The Journal of Positive Psychology, July 2006; 1(3): 160168

Hardiness: The courage to grow from stresses

SALVATORE R. MADDI

University of California, Irvine, USA

Abstract
The recent emphasis on positive psychology is welcome, and has spurred much relevant research. But, there are still many
unresolved conceptual and research issues, as more variables are being proposed as relevant. As part of this process, the
present paper proposes hardiness as an addition to positive psychology. Hardiness is a combination of attitudes that provides
the courage and motivation to do the hard, strategic work of turning stressful circumstances from potential disasters into
growth opportunities. In this regard, the inherently stressful nature of living is discussed. Also clarified are the particular
aspects of excellence in performance and health to which hardiness is relevant. The paper concludes with a call for
issue-resolving research through which orientations and actions proposed as part of positive psychology can be compared in
their contributions to performance and health. Two studies along these lines have found hardiness more powerful than
optimism and religiousness in coping with stresses.

Keywords: Positive psychology; courage; hardiness; hardy attitudes; hardy coping; hardy social support; hardy self-care

Introduction Kobasa, 1984). If you are strong in commitment,

you believe it is important to remain involved with
The recent emphasis on positive psychology
the events and people around you, no matter how
(Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) is welcome,
stressful things become. It seems like a waste of time
and has spurred relevant theorizing and researching.
to withdraw into alienation and isolation. If you are
Thus far, a range of positive topics have surfaced,
including optimism, subjective well-being, happi- strong in control, you want to continue to have
ness, wisdom, creativity, authenticity, humility, altru- an influence on the outcomes going on around you,
ism, gratitude, humor, compassion, and spirituality no matter how difficult this becomes. It seems like a
(Snyder & Lopez, 2001). In principle, what these mistake to let yourself slip into powerlessness and
topics have in common is an emphasis on the positive passivity. If you are strong in challenge, you see
features of performance and health (rather than stresses as a normal part of living, and an opportunity
limitations and failures), and how to explain this. to learn, develop, and grow in wisdom. You do not
Although progress has been made, the field of believe that easy comfort and security is a birthright.
positive psychology is still in process of formation. These 3Cs of hardy attitudes provide the courage
Hence, the main purpose of this paper is to add and motivation to do the hard work of turning
hardiness (Maddi, 2002; Maddi & Kobasa, 1984), stressful circumstances from potential disasters into
which reflects existential courage, to the mix. growth opportunities instead (Maddi, 2002). As
This purpose is timely, as though hardiness entered such, hardiness is a pathway to resilience under
the psychological literature some 25 years ago stress (Bonanno, 2004). Conceptually, it is insuffi-
(Kobasa, 1979) it has not yet become included in cient to have only one, or even two of the hardy
discussions of positive psychology (e.g., Seligman & attitudes. All three are needed in order to be
Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Synder & Lopez, 2001). courageous.
As conceptualized, the attitudes of hardiness are
a cognitive/emotional amalgam constituting a
Overall conceptualization of hardiness
learned, growth-oriented, personality buffer
Hardiness has been conceptualized as a combina- (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). That this fits
tion of the three attitudes (3Cs) of commitment, into positive psychology is clear in that hardiness is
control, and challenge (Kobasa, 1979; Maddi & believed to facilitate turning stresses to advantage,

Correspondence: Salvatore R. Maddi, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, School of Social Ecology, 3340
Social Ecology II, Irvine, CA 92697-7085, USA. Tel: 9498247045. Fax: 949824002. E-mail: srmaddi@uci.edu
ISSN 1743-9760 print/ISSN 1743-9779 online/06/0301609 2006 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17439760600619609
 Hardiness 161

Inherited Vulnerabilities
Your Weakest Genetic Link

Stress Strain Performance and

Disruptive Changes Physical and Health
and Chronic Conflicts Mental Arousal Enhancement or
Maintenance

Hardy Attitudes Hardy Coping Hardy Health Practices

Commitment Mental: Perspective & Physical Exercise
Control Understanding Relaxation
Challenge Behavioral: Taking Action Dieting
Medication

Hardy Social Support

Assistance and
Encouragement

Figure 1. The hardiness model for performance and health enhancement. cc. 19862006, Hardiness Institute, Inc.

growing in such enhanced performance considera- role, being creative, increasing awareness and
tions as creativity, wisdom, and fulfillment, and wisdom, and avoiding rule-breaking and other
maintaining or enhancing physical and mental health conduct problems. As to health, the hardiness
in the process. process is considered to lead to vitality and enthu-
The conceptualized process whereby hardiness siasm, and to decrease the likelihood of physical
attitudes lead to enhanced performance and health wear and tear disorders (e.g., cardiovascular
is depicted in Figure 1 (Maddi & Kobasa, 1984). diseases, obesity, cancer, and Alzheimers disease)
This model shows that as acute stresses (disruptive and mental problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, and
changes) and chronic stresses (ongoing conflicts) anger disorders).
mount, so too does organismic arousal. And, if
organismic arousal (or strain) is too intense and too
prolonged, performance and health may be under- The environment as stressful
mined (Selye, 1976), with breakdowns occurring
along the lines of ones genetic vulnerabilities. An integral part of the conceptualization of the
But, if hardy attitudes are strong, the resulting importance of hardiness is that the environmental
courage and motivation facilitates functioning with circumstances we all encounter are inherently stress-
hardy action patterns that have the moderating effect ful. After all, what it means to interact with the
of building social support, carrying out problem- events, people, norms, and requirements we encoun-
solving (or transformational) coping, and engaging in ter every day, and to develop in the process, involves
effective self-care. In this resilient process, stress and continually experiencing changes and disruptions.
strain are diminished, and performance and health Children go from lying in their cribs trying to discern
is enhanced, rather than undermined. The reason what is going on, to crawling and stumbling into
that the courage and motivation of hardy attitudes is things. As they grow older, they leave the safe house
needed for this process is that the hardy action of their birth, go to school, begin to learn on a more
patterns, though the most effective in turning stresses abstract level, and start interacting with peers and
to advantage, are also more difficult than coping adults outside of their families. Before they know it,
by denial and avoidance or exaggerating and striking they are struggling to find their special talents,
out, interacting socially by destructive competition figure out whom to relate to intimately, deepen
or overprotection, and indulging or depriving oneself their interests into a career, and somehow become
regarding self-care considerations. independent, responsible adults. As the years go
The aspects of performance that are expected to be by, they find themselves trying to deepen and
enhanced by the hardiness process include effective- value, or change and reconsider their choices of
ness in carrying out difficult tasks, taking a leadership career, loved-ones, and community commitments.
162 S. R. Maddi

And, when they are old, they increasingly have to stressful circumstances that are imposed on people
deal with the health problems of themselves and (such as accidents or work conditions), but also those
those around them, retirement from work, and their that are the natural result of the moment-to-moment
childrens difficulties as they grow up. What is decisions inherent (and therefore unavoidable) in
important in all this, as was emphasized by Otto interacting with the environment. According to
Rank (1929, 1945), is the recognition that the existentialists, the person is continuously making
normal developmental process that takes people decisions (whether or not they are recognized as
from birth to death is full of stressful circumstances. such) as to dealing with stresses by moving toward
Added on to the normal stressful circumstances the future (facing the circumstance and learning
outlined above are stresses that are not developmen- from the experience) or shrinking toward the past
tally inevitable. Some particular environmental con- (denying and avoiding so as to preserve the status
texts subject the persons in them to high risk of quo). In order to grow and develop, one must choose
failure. If a persons family has recently immigrated, is the future, even though this is anxiety provoking,
below the poverty level, or is dysfunctional through as the outcome is uncertain. Facing this anxiety,
lack of emotional control or substance abuse, that will and growing in that process, requires courage. This
be a serious, additional source of ongoing stresses. emphasis on the importance of courage in making
Even in the family one forms through marriage, abuse the most out of life was instrumental in building the
and other forms of dysfunctionality will make living conceptualization of hardiness (Maddi & Kobasa,
even more stressful. If a person has a disability, such 1981). Indeed, hardiness was offered as an opera-
as ADHD, being crippled, or having diabetes, that tionalization of existential courage (Maddi, 1986).
too will provoke unusually stressful circumstances.
Further, societal conflicts, such as wars and
terrorism, impose major stresses on people. Even Hardiness research
without wars, there are also some occupations, such By now, there are close to 600 studies on hardiness
as policing, firefighting, and stock and commodities done around the world. The measure of hardy
brokering that are inherently stressful, due to the attitudes, the Personal Views Survey (PVS), has
ongoing changes, threats to life and limb, been translated into 17 Asian, European, and
competition, and high stakes that are involved. Middle-Eastern languages. It appears that studying
Indeed, stressful circumstances that are not the hardy attitudes and actions as a way of dealing
developmentally inevitable are increasing dramati- effectively with lifes stresses is becoming a cogent
cally as the twenty-first century unfolds (Maddi, topic among psychologists and related professionals.
2002). Responsible for these stresses are such mega-
trends as breathtakingly rapid technological advance,
globalization, worldwide increases in competition, The initial research project
and needed emphasis on minority rights. Despite
Hardiness was studied as a basis for resilience in a
the major positive effects of these megatrends, their
12 year natural experiment at Illinois Bell Telephone
downside is the ongoing disruption of peoples
(IBT), conducted from 1975 through 1987 (Maddi
everyday routines (Maddi & Khoshaba, 2005). At
& Kobasa, 1984). The emphasis was on following
work, in order to address evolving market possibil-
workers experiencing major stresses, in order to
ities, job descriptions and ensuing work environ-
determine whether there were individual differences
ments are continually changing to adjust products
in their reactions that could be understood by
and services. To address increased competition,
hardiness theory. When the study began, the US
companies are reorganizing so regularly that job
telephone industry was still a federally regulated
security is a thing of the past. Adding relatively
monopoly, composed of AT&T and its subsidiary
unexpected stresses to those that are developmentally
companies (such as IBT), because it was believed
predictable leads toward a conceptualization of life
that an inexpensive and reliable telephone service
as quite a stressful phenomenon.
was in the national interest. But, the pressure
was building to deregulate in order to stimulate
the competition that would eventually lead to the
The underpinnings of hardiness in
present, burgeoning telecommunications industry.
existential psychology
Every year in the IBT study, a wide variety of data
The emphasis on life as inherently stressful underlies was collected on 450 male and female supervisors,
the importance of existential courage in finding managers, and decision-makers. The deregulation
fulfillment (e.g., Binswanger, 1963; Frankl, 1960; hit in 1981 (6 years into the longitudinal design),
Maddi, 1988; May, 1958; Tillich, 1952). In this, and is still regarded as one of the largest upheavals in
existential psychology intends to include not only the corporate history. The company went from roughly
 Hardiness 163

26,000 employees in 1981 to roughly 14,000 in Additional hardiness research

1982. One manager in the sample reported that he
It is impossible here to review all the research that
had 10 different supervisors in 12 months, and that
has been done since the IBT study. Instead, a few,
neither they nor he had any idea of what they were
representative topics will be highlighted. In the
doing. Every time the company came up with a plan,
1980s, there were two criticisms of hardiness based
it had to be evaluated by a federal judge, to insure
on its first measurement device. One criticism was
that it did not constitute a combination in restraint of
that the 3Cs did not appear to be consistently
trade. Clearly, the company and its employees were
intercorrelated in undergraduate samples (Funk &
severely disrupted.
Houston, 1987; Hull, Van Treuren, & Virnelli,
The data collected in the 6 years following the
1987), even though they were intercorrelated in the
upheaval showed that roughly two-thirds of the
adult IBT sample (Maddi & Kobasa, 1984). These
sample suffered and collapsed. There were problems
results suggested that the original PVS was not
in performance, such as violence and absenteeism
universal enough, especially with regard to the
in the workplace, and divorces. Health also suffered,
challenge subscale. Considerable item revision and
through heart attacks, cancer, and mental disorders. subsequent data collection and analysis have been
In contrast, the other third of the sample not only done over the years (cf., Maddi, 1997, 2002). The
survived but actually thrived. Those who stayed at hardiness measure has now evolved through four
IBT rose up in management, and those who left used editions to the 18 items of the PVS III-R (Maddi &
their experience to make significant contributions Khoshaba, 2001). Current item examples are, for
to competitor companies, or started their own firms. commitment, I often wake up eager to take up life
Their health was fine, indeed, they felt more full wherever it left off, for control, Trying your best
of energy and vitality than they had before the at what you do usually pays off in the end, and
deregulation upheaval. for challenge, Changes in routine provoke me to
In the comparison of the debilitated two-thirds learn. The PVS III-R consistently shows the 3Cs as
with the resilient one-third on the voluminous data intercorrelated in adult, undergraduate, and even
collected before the upheaval, the orientation of high school samples (Maddi & Khoshaba, 2001).
hardiness was determined to be the differentiator. Further, the 3Cs seem best understood as nested
Specifically, the resilient employees were character- under a higher order factor (Maddi, Harvey,
ized by the cognitive/emotional amalgam of hardy Khoshaba, Lu, Persico, & Brow, 2005; Sinclair &
attitudes of commitment, control, and challenge Tetrick, 2000), as is expected in the conceptualiza-
(Kobasa, 1979; Maddi & Kobasa, 1984). Although tion of hardiness as existential courage.
hardly the same thing, these 3Cs were positively The other criticism contended that the hardy
intercorrelated. attitudes are no more than a negative expression of
The IBT study also showed that, by comparison neuroticism or negative affectivity (Funk & Houston,
with the others, employees high in the hardy 1987; Hull, Van Treuren, & Virnelli, 1987). By now,
attitudes showed the action pattern of coping with there are several findings suggesting that the hardy
stressful circumstances by facing them (rather than attitudes measure is considerably different from, and
being in denial), and struggling to turn them from broader than, neuroticism or negative affectivity.
potential disasters into opportunities for self and One study (Maddi & Khoshaba, 1994) showed that
company (rather than avoiding them or blaming the pervasive negative relationship between hardiness
others). Further as to actions, the hardy employees and the clinical scales on the MMPI persists when
were also more involved in building patterns the effect of negative affectivity is removed from these
of interaction with their significant others that relationships. Compelling evidence from another
emphasized mutual assistance and encouragement, study (Maddi, Khoshaba, Harvey, Lu, & Persico,
rather than undermining competition or stultifying 2002) is that the hardiness measure is not only
overprotection. Still further, the hardy employees correlated negatively to the neuroticism factor on the
also took pains to care for their bodies through NEO-FFI measure of the five-factor model, but also
eating well, engaging in relaxation procedures, correlated positively to each of the other four factors.
and exercising (rather than sinking into obesity Along with the results of these two studies, another
and alcoholism). The conclusion reached was that, important finding is that the hardiness measure is
consistently with the model shown in Figure 1, the not related to socially desirable responding (Maddi
courage contained in the hardy attitudes provided et al., 2005). With these findings, it would be difficult
the strength and motivation to do the hard work to argue that hardy attitudes are no more than
of transformation coping, supportive social interac- negative expressions of neuroticism or negative
tions, and facilitative self-care under stresses affectivity. Further, the five factors of the NEO-FFI
(Maddi & Kobasa, 1984). together account for only about one-third of the
164 S. R. Maddi

variance of the 3Cs, suggesting that hardiness is not As to conduct, Maddi, Wadhwa, and Haier (1996)
simply explained by the five-factor model (Maddi, studied alcohol and drug use among high school
Khoshaba, Jensen, Carter, Lu, & Harvey, 2002). graduates about to enter college. Whereas a family
At least, it appears that the methodological critiques risk factor index was positively correlated with self-
of hardy attitudes have been answered. report of trying alcohol and drugs, it was hardiness
It is relevant now to summarize some of the major that was negatively correlated to self-report of the
findings concerning the relationship of hardiness frequency with which these addictive substances
to performance, conduct, and health. Similar results had been used. Objective measurement through
to those in the IBT study have been reported urine screens also showed this negative relationship
concerning the positive influence of hardiness on between hardiness and substance use.
performance and mood in such diverse samples as There are also construct validity studies that
bus drivers (Bartone, 1989), lawyers (Kobasa, 1982), support the conceptualized mechanisms whereby
nurses (Keane, Ducette, & Adler, 1985), firefighters hardy attitudes lead to hardy actions, thereby posi-
(Giatras, 2000), and undergraduates (Lifton, Seay, & tively effecting performance, conduct, and health.
Bushke, 2004; Maddi, 2002). Furthermore, Bartone Specifically, there is evidence of a positive relation-
(1999) has been studying military personnel in such ship between hardy attitudes and the hardy actions
stressful circumstances as combat and peace keeping of (a) coping with stresses by problem solving, rather
missions. There is clear evidence that the higher than denying and avoiding, (b) interacting with
hardiness attitudes are before the personnel leave others by giving and getting assistance and encour-
on the missions, the less likelihood there is that agement, rather than competition or overprotection,
life-threatening experiences abroad will lead to and (c) engaging in organismic self-care, rather
posttraumatic stress, or depression disorders. than excessive or insufficient nutrition, exercise,
Similar results have been found regarding the stress and relaxation (Maddi, 2002; Weibe & McCallum,
of culture shock (rather than threats to life) in 1986). Further, hardy attitudes are positively related
American employees on work missions abroad to feeling actively involved in the choice of activities
(Atella, 1989), and immigrants to the USA (Kuo & and the ensuing interaction (Maddi, 1999). Also
Tsai, 1986). expected, there are results showing a negative
There are also studies notable for concerning more relationship of hardy attitudes to repressive coping
common sorts of stresses, and objective indices of and right-wing authoritarianism (Maddi et al., 2005).
performance and conduct. For example, Maddi and These findings show a general tendency to approach
Hess (1992) showed that hardiness, measured before experience openly, and cope with it in a manner than
the basketball season began, predicted six out of can enhance performance and health.
seven indices of performance excellence throughout
the ensuing season among male, varsity, high school
players. Similarly, Lancer (2000) found that female Hardiness is learned
synchronized swimmers who made the US Olympics
team in 2000 and then performed well in the Hardiness was conceptualized as something that
competition was predicted by hardiness levels mea- develops, rather than is inborn (Maddi & Kobasa,
sured before the competition began. Also relevant to 1984). The initial view, that youngsters whose parents
performance is a study by Bartone and Snook (1999) expose them to a wide range of experiences, and
in which hardy attitudes emerged as the best predic- encourage them to learn from these experiences by
tor of leadership behavior over the 4 years of training putting them together into patterns through exercis-
spent by cadets at West Point Military Academy. ing imagination and judgment, was then tested in
Similarly, Westman (1990) found that Israeli military the IBT study. That study included interviews on
recruits in office training school who were high in the early history of the participating employees,
hardy attitudes (measured before they entered) were conducted before the deregulation upheaval.
more likely to describe the training as stressful, but Comparison of the data given by those who thrived
graduate successfully. In contrast, those recruits low in the upheaval with those whose performance and
in hardy attitudes tended to describe the training health was undermined largely supported the hardi-
as easy and pleasant, but had a higher failure rate. ness conceptualization, but highlighted the impor-
Also, among undergraduates, hardiness was tance of dealing with stressful circumstances
positively related to the creativity level expressed on (Khoshaba & Maddi, 1999). Specifically, those who
a laboratory task (Maddi et al., 2005). Further, thrived described their early life as stressful, and their
among human resource consultants, the higher the parents as supportive and encouraging of their efforts
hardiness level, the greater the number of billable to do well nonetheless. Convinced by their parents of
hours they accumulated in the ensuing year (Maddi the importance of, and their capability in, coping and
et al., 2006). thriving they worked hard in school and were also
 Hardiness 165

therefore supported and admired by their teachers (Maddi, 1969/1996) in which hardy attitudes and
(Khoshaba & Maddi, 1999). some other cognitive/emotional amalgams are
These results suggesting that hardiness is learned compared as to their relative effectiveness in account-
prompted and guided the development of a hardi- ing for dependent variables to which they are all
ness-training program (Khoshaba & Maddi, 2001). conceptually relevant. Such research findings will
Briefly, the training program is based on a workbook facilitate understanding of not only the relative
that includes hardy coping, social interacting, and importance of the cognitive/emotional amalgams,
self-care exercises, plus a procedure for using the but also how they may interact together in facilitating
feedback from these efforts to deepen hardy atti- relevant actions, and performance and health
tudes. Typically, there are several weekly sessions in outcomes. The two comparative analytic studies
the training, so that trainees can carry out planned currently available are summarized below.
exercises in their lives, and report back on the results
of this. By now, there are several evaluation studies
of this hardiness training showing that it not only Comparative analysis of hardiness and optimism
increases hardy attitudes and actions, but also
Thus far, one of the foundation stones of positive
improves performance and health in working adults
psychology has been the optimism construct, which
(Maddi, 1987; Maddi, Kahn, & Maddi, 1998) and
is an important element of happiness. An argument
college students (Maddi, Khoshaba, Jensen et al.,
has been made here that courage, expressed as hardy
2002). In working adults, the training increased not
attitudes, needs to be included if positive psychology
only their hardiness levels, but also their job satis-
is to be complete. At the empirical level, there is need
faction, and constructive involvement with fellow
for research studies that clarify the relative magnitude
employees. The training also decreased the number
and direction of the roles played by optimism and
of employees in the sample whose blood pressure was
hardiness in health, performance, and conduct.
too high. As to college students, the training not
The only relevant article, thus far, reports on three
only increased their hardiness levels, but also their
studies (Maddi & Hightower, 1999) comparing
retention rates and grade point averages over the
hardy attitudes and optimism in their relationship
next 2 years.
to coping efforts. In all three studies, hardy attitudes
were measured by the PVS III (Maddi, 1997), and
Summary optimism by the Learned Optimism Test (LOT;
Scheier & Carver, 1987). The coping measures were
The accumulating findings of these and other studies Scheier, Weintraub, and Carvers (1986) COPE test
make clear that there is empirical support for the in the first and third studies, and Moos Coping
conceptualization of hardy attitudes as the courage Response Inventory (1993) in the second study.
and motivation to deal with natural and imposed The first two studies involved undergraduate samples
stressful circumstances through hardy actions that in completing the questionnaires. The sample in
turn them from potential disasters into opportunities the third study was composed of women who had
and advantages, thereby enhancing performance and been referred to a specialty clinic for diagnosis of
health. whether the breast abnormality they were experi-
encing was cancerous. Prior to diagnosis, these
women completed the PVS, LOT, and COPE tests.
Comparative analysis of cognitive/emotional
In all three studies, there were modest positive
amalgams
correlations between hardiness and optimism, and
Hardiness has been offered here as an addition to between each of these personality variables and
positive psychology. Conceptually, the presentation various coping styles. The comparison of the relative
has identified hardy attitudes as a cognitive/ roles of hardiness and optimism was done by
emotional amalgam emphasizing courage, and entering both variables into multiple regression
hardy actions as the attitude-motivated mechanisms analyses as independent variables so as to determine
for dealing effectively with stressful circumstances in the influence that each, purified of the other, had on
a manner than enhances health and performance. the dependent variables of coping styles. In the first
That the research results support this conceptualiza- two studies, which emphasized the every day stresses
tion raises the further question of the relationship of college life, hardiness was a more powerful and
between hardy attitudes and the other cognitive/ pervasive influence on problem-solving (or active)
emotional amalgams already proposed as part of coping, and especially protected against denial and
positive psychology. avoidance (or regressive) coping. The third study
One way of trying to answer this question showed that, under a potentially life-threatening
involves a comparative analytic research approach stressor, optimism finally emerged as associated
166 S. R. Maddi

with nearly as many problem-solving coping efforts Radloff, 1997) for depression, and the State-Trait
as did hardiness, but it was still true that only Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI; Bishop &
hardiness negatively related to regressive (denial and Quah, 1998; Spielberger, Sydeman, & Owen,
avoidance) coping. 1999) for anger.
Taken together, these three sets of findings suggest As expected, there was a pattern of modest
that, with regard to everyday stresses, hardiness correlations, positive between hardy attitudes and
operates as the courage to face and cope effectively religiousness, and negative between each of them and
with them and that, by comparison, optimism may indices of depression and anger. Several regression
include some nave complacency (Colvin & Block, analyses were performed, each with hardy attitudes
1994). Some of this difference persists even when and religiousness as independent variables, and a
the stressor is life threatening. These results are depression or anger variable as the dependent
consistent with those showing that what makes the variable.
difference is what one does with problems, not Once hardy attitudes and religiousness were
merely ones optimism (Stewart & Vandewater, purified of each other through the regression analysis
1999; Torges, Stewart, & Miner-Rubino, 2005). procedure, only the former showed main effects in
Needless to say, much more comparative analytic protecting against depression and anger. In some
research must be done before the relative roles of of these analyses, the interaction effect between
optimism and courage in positive psychology can be hardiness and religiousness was also significant.
empirically clarified. When these interactions were plotted, the emerging
picture indicated that when hardy attitudes are low,
religiousness protects against some expressions of
Comparative analysis of hardiness and spirituality anger and depression, but when hardy attitudes are
high, they provide the protection and religiousness
Spirituality, or religiousness, has also been proposed has no effect.
as part of positive psychology. The contention is Hopefully, this study will open the way toward
that religiousness provides, as a cognitive/emotional a greater understanding of the effects of cognitive/
amalgam, a sense of meaning and purpose that emotional variables on health and performance. Its
facilitates performance and health, despite whatever results suggest that the day-to-day stressors encoun-
problematic circumstances may be encountered tered by these senior Army officers are less likely
(e.g., Atchley, 1997; Bergin, 1983; Clark, to have an emotionally debilitating effect when
Friedman, & Martin, 1999; McCullough, Hoyt, addressed through the hardy attitudes of commit-
Larson, Koenig, & Thoresen, 2000). As such, ment, control, and challenge than through the belief
religiousness is conceptualized somewhat similarly in a specific God figure and an unchanging credo
to hardiness. Both emphasize spirituality, though of ethics. Of course, this study did not permit
they differ as to how this is defined. In particular, scrutiny of whether there were differences in the
it is generally true that religiousness is based in a God action variables (e.g., active or regressive coping,
figure and a relatively unchanging credo, whereas interacting with others in supportive or undermining
hardy attitudes simply provide the courage to find ways) hypothetically prompted by both hardiness and
ones own way by trying to transform stresses from religiousness. Needless to say, additional research
potential disasters into growth opportunities. is needed utilizing other measures of religiousness,
At present, there is one relevant study (Maddi, and emphasizing additional action, health, and
Brow, Khoshaba, & Vaitkus, 2006), and it compares performance variables.
the relationship of hardiness and religiousness in
their relationships to depression and anger.
Conceptually, both hardiness and religiousness Concluding remarks
would be expected to help people deal with life Hardiness has been proposed here as a needed
stresses in a manner that minimizes such expressions component of positive psychology. Through con-
of frustration and difficulty as depression and anger. ceptual and empirical efforts, hardiness is emerging
This should be especially true for the sample in this as a combination of interrelated attitudes (cognitive/
study, which was comprised of senior US Army emotional amalgam) and interaction approaches
officers, whose lives are likely to be regularly (action patterns) that together provide the courage,
stressful. In this study, the measures included the motivation, and strategies for turning developmental
PVS III-R (Maddi & Khoshaba, 2001) for hardy and imposed stresses from potential disasters into
attitudes, the DURAL (Sherman, Plante, Simonton, growth opportunities. This process leads to excel-
Adams, Harbison, & Burris, 2000) for religiousness, lence in performance, and enhanced physical and
the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression mental health. Building on this, research has begun
Scale (CES-D; Hann, Winter, & Jacobsen, 1999; which attempts to compare the relative power of
 Hardiness 167

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depressive symptoms in cancer patients: Evaluation of the
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Exemplified here, this comparative analytic pro- Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 46, 437443.
cess needs to be incorporated further into positive Hull, J. G., Van Treuren, R. R., & Virnelli, S. (1987). Hardiness
psychology, so that it can continue and deepen its and health: A critique and alternative approach. Journal of
impact. This process will be facilitated by sufficient Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 518530.
Keane, A., Ducette, J., & Adler, D. (1985). Stress in ICU and
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