability? About shelter residents? Is this based on his/her experience
with specific populations of one shelter, or a generalization about all such people?
Helping participants identify the assumptions inherent in their statements fosters greater
understanding and sensitivity.

Most importantly, while expressions of prejudice should be interrupted, the person who
spoke should not be publicly attacked. Placing guilt on the speaker is likely to increase the
tension and stifle further exploration of the topic. The Building Bridges Coalition
suggests the following appropriate ways to respond:
Express empathy and compassion. (example: "You must have been disappointed
about not getting the job you thought you were qualified for.")
Ask for more information. (example: "Please tell me more about why you think a
person in a wheel chair can't do that job?")
Paraphrase the feelings you hear expressed. (example: "it sounds like you aren't
conformable working around gay people.")
Give information (new information may alter their attitude). (example: "Did you
know that Ms. Jones has a college degree?")
It is important that responses to prejudice to be nonjudgmental and non-confrontation,

and that you express genuine concern and interest.
* Closure and Evaluation: As a challenging and meaningful reflection session draws to

an end, participants may feel that their intended objectives have not been met, that
questions have not all been answered, or that a plan of action has not been finalized.
Nonetheless, the group needs to recognize that progress has been made and that he
process must continue. It is the job of the facilitator to initiate this sense of resolution,
and to invite feedback so that the process may foster as it continues. Suggestions for
accomplishing this include:
Request a closing statement from each participant about what they learned, what
they plant to do next, etc.
Review the session with the group, recognizing participants; contributions and the
necessity of further reflection.
Provide participants with resources, such as written material and upcoming
events, to encourage their continued involvement.
Request written and verbal evaluations so that participants may voice those
concerns and ideas that have been left unsaid, and so that facilitators may
understand the strengths and weaknesses of their skills.
As with any skill, the ability to facilitate effectively will develop through experience,
feedback, observation, and reflection. Using the tools described in this and future
sections of this manual you are equipped to begin refining your facilitation skills.

Trouble Shooting for Facilitators

Given the non-authoritative and flexible nature of facilitation, it is not unusual for
situations to arise that can compromise the effectiveness of the reflection. Facilitators
need to stay alert to these possibilities, and be prepared to deal with them. Following are
suggestions for handling such situations, (taken from Catalyst):
1. One Person Dominates the discussion or continually interrupts it.

Make it clear that you want input from everyone: "Can I hear from someone that
hasn't spoken yet?" "I've noticed that no women have said anything about this
issue. Would any of the women like to say something about this?"
Use activities that require everyone's participation, i.e., gathering questions and
ideas. If a person consistently talks for long periods of time, without singling out
that person specify that you would like everyone to be brief.
If someone continually interrupts, don't become defensive or ignore him or her,

Instead, acknowledge the value of their input. Point out that in the interest of the
group, interruptions should be kept to a minimum. Offer to speak to them at
length at the break or after the session.
If someone keeps their hand in the air while others are talking, explain that when
you hand is up for you mind is processing what you will say so that you are not
listening to the person talking. Keep track of people who wish to speak by
"stacking" (verbally list names of people who have raise their hands, indicating the
order in which people will speak).
2. Several people refuse to talk or participate.

If some people refuse to participate in the large group, you might try dividing the
group into pairs, threes, or fours. People who will not speak up in front of the full
group will sometimes feel more comfortable sharing in a small group.
Distribute index cards and ask participants to respond to a question on the card.
This is more comfortable for those who are shy in groups; you can shuffle the
cards and have each person read someone else's response. In this way, everyone
participates, but no one has to know who wrote what.
3. The group becomes distracted and loses its focuses.
In refocusing a group it sometimes means interrupting someone or interrupting a

two-way argument that is going nowhere. Although you may be hesitant about
this, remind the participants of the original topic and put the tangent on hold, at
least until the first topic is resolved.
4. An offensive comment (e.g., pertaining to race, gender, sexual orientation,
etc.) from a participant evokes angry reaction or shocked silence from the
group.
If anyone makes an offensive comment, expect conflict. Your job is to control the
processing of what happened and allow the workshop to continue. You can ask
people to vent, but without argument. (refer to the previous section on diversity
for specific suggestions.)
5. Someone asks you if you're prejudiced, against who, and tries to test you.
The best response is honesty. Acknowledging that you - like everyone else - have
learned prejudice and are working against it, will establish respect and lack of
pretense in the group.
6. Someone verbally attacks your leadership and completely throws you off.
Usually they are very upset and are to blame. DO NOT TAKE THE ATTACK
PERSONALLY. Explain your rationale. Discuss it with the person privately
during a break. If you actually erred, apologize and continue.
7. Someone presents inaccurate information or strays away from the focus of
discussion.
Allow participants to point this out and/or reject the comment. You should invite
other participants to correct the misinformation; if they don't, correct it yourself.
If you don't know the answer, acknowledge and commit to looking into it. Don't
leave the group with any misinformation.
8. Group participant states: "It's all hopeless anyway; you can't change
people's attitudes. Why even try?"
Acknowledge their feelings. Point out the hopelessness, without buying into it
yourself. Point out the hopefulness of the training itself, and that you have seen
attitudes change and grow by doing this work. Don't get into a debate about
whether the work makes a difference - you wouldn't be doing it if it didn't.
9. You find yourself disliking a participant.
Remember that you are a human being and entitled to your own personal likes
and dislikes. However, you must also keep in mind that as a facilitator, your
neutrality is essential to the success of a workshop. Acknowledge your feelings to
yourself, and move on.
It is helpful to practice responding to challenging situations by role playing them with

others. As you gain experience as a facilitator you will discover additional responses to
these and other situations and will develop your own style.

> Next Section: Getting Started

Chapter 3: Getting Started - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Higher Education
Getting Started
In order to be most effective facilitators should be purposeful in planning the reflection

component of the service experience. The following factors should be considered:
1. Setting Goals: Reflection has many possible outcomes, including increased

awareness of social issues, values clarification, and even program evaluation.
Before initiating reflection the facilitator must consider which outcomes are
possible and desirable. Reflection goals will be related to the group's goals, and
possibly to the type of service in which students are participating. In addition,
goals should be considered for participants as well as for the group as a whole.
The goals can be broad, rather than specific, allowing for their further
development throughout reflection. The facilitator should be flexible, recognizing
that reflection evolves and goals may change.
2. Knowing Your Audience: Consider who will be participating in the reflection.
Are they new to service? If not, what is the extent of their previous experience?
How long have they been at college? What academic subjects are they most
interested in? What strengths do they bring to the reflection sessions? What might
be potential tension points? Be prepared to encourage each individual's
participation and to recognize their contributions. Choose activities and
approaches that foster this.
3. Making Time: The reflection component should be built into the service
experience, rather than being an "extra" or "add-on" activity. The program or
course's literature should indicate this and it should be clearly articulated to service
participants. The amount of time allotted for reflection will depend, in part, on the
issues that are being addressed (for example, racism) and the intensity of the
service experience (for example, alternative spring break programs should
schedule daily reflection sessions). Make certain that participants are aware of the
time responsibilities for reflection and that the sessions are schedule at convenient
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times for participants.

4. Choosing a Method: The form of reflection that you choose will depend not
only on the goals and issue previously identified, but also on the location and time
for the session and the number for people involved. Sample methods include pot
luck dinners, journals, discussions, and group activities. Outside speakers can also
be useful, but should not exceed 50% of the total reflection time (Morton, 1989).
While this manual will focus on discussion and group activities, the last section
will list additional forms of reflection.
When choosing methods for reflection be certain to keep the following points in
mind:
Be creative and include a variety of activities. Reflection should be

appropriate for different learning styles, and should be enjoyable for the
participants.
Choose activities in which participants will be comfortable expressing
themselves and will feel safe doing so. Group activities should also
promote cohesion while allowing for diverse opinions. This is
accomplished not only by the activity that is chosen, but by the way in
which that activity is facilitated.
5. Resources: Facilitators should identify other resources pertaining to service and
reflection that can provide information and support. This may include people on
campus, in the community and in national service organizations, as well as
relevant materials such as literature, research, and activity guides.
6. Skills: Reflection programming is only as successful as its facilitation. Facilitators,
whether students, staff, or faculty, should be trained in proper facilitation
techniques in order to create an atmosphere that is safe yet challenging, and in
which all participants can be involved. Facilitators should be knowledgeable of
group dynamics and able to respond appropriately to conflicts during reflection.
In addition, facilitators should be familiar with the experience on which the
reflection is based and with the issues being addressed. Facilitators can call upon
other resources if their knowledge of the issues is limited.
7. Evaluation: The reflection process should be evaluated by participants
periodically throughout its duration, and at its conclusion. This allows facilitators
to understand what is most beneficial about the reflection sessions and to make
modifications when necessary. In addition, by evaluating the reflection sessions,
students consider what they have learned through reflection, thereby enhancing
the value of reflection.
Other points to remember:

* Demonstrate the importance of reflection: Emphasize the value of reflection by

making it a regularly schedule part of the service experience. Make sure that everyone
participates, including group leaders and others who were in attendance (faculty, available
community members, etc.) in situations in which facilitators should not engage in the
reflection (for example, when they are guiding the discussion), they should reflect in
some other way, such as by journaling. The importance of reflection can also be
demonstrated by including it in literature and presentations about the group's activities.
* Capitalize on "teachable moments": Be prepared to facilitate reflection when

situations arise involving significant issues or experiences (for example, death of a shelter
resident). This involves training in facilitation and familiarity with the resources available
on a variety of topics. Naturally it helps the facilitator to have experience the situation, or
to otherwise be accessible to the group in order to learn about it. Facilitators should
maintain contact with service participants and try to take part in their informal
gatherings.
> Next Section: Reflection Circle

Chapter 4: The Reflection Circle - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Higher Education
The Reflection Circle
Creativty requires the freedom to consider

the "unthinkable" alternatives, to doubt [John C. Gardner Photograph]
the worth of cherished practices.
-- John Gardner, Leadership Writer
Simply put, reflection involves getting people talking about their experiences. Good
facilitation can assure this occurs in a safe and democratic way. The most basic form this
reflection takes is the reflection circle. In this forum the tools of good facilitation are
used and questions are raised that start participants thinking about their experiences and
their learning. The strengths of the reflection circle mirror those of good facilitation, and
include providing space in which
each participant has a right and an opportunity to speak

every idea has value and can contribute to learning
individual contributions are recognized
participants are responsible for their own learning
Reflection participants should be seated in a circle, with the facilitator(s) seated along
with them. Facilitators should not be separated out by standing up or speaking at a
podium. A reflection question is posed by the facilitator and participants are encouraged
to respond. Good facilitation is crucial to effective full group participation. Questions
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can be flexible and flow from the developing discussion, or can incorporate slightly more
structure following a particular theme identified for the reflection session. Similarly,
questions can be as broad as "Why are you involved in this service experience?" or more
specific like: "Based on your work in an AIDS hospice, what are your thoughts on health
care reform?" Following is a list of sample questions for a reflection circle. Additional
questions can be found in the "Activities" section of this manual.
Reflection Questions
Why do you do service? for self-interest or altruism?
Describe the people you met at the service site.
Name three things that stuck in your mind about the service experience.
Describe the atmosphere of the service site.
Describe some of you interactions.
Why do you think (activity described in previous questions) happened?
How were you different when you left the service location compared to when you
entered?
What did the "body language" of the people tell you?
How did the people's responses make you feel?
How did the services site make you feel? (compared to other identifiable places)
What brings people to the service site (both people seeking service and the
volunteers)?
Are "strangers" welcomed at the service site? Why or why not?
How are you similar/different to the others (others in your service group? others
seeking services? etc.)?
In what ways did being different help/hinder the group?

What have you learned about yourself?
If you were on of the people receiving services, what would you think of yourself?
How does this experience compare to others you've had?
What connections do you see between this experience and what you've learned in you
college courses?
How was your service contributed to your growth in any of these areas: civic
responsibility, political consciousness, professional development, spiritual fulfillment,
social understanding, intellectual pursuit?
What have you learned about a particular community or societal issue?
How did this experience challenge your assumptions and stereotypes?
Do you think these people (or situations) are unique? Why or why not?
What public policies are involved and what are their implications? How can they be
improved?
Who determines what's best for the community?
Describe what a typical day might be like for someone who uses the services of the
organization you worked with.
How would you do this differently if you were in charge?
What was the best/worst/most challenging thing that happened?
Did you feel like a part of the community you were working in?
How do you define community?
Describe an internal or external conflict that has surfaced for you during your service
work. Explain the factors that contribute to it and how you might resolve or cope with
the conflict.

Discuss a social problem that you have come in contact with during your service
work. What do you think are the root causes of this problem? Explain how your
service may or may not contribute to its alleviation.
What could this group do to address the problems we saw at the service site?
What could each participant do on his/her own?
How can society better deal with the problem?
How can this experience apply to other situations in your life?
How can your solutions apply to other situations in your life?
How can you solutions apply other problem(s) of other groups?
How can society be more compassionate/informed/involved regarding this

community?
What is the difference between generosity, charity, justice, and social change?
Where do we go from here? What's the next step?
> Next Section: Activities

Chapter 5: Activities - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Higher Education
Activities
There is no happiness if the things we believe in are

different than the things we do.
-- Albert Camus, Philosopher, Writer
Although the Reflection Circle is a basic structure for reflection, not all groups or group
members are comfortable or interested in speaking up in this environment right away.
Being creative and using a variety of activities helps to gain the participants' interest and
can foster comfort and familiarity in the group. A mixture of approaches can also address
a range of learning and communication styles. Some activities break the group into
smaller units, allowing participants to become comfortable speaking in a less intimidating
environment. Others spark discussion through the use of quotes, visualization and role
plays. Group activities thus offer a framework for reflection, and encourage participants
to begin thinking critically about their experiences. Through exposure to a variety of
viewpoints, participants develop their understanding of the issues and improve their
ability to reflect without relying on structured exercises. A selection of group activities
follows.
Reflection Starters: Basic

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Discussions
A single question is often the simplest way to start a group talking. The questions listed in
the previous "Reflection Circle" section are basic to reflection and address a range of
aspects of the service experience. Facilitators should review that list and consider
incorporating some of these or similar questions into the group's reflection sessions. A
well-known structure for reflection questions is described below, as well additional basic
reflection starters. Alternative discussion activities can be derived from the role plays,
quotes, and group exercises in this manual.
What?/So What?/Now What?

This structure for reflection questions is perhaps the most widely known and used. It is a
basic way to promote discussion that begins with reviewing the details of the experience
and moves toward critical thinking, problem solving, and creating and action plan.
What?:
descriptive
facts, what happened, with whom
substance of group interaction
So what?:
shift from descriptive to interpretive

meaning of experience for each participant
feelings involved, lessons learned
why?
Now what?:
contextual-- seeing this situation's place in the big picture

applying lessons learned/insights gained to new situations
setting future goals, creating an action plan
Concentric Circles (from David Sawyer)

The group is divided in two, with half of them forming a tight circle in the center of the

room. The remaining people then pair up with someone in the circle. The facilitator then
poses a question for each pair to answer in a few minutes. Then, either the inner or outer
circle is asked to rotate "x" spaces to the right or left. Another question is asked for the
new pair to discuss. This activity can go on for as long as desired, giving people the
chance to have one on one discussions with many different people in the group. The
following are examples of questions that the facilitator may ask:
What social or environmental problem touches you most right now and why?
What's wrong with formal classroom education?
What do today's undergraduates want from their teachers?
What do you like most about service-learning?
What did you learn about _______?
Talk about a time when someone really supported you.
WHo did you meet during your service work that touched you deeply?
Describe a high point/low point in your service work and explain why.
Discuss an underlying social issue(s) your service work addressed.
Open-Ended Questions (from "Students Trained

in Advocacy and Community Service" (STACS))
Although not a formal training technique, it is important that facilitators be proactively by
using open-ended questions that allow for creativity to surface. Open-ended questions
may sound like "How might this look different?" and "What would our program look like
if a bomb were dropped and we had to start from scratch?"
Sentence Stems (from University of Maryland,

Community Service Programs)
Sentence Stems can be useful in helping participants begin to think about their
expectations for the experience [or their perceptions after concluding the experience].
Example:
"Today I hope..."
"I am most anxious about..."
"I expected community members to be..."
How Do You Define Service? (from Koln &

Hamilton)
People define service in many different ways. Discussion about these different definitions
can be very interesting and eye-opening. This exercise is also important to reveal the
diversity of ideas within the group, and to underscore the importance of recognizing
differing perspectives. The sample definitions that follow can be presented one at a time
through the course of the discussion or can be offered all at once and then ranked by
each participant, according to their personal philosophy of service (for example, assigning
a "1" to "voting" because the participant believes it best represents service).
Joining the armed services

Providing dinner once a week at a homeless shelter
Talking with a friend
Chaining yourself to an old growth tree as loggers enter the forest
Leaving your car at home and biking to work every day
Giving $50 to the United Way
Walking a frail person across a busy street
Writing a letter to a congressperson about the dangers of nuclear proliferation
Giving blood
Tutoring a migrant worker
Adopting an eight year old boy
Quitting your job to move to a monastery and meditate for a year
Working as a state legislator
Voting
Free Associations (from STACS )

The best facilitators are those who do not consider themselves to possess the "expertise"
but work cooperatively with the expertise and experiences of the participants. A Free
Association is a simple technique that quickly draws on, and captures, the true expertise
of the group. This method of facilitating simply asks the participants to freely associate
answers to certain questions. For example: "Generate twenty solutions to apathy on
campus;" "List/brainstorm what is empowerment;" and "what do we know about
Marxism?" All of these questions used in a Free Association will enable the facilitator to
quickly chart responses from the group and gain a sense of the levels of sophistication
and the "teachers" hidden with the group. (see also Hoshim Brainstorming.)
Hoshim Brainstorming (from STACS )

This techniques is a variation of the Free Association technique. However, the Hoshim
Technique asks participants to list answers, solutions, ideas, or opinions on "Post-it
notes" or other stickies. For example, a facilitator that is leading a conflict resolution
workshop may ask for participants to generate ten responses to low conflict, medium
conflict, and high conflict issues on Post-It notes. Similar to a free association, the Post-It
notes are then placed on the wall. The entire group then has a large gallery exhibit walk-
through of all the notes in which they can review the responses to conflict. The Hoshim
,Technique tends to be an effective tool for assisting groups that are not open to
discussion or are stuck on a particular issue.
Note: additional topics for discussion can be obtained by contacting the

Georgetown University Volunteer and Public Service Center.
(202)687-3703; vps@guvax.georgetown.edu
Role Plays
Using role plays with groups can be an active and interesting way to get students involved
in reflection. Role plays involve students identifying a problem situation and assuming the
identities of those persons affected by the problem in order to act out potential solutions.
A major benefit to this kind of activity is that it asks participants to try to understand the
experiences of others. For example, a role play about a parent who does not want her
child disciplined by a volunteer tutor requires that a participant assume the role of the
parent and try to understand the reasons for her feelings.
Role plays are also beneficial in that they actively engage participants in a problem-
solving. Participants are challenged to develop potential solutions to the identified
problem and then try out their comfort level in implementing the solution. In the process
participants can realize the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed solutions, and may
discover new facets of the problem. Equally important , participants learn more about
their own strengths and weaknesses in handling such situations and can receive feedback
from other group members in order to improve their knowledge and skills.
Role plays can involve as many or as few people as the situation warrants but should
allow several participants to observe so that they may offer additional ideas and insights
from the seemingly neutral point-of-view of an "outside."
The facilitator should consider starting the exercise with a simplified version of the
problem and can then add complexity as the role play progresses. Complexity can be

achieved by offering more background information (for example, the tutored child has a
history of aggression), or adding facts (for example, the parent will stop bringing his/her
child for tutoring unless the tutor agrees not to discipline the child). Participants should
be encouraged to contribute to this problem generation as well as to the development of
the solutions. Whenever possible, scenarios should come from real events encountered in
particpants' service experiences.
The set up:

Sometimes role playing exercises are implemented at the spur of the moment, suggested
by the facilitator or someone else in the group as a creative means of exploring a
particular problem or issue. In other instances, the facilitator will think about a role play
ahead of time. A scenario might be written down and distributed to all group members.
Certain roles may be defined ahead of time and shared with only a few members who will
be acting the role play out. In any case, encourage creativity and spontaneity. There is no
right or wrong way to perform a role play, as long as mutual respect is maintained.
Who starts:
Generally, each group will have a few extroverts who can be called upon to begin a role
play. Another possibility is inviting people who are most familiar with a given situation to
begin the exercise.
How long should the role play last?

Enough time should be given for the actors to explore the various intricacies of the
situation. If it feels as if the role play has degraded into something or silly or irrelevant to
the discussion, the facilitator can the step in and call the role play off. If it appears as
though the actors are stuck in a given situation, a more interactive approach is suggested,--
see the next paragraph.
Tapping the should technique:

One technique to involve observers is to instruct them to intervene in the role play to off
their ideas by tapping the should of the person whose role they wish to play. For example,
if a participant has a different idea for how a tutor might respond, s/he should tap the
should of the person playing the tutor, replace them in that role, and then act out their
idea.
Follow-up debriefing:
The facilitator must make sure that the entire group is aware that the role play has ended.
The rules of reflection that we have already touched on should be maintained.
Sometimes, in the spirit of the moment, the participants can cross boundaries of
acceptability. In some situations, one person may be playing the heavy or devil's advocate,
much to the disdain of the group. It should be stressed that the actors have left their roles

and are now themselves. Sometimes as the debriefing unfolds, and other dilemma is
encountered. The facilitator can suggest another scenario to role play to explore the
issues.
Quotes Exercise
Quotes can be a useful way to initiate reflection because there is an ample supply of them,
they are often brief yet inspiring, and they can sometimes be interpreted in multiple ways.
Facilitators need not limit quotes to those that represent the popular view or the view
supported by the group, but can offer a mixture of quotes that represent several
viewpoints, or one that has multiple interpretations. Participants should be challenged to
consider the other meanings the quotes may have to different individuals. Participants can
also be invited to share personal quotes, taken from their own journal entries or their
other written work.
Facilitators may want to make the reading of quotes a group activity by filling a hat with
strips of paper containing different quotes. Each participant draws a strip of paper and
reads the quote to him/herself. Participants take turns reading their quote out loud,
explaining what they think it means, and discussing how it might pertain to the service
project at hand.
The following quotes can be used in this manner.
Group Exercises
The following exercises range in style and substance,
with some being more serious and complex than
others, and some geared toward issues, while other
focus on group dynamics. Facilitators are encouraged
to transform simple icebreakers to more reflective
activities by adding substance to the questions being
asked. For example, instead of having participants

state their hometown and favorite color, ask them to
explain why they serve and to identify a pressing
concern in the community. Additional activities that
are appropriate as "ice breakers" have been identified
as such in italicized text.
"Gotcha" (from Chesborough & Hill)
The facilitator or participant starts to tell the story of the day. When the speaker omits a
detail, someone else in the group says "gotcha" and continues. There are no "right" or
"wrong" answers, rather it is a way to promote sharing of details and feelings, and to
point out differences in experiences and interpretations.
The Landing (from Jennifer Sawyer)

This exercise takes 45 minutes - 1 hour for a group of 25. The Landing [can be used as]
the first group activity of a session and helps folks feel solidly grounded for the
upcoming experience. It includes a visualization of people bringing their full energy and
attention from wherever they have come from. People are then asked to think of what it
is they are carrying with them. It can be a gift or a burden, something they would like to
share with the group to help them feel more present. The setting should be quiet (maybe
some relaxing music) and softly lit. Sitting on the floor in a circle around a couple of
lighted candles gives the ambiance of being around a campfire.
Facilitator introduces the Landing, asking people to close their eyes and visualize
all of their energy catching up with them and "landing" in their bodies here for this
event. The tone set here by the facilitator is important. Some people tend to be
uncomfortable in this setting so you may need to set people at ease with some
reassurance that the value of this exercise will become apparent to them shortly.
Facilitator asks people to consider what it is they are carrying with them what they
are bringing. Do they carry a gift or a burden or maybe both. Have a moment of
silence then ask people to speak their names and share their gifts and burdens with
the group. This can be done as people are moved to speak rather than going
around the circle. Remind folks to be aware of the time, keeping their comments
to one or two minutes so that every one can speak.

It is good to leave some space between comments, but you may need to encourage
people to "keep the pace going."
Facilitator thanks group for their courage and openness and makes appropriate
closing comments: "Hope you feel that you have landed" etc.
Stand and Declare (from David Sawyer)

The facilitator makes a statement to the group, to which members can strongly agree,
agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Groups form around each of the four responses to
the statement, showing the group's "differences." Members from each opinion group are
asked to explain their stance, fleshing out the many facets of the issue. People must listen
carefully, and can change positions if they change perspectives. This activity helps
everyone learn to disagree without being disagreeable, but must be carefully facilitated.
Questions are intentionally stated to allow for personal interpretation and to limit
responses to one of the four categories. Several group members will want to take some
sort of an intermediate stance, but should be encouraged to choose the stance about
which they feel the strongest, or which is their instinctive response. Part of processing
this activity can then be discussion how it felt to be so limited, to be categorized.
Questions should proceed from lower risk statements to higher risk, more controversial
statements. Sample statements include:
Service learning is transforming higher education

Service isn't really service if people get paid.
Direct service is mostly charity work and does little to promote social justice.
Public education does a good job of preparing young people for the future.
The goal of service-learning programs is the development of the student (or the
transformation of the community).
Service makes a lasting impact, on the participants/community.
Alternative to Stand and Declare (from Students Trained in Advocacy and

Community Service)
Different groups are asked to stand in front of the rest of the participants. For example,
all Latino/a individuals stand in front of the room. The group then answers four
questions:
What is wonderful about being Latino/a?

What term do you never want to be called again?
How can the participants that are listening be helpful to Latino/a people?

Do you feel heard?
After the group in front of the other participants answers the questions, another, group is
selected to gather together and answer the questions. This exercise is affirming and
provides an opportunity for individuals to draw on their own experiences, their own
stories, etc. This tends to be a good exercise for building common ground and bonding
groups.
Pair and Share (from David Sawyer)

Good as an introductory exercise or as a reflection tool to help students "think out
loud" about some aspect of their service or classroom experience. Participants pair with
one or two others to share ideas on a specified topic. Helpful way to encourage
participation from individuals who are not comfortable addressing the larger group.
Affinity Groups (from David Sawyer)

This is a good example of a traditional icebreaker activity that can incorporate
substantive service issues and lead in to full reflection.
The facilitator announces a topic and instructs participants to form a group with those
individuals with a similar response to the topic. This activity helps to get a visual picture
of who makes up a group, and to accentuate similarities and differences within one group.
Topics can begin with "low risk" issues and proceed to higher risk. For example:
Grouped according to favorite color (how does it relate to service?)

Grouped by favorite art form: poem, song, dance, sculpture, painting (and why?)
Diversity groups (race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, class, age, etc.)
Grouped according to reason for serving.
Grouped according to perceived purpose of their service program.
Fish Bowls (from STACS)

Fish Bowls provide an opportunity for a select group of participants to openly discuss an
issue, video, problem, or strategy in an open manner. Simply select volunteers to sit in a
tight circle in the middle of the room. The facilitator may choose to have only men, only
people of color, etc. in the Fish Bowl. Provide two or three questions for Fish Bowl
participants to discuss. The goal is for those observing to keep quiet and notice,
comment, or observe different perspectives. The value of a Fish Bowl is that certain

groups relate in different ways when uninterrupted. Men sometimes approach

conversations in a different manner than women. Much awareness can be raised by
simply hearing what other groups have to say on particular topics. As a general rule, the
facilitator should allow equal time for each Fish Bowl group. For example, if African-
Americans are given ten minutes in the Fish Bowl, then Asian-Americans should also be
given ten minutes. If the facilitator allows one group more time than others, conflict may
arise. In order to process the Fish Bowls, simply allow for all to discuss openly, at the end
of all Fish Bowls, any group's observation (also see Frierian Fish Bowl).
Frierian Fish Bowl (from STACS)

Often, for many reasons, certain individuals will feel uncomfortable voicing their opinion
in a group environment. One mechanism for gaining full-group participation is to have all
participants write their respective responses to issues on a piece of paper (do not include
names). The issues, or pieces of paper, are then placed in a hat in the middle of a circle.
For example, the facilitator asks that everyone explain (on paper) "why are there so many
homeless people in this city?" Answers may range from, "people do not want work
because they are lazy" to "there exists a government conspiracy and homeless funding is
often misused." These are typical statements that are controversial but tend to not be
voiced openly. Thus, the Frierian method gets all opinions down on paper.
Once opinions have been recorded on paper and placed in a hat, pass the hat among the
group. Everyone must respond with their interpretation of the written response and then
voice their personal reaction to the paper.
Dark/Light (from Chesbrough & Hill)

After the event, have all the participants sit in a circle with lit candles. The facilitator
shares a dark part (or feeling) of (about) the experience and blows out his/her candle.
The next person shares until the room is dark. The facilitator lights his/her candle and
shares a happy moment of the experience (or something that they would like to improve
over a period of time). S/he lights the candle of the person sitting next to him/her with
his/her candle. Slowly the room becomes light. (An intense sharing--lots of analogies can
be made with dark and light.) Questions to promote discussion: Are you the candle,
which emits light, or the mirror, which reflects the light of others?)
Three Minute Speeches (from David Sawyer)

Wonderful opening exercise that helps people find their inner motivations for the work

they do and learn to express them to others. This exercise is an even more in depth way
to build a sense of community and shared vision in service programs, retreats, or
trainings. Allowing four minutes per person will give you a fairly realistic time frame. It is
best not to tell people about this exercise too far in advance. This adds somewhat to the
drama and risk involved. Sometime between an hour and thirty minutes before Three
Minute Speeches folks are told about the exercise and asked to ponder upon a specific
question. One very good question is "What is the deep core reason you do the work you
do?" Tell folks they can tell a story from some part of their lives, about a particular
person whose influence figures greatly, or any other reasons that they are involved in the
service field. You may want to craft to other appropriate questions. People should be
encouraged to extend themselves and to let others know some of the deeper reasons for
their dedication to helping others. The setting that works best is somewhat solemn and
formal with a table for people to stand behind while they speak. Good lighting is
essential, a table lamp off to one side works well. (Specific instructions follow.)
Facilitator gives announcement of activity sometime prior to the time to begin.

Just before the speeches let people know that there will be a timekeeper who will
give them a "one-minute warning" by holding one finger in the air. Speaker can
select a timekeeper or there can be one or two volunteer time keepers.
The seating should be in rows and there should be one less chair than speakers.
Explain that this means that the current speaker cannot sit down until someone
else comes forward to speak.
Responses can be quite profound. Facilitator should provide appropriate closing.
Guided Imagery (from University of Maryland

Community Service Programs)
This exercise can help participants get in touch with their expectations, assumptions, and
even fears about the service experience. It can also be used to help participants imagine
the lives of those with whom they serve. Participants get comfortable, close their eyes if
they wish, and listen to a narration. Get creative and write a narrative leading participants
through the day.
Example: "Today you are going to serve meals to people who are homeless. Picture
yourself arriving at the shelter. What do you see? What do you smell? What do you hear?"
Building Solutions (from Chesbrough & Hill)

In a small group, form a circle. Ask one member of the group to identify a problem that

s/he feels needs action and resolution. The next member in the group is then to pose a
solution through action. Each subsequent member is then asked to build on this solution
until the group feels it has reached a consensus on how the problem can be solved. This
can be altered in a number of ways using the same process of group reflection and
sharing. Consensus may or may not be a part of the process.
The facilitator can also pose questions such as "If these solutions exists, why have thy not
been implemented? Would the people affected by this problem agree with these
solutions? Who might not agree?," etc.
The Strong Circle (from City Year, cited by David

Sawyer)
This exercise is a relatively quick way to check in with a group at the beginning or end of
a meeting and gives a sense of connectedness. It resembles the huddle in team sports and
creates a feeling of solidarity and team effort.
A Strong Circle is announced.

The group stands in a tight circle, shoulder to shoulder, everyone in the circle and
no one outside the circle.
A pertinent question may be to put the group asking for a one word answer: "Tell
us in one word how your service project went...what you thought of the
retreat...how your semester is going..."etc.
People speak their answers in turn, around the strong circle.
Any appropriate closing comments are added.
Lifestories (from Dorothy Stoneman, cited by

David Sawyer)
This exercise is designed to help a small group of individuals get to know something
significant about each other in a very short time. People rarely get a change to talk about
themselves without interruption, (and without advice or judgement) since in normal
conversation we tend to go back and forth. It is a true gift when someone gives you a
piece of their life story, and a gift to the speaker for others to hear that story with interest
and attention. This is an effective ongoing exercise for an organization when the small
groups are changed each time.
Facilitator makes sure chairs are in a tight circle or other close arrangement.
Remind folks of the instruction.

Each person speaks without interruption for 5 minutes on "a piece of your
personal history that will really help others get to know you."
You can talk about your cultural or familial or religious roots, or speak about
people or things that have shaped you in significant ways.
Speaker chooses a timekeeper (should be rotating) that will give him/her a one
minute warning and gently remind them of the time if needed.
Two people in the group volunteer to give that person an affirmation, something
they really like about that person, when the speaker is finished (one minute apiece).
Facilitator may need to remind group members to let everyone share in giving
these affirmations.
Block Arrangement Exercise (from Wilmes,

Scott, & Rice)
Two participants sit back to back. One participant creates a design with a set of blocks.
They are then asked to describe their design to the other participants so that s/he can
draw a picture of it. The drawer cannot ask any questions. Process what assumptions the
designer/describer made about what the drawer would understand. What assumptions
did the drawer make about what the describer meant? How did it feel to have
communication limited? How does this relate to the assumptions we make each day about
people or situations?
Who Am I? (from Wilmes, Scott & Rice, created

by Juan Moreno)
Tell participants you would like them to respond in writing to 10 questions. Then ask
them 10 consecutive times to respond to the question "Who am I?" At the end of the
"quiz", ask them to cross off 3 of the items, then 3 more. Process what types of responses
they wrote for their identity (acknowledging that some may have hidden identities that
they may not wish to share). How did it feel to cross items off? What types of responses
were crossed off first/last (e.g. most negative, less important, etc.)? What did you learn
about how you see yourself?
The Ball Game (from Wilmes, Scott & Rice,

created by Juan Moreno)

Participants are asked to form a circle. The facilitator has a ball and a stop watch.
Participants are told the rules to this game: the game begins and ends with the facilitator;
each person must touch the ball only once; you must remember the order of who has the
ball before you and who you give the ball to; these are the only rules of the game. The
facilitator throws the ball to someone in the group who then throws it to someone else,
etc., until the last person throws it back to you, the facilitator. The facilitator or timer tells
the group how long the process took. (Participants were not previously informed it would
be timed.) Instruct the group to cut their time in half. Repeat the process until the group
cuts their time down to 3 seconds. Typically it will take the group several tries to refine
their strategies (e.g., standing next to people who pass them the ball, asking the facilitator
to play an active role in moving the ball). The facilitator should not answer questions
except to say there are only the four rules that s/he gave at the beginning of the game.
Process how the group could complete the task in 3 seconds when it took ____ minutes
the first time. What helped you reach the goal? What hindered you? How did you look at
the problem in new ways? What does this tell us about human nature? Did anyone
suggest you do it in less time than the facilitator suggested? Who or why not? This activity
takes approximately 20 minutes for group of about 25 people.
Describe, Interpret, Evaluate (from Wilmes, Scott

& Rice created by Lillian Roybal Rose)
Select pictures from magazines (helpful to select on that may draw stereotypes with
captions that would counteract stereotypes) to hand around the room. Captions should
be removed or concealed. Ask participants to individually examine the pictures and
"describe what they see." As a group, ask participants to describe what they saw. The
facilitator should tabulate responses in three columns at the front (as a description,
interpretation, or evaluation) without explanation to the participants. Process the exercise
by describing what the facilitator was recording, distinguishing between description,
interpretation and evaluation. Discuss the role of assumptions and stereotyping in the
exercise. How did the group description exaggerate or modify individual perceptions?
End by sharing the caption from the picture. Variation: ask several participants to be
blindfolded and paired with partners who describe the pictures to them. Ask for
descriptions from the blindfolded participants first in the processing. Did getting the
information second hand contribute to distortion? Why or why not?
Force Field Analysis (from STACS)

In every organization, work environment, family, or community, there exists a natural
tendency (a force field) which acts to keep the situation from changing. A force field

represent posers that are proposing change and those that are working towards change. In
essence, those forces want to keep the issue at an equilibrium.
A simple Force Field Analysis lists pros and cons on a chart. For example, forces that are
keeping children in poverty may be: lack of education, inadequate health care, poor
nutrition, violence in homes. On the other side of the Force Field are forces that are
helping to get people out of poverty: social workers, loving fathers, school nutrition
programs, etc. Chart both on the wall and discuss what issues the group is capable of
changing. How can the group break the forces that are working towards equilibrium?
A Force Field Analysis (pro and con chart) can be used for any problem. Examples
included: What forces are keeping you interested in this training? What forces are keeping
our service program from expanding? What forces are preventing women from being
leaders in our program? Once the pros and cons are charted, the dynamics and tension in
groups often begin to dissipate. This is an excellent tool for getting groups to think about
strategies for making small and large commitments to change (also see Web Charts).
Web Charts (from STACS)

This brainstorming tool can be used by facilitators when groups are "stuck" and see no
options. Simply place the "issue" or "problem" in the center of the chart and all of the
obstacles in "bubbles" outside of the central issue. This is a different strategy for looking
at pros and cons and force fields (see Force Field Analysis).
Readings
Providing participants with readings about the issues they will be addressing can stimulate
thinking and discussion, much like Quotes. Readings can include a mixture of
viewpoints, including some that may be controversial or challenge participants to
consider alternative ideas. Participants should be encouraged to connect the content of
the readings to their service experiences, and to bring in other reading that they believe to
be relevant. Such material includes relevant literature (philosophy, fiction, policies),
newspaper articles, service provider pamphlets, poems, and student reflection essays.
Samples of some of these can be obtained from the Georgetown University Volunteer
and Public Service Center.

> Next Section: Additional Forms of Reflection

Chapter 6: Additional Forms of Reflection - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Leaders and Educators
Additional Forms of
Reflection
Most of this module has focused on reflection in the form of group discussions and
related activities. Discussion, such as that occurring in the "Reflection Circle," is among
the most common forms of reflection because it is useful in a variety of circumstances
and environments. However, as service-learning has grown on college campuses, many
other effective forms for reflection have been developed and used. Activities for the
classroom are gaining the most attention, and, in some cases, can be applied outside of
the classroom as well. The following reflection methods can be used in or out of the
formal classroom environment. For additional information on reflection, please consult
the bibliography that follows this section.
Journals
Journals are a common element of service-learning courses and are also sometimes used
outside the classroom by students participating in service organizations. In fact, journals
are sometimes completed by both the student who is serving and the community
member who is "being served." Journals are a written form of reflection in which
students consider their service experience in light of specific issues, such as those
contained in course content. Students can examine their thoughts and experiences
through journals, and further the learning they have done in relation to the service.
Unfortunately journals are sometimes misused as simple logs of events, thereby missing
the reflective component inherent in thinking critically about experiences.
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Before instructing students to complete journals, one must consider the learning
objective that the journal is intended to meet. Journals can focus on self-understanding,
can consist of information that will be used in another reflective activity such as a
research paper, or can be the material on which a dialogue with others is based. Among
the types of journals that can be used outside of the classroom are personal journals
("stream of consciousness" writing about the experience), critical incident journals
(analysis of a specified even according to prompts such as "What conflicts did you face
during the event? What are possible root causes for the societal issues you observed?"),
and three part journals (one section is a description of the event, one is an interpretation,
and one is an application to future events).
Service participants should be encouraged to write in journals whenever they feel

motivated to do so, and should be specifically asked to do so several times throughout
the semester, and especially following particularly meaningful events, both positive and
negative. For example, students should be encouraged to write in their journals during an
overnight stay in a shelter, after a successful tutoring session, or in response to the death
of a community member. These journal entries can later be reviewed privately and/or
shared during a group reflection circle.
Reflective Essays
Slightly more formalized journal entries are called reflective essays. This form of
reflection focuses on designated issues and is completed at specified times during the
service experience. While these are more commonly used in the classroom, specific
situations outside of the classroom may warrant their use as well. For example, as student
organizations complete their year or leadership cycle, members can be asked to write a
reflective essay about the organization's service. These essays can form the basis of
organizational discussions about missions, goals, and areas for improvement (as well as
areas of merit). In addition, these essays may be helpful for new members of the
organization to envision the experiences they will encounter. Reflective essays that
address campus issues, or that can serve to inform and motivate students to serve, may
be submitted to the campus newspaper as educational or public relations material.
Service Contracts and Logs

Students engaged in service individually, in connection with a class, or as a group can
devise "contracts" or statements of objectives outlining their goals for the service work
and identifying the tasks they intend to complete. Such a document can provide a

mission and structure for service participants, as well as a measure against which they can
evaluate their efforts. The creation of a service contract and the subsequent outcomes of
the service effort may initiate important reflective discussion among the group. In order
to track efforts and outcomes participants can be encouraged to maintain service "logs".
Service logs summarize the service activities as they occur and can be used in
combination with the service contracts to identify progress toward the goals and
obstacles to further progress. In addition, service logs are a helpful resource for
reminding participants of significant events in the service experience. Facilitators may use
these events as starting points for reflection.
E-Mail Discussion Groups

The creation of an electronic mailing list-serve allows service participants to form a
discussion group to discuss their experiences. Participants can post questions to the
group, suggest readings, or ask for feedback on issues they are facing at their service site.
Organization leaders, staff, or faculty members can also request summaries of service
activities via e-mail, and can serve as moderators of the discussions. A digest of these
email discussions can also be compiled and made available to participants.
Service Learning Portfolios

Portfolios are gaining popularity in a variety of aspects of college education as a means
for students to demonstrate the knowledge and abilities they have acquired during a
designated period of time (e.g., undergraduate years) or from a specific activity (e.g.,
participation in service). Portfolio contents can include administrative documents
pertaining to the processes involved in the given project, as well as evidence of the
project's outcomes, and the participant's evaluation of the learning experience. These
items not only serve as interesting historical markers and information resources, but they
also provide the group with topics for reflection in preparation for future service
endeavors. Service learning portfolios may include: a service contract and logs, journals,
program operations information, relevant academic work, media coverage (including
articles in the campus newspaper), evaluations by community members, organizational
brochure, plan for action research or other future projects, etc. Service learning
portfolios are commonly used when service is connected to an academic course, and
graded.
Presentations
Sharing the service experience with others can take a variety of forms, all of which
require the participants to reflect on which aspects of their service are most significant,
who they want/need to involve in their work, and how to present the information
effectively. Participants may speak to a class or residence hall floor, represent the service
effort on a panel discussion, write about it for the campus newspaper, advocate for
service programs before the student government or university administration, or create
visual promotional materials such as a video, photo exhibit or bulletin board. Completing
similar projects for a community service provider is also a useful way to learn more about
organization with whom one serves.
Photo Reflections
Many organizations and programs compile pictorial accounts of their work to share
among participants as well as with the general public. These pictures can become tools
for reflection when participants are asked to write reflective captions for the pictures.
Doing this can transform this purely social "pizza and picture party" into an opportunity
for meaningful reflection.
Additional Resources for reflection include:

Bringle, R.G., & Hatcher, J.A. (1996) Reflection activities for the college classroom.
Paper presented at the National Gathering, June 21, 19996.
Goldsmith, S. (1995). Journal reflection.
Kendall, et. Al. (1990). Combining Service and Learning: A resource book for
community and public service.
> Next Section: Acknowledgements


Chapter 7: Acknowledgements - Facilitating Reflection: A Manual for Leaders and Educators
Acknowledgements
The Community Service Programs at the University of Maryland offered us a great

deal of assistance and information, without which this manual would not have been
possible. Adrienne Tinana was generous and enthusiastic in her efforts to contribute to
our work.
In addition to information supplied by the University of Maryland, numerous other

resources were consulted and cited in this manual. Service participants interested in
additional information on reflection are encouraged to contact these people and
organizations.
The Pennsylvania Campus Compact supplied us with their 1995 training manual
Students Trained in Advocacy and Community Service (STACS). This publication
was tremendously helpful and many portions of it have been reproduced in this manual.
David Sawyer is the director of Students for Appalachia at Berea College in Berea,
Kentucky. He has written and presented on the top of reflection across the country. The
exercises attributed to him in this manual have been obtained from his literature, as well
as the reflection sessions he facilitated at the second annual National Gathering, held in
Indianapolis, Indiana on June 20-23, 1996.
We were also fortunate to have access to "The Training Toolbox: A Guide to Service-
Learning Training" produced by the Maryland Student Service Alliance in 1994. this is
a useful resource for designing workshops about service-learning and includes numerous
resource materials.
Jennifer Gilligan, Manager of Youth and Education Outreach at the Points of Light
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Foundation, generously supplied us with literature pertaining to reflection including

Catalyst: a Workbook for Trainers by the Points of Light Foundation, COOL, and
Youth Service America.
Numerous exercises were also adapted form a 1993 presentation at the annual
conference for the American College Personnel Association. Martha Baer Wilmes,
Angela Scott, and Kathleen Rice presented "Shifting Frames of Reference: A Prelude to
Understanding" which included variety of useful materials to challenge students' thinking
and perspectives.
Donald Schon's book The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Thinking Action
(Basic Books, Inc., 1983) provides the foundation for our belief in reflection as a
necessary habit for service practitioners.
The exercises attributed to Ron Chesbrough & Ellen Hill are taken from "Reflection:
Ideas and Thoughts on Community Service and Reflection," which was supplied to us by
the University of Maryland Community Service Programs.
Julie Hatcher and Robert Bringle, Ph.D. are the administrators fo the Office of Service
Learning at Indiana University - Purdue University at Indianapolis (IUPUI). They
have published numerous articles about promoting service learning to faculty and
developing reflection activities for the classroom. They are an excellent source of
information about integrating service learning into the college curriculum.
The Eisenhower Leadership Program at Gettysburg College created the "Gettysburg

Leadership Model: A Leadership Development Course for College Students." This
training manual is an interesting resource for additional materials on topics such as
"followership", "ethics", and "positional leadership".
I wish to also thank Colleen Maher, Program Coordinator at the VPS Center, and the
student leaders of the Freshman Orientation to Community Service (FOCI) program.
During a leadership retreat with these students I had the opportunity to try out the
techniques and exercise promoted in this manual. The feedback received during that
retreat was useful in the final revisions of the manual and the students' reflection on
service justified the effort.
The publishing of this manual to the web was the work of Aaron Hawley (text), at the
time, an undergraduate student at the University of Vermont. Each page of the manual
was digitally scanned and saved as (ASCII) text. The web pages were coded in a text

editor, following the HTML 4.01 specification. The page design attempted to have a
high degree of usability for people with disabilities, through the use of Cascading Style
Sheets and accessible web design methods and techniques.
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Written and Compiled by

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> Table of Contents

Special thanks go out to Sharon Morgenthaler,

Christopher Koliba, Ph.D.

A Student's Thoughts on Facilitating Reflection

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As a student leader, a future educator and a member of my community interested in community

> Back to the John Dewey Project on Progressive Education

- counter from digits.com

about web accessibility

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> Return to Table of Contents

Reflection is more than "touchy-feely."

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Why learn from experience?

What is it that we take for granted?

(Schon 1984: 54)

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Why should I be attentive to my thinking?

How can I be more, conscious of "doing no

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But how can reflection appeal to my self-

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...reflection is so critical; there can be no higher growth for individuals

> Next Section: Facilitating Reflection

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> Return to Table of Contents

[Silhoutte Drawing of Group Discussion]

The Difference between leading and facilitating

Understanding facilitation begins with an awareness of the difference between

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Effective reflection requires that facilitators demonstrate an open-minded attitude,

Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful,

* Be honest: Effective facilitation requires that he facilitator be honest with him/herself

* Managing dual roles: There is some disagreement among expert, facilitators as to

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Other qualities of an open-minded attitude include:

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If I do not speak in a language that can be understood there

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* Encourage participation by all: Facilitators should clearly communicate that

Other practices for effective communication include:

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refute people's ideas

* Promote equality: As indicated, effective reflection is not designed around the

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Other keys to managing group dynamics include:

know the group

* Build in diversity: In order to appropriately handle diversity issues in reflection

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It is important that responses to prejudice to be nonjudgmental and non-confrontation,

* Closure and Evaluation: As a challenging and meaningful reflection session draws to

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Trouble Shooting for Facilitators

1. One Person Dominates the discussion or continually interrupts it.

If someone continually interrupts, don't become defensive or ignore him or her,