Hydroelectric Power: A Guide For Developers and Investors

Hydroelectric Power
A Guide for Developers and Investors

FICHTNER
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Disclaimer: This guide was prepared for the International Finance Corporation
by the consulting firm Fichtner Management Consulting AG to be used as a
reference, primarily for hydropower developers and investors. The findings,
interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the
author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank Group
including the International Finance Corporation, or any affiliated organizations,
or to members of its board of executive directors for the countries they represent.
The World Bank Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in
this publication, and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use.
It is not intended to be a compliance guide or substitute for IFC performance
standards or World Bank safeguards.
Cover Image: Large PhotoBigstock/Danny Wilde, Small PhotoWorld Bank

HYDROELECTRIC POWER iii
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 . Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 . Overview of Hydropower Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 . Design and Typical Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
5 . Project Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6 . Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7 . Hydrology and Energy Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
8 . Permits and Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9 . Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10 . Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11 . Operation & Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
12 . Environmental and Social Impact Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
13 . Capital and O&M Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
14 . Economics and Financial Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15 . Financing HPP Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
16 . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
17 . Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
18 . Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

iv FOREWORD
HYDROELECTRIC POWER 1
Foreword
Hydropower has a well-established role in the energy sector and support for further development of this
energy resource is very important, especially in developing countries . Hydropower is a vital renewable
energy resource and for many countries it is the only renewable energy that has the potential to expand
access to electricity to large populations . Yet it remains underdeveloped in many countries, especially in
Africa, where less than 10 percent of hydropower potential has been tapped .
The opportunities are great. But hydropower development This guide covers all aspects of hydropower project
poses complex challenges and risks. While large storage development, emphasizing the importance of interactions
hydro may offer the broadest benefits to society, it also among technical, commercial, permitting/licensing,
tends to present the biggest risks. Creation of reservoirs environmental and social, and financing activities. The
sometimes means resettlement of whole communities, the technical sections are more detailed and can be used as
flooding of large areas of land, and significant changes to reference, while the permitting/licensing and financing
river ecosystems. sections are intended more as a high-level review.
As presented in the publication Toward a sustainable We hope that the knowledge presented here helps to
energy future for all: directions for the World Bank Groups support the sustainable and well-executed development
energy sector, the World Bank Group is firmly committed of valuable hydropower resources to meet the increasing
to the responsible development of hydropower projects of demand for clean, reliable, affordable energy.
all sizes and typesrun of the river, pumped storage, and
reservoirincluding off-grid projects meeting decentralized
rural needs. The IFC has approved 42 hydropower projects
totaling more than US$1.3 billion over the last decade.
This guidebook is intended for use by IFC and World
Mary Porter Peschka
Bank clients and stakeholders planning and implementing
Acting Director
hydro projects; it is not intended to replace official guidance
Cross-Cutting Advisory Solutions Department
documents of the World Bank Group, but instead is an effort
to capture the knowledge and experience gained through
the extensive engagement of IFC staff and our clients in
hydropower development.

2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgments
Fichtner Management Consulting AG developed the material of the hydro guide for the International
Finance Corporation . Fichtner has drawn on many lessons learned from its recent engagement with IFC
in the Balkan Renewable Energy Program (BREP). The guides development was managed by Stratos
Tavoulareas (IFC), who also contributed extensively to the content.
IFC would like to thank the governments of Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway and
Switzerland for their support in producing this report.
The authors are grateful for the input and peer review of Dzenan Malovic, Hendrik Engelmann-Pilger,
Nebojsa Arsenijevic, Katharina Gassner, Elena Merle-Beral, Giovanna Monti, Justin Pooley and Lauren
Kiyoko Inouye. Jeremy Levin and John Kellenberg provided valuable guidance and management support.

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Executive Summary
Worldwide, hydropower is a crucial power supply option for several reasons . First, it is a renewable
1
energy resource that can contribute to sustainable development by generating local, typically inexpensive
power . Second, hydropower reduces reliance on imported fuels that carry the risks of price volatility,
supply uncertainty and foreign currency requirements . Third, hydro systems can offer multiple co-benefits
including water storage for drinking and irrigation, drought-preparedness, flood control protection,
aquaculture and recreational opportunities, among others . Finally, hydro can allow more renewables
especially wind and solarto be added to the system by providing rapid-response power when intermittent
sources are off-line, and pumped energy storage when such sources are generating excess power .
Hydropower contributes about 16 percent of global electricity, Hydropower plants (HPPs) are unique compared to other
a share that is expected to grow. Hydros technical potential is power supply options such as thermal. HPPs are always custom-
five times the current utilization rate, and huge potential exists designed site-specific projects. HPPs require substantial
in developing countries. According to U.S. Energy Information capital investment, but they offer extremely low operating costs
Administration (EIA) projections, hydro can contribute up and long operating lifespans of 4050 years that can often be
to 16,400 TWh/yr, and by 2050 total installed hydropower extended to 100 years with some rehabilitation. The result is
capacity will double (1,947 GW), generating an annual 7,100 extremely competitive production costs for electricity.
TWh [EIA 2010]. Most mid-sized and large hydro resources in However, developing a hydro project is usually a challenge.
developed countries have been exploited but opportunities for There are substantial uncertainties associated with hydrology
additional rational utilization of small hydropower plants exist (which impacts power generation and revenues) and geology
in all countries, especially in the developing world. Sub-Saharan (which may substantially increase construction costs). Site
Africa, where the energy access deficit is largest, has over 400 licenses and permits could be difficult to obtain as many
gigawatts of undeveloped hydro potentialenough to quadruple stakeholders are involved, often with conflicting rights and
the continents existing installed capacity of 80 GW. responsibilities. Construction in remote areas is difficult to
It is expected that the role of hydropower will continue to plan and estimate the costs. Environmental and/or social risks
expand, especially in developing countries. IFC commissioned can be complex to understand and manage and may introduce
this guide to collect knowledge and build capacity of those reputational risks for the developer and financiers. Finally,
engaged in the complete hydro project development cycle from revenue (impacted by both the amount of energy generated and
project inception to operation. This guide covers all types and the tariff the power market is able to pay) is uncertain.
sizes of hydropower projectsrun-of-river, storage and pumped For these reasons, HPP project planning and
storageand small, medium and large hydropower plants. The implementation must be comprehensive and well-coordinated
guide discusses each step of a hydropower projectsite selection, from inception to commissioning. Figure 1-1 shows a typical
plant design, permitting/licensing, financing, contracting and development process from the perspectives of the project
commissioning, and explains key issues and typical responses. developer and financier. Key decisions such as site selection, HPP
The guide aims to assist all players in hydropower plant design, permitting/licensing and financing must consider
development involved in project planning, evaluation important factors such as hydrology, topography, geology, social
(appraisal), implementation and monitoring. and environmental impacts, and future potential uses of the
40-50
HPPs offer extremely low operating costs and long operating lifespans of
years 40-50 years that can often be extended to 100 years with some rehabilitation.
The result is competitive production costs for electricity.

6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
water, for irrigation or upstream HPPs for example. Additional Site selection is the first step. In developing countries,
questions to be considered include the following: What role information on potential HPP sites, especially for small HPPs,
would the proposed HPP project play in the power market? may be unavailable or unreliable and out of date, unlike
Does the power market require additional capacity or energy developed countries where most potential sites for medium and
and when? What level of tariff can be expected? How much large hydropower plants are already well known. Conditions
revenue will the HPP generate? Who are the key stakeholders surrounding HPPs are subject to changes, not only the power
and how will they be affected? How will public consultation tariffs or the power market structure, but also the social
and participation be carried out throughout planning and and environmental characteristics, all of which can affect
implementation phases to sustain key stakeholder support and the attractiveness of potential sites. As such, sites that were
contribute to on-time project completion? unattractive in the past may become attractive in the future
and vice versa.
Good hydrological data are essential to select an HPP site
Figure 1-1: HPP project development process and develop the optimum plant design. Typically, hydrological
data for at least 15 years are required and should include
BANK MAIN ACTIVITIES not only the amount of water (flow rate) but also annual
PERSPECTIVE (DEVELOPER) distribution.
Pre-feasibility (pre-FS) and feasibility (FS) studies are
PHASE 1 SITE IDENTIFICATION / CONCEPT
conducted to confirm site attractiveness, develop a preliminary
Identification of potential site(s) plant design, estimate investment requirements, establish
Funding of project development the next steps for project implementation (including project
Development of rough technical concept
schedule) and prepare the project for financing. Also, pre-FS
and FS identify potential project risks and opportunities to
PHASE 2 PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY mitigate them by optimizing key project parameters, including
Assessment of different technical options plant design and output. Project technical features are
Approximate cost/benefits determined by site-specific conditions:
Permitting needs
Market assessment How much storage should the HPP have? Storage capacity
is determined by the total amount of water available,
water seasonality, power market needs and specific
PHASE 3 FEASIBILITY STUDY*
geological and topographic conditions that allow reservoir
Technical and financial evaluation of construction. If storage is not feasible or not required,
preferred option
First contact with Assessment of financing options
HPPs can be designed as run-of-river plants.
project developer Initiation of permitting process What is the appropriate and optimum head? This is crucial
because head choice determines plant capacity (MW) and
PHASE 4 FINANCING/CONTRACTS* affects turbine selection.
Permitting Permitting and licensing is often a complicated process
Contracting strategy requiring multiple approvals from many central and local
Due diligence Supplier selection and contract negotiation government agencies. Water rights, land acquisition and site
Financing concept Financing of project
access are among the key elements that must be checked
from both legal and practical points of view. Project success
PHASE 5 DETAILED DESIGN* depends on buy-in and support from local municipalities, which
requires stakeholder consultation and two-way communication
Preparation of detailed design for all
relevant lots throughout the entire HPP development process, beginning
Loan agreement Preparation of project implementation with the planning phase. Local concerns should be assessed and
schedule mitigation strategies should be developed and in place.
Finalization of permitting process
In parallel and equally important, environmental and
PHASE 6 CONSTRUCTION* social assessments must be carried out because impacts can be
substantial, and not only when HPP projects include large dams.
Construction supervision
Mitigation strategies should be developed and implemented.
Independent review Commonly accepted international standards that have been
of construction developed for detailed environmental and social assessment
of private sector projects include, amongst others, the IFC
PHASE 7 COMMISSIONING* Performance Standards, which are discussed later in this guide.
Performance testing The Performance Standards in turn form the basis of the Equator
Preparation of as build design (if required) Principles, a voluntary approach to environmental and social risk
Independent
review of management adopted by many financial institutions.
commissioning The approach to contracting can vary but typically a project
is divided into three to four contracts in the following categories:
*Involvement of financing institution begins with Phase 3.
Source: FICHTNER Civil works
Electrical and mechanical (E&M) equipment
Grid connection to permitting and licensing, local opposition to the project,

or adverse weather conditions. Consequently, investors must
Penstock (often included in civil works)
assess all risks and ensure that they are covered. These include
For each of the above, it is common to tender and sign an not only hydrology but also sedimentation, permitting and
engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contract. licensing, political risks, payment default, local currency
Under an EPC contract, the contractor designs the HPP, procures devaluation, local domestic tariff affordability, cost overruns,
materials and builds the project, either directly or through and power market changes. For example, a debt-service
subcontracts. Typically the contractor carries project schedule coverage ratio (DSCR) greater than one must be ensured under
and budget risks in return for a fixed-price lump sum, for the worst-case hydrology scenario such as dry years.
which 10-30 percent down payment is required; 10-20 percent HPPs can be financed by private corporate entities
is typical withholding, which is to be paid upon successful (balance-sheet financing) or project finance. Also common
plant completion and acceptance. Usually, the owners engineer are public-private-partnership (PPP) schemes because HPP
supervises and monitors the project, sometimes along with an benefits are multipurpose and include externalities that private
engineer hired by the financier investors find difficult to capture. Regardless of the source,
(unless the developer has the capacity to supervise/monitor financing must be long-tenor and must be covered with long-
the project). term off-take power-purchase agreements.
The critical path items for hydropower projects are: access
roads, penstock construction, tunneling, E&M equipment Hydro project development checklist
manufacturing, and grid connection. During the project planning process, some items must be checked
Table 1-1 provides a rough idea of typical HPP costs, even multiple times with increasing attention to finer details of each
though HPP costs are site-specific and can vary widely. Most aspect when moving through each phase. This guide assumes
large greenfield projects range from US$1000/kW to US$3500/ that the planning process has three phasesinitial screening,
kW. Small HPPs have higher investment costsUS$1300/kW screening, and due diligence. Table 1-2 below indicates the
to US$8000/kW. main area of assessment and data requirements for each phase.
Table 1-1: Typical HPP costs
Although not every financing process follows this structure, due
diligence is a precondition for every financing decision.
Technology Installed Operations Capacity Levelized
For a comprehensive checklist (including potential risks) to
costs and factor cost of
(US$/kW) maintenance (%) electricity maximize project success from the perspectives of a financing
costs (LCOE) institution and project developer, please see Section 17/Annex,
(%/year of (2010 Table 17.1.
installed US$/kWh)
costs) Table 1-2: HPP requirements during the project cycle
Large hydro 1,o507,650 22 .5 25 to 90 0 .020 .19 Phase Check by bank Data/study

requirements
Small hydro 1,3008,000 14 20 to 95 0 .020 .27
1. Initial screening Check plausibility Project data sheet or
Refurbishment/ of main project pre-feasibility study
5001,000 16 0 .010 .05
upgrade parameters; check (PFS)
developer financial
Financial statements
Source: FICHTNER standing/ integrity
Basic information about
Annual O&M costs range from 1.04.0 percent of developer
investment costs. The IEA assumes 2.2 percent for large HPP 2. Screening Check technical/ Minimum pre-feasibility
economic project for technical/economic
and 2.23 percent for small HPP. However, these figures do not feasibility check; better feasibility
include major electro-mechanical equipment replacement, which study
Check status of permits
would be required a couple of times during the HPP lifespan and and licenses Information about
would raise average O&M costs to US$45/kW/year for large Check for
permits and licenses
obtained/outstanding
HPP; US$52/kW/year for small HPP. completeness
of required Other studies, in case of
Considering the above costs and the capacity factor
documentation for PFS gaps
(affected by hydrology), HPP electricity generation costs range Phase 3
between US$0.02/kWh and US$0.085/kWh; the lower costs 3. Due diligence Detailed technical, Minimum feasibility
are for refurbishing/upgrading existing HPPs. environmental and study (FS)
Financing HPPs can be challenging because all the social, financial, legal
due diligence of project Information about
investment is required up front and most benefits are realized permits and licenses
obtained/outstanding
over the projects long operating lifespan. Inherent to each
Other design
HPP project are uncertainties that add complications to documents in case of
financing challenges. For example, hydrology determines FS gaps
water flow amounts, which determines the amount of Supplier price
energy produced. But hydrology depends on annual weather quotations
conditions, which can vary widely. Also, medium and large
Source: FICHTNER
HPPs can include high construction risks, a prolonged project
implementation schedule (e.g., 10 years) and schedule delays
due to the nature of building in remote locations, delays due

8 INTRODUCTION
This guide aims to provide a

comprehensive overview of all
stages of hydropower development,
and highlight hydropowers unique
characteristics compared with other
power generation options.
Introduction
Water is the most important natural resource for all living species . The origin of civilization is closely
interconnected with water use and throughout history humans have developed technologies to exploit
2
water for use in agriculture, households, transport, recreation, industry, and energy production . This guide
focuses on the role of water as an energy resource .
Worldwide, hydro is an important source of sustainable development; the case studies include a range of plant sizes and
power supply and its role is expected to increase, especially in technology types.
developing countries. As a result, IFC commissioned this guide The guide comprises three main sections: Technical, Project
to enhance understanding of the complete project development Development and Finance (see Box 2-1).
cycle, from inception to commissioning and operation. The
Technical topics include the following sections:
guide explains each step of the project development process,
including common challenges that must be addressed to ensure Overview of hydropower development (Section 3)
a successful project. The guide is intended for use by key HPP design and typical layouts (Section 4)
stakeholders who are involved in hydropower project (HPP)
Site selection (Section 6)
planning, evaluation (appraisal) or monitoring.
The guide aims to provide a comprehensive overview of all Hydrology and energy calculations (Section 7)
stages of hydropower development, and highlight hydropowers Project development phases include the following:
unique characteristics compared with other power generation
options. The guide describes a range of sizes and designs for HPP project development (Section 5)
hydropower facilities, and offers guidance on key issues during Permits and licensing (Section 8)
site selection, plant design, permitting/licensing, financing,
Construction (Section 9)
contracting and commissioning. Some key issues are hydrology,
social and environmental context, permits and licensing, Commissioning (Section 10)
political risk, off-taker creditworthiness, currency fluctuations, Operation and maintenance (Section 11)
and power sector sustainability, among others. Environmental and economic discussion includes the following:
The guide covers all types and sizes of HPPsrun-of-river,
storage, and pumped storageand micro to large. Although Environmental and social impacts (Section 12)
the guide includes substantial technical information, it is Capital and O&M costs (Section 13)
intended as a reference for a non-technical audience. Sources
Economic and financial analyses (Section 14)
for additional information are included.
Throughout the guide, project case studies are used to Financing HPP projects (Section 15)
illustrate specific situations encountered in hydropower project Section 17 Annex has a comprehensive list of risks and
mitigation options.
Box 2-1: Information in the HPP guide
TECHNICAL PROJECT PHASES ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC
Types of HPP and the water resource: energy Project development: overview of project phases, Environmental and social impact mitigation:
generation through water, hydroelectricity, types of description, pre-feasibility/feasibility phase, timelines, Equator Principles.
hydro projects, what are small, medium and large project structures. Capital and O&M costs: typical CAPEX components,
projects Permits and licensing: general considerations, benchmarks, OPEX structures (fixed and variable)
Design and typical layout: types of hydropower performance standards, typical requirements. including benchmarks.
schemes, main site layouts, civil structures, Construction: contracts, scheduling, phases, Economics and financial analysis: benefits and costs,
hydraulic steel structures, grid connection, ecology, planning, task sequencing, stakeholder/risk/cost assumptions, financial modeling results, sensitivity
optimization of parameters, layouts. management. analyses.
Site selection: basic data requirements, constraints. Commissioning: main criteria, testing phases. Financing HPP projects: HPP finance process,
Hydrology and energy calculations: hydrological Operation & maintenance: scheduled/unscheduled financing alternatives, project evaluation, risks
considerations, power and energy, energy yield maintenance, performance monitoring, contracts,
predictions, seasonal variability, load factor, procedures.
uncertanties, losses.
Source: FICHTNER
10 OVERVIEW OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT
Estimated global technical potential

for hydroelectricity is 16,400 TWh/yr
according to the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (2010).
Overview of Hydropower
Development 3
This chapter describes transformations that occur when the energy stored in water is harvested; it
provides a short historical review of how hydropower technology has evolved; it discusses the future
of hydropower; it lists factors that might inhibit hydropower development .
3.1 Energy conversion: from water to power Figure 3-1: The water cycle
Hydropower is considered a renewable form of energy because
it is based on solar energy that drives the hydrologic cycle (see
Figure 3-1). The hydrologic cycle refers to the following process:
the sun heats water (about 97 percent from oceans); water
evaporates; rising air currents transport water vapour to the
upper atmosphere where lower temperatures condense vapour
into clouds. Air currents move the clouds around the globe and
eventually, water falls as precipitation. Through this process,
water can reach altitudes higher than sea level.
Gravity causes water to descend from higher elevations
creating opportunities to harness water energygravitational
energy from falling water and kinetic energy from flowing water.
The amount of kinetic energy available from water flow depends
on the height from which the water drops, the angle of the slope,
and the volume of water per unit of time, i.e., the discharge.
The energy of flowing water is harnessed by turbines, which
Source: United States Geological Survey
are placed in the path of the water flow. The force exerted by
water moving over turbine blades rotates the turbine runner; the motivated minimum water conditions. This may reduce the
turbine runner rotates the generator, which produces electricity. stream flow that can be diverted from the main river for energy
production.
Estimated global technical potential for hydroelectricity
3.2 Hydropower potential
is 16,400 TWh/yr according to the U.S. Energy Information
Hydropowers theoretical potential includes the total potential Administration (2010). The EIA technological roadmap for
energy from all water resources within specified spatial hydropower notes that technical potential corresponds to about
boundaries without any physical, technical and economic usage 35 percent of theoretical potential.
limitations. In practice, only a small percentage of theoretical Hydropowers economic potential is defined as the energy
potential can be harvested. capacity that is economically exploitable relative to alternative
Hydropowers technical potential is defined as the total energy forms.
energy that can be generated under the technical, infrastructural Current hydropower production and unexploited resources
and ecological constraints. Usually, technical potential ranges for the regions of the world and for the five countries with the
from 20 to 35 percent of theoretical potential [Auer 2010]. highest technical potential are shown in Figure 3-2 below. Asia
Technical potential is lower than theoretical potential has by far the largest hydropower technical potential, followed
because technical restrictions limit, for example, using flood by Latin America and North America. China has the highest
flows for energy production, unless a reservoir with large storage existing energy generation and uses 24 percent of its potential.
capacity is available, which is not always the case. Therefore, Further information on hydropower potential types
a large proportion of surface runoff remains unexploited can be found in H. B. Horlacher, 2003, Globale Potenziale
for energy production. Another factor that reduces available der Wasserkraft.
technical potential when ecological restrictions are considered is
providing a minimum flow to preserve ecologically and socially

Figure 3-2: Current hydroelectricity production and available technical potential
Europe (29%)
North America (25%)
Latin America (21%)
Africa (5%)
Middle East (5%)
Asia and Pacific (18%)
China (24%)
United States (16%)
Russia (10%)
Brazil (25%) Production

Potential
Canada (39%)
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
TWh/yr
Source: WEC Survey of Energy Resources 2007, IEA Renewables Information 2010 (2008 data).
3.3 Brief history of hydropower development Storage hydropower schemes (dams, pumped storage)
The mechanical energy of water has been harnessed for offer operational flexibility because they can be easily
production since ancient times. Early uses included irrigation, ramped up or shut down, creating potential for
grinding grain, sawing wood and manufacturing textiles, among immediate response to fluctuations in electricity
others. Water current energy was converted by water wheels into demand. Thus storage hydros are valuable to meet
useful forms of power; the invention of the water wheel dates to peak demand or to compensate for other plants in the
3rd Century BC. During the industrial revolution hydro turbines grid (especially solar and wind), which can experience
gradually replaced waterwheels because turbines could exploit sudden fluctuations in power output.
head much larger than their diameter and offered significantly The creation of reservoirs also allows water to be
higher efficiencies. stored for drinking or irrigation, reducing human
Using hydropower for electricity generation dates to 19th C., vulnerability to droughts. Reservoirs can provide flood
making it the first renewable energy source to produce electric protection, and can improve waterway transport
power. Today it remains the most common form of renewable capacity. Further, HPPs with reservoirs can generate
energy and plays an important role in electric power generation energy during dry periods and regulate fluctuations in
worldwide (see Table 3-1). For a brief overview of technology the energy supply network by using the stored water.
development from ancient to modern times see Box 3-1.
Environmental impacts triggered by implementing
hydropower schemes are well known and manageable.
3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of hydropower
Disadvantages of hydropower include the following:
Compared with other technologies, the most important
advantages of hydropower are the following: High up-front investment costs compared to other
technologies, such as thermal power (but low
Hydropower generation is based on a reliable proven operational costs since no fuel is required).
technology that has been around for more than a
century and hydropower plants can be easily Reservoirs may have a negative impact on the inundated
rehabilitated or upgraded utilizing recent advances in area, damage river flora and fauna, or disrupt river uses
hydro technologies. such as navigation. However, most negative impacts can
be mitigated through project design. The IFC and other
Hydropower generation is renewable because it does multilateral financial institutions have strict mandatory
not reduce the water resources it uses and does not requirements for assessment and mitigation of social and
require fuel. environmental impacts.
In most cases, hydropower is an economically For more information, refer to the IFC Performance Standards
competitive renewable source of energy. The levelized on Environmental and Social Sustainability or the IFC
cost of electricity (LCOE) is usually in the range of Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for construction
US$0.05 to US$0.10 per kWh [EIA 2010]. works and transmission lines.1
Rehabilitating or upgrading existing hydropower
schemes provides opportunities for cost-effective
capacity increases.
Hydropower exploits domestic water resources,
1. Full references for the IFC Performance Standards and EHS Guidelines are provided in
thereby achieving price stability by avoiding market Section 16, References.
fluctuations.
Box 3-1: From ancient to modern times
The Archimedes Screw is a machine used in The machine consisted of a circular pipe This installation has the same benefits as
the ancient years for lifting water to a higher enclosing a helix that is inclined at an angle using the screw for pumping. It is able to
level usually for irrigation purposes. It was of about 45 degrees to the horizontal. Its handle very dirty water and a wide range of
named after the famous scientist when he lower end was in the water. The rotation of the discharges with high efficiency. They can work
used it for removing water from the hold of a device caused the water to rise in the pipe. on heads as low as 1.5 m. Such turbines can
large ship. produce as little as 5 kW, and the largest 500
kW.
Archimedes screw is now used as
Figure 3-3: Egyptian terracotta hydropower turbine. The principle remains
figurine (about 30 BC) showing a the same as in the ancient device but it acts Figure 3-4: Installation of Archimedes
man driving an Archimedes screw as in reverse. The main difference is that water screw turbine in the River Wandle, at
a treadmill . is poured into the top, thus forcing the screw Morden Hall Park, south London .
to rotate. The rotating shaft is able to drive an
electric generator for electricity production.
The screw turbines consist of helices rotating
in open inclined troughs.
Source: British Museum, Department of Source: The Guardian

Egyptian Antiquities, No. EA-37563,
London, England.
3.5 Global hydropower statistics Table 3-1: Historic developments in hydropower generation
technology .
The figures given below are derived from reports
published by International Energy Association (IEA), Year Development
International Hydropower Association (IHA) and mid- Bernard Forest de Blidor publishes Architecture Hydraulique .
Worldwatch Institute [Kumar 2012]. 1770s This four-volume work described vertical- and horizontal-axis
hydraulic machines
3.5.1 Current global situation
1849 James B . Francis develops a radial-flow turbine whereby
Global energy generation and installed capacity water flows from the outer circumference towards the
center of runner, improving on the design of the existing
Hydropower generation has increased by 50 percent inward-flow reaction turbine . The radial-flow was the first
since 1990. The highest absolute growth was modern turbine and it had an efficiency of over 90 percent .
observed in China. 1879 Lester Pelton develops a turbine based on a double bucket
design, which exhausted the water to the side .
In 2008, hydropower was the most common
1879 Thomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lamp in New Jersey
renewable energy with a production of 3,288 TWh
1881 Construction of Niagara Falls hydroelectric power site . It is the
worldwide, corresponding to 17.3 percent of global first hydropower facility developed for major generation . Direct
electricity production. In 2010, hydro production current station built to power arc and incandescent lighting .
increased to 3,427 TWh [IHA 2013]. 1882 Construction of Vulcan Street hydroelectric power plant, in
Appleton, Wisconsin, with an output of about 12 .5 kilowatts
Worldwide installed hydropower capacity reached of alternating current . Coupling of electric generator to the
985 GW in 2012. In the same year, pump storage turbine .
capacity was 130 GW [IHA 2013]. Hence, in 2012 1913 Viktor Kaplan develops a propeller-type machine . It is an
total installed hydropower capacity was 1115 GW. evolution of the Francis turbine that allows the development
of low-head hydro sites .
2730 GW of hydropower and 23 GW of pump
storage were commissioned in 2012 [IHA 2013]; Source: FICHTNER
about half of new capacity was installed in China
(Figure 3-5).
In 2010, hydropower was generated in 150 countries;
32 percent of global hydropower was generated in the
Asia-Pacific region. China is the leading hydropower
producer, with 721 TWh in 2010. [Kumar 2012]

GHG Emissions reduction According to the BLUE scenario of IEA publication, Energy
Hydropower generation at present production levels prevents Technology Perspectives 2010, which targets a 50 percent
GHG emissions equivalent to burning 4.4 million barrels of reduction in energy-related CO2 emissions by 2050, annual
petroleum per day worldwide [USGS 2014]. hydroelectricity generation could be increased by up to 6,000
3.5.2 Future outlook TWh by 2050.
Current global capacity of pumped-hydro storage could
In the short term, estimated total installed capacity will be 1,300 increase ten-fold as some existing hydropower plants could be
GW by 2017 (Figure 3-6). This refers to commissioned HPP transformed into pumped-hydro storage plants.
schemes and capacities that are under construction
[IEA 2012b].
Installed hydropower capacity is projected to reach 1,947
GW by 2050, i.e., about double current levels. [IEA 2012c].
Hydropower generation will almost double to 7,100 TWh per
year. These estimates are based on the 2C Scenario of the IEA
Energy Technology Perspectives 2012 (ETP 2DS), according to
which combined energy sectors will achieve the goal of reducing
annual CO2 emissions to half of 2009 levels
(Figure 3-7).
Figure 3-5: Estimate of commissioned capacity in 2012
16,000
Pure Hydro
Pumped Storage
14,000
12,000
10,000
MW
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
Africa Asia 1 Asia 2 China Europe North & Central South
(West) (East excluding America America
China)
Sources: IHA 2013 and FICHTNER

Figure 3-6: Expected mid-term evolution of hydropower installed capacity
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
GW
600
400
200
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
RoW Brazil China
Russia United States Canada
Sources: International Energy Agency, 2012, Technology Roadmap, Hydropower; and FICHTNER
Figure 3-7: Hydroelectricity generation until 2050 in the Hydropower Roadmap vision (IEA)
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
TWh
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
North America Central and South America Europe and Eurasia

Middle East Africa Asia Pacific
Sources: International Energy Agency, 2012, Technology Roadmap, Hydropower and FICHTNER

16 DESIGN AND TYPICAL LAYOUTS
This chapter provides an overview

of hydropower design schemes; it
classifies hydropower plant types and
describes main types of site layouts.
Design and
Typical Layouts
4
Each hydropower plant is custom-designed, a one-off project that aims to achieve optimal power
plant flow conditions . Consequently, each plant is precisely designed and constructed to respond to
its surrounding topography, existing hydrological regime, prevailing environmental and social (E&S)
constraints, and existing infrastructure, among other boundary conditions .
This chapter provides an overview of hydropower design Figure 4-1: Sketch of a typical HPP with dam used for creation of
head .
schemes; it classifies hydropower plant types and describes
main types of site layouts. The chapter describes structures and
equipment that comprise a hydropower facilitycivil works, Hydroelectric power generation
electrical and mechanical equipment (E&M), steel structures and
grid connectionand discusses structures to mitigate potential
Power transmission cables
adverse environmental impacts. The function of each component Dam
of a hydropower plant (HPP) scheme is explained, along with Transformer
Sluice
gates
how components function and respond to specific demands of The bigger the
Power house
local conditions. height difference
between the
upstream and
Generator downstream
water level, the
4.1 General overview of hydropower schemes greater the amount
of electricity
Hydropower can be generated wherever a flow of water descends Dam
generated
from a higher level to a lower level. The difference between the Downstream
outlet
Turbine Storage
reservoir
two water surface elevations is referred to as head. Head can Silt
exist in nature, for instance when a stream runs down a steep

Source: Environment Canada
hillside or when a sharp change in elevation creates a waterfall
in a river. However, head can also be created artificially by
constructing a weir or dam; the dam creates a barrier to water
4.2 Classification and types of hydropower schemes
flow, raising the upstream water level to the desired elevation. As mentioned earlier, each hydropower plant is site-specific, but
As a result of elevation differences gravitational potential plants can be classified according to the following parameters:
energy is stored in the water; this energy can be exploited by Size or installed capacity
installing turbines and generators. Water flow moves the turbine
blades, thereby converting waters potential energy into kinetic Head availability
energy. The turbine rotation forces the generator rotator to Operation regime
spin around the stator thereby converting kinetic energy first to
Purpose of plant structures
mechanical energy, and then to electrical energy. This concept is
depicted below in a schematic illustration, Figure 4-1. 4.2.1 Classification by size
HPPs are commonly classified based on installed capacity P
(MW). Opinions vary on the threshold that separates individual
classes. HPPs are also classified based on dam head, as noted in
the next section. The classification that follows is approximate
but widely accepted; criteria vary among countries.

Micro P < 0.1 MW Figure 4-4: Low head run-of-river HPP, Iffenzheim, Germany
1. Small 0.1 MW < P < 10 MW (some countries go up to
30-35 MW)
2. Medium 10 MW < P < 100 MW
3. Large P > 100 MW
1. Micro hydropower projects can supply electricity for an

isolated industry, or small remote community. Usually,
micro HPPs are stand-alone, i.e., they are not connected to
the grid, and they are always run-of-river type. Small water
storage tanks are sometimes constructed so that hydro
generation is guaranteed for minimum period per day,
even during low-water flow conditions. Micro hydropower
Source: Wikipedia
schemes are commonly encountered in rural areas of
developing countries where they provide an economical
energy source without fuel dependency. Figure 4-5: Schematic illustration of a high-head HPP scheme
2. Small HPPs (Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3) are dimensioned with pressure tunnel, surge tank and pressure shaft as waterway,
considerably smaller than medium and large HPPs because underground powerhouse and tailrace with open surface flow .
small HPPs usually exploit low discharges. Most small
HPPs are run-of-river type (see also Section 4.2.3) that are Surge shaft
connected to the power grid. Headwater level
Figure 4-2: Installed Figure 4-3: Francis Turbine at the FS

R
Headrace tunnel
Pelton turbine with two Three Gorges Dam in China Pressure
jets at SHPP scheme shaft
(DB) (DB) Tailwater level
Tailwater gallery
Underground power station
Source: Minor, Wasserbau
the product of available flow and head. Hence, even high-head

installations might be characterized as micro or small HPPs.
Typically, mountainous terrain provides conditions necessary
for implementing high-head (Figure 4-5) or medium-head HPP
schemes, often storage-type. Lowland areas with wide river
Source: FICHTNER Source: Wikipedia valleys provide locations feasible for installing low-head schemes,
mostly run-of-river types (Figure 4-4).
4.2.3 Classification by operation
3. Medium hydropower schemes are either of the run-of-
river or storage type and they almost always feed into a HPP schemes can be classified according to the type of operation
grid. Their layout may include a dam to create a head as follows:
pond. The E&M equipment is similar to that of large 1. Run-of-river schemes
hydropower schemes.2
2. Storage schemes
4. Large hydropower schemes are always connected to
a large grid; large HPPs can be run-of-river or storage 3. Pump storage schemes
type; each layout is site-specific and each plants E&M
equipment is designed for local needs and conditions. 1. Run-of-river schemes generate electricity by immediate use
of the inflow. As a result, run-of-river HPPs are subject
4.2.2 Classification by head size to weather and seasonal variations resulting in variable
power generation. Most run-of-river schemes have no
Depending on the head being exploited for electricity production, storage capacity, or limited storage, which limits peak
HPP schemes are divided into the following categories: power operation to a few hours.
1. High head: H > 100 m 2. Storage schemes are characterized by water impoundment
2. Medium head: 30 m < H < 100 m upstream of a dam structure to create a reservoir in
which water is predominantly stored during high-flow
3. Low head: H < 30 m periods and consumed for energy production during
However, like classifications based on power output, low-flow periods. Using stored water for the inflow to
definitions can vary by country and organization. The generate energy creates some security against natural
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a fluctuations in water availability caused by weather and
large dam as one greater than 15 m in height. Also, classifying seasonal variations. Reservoir size determines the level of
HPPs according to head may be inconsistent with classification flow regulation.
based on power capacity. Power capacity is proportional to 3. Pumped storage plants are HPPs that can store water by
pumping it from a lower reservoir or a river to a higher
2. Although projects under 100 MW would generally not be considered by developers to
reservoir. Water is pumped during off-peak hours (lower
be large, some European Union guidance related to the Clean Development Mechanism power demand/ lower priced supply) by reversing turbine
required additional assessment for projects over 20 MW. operation to make more water available to generate
electricity during peak demand periods. This process Figure 4-6: Typical daily power demand profile
creates efficiencies of up to 80 percentpumping uses 20
percent or more energy than the energy that is generated
when an equal amount of water is released to generate
electricity through the HPP.
For more information about pumped storage plants, please refer

to American Society of Civil Engineers Hydroelectric Pumped
Storage Technology: International Experience (full reference
provided in Section 16).
In terms of electricity production, storage schemes can
provide peak energy at a planned/required time, while run-
of-river HPPs can be used for generation only when water is
available. Figure 4-6 shows an example of a daily demand
profile. While the baseload plant satisfies the minimum load and
operates 24 hours per day, additional power plants are needed to
generate power when the demand increases.
A reservoir of stored water (volume in m3) determines the
potential for peak power supplydaily, weekly and monthly
periods are common. Reservoir volume is directly related to the
Source: FICHTNER
required period of peak power generation. Box 4-1 provides
examples of storage and run-of-river HPPs. Drought mitigation: supplement irrigation and community
water supplies during dry periods.
4.2.4 Classification by purpose (single or multi-purpose
schemes) Irrigation: water for agriculture.
Multi-purpose schemes provide water for other uses for human Water supply: reservoir provides community water supply.
subsistence and development. About one-third of existing Improved conditions: raising the water level in a reservoir
hydropower projects serve other functions in addition to energy improves conditions for navigation, fishing, tourism and
generation (LeCornu 1998). recreation.
The additional functions of HPP schemes may include the
For more information about multi-purpose schemes, please refer
following:
to LeCornus Dams and water management (full reference
Flood protection: water storage reduces the impact of provided in Section 16).
floods.
Box 4-1: Examples of storage and run-of-river HPP schemes
EXAMPLE OF STORAGE SCHEME: Hoover dam on Colorado river, USA EXAMPLE OF RUN-OF-RIVER HPP: Iffezheim on Rhine river, Germany
Source: Wikimedia Source: Wikimedia
Installed capacity: 2080 MW Installed capacity: 148 MW

Mean annual energy generation: 4.2 billion kWh Mean annual energy generation: 730 Mio kWh
Max head: 180 m Mean head: 11.0 m
Min head: 128 m Maximum admissible turbine flow
17 main Francis turbine generators and two Pelton
Qdesign = 1,500 m/s
Waterwheel station service units
Turbine: 5 Bulb turbines (Kaplan with horizontal axis)
Reservoir total storage capacity: 36.8 billion m
http://www.enbw.com

4.3 Site layouts If the river channel below the dam has an appreciable fall,
Local topography, hydrology and geology characteristics economic studies should be made to determine whether a remote
vary widely, which is why hydropower scheme layouts must powerhouse location downstream from the dam is justifiable.
be developed for each site in accordance with given natural Existing topographical and geological conditions determine
conditions. In addition, each location has unique environmental the length and the type of structures used to divert power water
and social conditions that affect hydropower facility layout and from river to powerhouse. Box 4-2 provides an example.
design. Therefore, each HPP layout aims to optimize the position
of individual scheme components to fully exploit the natural 4.4 Components of HPP schemes
resources of available head and stream flow in the most efficient HPP scheme components can be grouped as follows:
mannertechnically, economically and financially.
Civil works
One task in the design of HPP scheme layouts involves
Headworks
positioning the powerhouse relative to headworks used for water
Waterway
diversion from the river course. In general, two options exist:
Powerhouse and tailrace
Locate the powerhouse structure adjacent to the
Electromechanical equipment
headworks
Hydraulic steel structures
Construct a diversion scheme so the powerhouse is built in
a remote location downstream of the headworks to exploit Grid connection facilities
a higher head.
Box 4-2: Typical layouts of HPP schemes

[ SCHEMES WITHOUT POWER WATER DIVERSION (POWERHOUSE INCORPORATED INTO THE HEADWORKS)
High and medium head schemes Low head schemes
Note: PS = Powerstation
Source: Strobl & Zunic, Wasserbau
DIVERSION SCHEMES (POWERHOUSE IN REMOTE LOCATION DOWNSTREAM OF THE DAM)
High and medium head schemes Low head schemes

4.4.1 Civil Structures of a hydraulic scheme, a dam is used to create a reservoir and
perform the following functions:
The civil structures that comprise a HPP scheme can be grouped
as follows: Store water
Headworks: creates head, extracts water from the river Increase the amount of discharge
course toward the generating equipment and allows safe Ensure sufficient discharge during dry seasons
passage of flood flows
Develop head by raising the water level
Waterway: conveys water to powerhouse
Divert floodwater
Powerhouse: comprises structures to accommodate
electromechanical equipment that converts water energy, Typically dams are classified (see also Box 4-3) according
first into mechanical and then into electrical energy to their construction material. Today, the two most common
construction materials are natural earth and concrete. In
Tailrace: discharges turbine water into a receiver, a river, addition, dams are classified according to their sealing system or
lake or ocean their static function. Natural clay, which has high flexibility and
Auxiliary structures: protect HPP scheme from potential erosion resistance, is often used to construct the dam core and to
risks such as turbine abrasion, sediment deposition in the seal the surface. This type of dam is especially suitable in seismic
waterways, and riverbed erosion downstream of the areas because of its high flexibility compared to rigid structures
headworks such as a concrete dam. A concrete dam can be considered if clay
does not exist on site but sand and gravel are easily available.
4.4.1.1 Headworks Dams must be structured to safely convey normal stream
Typically headworks comprise a structure to raise the water level and flood flows over, around or through. Dams must provide
to the desired elevation and a water intake structure to safely safe passage for surplus or excess water from the reservoir to the
divert water from the river course to the waterway. In addition, downstream river using structures known as spillways. Figure
headworks are designed to allow flood discharges to pass 4-8 shows common spillway types; an HPP spillway structure
without risking structural instability, safe scheme operation, or includes an inlet, regulation, channel and outlet structure.
upstream flooding.
Figure 4-7 shows a common diversion fixed-overflow weir Figure 4-8: Spillways classified by their inlet, regulation, channel
to raise the water level on the right-hand side; on the left-hand and outlet structure
side is a water intake with sluice gates to regulate the amount of
discharge permitted into the waterway.
Figure 4-7: Diversion weir
Source: Prosem Engineering
To raise the water level, a barrier is constructeda dam or

a weirthat spans the cross-section of a river or a valley. Dams
and weirs are defined as follows.
Dams Source: Vischer & Hager (1988)
A dam is a barrier built across a stream or river to obstruct,

direct, retard, or store the flow of water. As a basic element

Box 4-3: Types of dams and selection criteria

[ TYPES OF DAMS
Dams are classified according to their:

Function served
Storage dams: For permanent water storage
Detention dams: For flood retention
Diversion dams: The water level is raised to divert water
Debris dams: To hold off sediments
Coffer dams: To divert a river
Height (Classification according to International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) which can vary from country to
country
Major dams: Height > 150 m
Large dams: Height > 15 m, or 5 < H < 15 and storage capacity of reservoir > 3,000,000 m3
Middle and small dams: Dams that do not belong in the above class
Construction materials
Earth dams
Concrete dams
Sealing system
Impervious core
Surface sealing
Dam with an impervious core Dam with surface sealing
Statical function
Embankment dams, i.e., dams made of natural earth material
Gravity dams
Arch dams
Buttress dams
Example of gravity dam: Example of arch dam: Example of buttress dam:

Three Gorges Dam, China Hoover Dam, US Roseand Dam, France
Source: Wikimedia Source: Wikimedia Source: Wikimedia
Criteria for selection of dam type

Factor Condition Dam type
Narrow U-shaped valley Concrete overflow dams
Topography Narror V-shaped valley Arch dams
Low plain country Earthfill dams
Solid rock Almost every kind of dams
Gravel foundation Earthen and rockfill dams

Geology
Silt and fine sand Earth dams
Clay foundation Earthfill dams
Availability of The materials required for the construction of a specific dam type must be available locally or at short
Materials distances from the construction site .
Seismicity Earthquake zone Preferably earthen and concrete gravity dams

Dams should have a drain or other water-withdrawal facility Figure 4-11: Schematic illustration of a weir with radial gates
to control reservoir water level and to lower or drain stored
water for normal maintenance works and emergencies. These are
called bottom outlets (Figure 4-9).
Figure 4-9: Aerial photo and typical cross-section of Aldeadavila

dam in Spain showing frontal type overflow spillway with roller
bucket and bottom outlet
Sizing
Dams and weirs must be stable under all possible loading
conditions, including the following:
Hydrostatic forces on the upstream and downstream
faces
Source: Vischer & Hager (1998)
Hydrostatic uplift acting under the base of the dam/weir
Weirs Forces due to silt deposited in the reservoir
A weir is an overflow structure built across an open channel Earthquake forces
to raise the upstream water level and/or to measure the flow
The weir/dam spillway should be designed to have sufficient
of water. Its main purposes are similar to those of a dam and
discharge capacity for a discharge flow with a specified statistical
include the following:
return period (e.g., 100 years or more). The discharge of
Divert water spillway flow should not damage the dam. In addition, the dam
Increase water level to develop head structure should be designed to withstand higher discharges
corresponding to the maximum flood water level (MFWL)
Divert floodwaters safely without dam structure failure. The re-occurrence frequency of
Unlike dams, weirs cannot be used for water storage; they the design discharge is usually prescribed in national regulations
only maintain the upstream water level at the intake. or guidelines, and is usually defined by the impact on the
Weirs are classified according to their ability to regulate the downstream region that would be triggered by a dam breach or
water level. Hence weirs with movable elements (Figure 4-11) a weir collapse. A rough assessment in this case is that the design
can maintain a constant water level regardless of the discharge; discharge capacity of the dam structure should approximate a
with fixed overflow weirs (Figure 4-10) the upstream water level flood event with re-occurrence period of 1000 years.
will change when the stream flow changes. Intakes
The main function of an intake structure is to divert water into
Figure 4-10: Schematic illustration of a fixed overflow weir the waterway, which conveys water flow to the power plant in a
controlled manner.
Intake structures are categorized as follows:
Structures that take water directly from the water flow and
divert it to the penstock
Intakes which divert the flow through an auxiliary
structure
Structures located in reservoirs, e.g., towers
The main components of an intake include the following:
Screen to prevent floating material from entering the
waterway
Screen cleaning system, usually a crane that removes debris
from the screen
Intake gate to physically disconnect the water flow in case
of maintenance

Ideally, water intakes should be located along a straight The Tyrolean Weir is self-cleaning due to the rake incline
section of the stream with a stable stream bed, constant flow, where any debris spills off during higher water flows; the incline
bedrock and small gradient. Typically, river bends or meanders also keeps larger pebbles and boulders out of the intake.
should be avoided because the inner sides of bends accumulate Weirs and intake structures are equipped with appropriate
sediment and the outer side is subject to erosion and flood valves, stop-logs and gates, which form part of the plant hydro-
damage. If positioning a water intake on a river bend is mechanical equipment. This structure regulates water level and
unavoidable, the outer side is preferable because the water intake flow through the machinery. Hydro-mechanical equipment can
will not be subjected to blockages from sediment depositions. be used to isolate sections of hydraulic structures to allow for
Intakes should be submerged deeply enough to prohibit maintenance or repairs.
vortex formation; typically the intake pipe should be submerged Intake structures are usually the most maintenance-intensive
to a depth equal to three times the pipe diameter. components of hydropower schemes.
The intake can be located within the reservoir. In that case
4.4.1.2 Waterway
intakes can be constructed as towers (Figure 4-12) that provide
water to the turbine-generator units through gated openings. The The waterway comprises scheme components that convey water
intake tower is connected to the dam with a bridge if the distance from the intake to the powerhouse. The conveyance layout
is small enough. can include either pressure galleries or pipes or a mixed system
of free-surface canals and pressurized pipes. The waterway
has additional structures to support a properly functioning
Figure 4-12: Intake tower in reservoir created by the Boulder dam, HPP scheme; depending on local topographical and geological
Colorado, USA conditions these structures include some or all of the following:
Sand trap (grit chamber or desander)
Typically the sand trap is situated directly downstream of the
intake and its function is to insure that sediment suspended in
the water is removed before the water flow passes through the
turbine. In medium-to-high head HPPs, suspended sediment
wears down the hydraulic steel structures and turbines, reducing
their efficiency and lifespan. The higher the available head, the
smaller the size of particles that must be eliminated by the sand
trap. As a rule, if the head is higher than 100 m, all particles
larger than 0.2 mm must remain in the sand trap; for lower
heads, 0.3 mm particles are acceptable. In addition to size, the
design of the sand trap must consider particle content and shape
(Figure 4-14). For example, hard minerals such as quartz and
Source: Wikimedia prismatic particles are more abrasive and therefore acceptable
particle size should be smaller to reduce turbine maintenance
The Tyrolean weir is a common type of structure, especially costs.
in mountainous regions. It includes the intake and is built on the
riverbed itself to divert the required flow while the rest of the
Figure 4-14: Longitudinal section through a typical sand trap
water continues to flow over it (Figure 4-13).
Figure 4-13: Tyrolean weir
Gravity combined with reduced flow velocity (caused by

increasing the sand trap cross-section area) contributes to the
settling of undesired particles. Usually the sand trap is connected
directly after the power water is diverted from the river course
or the reservoir. At the end of the sand trap is a slide gate that
physically disconnects the water flow for maintenance. Next to
the desander is a spillway that safely diverts the back-flowing
water to an existing streambed or gully immediately after the
slide gate is shut down.
Sand trap length is determined by intake discharge and by
Source: FICHTNER (SHPP Velez, Serbia)
the required efficiency, i.e., the minimum particle size that will
settle inside the sand trap and thus be prevented from entering
the powerhouse. Therefore sand trap dimensions are calculated
based on the size of particles trapped in the sand trap and

the amount of time required for that size of particle to settle Figure 4-16: Typical tunnel cross section
within the sand trap boundaries. This requires an estimate of
the deposition velocity of a particle of a given diameter and
the transfer velocity, which is assumed to be equal to the flow
velocity. The determination of the deposition velocity is based on
approaches that are reported in the technical literature.
Sand trap cost is largely determined by the volume of
concrete required to build it; therefore the main parameters are
particle size to be eliminated and the design discharge of the HPP
scheme, which determine sand trap size and cost.
The sediment that settles in the sand trap is removed by
opening a flushing gate so the water flow can transport the
sediment back to the river.
A sand trap is usually omitted in large storage schemes
because in reservoirs sediment may have time to settle, depending
on water volume. In run-of-river projects most sediment remains
in the water flow up to the turbines, making a sand trap essential Source: FICHTNER
in this type of scheme.
Headrace Depending on prevailing rock conditions or the tunneling
method, tunnels can be unlined, or lined with concrete or
The headrace conveys the water safely towards the forebay or shotcrete (Figure 4-17). The lining selected and rock conditions
the surge tank with minimum head losses. The headrace can will determine head losses and water losses due to leakage.
consist of one or a combination of the following structures: Tunnel flow velocity is lower than 3-4 m/s to reduce head losses.
Open channel (canal) (Figure 4-15) with rectangular or
trapezoidal cross-section. Rectangular channels are made of
concrete; the trapezoidal shape can be designed as a stable earth Figure 4-17: Comparison of lined and unlined tunnel cross-sections
channel. characterized by the same head losses .
Flow velocity should be higher than 1.0 m/s to avoid
sediment deposition if no sand trap is installed upstream;
omission of a sand trap may reduce conveyance capacity.
However, channel flow velocity should be less than 1.5 m/s to
avoid head losses and damage to the canal structure. To prevent
water level fluctuations and consequent overtopping of the
banks, a freeboard (vertical distance between the designed water
surface and the top of the canal wall or bank) must be included
in canal dimensions. Minimum freeboard for lined canals is
about 10 cm, and for unlined canals, about one-third of designed
water depth with a minimum of 15 cm.
Figure 4-15: Embankment channel with trapezoidal cross-section
and rectangular concrete open channel
Drill and blast is the conventional tunneling method in hard
3.15 rock. Excavation is achieved by drilling a predetermined pattern
of holes in the rock face, filling these holes with explosives,
0.25 2.65 0.25
freeboard
which are then discharged to crack and fracture the rock.
d
Loosened debris is removed and the tunnel is secured.
2.00
The introduction of tunnel boring machines (TBMs) has

2.30
D
5 08
increased tunneling efficiency and reduced costs. In successive
operations TBMs can drill and then install tunnel support
4 08
segments.
Source: Laymans Guide to Small Hydro
Forebay
Tunnels (Figure 4-16) are required when topographical This structure connects the headrace with the penstock and
conditions prevent open-channel construction. Tunnels require provides sufficient water volume for start-up processes, thus
geological surveys to obtain crucial geology-related parameters preventing air entrainment into the penstock, which could trigger
such as rock quality, which influences cost; poor rock quality water column collapse and associated pressure fluctuations. In
entails large costs. Water flow in a tunnel can be either free addition, the forebay equalizes surge waves due to load rejection.
surface (similar to open-channel flow) or pressurized. Hence, required forebay volume and dimensions depend on HPP
scheme design discharge.

Surge tank (surge chamber) Pre-stressed reinforced concrete pipes can be used only
in the low-pressure range (up to 15 bar, correlates with a
The surge tank controls pressure variations in the penstock and
pressure head of 150 m).
the headrace, thus eliminating or smoothing water hammer
when variations occur due to sudden shutdown of the flow to Penstock diameter and velocity are designed within an
the powerhouse. The surge tank also regulates water flow to the optimization analysis in which head losses are considered against
turbine by providing necessary retarding head. penstock costs, which are determined by material, length, and
The most common types of surge tanks are the following: thickness.
Simple surge tank 4.4.1.3 Powerhouse and tailrace
Restricted orifice-type surge tank The powerhouse hosts the turbine, generator, and auxiliary
equipment. The layout should allow easy installation of
Differential surge tank
equipment and easy access for inspections and maintenance. Size
Pressure pipe (penstock) depends on the types, dimensions, and number of units installed.
In general, powerhouses have three primary areas.
The penstock conveys pressurized water from the forebay or
surge tank to the turbine. In addition to the pressure caused by Main structure, housing the generating units
static head, the penstock must be able to withstand the pressure Erection bay
rise caused by the so-called water hammer, i.e., the pressure rise
Service area that includes offices, and rooms for control
that occurs due to rapid turbine shutdown in emergencies. Pipe
and testing, storage, maintenance, auxiliary equipment,
thickness is based on the internal pressure the pipe material must
and special uses.
withstand; higher internal pressure requires greater pipe thickness.
The penstock can be implemented on the ground or as a Powerhouses can be constructed above or below ground.
buried pipe. The penstock is always laid on a stable site, towards The crane is an important powerhouse component that is
the hill slope and is held by anchor blocks, or supported by piers used to assemble generators, turbines and other components.
when necessary. Anchor blocks must be located everywhere the Its maximum capacity must be equal to moving the heaviest
penstock changes incline or direction to ensure safe handling of equipment, such as generator parts or the turbine runner. The
the arising forces. crane type should be considered during the design process
Two possible layouts for a penstock design include a based on powerhouse layout and dimensions. Three types of
separate penstock for each unit (Figure 4-18), or a penstock with powerhouses are as follows, classified by how they house the
a branch to the several units close to the powerhouse. main generating units:
Indoor type: generator room is fully enclosed, with
sufficient height to permit transfer of equipment by means
Figure 4-18: Steel penstock of the Walchenseekrafwerk (Germany)
of an indoor crane.
Semi-outdoor type: generator room is fully enclosed but
the main hoisting and transfer equipment is a gantry
on the roof of the plant; equipment is handled through
hatches.
Outdoor type: no generator room; generators are housed
in individual cubicles or enclosures either on the deck or
recessed into the deck.
Positioning
Powerhouse location depends on the type of head utilization
scheme. In medium-head and high-head schemes, the
powerhouse is at the base of the dam, or at the end of a diversion
structure downstream of the dam site; it can be underground to
mitigate environmental impacts.
Source: FICHTNER
In low-head schemes the powerhouse structure is integrated
with the weir; the power intake, turbine, generator, draft tube
Penstock materials can include the following:
and tailrace are enclosed by the weir. In some cases the turbine
Steel and cast iron pipe, widely used in hydropower and generator are integrated in a single waterproof structure that
design, preferable for high-head plants. intersects the waterway. Powerhouse location should be based on
Plastic and glass-fiber-reinforced plastic (GRP) pipes lower the following factors:
friction losses but are more difficult to handle and install. Spillway location, if the powerhouse is located adjacent to
Pre-stressed concrete pipes are cheaper but more difficult the dam
to install. Location of navigation locks (on navigation projects)
Reinforced concrete pipe (available from sewage pipe Foundation conditions
producers) offers low cost, low maintenance, and a long
Valley width
service life, but is difficult to install and creates resistance
problems.
Accessibility Figure 4-19: Head-flow ranges of hydro turbines
Location of switchyard and transmission lines 1000
In addition, the powerhouse location must be adequately Pelton Turbines

protected against floods, by considering the following factors:
Above anticipated flood-water level, which can be a flood Turgo
100
occurring once in 100 years or once in 1000 years;
Head (m)
Locate on the inner side of bends because the outer side is Francis Turbines
subject to erosion and flood damage; Crossflow
Do not locate too close to the stream; 10
Use natural features and implement all necessary technical

Kaplan Turbines
interventions, such as wing walls for flood protection.
The tailrace removes water from the powerhouse and 1
turbine, therefore it must include a slope sufficient to prevent 1 10 Flow (m3/s) 100 1000
water backing up into the turbine; it must be oriented

Source: Wikimedia
downstream to establish favorable flow conditions.
4.4.2 E & M equipment comprises a runner with blades shaped like a double spoon and
one or more nozzles. The jet from the nozzle hits the runner
4.4.2.1 Turbines
blades and transforms the flow kinetic energy into rotational
Classification mechanical energy. Each nozzle has a movable needle to control
its discharge. For a horizontal-shaft turbine, the maximum
Hydro turbines can be grouped according to the head that they number of nozzles is two, for a vertical-shaft, the maximum is
exploit to harvest hydropower, and their mode of operation. six. Each nozzle has a deflector, which is triggered when a load
A rough classification according to the available head (H) rejection occurs; it deflects the jet to control overpressure in the
appears below: penstock and prevent runner overspeed. Pelton turbines operate
Turbines appropriate for low head H < 10 m in air (Figure 4-20).
Turbines appropriate for medium head 50 m < H < 10 m
Turbines appropriate for high head H > 100 m Figure 4-20: Pelton turbine
Another common classification of hydro turbines is based

on their principle of operationimpulse or reaction typethat
describes how the turbine transforms potential water energy into
rotational mechanical energy.
The rotor of the reaction turbine is fully immersed in
water and is enclosed in a pressure casing. The runner blades
are profiled so that pressure differences across them impose
lift forces, just as on aircraft wings, which cause the runner to
rotate. Two main types of reaction turbine are the propeller
(with Kaplan variant) and Francis turbines.
In contrast, an impulse turbine runner operates in air, driven
Source: Verband der Elektrotechnik (VDE)
by a jet (or jets) of water. Three main types of impulse turbine
are in use: the Pelton, the Turgo, and the Crossflow.
The main advantages of impulse turbines are:
Criteria for turbine selection
Easily adapted to fluctuating discharges with almost
Turbine choice is based on the principal site characteristics constant efficiency
available head and flowincluding flow variations, that is if
Avoid penstock overpressure and easily control runner
the turbine operates in part-load condition, for example when
overspeed
available discharge throughout the year is typically lower than
the turbines design discharge. Comparatively easy to maintain
The approximate ranges of heads, flows and power The Turgo turbine is based on the Pelton turbine. The Turgo
applicable to each turbine type are summarized below in Figure differs only in the angle at which the jet strikes the runner plane
4-19. These depend on the precise design of each manufacturer. (about 20). Therefore, water can enter at one side of the runner
Impulse turbines and exit on the other side so the flow rate is not limited by the
discharged fluid interfering with the incoming jet (as in Pelton
Typically, impulse turbines are more efficient for high heads. The
turbines). Consequently, the runner of a Turgo turbine can have
Pelton turbine is the most widely used impulse turbine; it
a smaller diameter than a Pelton to produce equivalent power.

The Crossflow turbine or Banki-Michell turbine has a

drum-like rotor with a solid disk at each end and gutter-shaped Figure 4-22: Model of bulb turbine (Lech-Staustufe 23, Merching,
Germany)
slats joining the two disks. Water flows transversely through the
turbine, entering at the edge and emerging on the opposite side
thereby generating additional energy.
Reaction turbines
Reaction turbines use the water flow to generate hydrodynamic
lift forces that propel the runner blades. Reaction turbines have
a runner that always functions within a completely water-filled
casing.
Reaction turbines have a diffuser known as a draft tube
below the runner through which the water discharges. The draft
tube decelerates the water discharge and reduces static pressure
below the runner, thereby increasing effective head.
The propeller turbine (Figure 4-21) is an axial-flow turbine
with a propeller-like runner and three to six runner blades,
depending on designed head. The runner operates like a reverse
boat propeller. Various configurations of propeller turbines exist;
for efficiency the water must have some swirl before entering
Source: Strobl & Zunic (2006)
the turbine runner. The runner absorbs the swirl and the water
flow that emerges goes straight into the draft tube. Methods for
S turbines (Figure 4-23) provide an economic solution for
adding inlet swirl include using a set of guide vanes mounted
low-head small hydropower schemes with capacity up to 10
upstream to conduct the water spiral into the runner. Another
MW (see Figure 4-24). The S turbine offers good accessibility to
method is to house the runner in a snail shell so water enters
components, reliability and a long-service lifespan.
tangentially and is forced to spiral into the runner.
Figure 4-23: Longitudinal cross-section of s-turbine and generator .

Figure 4-21: Propeller turbine
Source: Strobl & Zunic (2006)
Figure 4-24: Application range of bulb design turbines
Source: Electrical and Mechanical Services Department, Hong Kong
Adjustable guide vanes can vary the flow admitted to the

runner. The Kaplan turbine is a type of propeller turbine with
adjustable runner blades as well. The mechanical equipment
for adjusting turbine blades and guide vanes increases costs but
improves efficiency over a wide range of flows. Double regulation
of turbines is a feature now widely used for river installations
with significant flow variations during an average year.
Bulb turbines (Figure 4-22) are named after the shape
of the upstream watertight casting in which the generator is
enclosed. Typically, bulb turbines are implemented in low-head Source: Voith
hydropower schemes with high output. They are used in HPPs
with head up to 30 m and offer reduced size and costs compared The Francis turbine (Figure 4-25) is the most common water
to vertical Kaplan turbines due to the almost horizontal water turbine in use today. Water flows radially into the runner and
passage in the draft tube, which requires a smaller excavation. exits axially into the draft tube. The runner is surrounded by a
spiral case in which guide vanes are integrated to direct the water
tangentially to the runner.
Figure 4-25: Francis turbine with spiral casing The Pelton and Kaplan turbines retain very high efficiencies
when running below design flow and operate well under part-
load conditions. Cross-flow and Francis turbine efficiency drops
more sharply if run at below half their normal flow, hence, they
are used in run-of-river plant schemes with constant flow.
According to the part-flow efficiencies in Figure 4-26, it is
practical to determine minimum admissible flow conditions, as a
percentage of design flow:
Pelton turbine: 1020 percent of design flow (depending
on number of nozzles)
Francis turbine: 40 percent of design flow
Kaplan turbine: 2040 percent of design flow (double
regulated/semi regulated)
If the flow falls below the minimum level, the power plant
must shut down to avoid damaging the turbine due to heavy
vibrations. Sometimes more than one turbine is installed to
prevent turbine shutdown during low-flow season, depending on
hydrological conditions and the hydropower scheme. General
Source: Verband der Elektrotechnik (VDE) turbine improvement approaches are set out in Box 4-4.
The Francis turbine was originally designed as a low-head Box 4-4: Technology improvement and innovation
machine, installed in an open chamber without a spiral casing.
Although efficient, the Francis turbine was eventually superseded
by the propeller turbine, which is more compact and faster
The ongoing research aims to extend operational range,
running for the same head and flow conditions. However, since
many open-flume Francis turbines are still operating, this improve reliability, and reduce costs and environmental
technology remains relevant for refurbishment schemes. impacts. The main focus is utilizing low (< 15 m) or very low
Advantages of reaction turbines are as follows: (< 5 m) heads. Thus, hydropower can be produced at many
sites previously considered unsuitable due to the limitations
Requires less installation space (runners are smaller than
Pelton runners) of conventional technologies.
Provides a greater net head and better protection Variable-speed technology

against downstream high flood levels because it can run Variable speed generation offers advantages, essentially
submerged based on greater flexibility of turbine operation in
Offers greater runner speed situations where the flow or the head deviate substantially
from their nominal values. The main advantages relate to a
Offers higher efficiencies for higher power values
considerable reduction of efficiency variability and reduced
Turbine efficiency turbine abrasion from sediment-laden flows.
Turbine selection should include a comparison of the relative Matrix technology

efficiency of turbine types and their operation under all This technology aims to develop small identical compact
conditions, especially reduced flow. Typical efficiency curves are turbine-generator units, to be inserted in matrix-shaped
shown in Figure 4-26. frame. The number of units in the matrix can be adapted
to available flow. During operation it will be possible
to start and stop any number of units. Thus the units in
Figure 4-26: Typical curves of part-flow efficiencies for types
operation will always run under optimal flow conditions.
of turbines
This technology is well-suited to installation at existing
structures such as irrigation dams, ship locks, etc. where
water is released at low heads [Schneeberger et al. 2004].
Fish-friendly turbines
A fish-friendly turbine is an emerging technology that
provides a safe approach for fish passing though hydraulic
turbines minimizing the risk of injury or death.
Abrasive-resistant turbines
Rivers often transport large amounts of sediment,
especially during flood events. If the sediment contains
hard minerals such as quartz, guide vanes, runners and
other steel parts are subject to high abrasion, rapidly
reducing efficiency. New solutions include coating steel
surfaces with hard-wearing ceramic top layer.
Source: British Hydropower Association, Guide to UK mini-hydro
development

4.4.2.2 Generator Today, the most commonly used gate types are flap, cylinder,
stoplog, slide, caterpillar, miter, roller, segment, sector, drum,
The generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical
fixed-wheel and visor. Each gate type is unique in terms of
energy using an excitation system.
purpose, movement, water passage, leaf composition, location
Types of generators and classification and skin-plate shape. Gate type selection depends on purpose,
Depending on required runner speed and power station dimensions of the opening to be gated, climatic conditions (e.g.,
characteristics, the generator types are classified as follows: passage of ice slabs) and options for gate operation.
Horizontal and vertical hydro generators are classified by 4.4.4 Grid connection
their axis locations. Usually, large and medium-sized units Before generated energy is transmitted through the grid, step-
adopt a vertical layout; medium and small-capacity units up transformers increase the voltage to reduce energy losses
adopt horizontal layouts. in the lines. Generated electricity is transmitted to a grid-
Brushless excitation generator and excitation with brush connection point where electricity is converted to the voltage
generator of the distribution network (Figure 4-27). In remote areas, new
transmission lines can pose considerable planning hurdles and
Synchronous generators are equipped with a DC electric
costs; it is easier and more economical to locate an HPP scheme
or permanent magnet excitation system associated with
closer to loads or existing transmission lines.
a voltage regulator that controls output voltage before
the generator is connected to the grid. Synchronous Location of switchyard
generator excitation is independent of the grid so The switchyard transforms electricity voltage from low to
synchronous generators can produce power even without high and performs several other functions; it is the gateway
grid connection. Asynchronous generators are unable from the generating unit (HPP) to the distribution network.
to regulate voltage output and run at a speed related to Switchyard location is determined by local topographic
system frequency; if isolated from the grid they cannot conditions and available space, but it should be adjacent or
produce power because their excitation current comes close to the powerhouse. Switchyard space requirements depend
from the grid. on the number and direction of outgoing transmission lines.
Typical generator efficiency in SHPP installation schemes Switchyard elevation should be above designed tailwater level;
increases with rated power. For very small units (e.g., 10 kW) for instance above the level corresponding to a flood event with a
efficiency can be close to 90 percent; for larger capacities (> 1 reoccurrence period of 100 years.
MW) efficiency approaches 98 percent. At the beginning of a project, it is important to determine the
value of electricity generated by the power plant, who will buy
Criteria for generator selection
the power, and whether electricity generated can be used near
Low-head run-of-river plants usually use low-speed the plant or must be transported to regions with higher power
generators in connection with Bulb or Kaplan turbines. demand. In that case, electricity can be exported via the local
transmission or distribution network through an agreement with
High-head hydropower schemes usually require high-speed the Transmission or Distribution Network Operator.
generators in connection with Francis and Pelton turbines.
Variable-speed pumped-storage plants usually use
Figure 4-27: Grid connection
asynchronous motor-generators that allow adjustments to
the pump turbine rotation speed.
4.4.3 Hydraulic steel structures

Hydraulic steel structures are installed in HPP schemes to control Gov
water flow using gates or valves and are classified according to
their operational purpose.
Service gates for continuous flow regulation in the waterway
or of the water level in the reservoir include spillway gates, Generator
bottom outlet gates, and lock gates (for navigation). Turbine

Emergency gates are used to shut down water flow in
conduits or open channels; typically they are designed only to
be fully open or fully closed and they include intake gates, gates
upstream of penstock service valves, draft tube gates, and gates
installed upstream of bottom outlet gates
Maintenance gates are used to empty the conduit or canal
Load-Grid Transformer
for equipment maintenance (turbines, pumps or other gates); the
most common type is the stoplog gate.
Distributor vanes or turbine needle valves are used for flow Source: British Hydropower Association, Guide to UK Mini-hydro
Development
regulation.
Trash racks (or screens) are nearly always required at
pressure pipes entrances and intakes to prevent floating debris
from entering.
4.5 Summary: design and layout The following key factors affect design decisions, and in turn
have an impact on HPP performance and costs:
Hydropower schemes are classified according to installed capacity,
how dependent energy production is on available flow, head Geological conditions affect costs to stabilize the slope,
conditions, and potential for the scheme to be multi-purpose. foundation and tunneling.
Each hydropower scheme layout is site-specific based on
Topographical conditions determine scheme layout,
prevailing geological, topographical and hydrological conditions;
specifically headworks height and length and available
therefore, scheme components may vary but will typically
head for energy production.
include headworks, waterways and powerhouse.
Headworks create head and divert water into waterways Hydrological conditions determine the flow available for
that convey water to the generating units. The powerhouse energy production and the dimensions of intake structures,
accommodates the turbine-generator unit and auxiliary spillways and waterways.
equipment. A switchyard with a substation may be required to Project location determines accessibility and
feed generated electricity into the grid. infrastructure costs
The range of hydropower turbines provides a mature
Distance from national network determines the length of
technology characterized by high efficiency. Each turbine type
transmission lines required to transfer generated energy to
has an application range that is determined by available flow and
the grid.
head conditions at the site. The E&M equipment for each large
hydropower scheme is custom-designed according to project Environmental and social considerations and associated
requirements. mitigation measures determine costs and scheduling and
may impact on flow available for production.

32 PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
Hydropower development follows

common economic principles for
known sites, influenced by national
energy strategies, domestic demand,
export opportunities and anticipated
power generation costs.
Project Development
An HPP project development, from concept to commercial operation, can be a long-term process of
5
a decade or more, especially for medium and large HPP projects . Typically, the development process
comprises seven major phases shown in Figure 5-1, but there are exceptions . Small HPP projects can
employ shortcuts or skip steps and accelerate development .
Figure 5-1 shows development from a project developer After site identification, regardless of HPP scheme size
perspective and from a financing institution perspective. The small, medium or largesite visits and basic data collection
following section provides details of these phases. on site characteristics are required. This information will
underpin the initial draft concept of a hydropower plant,
5.1 Site identification/concept which will be used to assess whether the identified scheme is
worth pursuing. In parallel, the legal and regulatory framework
Most potential sites for medium and large hydropower plants
must be analyzed to determine whether preconditions are met
are already well known because in most countries potential
for successful HPP development. This includes water rights
sites have been located and assessed for master plans or similar
(concession), land acquisition, investment framework, and
studies during the second half of the 20th Century. It is likely
the power market model, which will reveal options for selling
that only a few as-yet unknown large and medium hydropower
generated power.
sites exist in developing countries such as Myanmar.
Project developers will continue project preparation only
Hydropower development follows common economic
if technically suitable solutions are possible at a potential site,
principles for known sites, influenced by national energy
if a preliminary financial assessment reveals adequate returns,
strategies, domestic demand, export opportunities and
and if regulatory/permitting frameworks allow a plant to be
anticipated power generation costs. Thus, in industrialized
constructed and operated for a reasonable duration. If pre-
countries, the potential for economically attractive plants
conditions are met, the next step is a pre-feasibility study (see
has been almost fully exploited. Most larger projects under
Section 5.2).
preparation today are located in developing countries where
The site identification/concept phase can be long, difficult
the hydro potential is unexploited and demand for power is
and characterized by multiple attempts to identify suitable
increasing. For small HPPs, potential exists throughout the
projects, but costs are minimal. In Table 5.1, rough time
world, but most of it is in developing countries. 3
estimates are provided for HPP site identification. A seasoned
In Eastern/South-Eastern Europe, SHPP project developers
project developer with experience in the country under
can identify potential sites by checking readily available cadastral
consideration may be able to accelerate the process.
information. Past energy policy focused on medium and large
Costs associated with site identification and preliminary
projects, so smaller sites were overlooked.
assessment are obviously linked to the time required to complete
In Africa and Asia, systematic information about potential
them, but in general the range is US$10,000US$20,000 for a
sites for SHPP is scarce but geographic information systems and
SHPP, if information is easily accessible. For a larger HPP, the
some hydrology measurements, can be used to efficiently locate
range would be US$150,000US$200,000, assuming intensive
potential SHPP sites.
investigations are required. Typically, the developer funds these
investigations but an alternative source of funding could be
venture capital.
3. For further information about SHPP potential and installed capacity see also www. A Guide for Developers and Investors
smallhydroworld.org
Table 5-1: Estimated time required to identify an HPP

Figure 5-1: Typical HPP development steps
Type of HPP Time required for first phase
assessment
BANK MAIN ACTIVITIES
SHPP 1 6 months
PERSPECTIVE (DEVELOPER)
Medium/large HPP 4 months 1 year
PHASE 1 SITE IDENTIFICATION / CONCEPT
Identification of potential site(s) Source: FICHTNER
Funding of project development
Development of rough technical
concept 5.2 Pre-feasibility study
PHASE 2 PRE-FEASIBILITY STUDY The pre-feasibility study (PFS) undertakes further project
Assessment of different technical assessment to answer the following questions. To answer the
options first question, the project developer needs to assess its financial
Approximate cost/benefits attractiveness (expected return on investment) and identify
Permitting needs
potential deal-breakers.
Market assessment
1. Is the project financially viable?
PHASE 3 FEASIBILITY STUDY*
2. If so, which technical option/concept is most attractive?
Technical and financial evaluation of
preferred option During the PFS the design concept is elaborated. Technical
First contact with Assessment of financing options
variants and options are explored and a preferred technical
project developer Initiation of permitting process
concept is selectedone that will maximize financial return.
The PFS must also evaluate environmental and social aspects of
PHASE 4 FINANCING/CONTRACTS* the project. A preliminary assessment is undertaken to identify
Permitting boundary conditions under which the project must be developed
Contracting strategy further, and to examine potential barriers.
Due diligence Supplier selection and contract The PFS phase requires acute attention to hydrological
Financing negotiation data, which is the decisive factor for plant design and resulting
concept Financing of project
energy yield. Full clarity on this issue is required before the next
PHASE 5 DETAILED DESIGN* phase can be triggered. The PFS may determine that additional
hydrology data may be needed.
Preparation of detailed design for all
relevant lots A PFS for small HPP is usually about 30 pages; for a
Loan agreement Preparation of project medium/large HPP, up to 100 pages. The study includes a
implementation schedule written report and drawings of major elements such as plan
Finalization of permitting process
views and longitudinal or cross sections of headworks and
PHASE 6 CONSTRUCTION* powerhouse. About one month is required to prepare a PFS for
a small HPP and three to six months for a medium/large HPP.
Construction supervision
Independent Box 5-1: Table of contents of a pre-feasibility study for a
review of medium/large HPP
construction
PHASE 7 COMMISSIONING* TYPICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR A PFS
FOR A MEDIUM/LARGE HPP
Performance testing
Preparation of as build design (if 1. Introduction
Independent required) 2. Description of project
review of
3. Topography
commissioning
4. Hydrological analysis and sediment transport
5. Geology and geotechnics
*Involvement of financing institution begins with Phase 3.
Source: FICHTNER
6. Assessment of seismic hazards
7. Preliminary environmental and social impact assessment
8. Examination and evaluation of layout alternatives
9. Expected power production
10. Civil engineering design
11. Electro-mechanical equipment
12. Grid connection
13. Cost estimation
14. Permitting and licensing process
15. Planning and project implementation
16. Preliminary financial analysis
17. Preliminary risk analysis
18. Conclusion and recommendation
A typical PFS table of contents for a medium/large HPP Hydrology/energy production: Expected annual energy
appears in Box 5-1. generation and impact of dry years on power output.
Up to this point in the project development process,
Geology: Results of geological investigations, particularly
financing plays only a minor role. However, the pre-feasibility
for large civil constructions such as dams.
study is often used to present the project to financiers. The next
phasethe feasibility studyis used to develop a preliminary Cost estimates: Detailed estimates of anticipated CAPEX
design and accurate investment requirements. (ideally based on budget offers), including range of
contingencies and OPEX estimates.
5.3 Feasibility study Power market: Identification of the off-taker of the
The feasibility study (FS) is at the core of the project generated electricity, preliminary price and duration of the
development process. Through extensive investigation, the FS power purchase agreement.
assesses project viability, determines optimum project layout Financial viability: Detailed financial (and if required,
and all other requirements to further the project development economic) analysis estimating the key financial parameters
process. When the FS is completed for a viable project, the (IRR, NPV, LUC, etc.), which determine project
information should be sufficient to support a decision about attractiveness.4
whether to proceed to project financing (appraisal and due
Financing options: Available equity, debt requirements,
diligence by financial institutions).
and other resources (e.g., subsidies and grants).
The FS structure is similar to that of a PFS, except FS
detail is built up by collecting and analyzing additional data Commercial arrangements: Identify the type of project
such as soil investigations/drillings, hydrological investigations, [build-operate-own (BOO) or build-operate-transfer
environmental/social research, and including a detailed (BOT)] and start developing the procurement strategy
elaboration of the design. An equivalent to the FS from the including the number of contracts to be let and the O&M
former Soviet Union is in Box 5-2. contract.
The FS is built on PFS findings, which examined several Environmental and social: Results of environmental and
potential technical concepts and selected the most viable. The social impact assessments and management plans, such
selected concept is optimized during the feasibility study, which as resettlement plans and contingency plans for issues
includes the following core elements: identified.
Technical concept: Specification and description of the Permitting: Status of the process, overview of outstanding
most suitable layout and design for civil works, mechanical permits/licenses.
equipment, hydraulic steel structures, electrical equipment
and grid connection, and optimization of the main power Risk assessment: Summary of key project risks and
plant parameters such as head water level, installed flow, mitigation options.
and so forth. Recommendations: For undertaking remaining project
activities.
Box 5-2: TEO Equivalent to feasibility studies in former Soviet
Union countries
The FS includes drawings for general project layout,
TEO IN FORMER SOVIET UNION COUNTRIES topography, dam site, waterways, powerhouse and other
(EQUIVALENT TO FEASIBILITY STUDIES) infrastructure; most FSs are 300+ pages.
The FS is the base document for project follow-up activities
The technical and economic justification (TEO) is a mandatory step if the such as preparing tender design, and negotiating with potential
project seeks governmental approval (e.g., if variable feed-in tariff applies or if financing institutions. The FS is also the basis on which lenders
the project applies for public funding). TEO includes technical design and cost
estimates prepared by a licensed planning organization conforming to rules prepare their due diligence. Typically, the general design
for development, coordination, approval and scope of technical and economic developed in the FS is considered final but the level of detail is
justification document (e.g., SP RoK 1.02-21-2007 in Kazakhstan). elaborated later during tender and construction.
Typically, TEO includes the following: market overview, technical concept, site The FS is the basis for investors final decision about whether
description, architectural and civil works, engineering systems, environmental to proceed. At this stage the project is already quite developed
protection, social aspects, and financial and economic analysis. The cost but negative FS results, such as inadequate financial performance
estimate is prepared using standard software (e.g., Automated Calculation
of the Costs Estimate, AVS), which performs calculations for civil works, or environmental and social constraints still have the potential to
installation and other costs using national government published fixed prices dampen investor willingness to proceed.
and factors for labor, material resources and services. Prices for tools and Small HPPs: Although many developers use a simplified
equipment are based on indicative offers and supplier pricelists. approach for small HPPs including standardized equipment,
Upon finalization, the state authority for project evaluation (Gosexpertiza) this may be often shortsighted and more costly. In fact, some
scrutinizes the documents, issues comments, then issues approval for developers merge the PFS and FS into one document, or prepare
technical concept and costs. The TEO approved cost estimate is a maximum
cost that shall not be overrun at the later stages of project planning. For this the design based on PFS results, an approach that may appear
reason, planning organizations try to integrate as many additional costs as
possible to compensate for cuts during the approval process to provide more
flexibility during the detailed engineering stage.
4. The methodologies for financial/economic analysis under PFS and FS are similar,
however, the technical (and other) input parameters have more accuracy and detail in the FS.

to save time and money but is often the reverse. General studies For the procurement process, the so-called tender design
without a detailed analysis of the plant concept can produce must be prepared. Tender design specifies detailed responsibilities
a sub-optimal plant design or other project pitfalls, such as for EPC contractors; and for lot-by-lot procurement, interfaces
overestimating hydrology, underestimating CAPEX, sub-optimal among the lots. To minimize construction risks, the developer
turbine design, among others. must ensure the following:
The time required to prepare a feasibility study is in Table 5-2.
The EPC contractor has sufficient expertise and experience
to supply and construct specified equipment.
Table 5-2: Time requirement to prepare a feasibility study The proposed contract price, scope of delivery and
Type of HPP Time required for feasibility study schedule conforms to overall project documentation (cost
estimates, time schedule, etc.).
SHPP 2 6 months
Potential risks, especially cost overruns and delays are
Medium/large HPP 9 18 months balanced between contractor and project developer.
Any non-fulfillment of contract obligations by the EPC
Source: FICHTNER
contractor should be penalized.
During the FS, the project developer and lenders establish During the financing and contractual phase of project
first contact. For an initial general assessment, the PFS or an development, before the start of the construction, the project
extract prepared from it is sufficient to approach a lender. must achieve financial closure. Most HPPs are financed through
During the FS, the potential lender might request additional project or corporate finance (see Section 15).
documents and studies to decide whether a general interest exists At this stage, lenders are conducting intensive technical,
in financing the project. If the lender is interested, and before it environmental and social, financial and legal due diligence of the
conducts due diligence, a mandate letter is usually signed with project using a team of independent advisors to review details
the HPP developer. of the feasibility study and draft contract agreements (e.g.,
power purchase agreement, EPC contracts, etc.). If the result
is a positive assessment, agreement is reached on the financing
5.4 Financing and contractual arrangements
package. Financial closure occurs when all required conditions
The development phase closes with financing and contractual have been met and all project and financing agreements have
arrangements. In addition, the developer finalizes permitting and been signed. Financial closure might be achieved during this
licensing. phase or in the detailed design phase.
During contracting, plant construction contractors are The development phase could vary significantly, depending
selected based on the following selection principles, and on the individual project. Small HPP can be developed faster,
depending on procurement strategy: especially since financing is easier, but it can still take up to
1. Prime contractor or turnkey EPC (engineering, six months. In many cases, developers begin design and even
procurement, construction) contractor: One contractor construction before financial closure is achieved. To compensate
has overall responsibility for all lots including civil for the risk if no loan agreement is signed, a higher equity
works, E&M equipment, grid connection, and so contribution is required.
forth. Under the prime contractor option, one EPC For medium and large HPPs, achieving financial closure
contract is signed and the contractor is responsible takes much longer. Preparing adequate tender documents and
for overall management of construction, especially procuring EPC contractors can take up to 18 months. For a
interfaces among civil works, E&M equipment and grid build-operate-own (BOO) concept for project finance, the tender
connection. Risk is transferred to the prime contractor, process can take up to two years.
which raises the overall contract price compared to a
lot-by-lot contracting. Most financial institutions prefer 5.5 Detailed design
turnkey EPC contracts. After the EPC contracts are signed, contractor will begin
Typically the developer will engage an owners engineer preparing the detailed design, which is the basis for plant
to supervise the prime contractor. construction. Detailed designs are prepared for each plant
component including intake/weir, desander, waterways, penstock,
2. Separate contractors for each lot: For typical lots
powerhouse, tailrace, substation, transmission line, and so forth.
civil works, E&M equipment, grid connection,
The detailed design includes all specifications for quantities
penstockseparate EPC contractors are engaged.
and materials. For lot-by-lot procurement, the owners engineer
The developer assumes overall responsibility for
must ensure that the interfaces among the lots are specified. The
plant construction and is likely to engage an owners
design must conform to national standards (see Box 5-3), but
engineer, if its own engineering capacity is limited.
since national standards do not cover all aspects of hydropower
The engineer will assume responsibility for contractor
plants, in particular medium and large HPPs, project designers
coordination, in particular for managing the interfaces
can use standards and guidelines from the United States Army
among them. For larger HPPs this is a demanding
Corps of Engineers (USACE) or International Commission on
and crucial activity that requires highly experienced
Large Dams (ICOLD).
engineering expertise.
Box 5-3: Construction standards Example for international and reviews are undertaken quarterly. Construction progress
project is monitored using contractor and engineering firm progress
reports and site visits; an independent party reports to lenders.
CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS EXAMPLE FOR
INTERNATIONAL PROJECT
5.7 Commissioning
USACE Engineering Manuals The commissioning phase of HPP development requires civil,
EM 1110-2-2104 (1992): Strength Designfor Reinforced-Concrete mechanical, and electrical engineering expertise to cover the
Hydraulic Structures, Change 1, 2003, US Army Corps of Engineers broad spectrum of hydropower development. Lenders may also
EM 1110-2-2200 (1995): Gravity Dam Design,US Army Corps of Engineers
hire an independent engineer for the commissioning phase.
EM 1110-2-2502 (1989): Retainingand Flood Walls, US Army Corps of
Engineers Before commissioning tests begin, all required documents
EM 1110-2-1603 (1992): Hydraulic Design of Spillway, US Army Corps of quality certificates, test procedures, tests results from equipment
Engineers installation and all other testsshall be made available to the
EM 1110-2-3001 (1995): Planning andDesign of Hydroelectric Power Plant lead commissioning engineer.
Structures, US Army Corps of Engineers
Details on commissioning testing phases are found in Section

10, and include the following:
ICOLD Bulletins
ICOLD Bulletin 148, Seismic Design and Performance Criteria for Large 1. Dry tests: after installation, equipment is tested in dry
Storage Dams, 2012 conditions to verify basic functionality
ICOLD Bulletin 75, Roller Compacted Concrete for Gravity Dams, 1989
ICOLD Bulletin 82, Selection of Design Flood, 1992 2. Wet and load tests: can occur a long time after dry tests if
ICOLD Bulletin 129, Dam Foundations, Geologic Considerations. reservoirs must be impounded, coffer dams removed, and
Investigations Methods. Treatment. Monitoring, 2005 so forth
ICOLD Bulletin 61, Dam Design Criteria, 1988
ICOLD Bulletin 58, Spillway for Dams, 1987 3. Performance testing: verifies turbine hydraulic efficiency
and generator electrical efficiency
4. Trial operation and reliability run: requires 3-10 days for
Developing a detailed design for a small HPP takes a few smaller HPPs; about 30 days for large HPPs
months and for a large HPP, more than a year. At the end of the commissioning phase, the project developer
provides the contractor with a certificate and prepares detailed
5.6 Construction documentation of test procedures and results. The certificate
Hydropower plant construction is a long process, in part because declares acceptance of the HPP by the developer and usually it
plants are often built in remote areas where access is difficult, is linked to the release of the EPC from its obligations; also, the
and weather conditions can impede progress during cold or rainy developer makes the final payment to the EPC.
seasons. Access roads and other infrastructure such as offices and The commissioning phase is shorter than earlier phases.
worker accommodations must be built prior to beginning work Normally, each test takes about one month, and less time for
on the HPP scheme. Construction time for smaller HPPs is 918 small HPPs. The longest period might be between dry and wet
months, and for medium and larger HPPs, up to four years. testing; in large storage projects, the first reservoir fill might
The construction process, in particular from the developer require more than two years.
point of view, is described in Section 9. During construction,
most lenders engage an engineering firm to monitor the process,

38 SITE SELECTION
Site selection involves identifying a

location with a high water power
capacity and finding the most suitable
sites for the HPP structures at the
identified location.
Site Selection
Every HPP is unique due to the constraints posed by hydrology, topography and geology . As a result, site
6
selection is arguably the most crucial component of developing a viable HPP project and requires detailed
investigation . More than other types of power plants, successful HPPs depend on site characteristics .
6.1 Introduction (e.g., site selection, pre-feasibility, feasibility, etc.). Usually, site
topographic data is presented in a topographic map with a
Two main components of an HPP are the headworks, including
an intake structure/dam, and a powerhouse. Since these specified scale (e.g., 1:500), and a digital elevation model.
structures are positioned some distance from each other and 6.2.3 Geology
connected by waterways, site selection requires two suitable
Detailed geological data are essential to design civil structures.
locationsfor the intake and for the powerhouse.
To assist with site selection, initial assessments of the
In general site selection must consider potential energy
predominant rock type could be made using national geological
generation (water power capacity), which depends on the head
maps. However, these are merely indicative and should be
and the usable discharge, and potential constraints related to
supplemented with deeper investigations, for example, geological
construction costs, plant operation and the environmental and
mapping to create a detailed geological map of the project area.
social risks and impacts of the location. The following constraints
Before the project feasibility phase, geological surveys must
must be considered: water resources, topography, geotechnical
be conducted and followed up with laboratory analysis of
characteristics, site access, energy demand, interaction with other
samples. Two major activities for collecting samples are setting
HPPs, construction constraints, grid connection, environmental
up test pits, and drilling boreholes.
issues, social issues, and financial incentives.
Laboratory results determine rock and soil parameters,
Therefore site selection involves (a) identifying a location
which is the basis for HPP design. It is worth repeating here
with a high water power capacity and (b) finding the most
that without accurate geological information on rock and soil
suitable sites for the HPP structures at the identified location.
parameters, an HPP design is based on unknown variables,
which represents a significant source of risk.
6.2 Basic data requirements
Data requirements increase with each phase of HPP development 6.3 Identification of locations with high water-power
in level of detail, starting with site selection in the master plan capacity
and moving through pre-feasibility, feasibility, and so forth.
A rivers theoretical water-power capacity is evaluated using
6.2.1 Hydrology the energy calculation equation in Section 7.2. To find the most
promising sites along a river, usually using GIS (geographic
Available flow is the major input parameter, besides hydraulic
head, that is responsible for the amount of energy that can be information system) software, engineers calculate the potential
produced by an HPP. It is determined through a hydrological energy generation of river segments of constant length. The
water-power capacity of river segments is estimated using a
study that considers flow measurements, catchment area,
calculation based on incline and available flow. Available flow is
precipitation, and flow distribution during the year.
A satisfactory statistical analysis of the hydrology of determined on the basis of expected precipitation rates, and the
potential sites requires a period of at least 15 years of flow catchment area for each river segment. Thus, locations with the
monitoring or precipitation monitoring. A flow duration curve highest water-power capacity can be identified.
The most promising hydropower locations are determined
(FDC) represents available flow and its distribution; the FDC is
also used to calculate energy generation. by head and flow parameters. In most cases this means steeper
Detailed hydrological issues are discussed in Section 7.1. topography (high head) in higher river segments and greater flow
in lower river segments.
6.2.2 Topography Therefore in higher locations, HPPs will provide a lower
Project topography outlines the boundary conditions and flow and higher head and in lower locations, HPPs will provide
is therefore essential to select the HPP site and design. Data higher flow and lower head.
accuracy should increase with each project development step

40 SITE SELECTION
Maximum water-power potential is provided by a waterfall; such as a sand trap or powerhouse require considerable space; in
the vertical water flow requires no horizontal distance for the steep terrain these structures must be constructed underground.
drop. Further, topography and available head influence the type of
HPP that can be built. In steep landscapes, a high-head HPP with
6.4 Choice of locations for intake and powerhouse Pelton type turbines will be more suitable; in flat regions, low-
head HPPs with Kaplan turbines are favored.
Locations for the intake and powerhouse should be selected to
Topography also dictates whether a storage reservoir can be
optimize energy generation and cost.
installed. For example, a site in a steep valley is ideal to build
Higher energy generation is achieved through high head and
a short/high dam to form a large reservoir at modest cost and
greater flow; both are considerations in selecting locations for the
effort; but a flat landscape requires long/expensive dam to form
intake and the powerhouse. For example, if the potential intake
a reservoir. Hence, topography dictates the decision to build the
location includes a waterfall of some meters height in its vicinity,
HPP as storage or run-of-river.
the intake should be positioned upstream of the waterfall to
exploit the additional head. If the potential location provides a 6.5.3 Geological conditions
tributary leading into the river, the intake structure should be The geological situation at a potential HPP site is of crucial
positioned downstream of the tributary to exploit the additional importance for power plant construction and operation. Costs
water for energy generation. can rise substantially depending on site geological conditions.
The HPP costs are strongly influenced by installed capacity, First, the foundations of all HPP structures must be adapted to
distance between the intake structure and the powerhouse, and existing geological conditions, especially those of the dam and
by multiple constraints acting upon the HPP (see Section 6.5). the powerhouse. Second, if tunnels are required, excavation costs
If an HPP site offers options to position the intake and the can vary widely based on geological conditions. And finally, for
powerhouse, an optimization analysis should be carried out that HPPs with a reservoir, porous ground conditions, such as the
explores all possibilities, plus estimated revenues and costs, to permeability of karst, can lead to significant water losses.
identify the most financially attractive site.
6.5.4 Site access
6.5 Constraints All HPP structures under consideration require access using
permanent or temporary roads. Site selection should consider
6.5.1 Water resources whether access roads exist, whether they are in good condition
As mentioned, available flow is of utmost importance for site or require upgrading, or whether new roads must be constructed.
selection. The amount of water and its annual distribution affects 6.5.5 Interaction with other HPPs
HPP project viability. The HPP energy output depends on annual
flow distribution, hence, an HPP without a reservoir can produce If HPPs are arranged in a cascade, selecting a new HPP site
energy only from available water and cannot compensate during should ensure that the reservoir head water level does not impact
dry periods. An HPP with a reservoir can compensate during dry the tailrace of the upstream HPP. Also, the reservoir head water
periods by using water stored during wet periods and is able to level of the downstream HPP should not impact the tailrace of
produce energy during peak demand. the new power plant. Furthermore, HPPs with a reservoir can
Average river-flow increases with every tributary discharging have serious consequences for flow and annual flow distribution
into it hence, flow increases going downriver. Therefore, if of reservoirs on downstream HPPs. Cumulative impacts on
possible at the selected site, the HPP intake should be positioned environmental and social aspects also need to be considered.
downstream from a tributary discharging into the river, which 6.5.6 Grid connection
would increase energy generation.
Transmission line construction costs rise as the distance increases
For high-head HPPs, it is common practice to increase the
between the HPP and the closest grid connection point so a site
flow by collecting water from other springs and tributaries in
closer to an existing connection point is preferable.
the vicinity of the intake. In such cases the water of the springs/
tributaries is captured and conducted to the reservoir/intake of 6.5.7 Social and environmental issues
the HPP, while strictly observing environmental standards, in The environmental and social (E&S) impacts of hydropower
particular minimum flow requirements in the tributaries. plant development must be considered when selecting the
When selecting a site and estimating energy generation, it is site. Decisions should be guided by the mitigation hierarchy
crucial to consider hydrological flow and other factors that may (anticipate and avoid, or where avoidance is not possible,
reduce flow available for generation, including minimum flow minimize, and, where residual impacts remain, compensate or
(a combination of environmental and social requirements, such offset for risk and impacts on workers, affected communities,
as ecological requirements, irrigation usage and water supply), and the environment). An assessment of environmental and
leakage, and evaporation. social risks and impacts must always be carried out, typically in
6.5.2 Topography the form of an E&S Impact Assessment (ESIA). The ESIA must
comply with domestic environmental and social regulations
Topography determines the relationship between useful head
and should follow Good International Industry Practice (GIIP)
and waterway length ( ). The head, , plus the flow, Q,
wherever possible. Where international lenders and/or Equator
determines energy generation potential, and the length of the
Banks or Export Credit Agencies are to be approached for
waterway, L, affects construction costs. Therefore, higher ,
lending, it is advisable to ensure that ESIAs follow international
or steeper river topography produces a more cost-effective HPP.
standards, such as the IFC Performance Standards and
One caveat is that a very steep terrain can restrict access and
relevant World Bank Group Environmental, Health and Safety
space. Building access roads through difficult terrain can be a
Guidelines.
project deal breaker due to prohibitive cost, and large structures
Some typical issues to consider during the site selection process Cumulative impacts associated with other HPPs on the
include the following: same river and/or in the vicinity
Loss of, or reduced functioning of, terrestrial (land) and Refer to chapter 12 for some of the typical impacts and
aquatic (water-based) habitat mitigation options for HPP projects.
The ESIA results are used to develop environmental and
Possible barriers to movement of fish, otters and other social management plans (ESMP) to define the mitigation
aquatic organisms, in particular aquatic migratory species measures for identified environmental and social risks and
impacts. The ESMP, which may contain several planse.g.,
Impacts on threatened and endangered species
a Resettlement Action Plan, Biodiversity Management Plan,
Need for minimum flow (ecological minimum flow and Spoil/Waste Management Plan or Stakeholder Engagement
flow needed to mitigate impacts on cultural heritage and Planguides the developer during project implementation and
human downstream water users, such as irrigators, fish operation.
farmers, river rafters, fishermen) The minimum flow depends on site-specific concerns or
country-specific requirements. Its identification could be quite
Community safety aspects such as dam safety, disease complex and usually needs specialized expertise. The entire
vector control and access control (to prevent drowning process should be based on a good understanding of the site
risks) specific characteristic of the river, its flow regime, its ecology, the
downstream uses and the impacts that the HPP operation may
Social impact assessments, involving matters such as cause (e.g., base load vs peak load). Affected communities should
possible resettlement of households affected by project be consulted where the river provides key ecosystem services that
infrastructure and/or flooding may be adversely impacted by changes in water flow (volume,
timing, quality). Once the specific context is well understood,
Public benefits (e.g., construction phase job generation,
the key values to preserve need to be defined, which in turn
access road improvements)
leads to the selection of the most appropriate method to identify
Construction phase noise, dust and vibration impacts, an adequate release. Monitoring plans should then be defined
as well as worker health and safety, especially where and implemented throughout the different stages of project
tunneling is involved development.
Stakeholder identification and engagement

42 HYDROLOGY AND ENERGY CALCULATIONS
Results from the hydrological analysis,

topographical data, and efficiencies
of various HPP structures are used to
quantify potential energy generation.
Hydrology and Energy

Calculations
Value of expected energy generation is one of the most important determinants of HPP viability . The
7
potential energy generation depends mainly on available flow and hydraulic head provided by topography .
The amount and characteristics of water discharge at a potential HPP site are evaluated using hydrological
analysis (see Section 7 .1) . Results from the hydrological analysis, topographical data, and efficiencies of various
HPP structures are used to quantify potential energy generation (see Section 7 .2) .
7.1 Hydrology Figure 7-1: Catchment area of a river
7.1.1 The catchment area

The catchment area (also referred to as drainage basin or
watershed) is the surface of the earth that is occupied by a
drainage system, consisting of a surface stream or a body of
impounded surface water together with all tributary surface
streams and bodies of impounded surface water (Figure 7-1).
The catchment area is an important parameter to identify
the available discharge at a specific location. Available flow, its
characteristics, and head are important parameters to determine
HPP potential energy output.
Typically, the water authority can provide measured
discharge data for primary rivers and streams. Discharge data are
unavailable for secondary rivers, since the discharge at a future
intake location is not directly measured.
Source: Wikipedia
Box 7-1: Measuring and determining discharge
Gauging stations Establish a rating curve points along the cross section and use these
Select the river section and then terrestrially measurements to establish the rating curve,
Gauging stations are installed to measure
measure a cross section through the river, indicating the stage - flow.
discharge at a specific section of a river. The
up to the highest possible water level. Over Install the gauge
gauging station continuously measures the
a longer period (e.g., one year) continuously Install a gauge to measure the stage (water
water level via the stage - flow relation (rating
measure the flow for a wide range of water level) at the respective river cross section and
curve) to determine discharge. Gauging stations
levels, related to the current water level. Using ensure that it can resist floods and vandalism.
should be installed in sections of the river where
a current meter, measure the flow at many In the past, staff gauges were commonly
the flow is as uniform as possible, as follows:
used, which required manual metering of the
water level. Today automatic gauges meter
Satellite the stage on an hourly or daily basis and
radio antenna
some can even transmit measurement data
Recorder
via GMS. Typical technologies for modern
Shelf
gauges include the following:
Pressure probes
Floor
Radar probes
Water
Watersurface
surface
Float operated probes
Water surface
Water surface
Float
Valves Intakes

To determine the discharge at a future HPP intake, gauging and geology on the flow in the investigated area. Therefore,
station data must be transposed to HPP discharge characteristics. when HPP development reaches the design and construction
Usually data from the closest gauging station along the same phase, hydrology should be verified, for example by Method
river are used or, if these are not available, from an area nearby 1 (simultaneous measurements) and if possible, by installing a
the HPP. Discharge data should be available for a period no permanent gauge at the future water-intake location.
less than 15 years, preferably consecutive, to derive statistically
7.1.2 Flow duration curve
substantiated conclusions; the longer the period, the more
accurate estimates will be. Water discharge at a given river cross-section varies over time.
The three most common methods to determine intake Factors that control temporal variations of flow discharge
discharges are the following: include temporal variations of precipitation intensity and
corresponding surface run-off. Water discharge may be measured
Simultaneous flow measurements
multiple times during the day, depending on the measuring
Relationship between specific runoff and altitude device employed. By averaging measurements taken throughout
the same day, the mean daily water discharge can be calculated.
Catchment area method
Further, averaging annual historical mean daily flow values
Method 1: Simultaneous flow measurements: A temporary defines the mean annual water flow value for a given year. If
gauging point (so-called control profile) is implemented at a flow measurement records cover a considerable time period,
place of interest (intake location or its vicinity), usually upstream then mean annual flows calculated for each year will reveal a
of an existing gauging station. The two points are measured fluctuation around a mean value. This is the mean annual flow
simultaneously since the same weather conditions prevail. Thus, at the specified location, characteristic of the river reach that
engineers can correlate measurements of the control profile provides an idea of flow power potential.
(temporary station) with those of the gauging station. Next However HPP planning requires more detailed knowledge
historical hydrological data are transposed from the existing of the river flow regime. Two ways of expressing the variation
gauging station to the proposed intake. To cover all flow in river flow during the year are the annual hydrograph and the
conditions, measurements must be undertaken during dry and flow duration curve (FDC). The annual hydrograph is easier to
wet periodsat least five dry-period, five average-period, and understand since it shows daily flow variations during a calendar
five wet-period measurements to correlate gauging stations. The year (Figure 7-2).
more simultaneous measurements there are, the more accurate
the correlation will be.
Figure 7-2: Annual Hydrograph
This is the most accurate method to transpose historical
flows from a gauging station to an intake location.
Measurements and transposition calculations must be carefully
documented.
Method 2: Specific runoff - altitude relationship: An
alternative approach is to empirically derive a relationship
between specific runoff [l/s/km2] and average catchment area
altitude. Data from multiple gauging stations and control profiles
in the area can be used to generate the regional function (curve).
The underlying idea is that the higher the catchment area,
the more expected runoff per km. After average flow (MQ) is
determined using this method, the value is compared to the MQ
at the next gauging station and the correlation is determined,
then historical hydrological data can be transposed to the intake.
The accuracy of hydrological data obtained by this method
depends on (a) the accuracy of data used to prepare the function; Source: FICHTNER
and (b) the method used to determine the average height of the
catchment area.
Method 3: Catchment area: This method assumes that in However, the FDC is more useful to calculate energy
a specific gauging station catchment area the same quantity of available for a hydropower scheme. The FDC shows temporal
runoff is generated on each km, independent of elevation. Thus flow distribution, usually during a year. All values of a series of
intake discharge is calculated as a function of the catchment area flow records from a river gauging station (preferably no fewer
as shown in the box below. than 15 years) are ordered from highest to lowest values. The
The method is a simple approximation, which works best frequencies converted into percentages of the total number of
when the gauging station is close to the respective intake. This days form the basis for the FDC (see Figure 7-3). This flow
method does not consider the influences of vegetation, soil type, series can comprise daily, 10-day, or monthly average values.
The smaller the averaging period of flow values, the more
(
Q Intake = QGauginstation . AreaIntake
AreaGauginstation ) accurate the flow duration curve, and the energy calculation. In
many cases, only monthly average values are available, which
can cause deviations of up to 10 percent or more in the energy
Where
calculation, compared with an energy generation calculation
QIntake = the estimated discharge at the intake intake in m 3/s
using daily values, depending on the HPP site.
QGauginstation = the discharge at the next gauging station in m 3/s
AreaIntake = the catchment area at the intake of the respective HPP in km 2
AreaGauginstation = the catchment area of the next gauging station in km 2
estimated by running a hydrological computer model of the

Figure 7-3: Flow duration curve based on daily flow values for a
40-year period
hydraulic basin based on existing rainfall and snowfall records.
7.2 Power and energy

Generally and per definition, energy is the amount of work done
over time, or a capacity to do work. It can be measured in joules.
Electricity is a type of energy, but is generally expressed in
megawatt-hours (MWh):
EP*t
Where:
E is the generated energy [MWh]
P is the power produced [MW],
t is the period of time [h]
Source: FICHTNER
1 MWh is equal to 3,600,000,000 joules. Power is the
energy that is converted per second, i.e., the amount of work
The vertical axis represents flow, the horizontal axis being done within that second, measured in watts (where 1 watt
represents the percentage of the year that the flow equals or = 1 joule/sec. and 1 kilowatt = 1000 watts). Other metric prefixes
exceeds the value on the vertical axis. For example, the FDC can are given in Table 7-1.
immediately indicate the flow level that will be available for at
least 50 percent of the year (known as Q50). The flow exceeded Table 7-1: Clarification of metric prefixes
for 95 percent of the year (Q95) is often assumed to be the Unit Watt
characteristic value for minimum river flow.
1 Watt [W] 1
Typically FDCs are similar for a region, but they can be
affected by soil conditions, vegetation cover, catchment shape, 1 Kilowatt [kW] 1,000
and by reservoirs, abstractions and discharges that have been 1 Megawatt [MW] 1,000,000
built in the area.
1 Gigawatt [GW] 1,000,000,000
A flatter FDC is preferable because it indicates that total
annual flow is spread more evenly during the year, resulting in a Source: FICHTNER
longer period of useful flow and less severe flooding. For reliable
statements, collected flow data should cover at least 15 years. Hydro-turbines convert water pressure into mechanical shaft
Stream flow provides the energy produced in a hydropower power, which is used to drive a connected electricity generator.
plant. However, if the water discharge significantly surpasses Available power is proportional to the product of head and flow
the mean annual flow (i.e., during a flood event), the stream rate. The general formula for any HPP power output is:
flow may endanger the operational and structural safety of the
scheme. According to European Union Directive 2007/60/EC g Q H
regarding the assessment and management of flood risks, a flood P
event is defined as the temporary covering by water of land
106
not normally covered. For this reason, the hydrological study Where:
must focus not only on water availability for energy production,
but also on determining flow discharge during flood events of P is the power produced at the transformer [MW]
a specified frequency and severity. Knowledge of extreme flow is the overall efficiency of power plant [-]
values observed in the river reach allows planning for flood
is the density of water [1000 kg/m]
protection measures to assure the safety of the HPP scheme.
Two values of flood events are of interest in HPP design. g is the acceleration due to gravity [9.81 m/s]
First, is normal operation design flood, defined as maximum Q is the volume flow rate passing through the turbine [m/s]
water discharge conditions under which the facilities can
maintain normal operations. Usually, these floods are described H is the net head [m]
in terms of a specific return period such as, one occurrence in For rough estimation, 87 percent is used as typical overall
every 100 years. Requirements for the return period of the design plant efficiency, then the above equation simplifies to:
flood are usually specified in national legislation or industry
guidelines, which distinguish between high, medium and low
P(kW ) 8.5Q H
hazard structures. Installed capacity is among the most important figures to
Second, is the maximum inflow design flood, which is characterize a hydropower plant; it is defined as the designed
the maximum flood discharge that facilities should withstand power output of the installed turbine units. Installed capacity
without risk of dam failure or serious damage to hydraulic depends primarily on available head (see Section 7.2.4), and on
structures, referred to as probable maximum flood (PMF or design discharge (see Section 7.2.3); it is calculated according to
10,000 years return period). Usually, maximum flood is the equation shown above using design discharge, QD, and net
head and the overall efficiency at design discharge.

Detailed parameters essential for power and energy

Figure 7-4: Efficiency of turbines types , Q real/QD is the relative
calculations are discussed in the following sections.
discharge related to the design discharge and T is the efficiency
7.2.1 Efficiency and losses
Overall HPP efficiency includes the efficiency of the turbine,
generator, and transformer. If the metering point is far from the
HPP, electricity transmission efficiency must also be considered.
Overall efficiency is determined as follows:
overall Turbine Generator Transformer
The most efficient turbines can have hydraulic efficiencies in
the range of 80 to over 90 percent (higher than all other prime
movers), see Table 7-2.
Table 7-2: Efficiencies of electrical equipment

Item Efficiency Source: J. Giesecke, E. Mosonyi, Wasserkraftanlagen, 2009
Generator 9098%
Transformer 9899 .5%

Source: FICHTNER If the river falls below minimum flow, the power plant must
shut down to avoid turbine damage due to heavy vibrations.
As mentioned in Section 7.2.4, gross head reduced by energy If low flow is to be used for power generation, more than one
losses is called net head. Energy can be dissipated by friction and turbine is installed to prevent turbine shutdown during low-flow
turbulence. Two main categories of head loss are defined in terms season, depending on the hydropower scheme. 5
of local losses and friction losses. Most local losses are a small 7.2.3 Discharge/design discharge
fraction of gross head and occur at the trash rack, inlet/outlet,
bends, and valves. The discharge available for energy production depends on
Friction losses occur due to friction along water conveyance hydrology, the ecological flow to remain in the riverbed,
structures such as pipes or canals; the degree of loss varies irrigation requirements, leakage, evaporation, and other water
according to pipe or canal length and roughness (Table 7-3), consumption.
and flow velocity. Lower head losses occur under conditions A flow duration curve (FDC) is a statistical representation
of smoother shorter conveyance structures, and lower velocity of the amount of hydrologically available water, and the
flows. distribution or characteristics of annual flows. A rather flat
FDC implies a constant flow with low fluctuations and small
differences between low and high flows. A steep FDC indicates
Table 7-3: Surface roughness of pipe materials
large flow differences between dry and flood seasons, and high
Material k [mm] variability.
PVC 0 .003 Typically, the choice of design dischargea run-of-river
scheme or a storage power plantis based on hydrological
Steel 0 .010 .05
characteristics, in addition to energy demand, topographical
Concrete 0 .210 conditions, environmental and social considerations, and other
Source: FICHTNER factors.
Besides general considerations, design discharge selection for
specific conditions of topography, hydrology and geology should
7.2.2 Turbine efficiency
be based on an optimization procedure to maximize natural
Turbine efficiency ratings are important to compare different resource exploitation while satisfying private and public interests.
turbine types and their performance under conditions of reduced The design discharge is optimized by comparing project
flow. Typical efficiency curves are shown in Figure 7-4. benefit/cost for each design discharge alternative. This is done by
Pelton and Kaplan turbines retain high efficiencies when discounting CAPEX (capital expenditure), OPEX (operational
running below design flow, exhibiting good part-load behavior. expenditure) and revenues from electricity generation, and
The efficiency of the Cross-flow and Francis turbines drops more calculating financial indicators for each alternative. As financial
sharply if run at below half their normal flow, hence they are indicators, usually the internal rate of return (IRR), the net
more suitable for run-of-river plant schemes with constant flow. present value (NPV), benefit/cost (B/C) ratio and the levelized
According to the part-flow efficiencies shown in Figure 7-4, cost of electricity generation (LCOE) are used.
it is practical to determine minimum flow conditions that relate Figure 7-5 shows an example of the estimated IRR in
to design flow and vary widely, depending on turbine design: relation to the design discharge; the optimum design discharge
Pelton turbine: 1020 percent of design flow (depending is reached at 51 m/s. Stepwise changes of the IRR are caused by
on number of nozzles) stepwise changes of costs of different turbine units and changes
to penstock diameter.
Francis turbine: 40 percent of design flow
Kaplan turbine: 2040 percent of design flow (double 5. For example, instead of installing one 60 MW Francis unit, two units of 30 MW each
regulated/semi regulated) could be installed, which would allow minimum flow of 20 percent of the design discharge
instead of 40 percent. Generally each scheme requires an assessment to evaluate whether
installing more units is technically possible and whether additional power generated by
two units will create sufficient benefit to compensate for additional costs.
Figure 7-5: Financial optimization of the design discharge Figure 7-6: Recommended design discharges for run-of-river
HPPs for a flat FDC (blue line) and a steep FDC (red line) providing
equivalent average flow
Source: FICHTNER
In general for the design of new HPPs, optimization Source: FICHTNER

procedures are done not only to determine the design discharge,
but also to optimize the penstock diameter, the full-supply level
in reservoirs, and the number and design of turbines.
energy, in which case a higher design discharge/capacity is
For run-of-river power plants [Giesecke and Mosonyi 2009],
installed and continuous inflow is stored, and worked off in a
the recommendation is to choose a design discharge that is
few hours per day. This operation mode causes water oscillations
available 100 to 120 days a year or about 30 percent of the time.
in the downstream river bed, which can create ecological
This value is a rough first estimate that is further optimized as
problems and human safety risks near the river. For capacity
the project moves through development phases and analyses
factor see Box 7-2.
become more detailed. Optimum conditions for run-of-river
HPPs are given when the FDC is flat. The level of use for 7.2.4 Hydraulic head
run-of-river is characterized by the following ratio and usually
Box 7-2: Capacity factor
ranges from 1.01.5 but varies widely depending on the shape of
the FDC.
Qd
f Unlike thermal power plantsdue to stochastic nature of hydrology, installed
HPP capacity is available only when the design discharge is available at the
a
Q av. intake.
Where: yearly energy production MWh year

fa is Level of use [-], fP
installed capacity MW 365 days 24 hours
year day
Qd is the design discharge [m/s],
Q is the average discharge [m/s] The capacity factor (also called plant factor or load factor) is an important
av. parameter to quantify power plant availability; it is calculated as shown in the
The high fluctuations represented by steep FDC require following equation.
either a lower ratio Qd/Qav., which also results in less energy Capacity factors of run-of-river hydropower plants should range from 40 to
generation (see Figure 7-6), or a storage reservoir to compensate 70 percent, and 20 to 40 percent for storage HPPs, depending on installed
for differences between high and low flows. Depending on inflow capacity.
regulation capacities, storage power stations are categorized as
daily, weekly, monthly or annual stores. Larger reservoir storage
correlates with longer inflow regulation intervals, implying better Besides the discharge, available hydraulic head is the most
power generation regulation capacity. The level of use for important parameter to determine HPP potential energy output;
reservoirs characterizes reservoir regulation capacity and is it mainly depends on HPP site topography. Two categories of
calculated as follows: headgross and netare distinguished for energy generation
(see Figure 7-7).
Vreservoir Gross head is the difference in altitude available for energy
fa generation. Depending on the type of turbine gross head is equal
Vin to the following:
Where: Francis turbine/Kaplan turbine: the altitude difference
fa is Level of use [-], between the upstream (head) and downstream (tail) water
levels.
Vreservoir is usable storage volume of the reservoir [m/s],
Vin is the volume of water flowing into the reservoir during
one year [m/s]
Storage power plants can be operated to produce peak
Pelton turbine: the altitude difference between upstream

Figure 7-8: Tailwater rating curve
water level and the center point of the turbine runner.
Cross-flow turbine: Cross-flow turbines are usually
equipped with a draft tube but cannot use the full vertical
distance between the turbine runner and the tailrace water
level. The gross head is equal to the vertical distance
between the upstream water level and the runner center
point plus 2/3 of the distance between the runner center
point and the tailrace water level.
Net head is equal to gross head minus the hydraulic losses
of the waterways (Figure 7-7). Friction losses and local hydraulic
losses mainly depend on the square of flow velocitythe lower
the waterway velocities, the lower the losses. Therefore, net head
depends on the discharge and reaches its minimum along with
maximum discharge.
Source: FICHTNER
Depending on the type of hydropower scheme (run-of-
river or HPP with storage reservoir) the upstream level, and the
tailwater level are subject to fluctuations. For storage HPPs, Energy is the product of work done in a specified amount
upstream water level fluctuations are more important and for of time, so HPP energy generation is often expressed in MWh/
run-of-river plants downstream fluctuations are more important year or GWh/year, depending on size. It is calculated based on
because for them usually the upstream water level is maintained hydrological data, detailed topographical information and HPP
constant. That means gross head fluctuates. design specifications.
The downstream water level depends on the tailwater rating Energy production can be calculated based on monthly,
curve, indicating the discharge/elevation relation (see Figure 10-day or daily average flow values derived from hydrological
7-8). The higher the discharge, the higher the water level in the data (minimum 15 years of flow measurements). Shorter periods
riverbed downstream of the powerhouse. of averaging produce more accurate energy generation results.
The upstream water level depends on type of reservoir. Results from monthly average values can overestimate energy
Typically, in run-of-river HPPs, the upstream water level is generation by 10 percent or more.
maintained at the full supply level elevation. In large reservoirs, For run-of-river power plants with a constant upstream
the upstream water level depends on the amount of currently water level, energy generation calculations can be done manually
stored water, and can vary by 2030 percent of available head. (Figure 7-9). For storage power plants, energy generation
calculations depend on reservoir operation policy so they are
7.3 Energy yield prediction usually simulated with reservoir-simulation software (Figure
7-10).
Assessing project feasibility and attracting finance requires a
The energy calculation is carried out based on the power and
favorable electrical energy yield from the HPP. Energy yield
energy equations found in Section 7.2. Not surprisingly, energy
prediction provides a basis for calculating project revenue, and
prediction accuracy depends on input data accuracy, therefore
thus project financial viability. The energy yield analysis aims
the following points should be considered:
to predict average annual energy output, and annual energy
output distribution. The level of accuracy required for an energy Overall efficiency (): Turbine efficiency varies according
yield prediction depends on the phase of project development. to turbine type, discharge and available head.
For example, a very preliminary indication of energy yield Discharge (Q): More accurate energy predictions result
can be carried out using estimated annual average flow data, from using more detailed statistical hydrological input
topographical data from available maps, and estimates of data. Daily flow values provide more accurate results than
overall efficiency. A more accurate energy yield prediction monthly flow values.
requires hydrologic data based on long-term flow measurements, Depending on the type of turbine, below a specified
topographic data from an accurate terrestrial survey and the minimum flow (1040 percent; see Section 7.2.2) the
specific efficiencies of plant structures. turbine cannot be operated due to technical constraints,
which means that energy output is equal to zero.
Figure 7-7: Gross head and net head at a hydropower plant Head (H): Net head is used for energy calculation. Because
head losses vary and tail water levels fluctuate, net head
value depends on discharge. In addition, at storage power
plants, net head varies according to the amount of water
stored in the reservoir, which influences the reservoir water
level.
Forced outage: This occurs when an HPP must be shut Figure 7-9 shows an energy generation calculation for a
down due to any type of failure. The percentage of forced run-of-river power plant, carried out based on the flow duration
outage depends on HPP design and electrical network curve (FDC) with average daily values. First, the usable flow, net
reliability. Redundancies of equipment and structures head and efficiencies are obtained depending on the discharge,
reduce the risk of forced outage. and then on their basis daily power and energy values are
calculated. Finally, the sum of daily energy values is equal to
Auxiliary demand: HPPs have a specific energy demand.
mean annual energy generation.
Depending on the HPP size, energy demand lies within
The gross head of storage power plants can experience
the range of 0.53.0 percent of annual energy generation.
strong fluctuations, depending on reservoir water level. Software
Auxiliary demand should also be considered in an energy
can simulate reservoir operation by applying so-called operation
generation calculation.
rules. The software program considers the given inflow and
reservoir storage capacity then simulates power plant operation.
The results include reservoir water levels, available head, power
output, and energy production for a specified duration.
Figure 7-9: Energy calculation of a run-of-river power plant based on the flow duration curve with daily average values
Source: FICHTNER

Figure 7-10 shows the results of a simulation that was wet seasons and use the stored water during dry periods. This
carried out daily over 13 years. The uppermost window displays increases total energy output and distributes production more
gross head fluctuations, which vary by about 11 percent. The evenly during the year.
middle window displays inflow/outflow, which differ from each The best procedure to select HPP design discharge and
other due to reservoir retention. The bottom window displays storage capacity is to use a financial optimization analysis,
daily energy generation in MWh/day. To calculate average shown in Section 7.2.3.
annual energy production (in GWh/year), average all calculated An important parameter to show HPP power availability is
daily values; multiply the result by 365. firm capacity, which is a guaranteed amount of power available
during a specified period for production or transmission. For
7.4 Seasonal variability / firm capacity example, if hydropower stations specify that power output
will be generated 9095 percent of the time, this is their firm
Depending on the region, seasonal variability can be
capacity. Higher firm capacity means higher value of a power
significant due to wet and dry seasons. Figure 7-11 displays
station for the energy market. Run-of-river plants depend only
mean monthly flow values of a location in central Africa that
on hydrology for their firm capacity; storage power plants can
shows two high-flow periodsMay and November. The average
improve firm capacity by storing water.
November flow is ten times higher than February flow.
Figure 7-12 shows the power duration curves of two types
An intense seasonal variability complicates the selection of
of HPP. Energy has been calculated at the same location for
installed capacity. If the installed capacity selected is too high,
(a) a run-of-river HPP and (b) a storage HPP with optimized
higher construction costs could make the HPP inviable. If a
operation. At the run-of-river plant, firm capacity generated
lower installed capacity is selected, the HPP cannot fully exploit
for 90 percent of the year is 11 MW; for the storage HPP, firm
available water for energy production. One solution to manage
capacity is almost double at 23 MW for the same period.
variability is to install a reservoir, which can store rainfall during
Figure 7-10: Energy calculation of a storage power plant, based on the reservoir simulation software HEC-ResSim provided by the US
Army Corps of Engineers
94
92
90
Elev (m)
88
86
84
82
80
78
300
250
Flow (cms)
200
150
100
50
0
Energy (MWh)
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Lake-Power Plant.alt8-----0.Elev-HEAD POWER.1DAY Time of Simulation
Lake-Pool.alt8-----0.Flow-IN.1DAY Lake-Pool.alt8-----0.Flow-OUT.1DAY
Lake-Power Plant-powerplant.alt8-----0.Energy-PERIOD.1DAY
Source: FICHTNER
Figure 7-11: Mean monthly flows of a location in central Africa
Figure 7-12: Power duration curve of a run-of-river plant and a storage plant
90
80 run-of-river plant
70
Power Output [MW]
60
50
40
30
20
11 MW
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
90%
Percent of the Year [%]
90
80 storage power plant
Power Output [MW]
70
60
50
40
30
23 MW 20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
90%
Percent of the Year [%]

52 PERMITS AND LICENSING
In all countries, HPP authorization

requires multiple permits, licenses, and
other documents.
Permits and Licensing

Typically the hydropower authorization process involves several steps but this varies among countries
as to their nature, extent, content, sequence and timing . Other variations might occur related to project
8
size, location, and characteristics according to how they are covered in the national legal framework . For
example, Kazakhstans regulations governing grid connection have shorter deadlines for projects below
5 MW; in Serbia, procedural distinctions exist based on project size because balancing responsibilities
differ according to plant capacity (< or > 5 MW) . In Montenegro and Macedonia, procedures are shorter
for smaller projects because the developer obtains construction permits from the municipality, not the
ministry [Merle-Beral 2015] .
In all countries, HPP authorization requires multiple permits, regional development or the ministry of natural resources (land/
licenses, and other documents; these are noted in Table 8-1. siting issues), a construction agency (construction permits),
The authorization process might be conducted by a the ministry of energy or industry (power sector planning,
central government agency, with legal, financial, technical and grid integration), the ministry of environment (environmental
environmental and social inputs from other agencies. Additional permits), and local authorities and grid companies.
agencies, such as those related to preserving cultural heritage, Procedures depend on the country of investment and specific
civil aviation security, or military can get involved if project project characteristics. Box 8-1 shows licensing procedures
construction or operation affects their jurisdictional area. in Nepal to illustrate how licensing procedures vary greatly
In some countries, multiple institutions are involved in by country. The investor should be thoroughly informed
the permitting processes, including the energy regulator or the of procedures before making investment decisions; some
anti-monopoly commission (tariff approval), the ministry of governments provide guiding documents.
Table 8-1: Typical documentation types required to obtain authorization for HPP construction
Approvals/Licenses Required procedures; examples
Business and property register documents

General documentation related
Taxpayer entity register documents
to business operation
Proof of financial capability, non-bankruptcy and legal compliance
For example in Uganda, an investment license from the Uganda Investment Authority is mandatory for
Investment license (if applicable)
foreigners who plan to invest over 78,200 .
For example, in Brazil, to import equipment for the construction of RE plants an import license is required (LI,
License to import equipment (if
Licena de Importao) according to the Brazilian governments SISCOMEX (Sistema Integrado de Comrcio
applicable)
Exterior) guidelines .
Approval(s) from local authorities For example, the Philippines requires a business permit from the municipality or locality where business will be
for the right to conduct business established (Philippine DOE) .
Obtain proof of ownership or usage rights to land . This can include signing a long-term land lease or
purchasing the land from a public or private owner . Procedures for obtaining the land use rights differ not only
among countries but also between regions/localities within the same country .
Land-use rights
Obtain permission to change use (where each parcel requires authorization for a specific and exclusive land
use, e .g ., industrial or agricultural); or
Obtain an exemption from the zoning regulations .
(continued)

Table 8-1: Typical documentation types required to obtain authorization for HPP construction (continued)
Approvals/Licenses Required procedures; examples
Cultural heritage authority permit stating that the land parcel is free of archeological/cultural heritage sites/
Consents/permits and other objects .
authorizations Civil aviation security permit stating that any power transmission lines to be built by the project will not
interfere with the flight routes .
This permit is important given the conflicts that may exist with other water usages (irrigation, drinking
water supply, maintaining a sustainable ecosystem) . It also covers conflicts related to trans-boundary issues .
Royalty payments are common in exchange for the right to exploit water . However, some countries with
Water usage for production of
rich hydropower resources such as Armenia, Georgia and Tajikistan do not require small hydro plants to pay
energy permit
royalties or fees for water use; they require only an authorization/permit from a specialized body . In other
countries, it is common to tender concessions of hydropower sites (e .g ., Balkan countries), and hydro plants
pay a concession fee water use, either a fixed amount or per kWh .
Approved Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) varies depending on project characteristics and
location (please refer to Section 6 .5 .7)
Environmental approvals Review and approval by the river and/or irrigation authority
Statements from relevant government agency that the project is not in a protected or environmentally
sensitive area .
Energy permit or other authorization from the energy authority confirming that the project conforms to
national energy strategy/power development plan (in some countries) .
Grid connection agreement (for on-grid projects) . Legislation in many countries stipulates a mandatory
interconnection of RE plants to the national grid; grid companies are legally obliged to develop preferential/
simplified/standardized procedures for connecting RE plants . These procedures may be described in the grid
code, the distribution code, in both codes, or in a separate document .
Power purchase agreement (PPA) . PPAs with renewable energy plants often include special conditions, such as
mandatory off-take, take-or-pay conditions, or guaranteed dispatch/deemed generation clauses .
Energy license or generation license and/or other approvals are required to operate a power plant .
Registration as a qualified/privileged/special/RE generator and/or other procedures to obtain support (e .g .

Procedures specific to renewable FiT, fiscal benefits), if applicable . In Uganda, the RE FIT tariff is awarded at the time of the license award .
(RE) power plants Tariff privilege expires when the license expires . In Serbia and Macedonia, RE developers apply for a status
of privileged producers (to become eligible for support) when the development process ends, after having
obtained the plant operation permit; however, they may get a preliminary status of privileged producer earlier,
usually with construction permit .
Procedures to prove compliance with local content requirements (if applicable) . Several countries make local
content requirements a condition for granting public support . However, the absence of clear rules on how local
content is calculated, reported, monitored and verified, creates substantial uncertainty for investors and can
jeopardize the whole support system and deter projects . For example, in Ukraine, local content requirement
stipulated in primary legislation could not be applied for a long time because implementing regulations had not
yet been established .
Certification for equipment used . e .g ., in Brazil, all technology used for construction of RE plants requires
certification from the Brazilian INMETRO (Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia) . This
certification can be obtained only by a company registered in Brazil .
Construction or building permits, which can include approval of feasibility study or project design
documentation by a public authority . Obligatory insurances for construction are usually required .
Construction
Clearances from sanitary, emergency, fire and other authorities . If the site itself or the road to the site is to be
constructed in the forest, a permit from the forestry authority can be required .
Plant commissioning procedures .
Source: FICHTNER, based on Merle-Beral, 2015

Box 8-1: Example Nepal the terms of the agreement, and in return for paying revenues
to the national government or to a local self-government entity
for the rights acquired. Essentially there are three types of
In Nepal, electricity generation greater than 1000 kW, requires an application concessions that are typically awarded through competitive
to the prescribed officer, accompanied by economic, technical and bidding. These include the following:
environmental studies applicable to specific project.
Concession for goods of general interest: The award
Two types of licenses exist:
of a right to exploit goods of general interest (natural
Survey license
resources such as water, minerals, etc.), which may include
Development license
constructing a new facility or modernizing an existing
Survey refers to acts relating to electricity generation, transmission or
distribution and acts relating to the feasibility study, detailed engineering facility.
design and the works of investigation. Development means construction, Public works concession: Awarded for performing public
operation and maintenance of energy generation, transmission and
distribution structures. works (same as a public procurement-of-works procedure,
except that remuneration comprises only the right to
First, a hydropower business must apply for a survey license, and after it is
issued, the HPP business can apply for a development license. exploit such works, or this right together with payment).
License application implies the preparation and presentation of documents Public services concession: same as a public works
including the following concession, except that this type of concession is awarded
Topographic map of project-site for public services.
Estimated cost and time for project completion
Necessity, purpose and total length of transmission line 8.2 Environmental permits and licensing
Estimated number and type of consumers to benefit from the distribution
system Environmental permits and/or licenses are essential for project
Copy of the company register certificate construction authorization by national authorities (see Box 8-2).
Analysis of environmental effects Granting an environmental license or permit normally
Any potential acquisition or utilization of houses and land depends on the elaboration of an ESIA. The nature and level of
For a development license, an approval letter from the concerned authorities detail depends on national legislation and project scale, location,
stating that an environmental study has been carried out, such as an Initial
potential impacts and other considerations.
Environmental Examination or an Environmental Impact Assessment, and a
feasibility report must be submitted, accompanied by a Letter of Interest for If a project is to be financed by IFC it must meet IFC
the Power Purchase Agreement. Performance Standards (PS) in addition to complying with
A survey license for electricity is valid for a maximum of five years. A applicable national law and national obligations as specified
development license for a HPP is valid for a maximum of 35 years. Both can under international law.
be renewed. This section describes the usual environmental licensing/
Hydropower projects from 100 kW to1,000 kW need no license. However, permitting procedures (Section 8.2.1) and the IFC PS (Section
the developer must submit an application along with the project-related 8.2.3). Every investor receiving funds from the IFC for a
information to the Ministry of Environment including the following:
development project shall be aware of these requirements.
Detailed project description
Map of project site (main structures must be shown)
Source and quantity of water to be utilized
Box 8-2: Environmental permits/licenses
Area of electricity distribution and estimated number of consumers to
benefit
Whether water resources to be utilized have already been utilized by others;
if so, supply particulars Definitions of environmental license and environmental permit are not
Any other related information globally ascertained.
In Germany an environmental license is a general or broad permisonfrom the
Source: Internal IFC draft documents, courtesy of the South Asia Enterprise environmental authority to build a project involving several sectoral
Development Facility (SEDF) program, Nepal Business Licenses Inventory environmental permits (water usage permit, air emissions permit, land use
Study, Vol II. modification permit, etc.) For some countries, the concepts of license and
permit are used interchangeably. For example, the EIA Guidelines for the
Energy Sector of Uganda mention that the projects shall be permitted or
8.1 Concessions Licensed, whereas the national Guide to the EIA Process mentions only a
permit. In Portugal environmental license is a term that applies only
Concessions are the starting point for any HPP development.
to licensing industrial sources (a fixed technical unit responsible for
A concession enables a private investment partner to finance, activities such as energy production, chemical production, foundries and
construct and operate a HPP in return for the right to collect the waste incineration). For environmental authorization, the environmental
associated revenues for a predetermined period defined in the authority issues an Environmental Impact Declaration imposing conditions
under which another ministry shall issue a construction license.
concession agreement. A concession agreement provides a basis
for a public entity to transfer some public rights to a local or a The concepts of environmental license and permit must be considered in the
country of investment.
foreign entity to engage in a profit-oriented activity, subject to

8.2.1 National permitting and licensing requirements The Aaurhus Convention on Access to Information, Public
Participation in Decision-Making Processes and Justice in
Typical procedures for obtaining an environmental permit or
Environmental Matters (2001): 47 parties
license are summarized in Figure 8-1 below. However, each country
will have its own procedures to be taken into consideration before The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (1997):
applying for an environmental license/permit. 195 parties, 114 signatory parties
The scheme shows that obtaining an environmental International agreements commit the signatory country to
permit and/or license depends on an elaborated and approved apply measures necessary to comply with agreement principles.
environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA). An ESIA Ideally, national legislation has been elaborated to include the
aims to ensure that any project will incur the least negative principles of international conventions and standards. Measures
environmental and social impacts on its area of influence. might include the prohibition of construction on protected
The ESIA includes strategies to enhance project benefits and areas or wildlife trafficking, and the obligation to ensure public
mechanisms to compensate for any negative impacts that cannot consultations, among others. International agreements also bind
be mitigated. The ESIA is an ongoing process, undertaken national authorities to ensure that project developers or investors
concomitantly with project technical planning and taken into meet their obligations and that the project complies with all
account in project financial planning. See Section 12. requirements.
The ESIA shall comply with national regulations and any Often, international consultants collaborate with local
international agreements or treaties to which the country is consultants to develop the ESIA. In many African, Asian
a signatory or party. Ideally, national authorities will provide and Middle-Eastern countries, the ESIA is accepted only if
template documents. Examples of relevant international undertaken by environmental experts licensed by the national
agreements include the following: environmental authority. This approach aims to achieve quality
The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992): 193 standards for ESIAs, based on local experts more profound
parties, 168 signatory parties knowledge of national legislation, unfettered access to national
data, ability to carry out public consultations in the national and/
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2000): 168
or local language, and access the proposed project site, among
contracting parties, 2,181 designated Wetlands of
other advantages in experience and expertise. This approach also
International Importance
develops local capacity.
Box 83 and Box 84 provide examples of environmental
licensing procedures.
Figure 8-1: Typical process for obtaining an environmental license
and/or permit
The project developer delivers a brief Box 8-3: Example Malaysia

of the project to the public authority
The public authority decides if an ESIA is required In Malaysia, a developer must determine whether the project constitutes a
and of which type prescribed or a non-prescribed activity.
If the project is a non-prescribed activity, the developer must consult the
Department of Environment (DOE) for consideration and advice on site The
The developer undertakes the ESIA following the national site suitability evaluation assesses whether the site is compatible with the
requirements and any international treaties, as applicable.
Public Consultation is normally required in the ESIA process. gazetted structure/local plans, surrounding land use and provision of set-
backs or buffer zones. This step determines whether a license will be issued
for the project based on whether construction will be allowed on that site. If
not a new site must be found.
The public authority reviews the ESIA If the project is a prescribed activity, a Site Suitability Evaluation is needed
but it shall be followed by an Environmental Impact Assessment, either a
Preliminary EIA or Detailed EIA, based on the decision of the responsible
authority and depending on the magnitude of impact expected from the
Does the project have major irreversible
impacts on the environment?
project. The EIA must be conducted by DOE-registered individuals.
HPPs are classified as prescribed activities under the either or both of the
Yes No
following circumstances apply:
No license/permit Are the legal Dams are over 15 meters high and ancillary structures cover a total area in
is issued requirements satisfied?
excess of 40 hectares;
No Yes Reservoirs have a surface area in excess of 400 hectares.
HPP projects, including the construction of dams or impounding reservoirs
The authority issues
The authority requests
the environmental
with a surface area of 200 hectares or more, are classified as a prescribed
further clarifications activity, for which a Detailed EIA is necessary.
license and/or permit
Source: FICHTNER
Source: Department of Environment of Malaysia, 2010
Box 8-4: Example Mozambique A project developer shall undertake an environmental

and social impact assessment (ESIA) to establish measures for
compliance with the applicable PS, to ensure that the project
According to Decree 45/2004, any public or private activity that directly or
will minimize negative impact on the environment and social
indirectly affects the environment must obtain an environmental license conditions in the project area of influence.
before its initiation. To obtain this license, the following must be observed: The nature and level of detail of the ESIA depends on
1. The Ministry for the Environmental Coordination (MICOA) classifies the the nature, scale, location and expected impacts from project
project in: construction and operation.
Category A: the project shall be subject of a full EIA Also, national requirements shall be observed, including
Category B: the project shall be subject of a simplefied EA those imposed by applicable international law and any treaties to
Category C: the project does not need to be subject of an EIA which the country is a signatory or party.
2. For Category A and B projects, the proponent shall undertake a full EIA or The following paragraphs provide a brief description of
a simplified EA, respectively.
each of the eight IFC Performance Standards.
3. If the requirements are fulfilled and the project has no major irreversible
PS 1: Assessment and Management of Environmental and
impacts on the environment, the environmental license is issued. For
Category A and B projects, license is issued after analysis and approval of Social Risks and Impacts. PS 1 states the need to conduct an
EIA/EA. assessment for a new project, and to establish and maintain an
Source: Impacto
Environmental and Social Management System (ESMS). A list of
the required content is as follows:
Applicable laws and regulations
A license/permit imposes specified environmental and
social responsibilities throughout the project lifespan. Typically, Identification of risks and impacts
these include an obligation to implement mitigation measures Significance of impacts, including those related to
as defined in the approved EA, and to meet requirements for greenhouse gas emissions, when applicable
monitoring and auditing project construction and operation,
Area of project influence
accompanied by regular reporting to the authorities.
Typically national authorities charge a fee to issue an Identification of any disadvantaged groups
environmental license/permit. For example, in Mozambique this Mitigation, performance improvement, monitoring and
fee is 0.2 percent of total project cost; such costs shall be taken capacity building/training measures
into consideration during project financial planning.
In addition, most environmental licenses or permits remain Emergency plans
valid for a limited time, implying that project construction shall Procedures for engaging all project stakeholders and
start within a specified maximum time frame (e.g., in Jordan, one disclosing information to them, in particular, indigenous
year). This aims to ensure that conditions in the project area at people
the commencement of project construction remain unchanged
Establishment of external communications strategies and
from the conditions on which the EA was based.
grievance resolution mechanisms for project-affected
8.2.2 Water licensing persons
Typically, project developers must obtain a water usage permit PS 2: Labor and Working Conditions: PS 2 aims to ensure
from the ministry/authority responsible for water management worker safety and protection of rights, including a safe and
operations; this allows the use of facilities and installations healthy work environment, equal application of worker terms
governed by water rights law, establishes requirements that must and conditions regardless of origin, and the right to form worker
be met during construction, and is a legally binding precondition organizations, among others.
for obtaining a construction permit. PS 3: Resource Efficiency and Pollution Prevention: PS 3 aims
In many countries, developers are required to submit the to ensure that the project employs technologies best suited to
following documents and information to obtain a water usage efficient and effective resource use, and to avoid or minimize
permit: pollution to air, water and land.
Basic design, including geodetic survey PS 4: Community Health, Safety and Security: PS 4 aims to
Hydrological data address project risks and impacts on communities exposed to
project activities, equipment and infrastructure. This PS states
Report on revised technical documents the requirement to design, build, operate, and decommission
structural elements according to Good International Industry
8.2.3 IFC Performance Standards
Practices (GIIP). Competent professionals should be in charge
The IFC Performance Standards (PS) lay out requirements to of design and construction, and, in high risk situations, external
be met throughout the life of an IFC investment by the party experts should review throughout the stages of the project.
responsible for project implementation, or the recipient of IFC
PS 5: Land Acquisition and Involuntary Resettlement: PS 5 aims
financing.
to minimize or avoid negative impacts of project implementation
resulting from economic and physical displacement, land

acquisition, or land-use restrictions. In fact, PS 5 aims to restore The Performance Standards are not mandatory to obtain
or improve pre-project livelihoods and standards of living of an environmental license from national authorities, but they are
project-affected persons. essential for IFC financing, and are the technical standards to
PS 6: Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of which the Equator Principles (EP) refers for projects in many
Living Natural Resources: PS 6 requires that the project includes countries and respected by the 80-member financial institution.
measures to protect and conserve biodiversity, sustainably More information is provided in Section 12.3.
manage living natural resources, and maintain ecosystem The PS are de facto the private sector E&S benchmark for
benefits. Investors will include conservation among their international investors and are often used outside of the context
development priorities. of direct IFC involvement in a project.
The Performance Standards reflect principles recognized by
PS 7: Indigenous Peoples: PS 7 recognizes that indigenous
other international institutions such as the Asian Development
peoples (IP) can be marginalized due to sometimes tenuous
Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
economic, social and legal status and limited capacity to defend
the Inter-American Development Bank and the African
their rights and interests. For this reason, PS 7 specifies that
Development Bank. All these institutions have their own
project planning and implementation shall ensure full respect for
standards which are very similar in approach and content to
IP rights, dignity, aspirations, livelihoods, culture, knowledge
those of IFC.
and practices.
PS 8: Cultural Heritage: PS 8 aims to ensure that the project
will have no negative impacts on cultural heritage in the project
area, including tangible moveable or immovable objects, natural
features, or cultural knowledge, among others.
Box 8-5: The Equator Principles
The Equator Principles obligate signatory financial institutions to implement a

set of principles in their internal environmental and social policies, procedures
and standards for financing of projects. This means that the signatories
will refuse financing to projects. This means that the signatories will refuse
financing to projects that do not respect these principles.
Concerning the environmental standards under which a project shall be
planned and implemented according to an Environmental Assessment, as
defined by the EP the following conditions shall apply:
For projects located in Non-Designated Countries, the assessment
process evaluates compliance with the IFC Performance Standards on
Environmental and Social Sustainability (applicable at the time) and the
World Bank Group Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines (EHS
Guidelines).
For Projects located in Designated Countries, the assessment process
evaluates compliance with relevant host country laws, regulations and
permits that pertain to environmental and social issues.
Source: Equator Principles


60 CONSTRUCTION
The HPP construction should be

managed according to general
construction project management
best practicesthe project shall be
constructed to specifications for
quality, time and budget.
Construction
The HPP construction should be managed according to general construction project management best
practicesthe project shall be constructed to specifications for quality, time and budget . Furthermore,
9
social and environmental impacts and human health and safety must be considered at all times .
Important components of construction project management include contract strategy, construction
program and scheduling, planning and task sequencing, and risk and cost management .
9.1 Form of contract there would be less coordination from the developer side, but
Typically, a project developer creates three or four separate the general contractor would have to be supervised, including
contracts: civil construction; E&M equipment; grid connection; applying principles similar to those used for individual EPC
and penstock (often included under civil construction). contractors.
For each of the above, an engineering, procurement and For international projects the Fdration Internationale des
construction (EPC) contract is tendered and signed. Under the Ingnieurs-Conseils (FIDIC) provides standard contract forms,
EPC contract, the contractor designs the installation, procures referred to as the red book, yellow book, silver book and green
materials and builds the project, either directly or through book, depending on contract type (Figure 9-1). The FIDIC
subcontracting. Typically, the contractor carries project risk for contracts are written in formal legal English and are drafted
schedule and budget in return for a fixed price (lump sum). based on common law background.
Coordination among multiple EPC contractors (interface The FIDIC silver book pertains to EPC and turnkey projects,
management) is often the responsibility of the developer or the generally applicable to HPPs. The silver book is a template for
developers engineer. This critical oversight and coordination a lump-sum contract and assigns risk to the contractor, and
task requires a very experienced engineer because oversight offers greater certainty to the employer concerning project cost
responsibility begins with the study and planning phase and and completion date. There is no engineer; the employer covers
continues until plant commissioning. engineering responsibilities.
It is uncommon to assign a general contractor to carry
overall responsibility for plant engineering. In such case however,

62 CONSTRUCTION
Figure 9-1: FIDIC standards
Conditions of Contract Conditions of Contract Conditions of Contract Short form of Contract

for Construction for Plant and based on Red Book
Design-Build for for EPC/Turnkey
for Building and Electrical and Projects Contract amount:
Engineering Mechanical Plant <M500,000 USD
Works designed by
the Employer AND
for Building and Construction period
The Construction Engineering Works <6 months
Contract designed bye the
Contractor
Mechanical Plant
Lump sum contract,
funtional tendering
Source: FICHTNER
9.2 Scheduling Manufacturing and transport of E&M equipment

During HPP project construction, a comprehensive schedule E&M installation
is crucial; using a professional program for this task is
Switchyard and connection to the grid
recommended. At a minimum, the schedule should include the
following components: Commissioning and testing
Tasks and durations The construction schedule should be completed during the
detailed design phase. Each scheduled task will be worked out
Restrictions placed on any task in detail and the influence of the tasks on one another should be
Contingency of each task investigated to emphasize key deadlines that have an impact on
the overall construction period.
Milestones and key dates
The schedule will consider time contingencies and delays due
Interdependencies among tasks to weather or other unforeseen circumstances, and will highlight
Parties responsible for tasks the critical path.
The procurement schedule should incorporate a focus on
Project critical path
items that require a long manufacturing lead time (such as E&M
Actual progress against plan equipment or penstock) to ensure they are ordered and delivered
For an HPP project the schedule should include levels of on schedule. This tactic will also highlight any timing issues
detail for each construction lot: between delivery and construction, or a need for on-site storage.
Milestones are goals that are incorporated in the contract
Site access/site clearance that are connected to contractual obligations, advance payments
Civil works construction or penalties. Milestones should be highlighted in the schedule to
assure on-time completion.
Dam and diversion works
Headrace/penstock
Powerhouse
9.2.1 Planning and task sequencing 9.2.4 Cost management

Successful task planning and sequencing enables finalizing the The HPP project viability is influenced by construction duration.
HPP project on schedule. In particular, task sequencing ensures Neither energy generation, nor revenue generation can be
that the execution of subsequent tasks is possible. For example, initiated before HPP commissioning. During construction an
mechanical and electrical equipment can be installed only after HPP is simply incurring costs so a shorter construction period
completion of powerhouse civil works. Successful sequencing can reduce the payback period. In addition, the construction
also requires timely ordering of manufactured equipment, period requires careful cost management, and therefore close
and anticipating and scheduling time for transport to the site. attention to the construction schedule and payment structure.
Equipment and parts that arrive too early must be stored on site, The payment structure depends on the contract type.
which increases risk. For EPC contracts the agreed lump sum is split into several
Typically, an HPP project critical path is as follows: access payments connected to construction milestones in the contract.
roads, penstock construction, tunneling, E&M equipment As mentioned, typically for HPPs, civil works and E&M are
manufacturing, and connection to the grid. Critical issues can awarded separately. The ratio of civil costs to E&M costs are
vary from project to project. around 50/50 to 60/40. The payment structure for each is
To develop a logical and efficient sequence, each task different and can vary from case to case.
category should be broken down into a series of sub-tasks, The payment structure can be arranged as shown in the
accompanied by an assessment of inputs required for each task, following points (see also Table 9-1):
especially those requiring interfaces.
For civil works the advance payment is in the order of 10
9.2.2 Risk management percent. Throughout the construction period, 80 percent
of the lump sum is disbursed through regular payments
Risks associated with HPP construction should be identified
connected to specified construction milestones; 10 percent
and considered during the whole process. Each risk should
of the lump sum is paid upon HPP handover.
be evaluated in terms of (a) probability and (b) consequences.
Contingency plans should be designed and established. The For E&M equipment there is a payment of 30 percent
potential impact of any realized risks should be incorporated in in advance; 50 percent of the lump sum is paid out
project planning and scheduling, in particular those that could in increments as delivery is taken for single pieces of
affect the project budget and deadline. equipment; 20 percent is paid on acceptance.
9.2.3 Stakeholder management
Stakeholder management is crucial for HPP projects. Table 9-1: Potential payment schedule for EPC contracts:
Stakeholders should be consulted and involved from the very civil works/E&M
beginning of the planning phase; local concerns must be assessed % of Contract
and a mitigation plan established. Before construction begins, Payment Due upon Civil E&M
stakeholders should have been informed about what to expect,
Advance payment Commencement date 10 30
and the developer must have plans in place to mitigate any
negative impacts on the population and/or the environment. Interim payments Connected to milestones 80 50
Final payment Handover 10 20
Source: FICHTNER

64 COMMISSIONING
Typically, the engineer prepares an overall

commissioning schedule, which covers all
hydropower scheme elements including
water retaining structures, power
waterways, hydro-mechanical equipment,
transmissions facilities, ecological
appurtenances such as fish ladders,
ecological flow devices, and so forth.
Commissioning
Hydropower scheme commissioning requires thorough understanding of the power generation process
from water to wire . Many fields of expertise are required during the commissioning phase, plus careful
10
coordination among various activities to ensure project safety, reliability and longevity .
Prior to commencement of the commissioning tests, all required Frequently, dry tests on the hydro-mechanical equipment
documents such as quality certificates, test procedures, results need to be carried out well in advance of commissioning
from equipment installation tests, and all earlier tests must be generating equipment for projects with storage reservoirs or
made available to the responsible lead commissioning engineer. daily storage ponds. This is because dry tests must be performed
before reservoir impounding and before the power waterways
10.1 Commissioning tunnels and penstocksare filled. On run-of river projects, dry
tests must be performed before filling the construction pit and
10.1.1 Dry tests removing coffer dams.
After installation, all equipment is first tested in dry condition to
10.1.1.2 Mechanical equipment
verify basic functionality.
Mechanical and hydro-mechanical tests shall confirm that
Perform visual inspection and dimensional checks
the assembly has been carried out correctly, that parts move
freely as required, that guides and bearings are within tolerances, Check alignment of ready-assembled turbine and generator
that controlling servo-motors achieve the required physical and shaft in dry conditions, according to NEMA or IEEE
timing strokes, and so forth. Standard limits
Electrical component tests shall confirm that the wiring Check bearing clearances
connections conform to electrical schematics, and the operation
Perform hydrostatic pressure and tightness tests for
of each controller, switch contactor, relay and other control
all equipment containing or carrying water, oil and
devices (in particular correct operation of all limit switches)
compressed air
conform to specifications. Furthermore all circuits, interlocks,
protective devices and operational sequences shall be tested to Perform distributor dry test and measure wicket gate
ensure correctness. Start-up and shutdown sequences must be openings
run through, and input signals for the control logic must be Perform wicket gate timing tests
artificially simulated, such as water pressure or the rotational
speed, which are unavailable in dry conditions. Perform main inlet valve timing tests
The following is a general guide to a minimum of the Conduct governor logic, start-up and shut down sequences
measurements and tests to be performed before, and during in dry conditions; check interlocks, indications and
start up. characteristics
Perform operational tests on all turbine auxiliary
10.1.1.1 Hydro-mechanical equipment
equipment, including calibration of related electric control
Perform visual inspection and dimensional checks instruments; check for correctness of wiring and piping
Measure gate operational speeds Check alarm and protection devices, verify alarm and
tripping settings of all supervisory instrumentation
Check hydraulic system operating pressure
Some dry tests on mechanical equipment have already been
Check manual operation of hydraulic power unit
conducted as an integral element of equipment installation.
Check accuracy of indication, limit setting and alarm Typically clients or a client representative witness the tests;
signal from local and main control board, etc.
Check limits of travel

66 COMMISSIONING
test records shall be integrated into the commissioning log as Preparatory works on an HPP before performing the first
evidence of the settings and potential for final adjustment during wet tests can be very time-consuming and resource-intensive
final commissioning tests. and involve specialized engineering expertise not directly
associated with power generation. For example, during reservoir
10.1.1.3 Electrical equipment impounding, ground water level measurements in the project
surroundings must be carried out; leakage and deformation of
Perform visual inspection and dimensional check
dams and other civil structures such as pressure tunnels must
Check stator bore for roundness be measured, observed and recorded, and so forth. In addition,
Checking air gap uniformity the ecological impacts of project commissioning must be
observed and possibly mitigated by implementing options such
Check alignment of ready-assembled turbine and generator as deforesting the reservoir area, relocating wildlife, or rescuing
shaft. archeological treasures.
Check all bearing clearances Moreover, transmission line facilities and interconnecting
switchyards must be operational to evacuate power to the
Check entire generator cooling system
electrical grid. Most transmission line facilities are under
Perform hydrostatic pressure and tightness tests on planning and operational authority of a regional or national
all equipment containing or carrying water, oil and network distribution company, rather than a direct part of
compressed air the HPP. Therefore, advance cooperation and coordination
Check brakes during braking and during lifting operations with the grid operator is necessary for smooth and continuous
commissioning of power generating equipment.
Measure stator-winding DC resistance
For equipment directly associated with power generation,
Measure insulation resistance of stator winding and the tests listed below are typically carried out.
determine polarization factor
10.1.2.1 Hydro-mechanical equipment
Conduct AC high voltage withstand test of stator winding
Measure stator-winding insulation resistance Check water leakage from closed gates and emergency
closure valves
Measure rotor-winding DC resistance
Conduct pressure tests on tunnels and penstocks
Measure rotor impedance
Conduct discharge tests on regulating and flow-controlling
Conduct AC high voltage withstand test of rotor winding
gates
Measure rotor-winding insulation resistance
Some tests, such as discharge tests on spillway gates or
Perform operational tests on all generator auxiliary bottom outlets, depend on available water resources and may
equipment, including calibration of related electric control have to be scheduled independently of commissioning the main
instruments; check for correctness of wiring and piping generating equipment, during the correct hydrological season.
Check alarm and protection devices, verify alarm and
10.1.2.2 Generating equipment, electrical and mechanical
tripping settings for all supervisory instrumentation
auxiliaries
Perform tests on excitation system
Operational tests on the main generating and auxiliary
Perform functional test of fire-protection system equipment under wet conditions are either categorized as load or
Similar to mechanical equipment, some dry testing has no-load tests.
already been carried out and recorded during equipment No-load tests: Generating units are rotating at synchronous
installation; test results shall be integrated into the speed but not electrically connected to the network. One primary
commissioning log. objective is to verify that the mechanical installation of the
coupled turbine/generator unit is sound with respect to bearing
10.1.2 Wet and load tests temperatures, balancing of rotating parts, mechanical vibrations,
and behavior under over-speed conditions, among others. Other
Pre-conditions for wet and load tests on generating equipment
objectives include electrical testing, such as excitation system tests.
are that water-retaining structures have been inspected, tested
Usually the following tests are part of the speed-no-load
as far as possible in dry, and are ready for operation. Reservoir
testing phase:
impounding, coffer dam removal, power waterway filling, fish
ladder operation, and ecological flow-device operation, require Check start-up/shutdown sequence, including mechanical
detailed planning and coordination with the individual steps of braking
the equipment commissioning process. Conduct initial mechanical run, including over-speed test.
Conduct mechanical run for bearing-temperature 10.2 Tests on completion, post-connection acceptance
stabilization testing, long-term performance and reliability
Measure shaft run-out (eccentricity) monitoring, hand-over documentation
Measure vibration to determine general vibration level and 10.2.1 Performance testing
assess balance of assembled rotating equipment
On larger generating units (>5 MW), field performance tests are
Conduct functional test of generator-protection relays often carried out at the end of the commissioning period to verify
Conduct functional test of excitation system during no- turbine hydraulic efficiency and generator electrical efficiency.
load running A field acceptance test in accordance with IEC 60041 to
verify turbine efficiencies, and an index test are performed on at
Measure short circuit and no-load curves
least one turbine. Individual losses are measured to determine
Determine generator reactance and time constants generator efficiency on a minimum of one generator.
Measure shaft voltages For smaller machines, on-site efficiency testing is too costly
to justify; instead, performance guarantees are verified by simple
Synchronize with grid system
power measurements, without analyzing efficiencies of individual
Load tests: Generating unit performance is verified; generating unit components.
measured values are compared to performance guarantees
specified in the supply contract and/or in the Power Purchase 10.2.2 Trial operation and reliability run
Agreement (PPA) with the grid operator. Immediately upon completion of satisfactory commissioning
Typically the following checks are performed as part of the Test-on-Completion, the trial operation and reliability run shall
load test phase: commence.
Conduct load-rejection tests on one generating unit at a The duration of the trial and reliability run varies widely
range of load steps, including overload, to check response with the size of the project and adopted commercial terms and
of turbine governor and excitation system (AVR) under conditions. For small projects, 3-10 days of continuous operation
load conditions (typical load steps are 25, 50, 75, 100 and may satisfy requirements; for large projects, 30 days per unit are
110 percent of design load) common.
During the trial run, generating units and all associated
Conduct reactive capability test
equipment shall be subjected to normal operation; generating
Conduct power system stabilizer test units are connected to the network for power supply at a range
Energize transmission circuit of loads and as required. Proper functionality and readiness
for commercial operation of the entire installation shall be
Measure V-curve characteristic demonstrated by this operation.
Check temperature rise and power output Minor adjustments and fine-tuning of parts might be carried
out during the trial run, if they do not interfere with equipment
Measure vibration
operation.
There are many other detailed tests on the governor and If any defects revealed during the trial and reliability run
excitation system response during loading and off-loading of indicate that operational reliability and readiness are not fulfilled,
the generating units; also, measurements of generator electrical the trial run must be cancelled, re-started and completely repeated
characteristics under load, tests on generator and transmission in a later stage after all defects have been rectified.
system protection under load conditions, etc.
If there are several units, the following tests are performed 10.2.3 Hand-over documentation
for joint operation:
When equipment or equipment parts have passed specified tests,
Perform simultaneous load rejection test of all generating the employer will provide the contractor with a certificate, or
units operating at maximum load to check safety device endorse the contractors certificate to indicate endorsement.
responses and confirm that pressure rise in power All tests carried out during the installation period must be
waterways, and the speed rise of generating units remains accompanied by comprehensive reports that include description
within contract-imposed limits of test, tools and gauges used, data log readings, admissible
values for readings, evaluation of results, and so forth to allow
Perform active power sharing
full reconstruction of testing and results later.
Perform reactive power sharing The commissioning report shall include all test results,
Stabilize power system diagrams, settings and characteristic systems data.

68 COMMISSIONING
10.2.4 Commissioning planning, organization and cost For the client, the easiest and legally simplest way to carry
out commissioning is under an EPC contract; the EPC contractor
Typically, the engineer prepares an overall commissioning
is solely responsible for coordinating commissioning and turning
schedule, which covers all hydropower scheme elements
over the works to the client as a whole.
including water retaining structures, power waterways, hydro-
Commissioning time depends on the size and complexity
mechanical equipment, transmissions facilities, ecological
of each project. For small projects with a capacity of a few
appurtenances such as fish ladders, ecological flow devices, and
hundred kW, the commissioning period may be only a few days
so forth. Engineers define commissioning sequences of major
since most components can be shop-tested before shipping
project elements and time blocks required for commissioning
and installation and only a small number of interferences and
each. The contractor works out detailed commissioning
tests must be carried out on site. For large hydro projects with
procedures and scheduling.
hundreds or thousands MW capacity and multiple generating
The commissioning organization requires a clear hierarchy,
units, commissioning may take several months to several years.
with overall responsibility assigned to a single entity (or person).
The schedule on the following page (Figure 10-1) shows the
Each step of commissioning must be thoroughly documented in
commissioning schedule for electro-mechanical plant equipment
the form of test records and protocols. Major tests, in particular
of a medium-head project with two 150 MW generating units.
those verifying contract-specified values such as generating
If the project has multiple identical units, power and
equipment performance guarantees (power, efficiency, pressure
efficiency performance tests are normally carried out on only one
rise, speed rise), tightness, opening and closing times of gates
unit. But any indication of potential problems with achieving
and valves, crane hoisting capacity and speeds, HVAC system
contractual guarantees could require performance testing on all
efficiency, and so forth, must be witnessed and signed off
units to establish a basis for applying performance penalties.
by the client or his representative. Rigid procedures must be
Commissioning costs depend on the size and complexity
followed when a project element under the responsibility of one
of each hydro project; it is impossible to provide figures for
contractor must be turned over for another contractor to use.
guidance. Commissioning cost is a separate item in project price
Use completion and readiness must be recorded and signed off
schedules but the numbers given are not representative of actual
by the responsible party. Some examples for turnover points
costs; contractors tend to maximize the share of total costs to the
during equipment commissioning include the following:
delivery to optimize cash flow.
After tightness test/pressure testing of power waterways,
the turbine contractor may commence wet testing.
After completing no-load generator electrical tests,
the generator contractor must confirm readiness for
synchronization with network and load tests. As
a precondition, switchyard and transmission line
contractor(s) must confirm that transmission facilities are
tested and ready for operation.
Figure 10-1: Commissioning schedule
Months
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Auxiliary mechanical and electrical plant systems
drainage and dewatering
cooling system
fire fighting system
HVAC
high voltage switchgear
medium voltage switchgear
low voltage switchgear
control system
protection
Power water ways ready for operation
Unit #1
Dry tests
No load wet tests
Synchronization and load test
Efficiency measurements
Reliability run
Provisonal Acceptance Certificate Unit #1
Unit #2
Dry tests
Wet tests
Synchronization and load test
Reliability run
Provisonal Acceptance Certificate Unit #2
Joint tests Unit 1 & 2

Final Acceptance Certificate Unit 1&2
Source: FICHTNER

70 OPERATION & MAINTENANCE
Operation and maintenance refers to

all of the activities needed to run a
HPP scheme, except for construction
of new facilities.
Operation & Maintenance

Maintenance work aims to ensure the highest availability and reliability of power generation equipment
and civil structures at optimum cost .
11
The economic operating life of a hydropower plant could be For the above-mentioned components, some replacements are
70-100 years, which would include rehabilitation of several classified as routine maintenance costs and others (e.g., power
components. Many hydropower plants that came into service transformers) are classified as major investment (rehabilitation).
at end-19th Century remain in operation today, although some A successful O&M regimen begins during the early planning
components may need rehabilitation or replacement. stages of each project. Future O&M staff should have access
The average life expectancy of plant parts and systems to training opportunities in manufacturer facilities during the
under normal conditions of operation and maintenance are manufacturing process, in particular during shop assembly
summarized in Table 11-1 below. These are average values and and testing. To the greatest extent possible, plant staff shall
depend on site-specific conditions such as water quality, sediment participate in site installation, commissioning and testing.
load, climatic conditions, operational mode (number of starts, On larger projects, contracts often specify that the E&M
stops, operating hours), among others. Time periods listed in the supplier shall be on-site for the duration of the guarantee period,
table are a general guide to assess maintenance efforts and the to conduct trouble shooting on critical control, protection
need for larger rehabilitation works. and excitation systems. On smaller projects, permanent on-
site manufacturer presence would be uneconomical but
software-based control and monitoring systems allow remote
Table 11-1: Average life expectancy for plant parts and systems maintenance, diagnostics, trouble shooting, parameter
adjustments, and so forth.
Expected useful An efficient system for managing spare parts is essential to
Plant part or system life (years)
maintain highest availability and plant reliability. Spare part
Main generating equipment; turbine equipment inventory must be optimized to minimize costs and maximize
other than runners; generator, generator/motor; 40
plant availability by avoiding prolonged forced outages.
governor; excitation system; main inlet valves .
Detailed, comprehensive and clearly structured O&M
Turbine runners 10 Manuals are an essential component of an efficient O&M
Power transformers 40 system.
High voltage switchgear and switchyard
40
equipment 11.1 Types of maintenance work
Medium voltage switchgear 30
11.1.1 Scheduled (preventive) maintenance
Low voltage switchgear 30
Preventive maintenance (PM) aims to prevent failures (forced
Control and protection system, remote control,
SCADA, communication equipment, metering
20 outages) by following routine and comprehensive procedures on
a regular schedule based on elapsed time or meter readings. The
Plant auxiliary mechanical and electrical
equipment (drainage and dewatering pumps, objective is fewer, shorter, or more manageable outages.
cooling system, compressed air system, 30 Major advantages of preventive maintenance include the
ventilation and air conditioning system, AC/DC following:
power supply, emergency diesel generator, etc .)
Transmission lines 70
Facilitates budgeting, planning, and resource leveling
Penstocks, gates, stoplogs, trash racks 70 Prevents most major problems; reduces forced outages,
reactive maintenance, and overall maintenance costs
Source: FICHTNER
Provides assurance that equipment is maintained
Operation and maintenance refers to all of the activities Easily understood and justified
needed to run a HPP scheme, except for construction of new Drawbacks of preventive maintenance include the following:
facilities. Since costs associated with maintenance work represent
a significant share of total operational costs, proper O&M Time-consuming and resource-intensive
planning is crucial for long-term economic HPP operation. Carried out on schedule regardless of equipment condition
so some maintenance work may be redundant and waste monitoring equipment and systems add a layer of required
resources maintenance. Can result in a run-to-failure and requires
trial-and-error revisions to maintenance schedule. Thus,
Interventions can inadvertently result in damage to seals,
condition-based maintenance programs are unsuitable as a sole
threads, insulation, and so forth
maintenance regimen to run a project.
Despite drawbacks, PM remains the core of most
maintenance programs and is generally accepted to be of benefit. 11.1.4 Combination of condition-based and preventive
maintenance
11.1.2 Reliability centered maintenance
The most practical approach is perhaps a combination of
Reliability centered maintenance provides appropriate and condition-based, reliability-centered and preventive maintenance.
just-in-time maintenance to prevent forced outages and avoid Monitoring, testing, and using historical data and preventive
unnecessary maintenance. schedules may provide the best information about required
Reliability centered maintenance can be more time- and cost- equipment maintenance. An important component is maintaining
efficient than preventive maintenance and is an attractive option accurate records of as-found equipment condition when it is torn
if funds are diminishing, skilled maintenance staff is scarce, or down for maintenance, which reveals what was necessary and
there is pressure to stay online due to electric utility deregulation. based on this experience and monitoring, maintenance schedules
Features of reliability centered maintenance include the can be lengthened or shortened.
following:
Implementation is labor-intensive and time-consuming 11.2 Performance monitoring evaluation/optimization
Effectiveness may require additional monitoring of In most countries regulatory authorities require project
parameters, such as temperature and vibration, which certification in line with ISO 9001 through 9004 (Quality
may require new monitoring equipment, incurring more Assurance System) and with ISO 14001 (Environmental
preventive maintenance or more staffing for monitoring Management System).
and inspections The project may have to obtain a water diversion and
storage permit from regulatory bodies (government); often,
May defer maintenance and result in a run-to-failure for
project discharges and water levels must be recorded daily or
some equipment
hourly.
May require trial-and-error revisions to maintenance On most large hydroelectric projects, a hydrometric network
schedule depending on equipment condition must be established and maintained in the watershed to monitor
In general, reliability centered maintenance should achieve and acquire climatological and hydrological data.
a more manageable maintenance workload focused on priority A deterministic and a statistical runoff model must be
equipment. Sensor technology and data-recording technology established and maintained for inflow forecasting and updated
now evaluate equipment condition and help predict potential daily, weekly, monthly, and quarterly.
failure or end-of-life for plant components while reducing staff Special attention is required to monitor and maintain storage
time and costs. reservoir shore stability due to expected water-level fluctuations.
Reliability centered maintenance should never be adopted as Siltation of reservoirs must be monitored as well.
a long-term cost-cutting measure aimed at eliminating preventive Reservoir operating rules should be established and
maintenance. periodically updated. Matrices will be established and refined for
time, water level, and likely inflow versus available release.
11.1.3 Condition-based maintenance Equipment availability and reliability will be recorded in
Condition-based maintenance, as the name implies, provides Event and Incident Reports to detect equipment weaknesses.
appropriate and just-in-time maintenance to prevent forced Longer shutdowns will be exceptional occurrences. In
outages and eliminate redundant maintenance by responding to general, forced outages will diminish with operating experience
equipment condition. It concentrates on sensitive systems. and be avoided through preventive maintenance.
Condition-based maintenance includes the following Each hydropower plant is a one-off design that is site-specific
characteristics: therefore little standardization is possible in the conceptual and
detailed design of plant equipment. As a result, during initial
Monitors and records equipment parameters such as
years of operation, hydropower plants typically experience a
temperatures, pressures, vibrations, leakage current,
higher number of forced outages until a satisfactory learning
dissolved gas analysis, etc.
curve and operational experience are attained and the number
Tests periodically and/or when problems are suspected, of incidents requiring corrective and emergency maintenance
such as double testing, vibration testing, infrared scanning, declines, in part due to preventive maintenance.
and so forth
Continuously analyzes operator-gathered data 11.3 Equipment availability
Secures results in knowledgeable maintenance decisions, The availability of electro-mechanical and hydro-mechanical
reduces overall costs, focuses on equipment that requires equipment for power generation depends on the quality of the
priority attention equipment, the qualifications of installers and commissioning
contractors and the experience of the plant operator. Typically,
Drawbacks of condition-based maintenance include: some
required equipment availability is specified in the Power Purchase
parameters are difficult and expensive to monitor; requires
Agreement between the plant owner/operator and the utility
experienced staff for knowledgeable and consistent analysis;
Table 11-2: Staff composition
Staff Position Duties/Activities Remarks
Provide overall management, long-term planning, interface with utilities and state
1 Plant manager
authorities, etc .
1 Deputy plant manager Same as above
Operators and shift 3-shifts, 7 days/

Monitor operation and perform immediate intervention in manual mode in case of
14 engineers on duty/ wk, control room
problems in the control system or in the remote communications
control room always staffed by 2
Check, control and monitor equipment condition; plan and supervise maintenance
Also on standby for
2 Mechanical engineer work; plan required adaptations to auxiliary mechanical equipment; plan and
emergency duty
supervise spare parts procurement, etc .
Check, control and monitor equipment condition; plan and supervise maintenance
Also on standby for
3 Electrical engineers work; plan required adaptations to the auxiliary electrical equipment; plan and
emergency duty
supervise spare parts procurement; etc .
Check, control and monitor condition of civil works; plan and supervise maintenance
1 Civil engineer
work; plan required adaptations to civil works; etc .
3 Skilled mechanic Perform regular maintenance work, immediate small repairs and rectification
4 Skilled electrician Perform regular maintenance work, immediate small repairs and rectification
8 General worker Provide support during maintenance and repairs; clean/maintain surroundings, etc .
3 Perform secretarial, accounting, and human resources services
40 Total
Source: FICHTNER
buying the power. On average the hydropower plant is available Mode of operation imposed by the PPA
for operation about 95 percent in the first year of operation; the
Management decision on whether O&M work will be
5.0 percent non-availability (18 days per year) accounts for the
handled by plant staff or outsourced
following:
Table 11-2 shows typical staff composition required to
11 days scheduled maintenance and checks operate and maintain a 300 MW high-head hydropower
7 days forced outages due to equipment breakdown or project in a middle-income country, with two generating units,
malfunction dam, storage reservoir, tunnels/ penstocks and interconnecting
switchyard to the transmission line.
Typically plant availability improves to 97 or 98 percent
A project of the same size in a developing country with
after three years of operation, accounting for the following:
high unemployment might be staffed with three to ten times
4 to 6 days scheduled maintenance and checks the number of employees despite modern technologies, remote
3 to 5 days forced outages due to equipment breakdown control and monitoring. The hydro project is often the only
or malfunction source of employment for local people so staffing might include
several deputy managers, facility cleaners, unskilled laborers,
Depending on water quality, operational hours, type of
administrative staff, tea servers, gardeners, drivers and security
operation (peaking with frequent starts/stops, or base load), a
personnel.
major overhaul of the generating units is required about every
In industrialized countries with experienced utilities that
712 years, and requires 4-6 weeks for medium and large units
own many projects (such as lectricit de France SA, US Bureau
(>20 MW), and 1-3 weeks for small hydro (<5 MW).
of Reclamation, or Bayerische Wasserkraftwerke AG), 300 MW
plants are often operated in remote modea few operators in
11.4 O&M staffing and cost a central control facility operate and monitor multiple plants
for which maintenance work and periodic checks are carried
11.4.1 O&M staff
out by flying teams that travel to each facility for scheduled
The number of permanent employees required to run and maintenance or for immediate trouble-shooting.
maintain an HPP scheme can vary widely, depending on the
following:
11.4.2 Maintenance costs
E&M equipment and civil works are the two main components
Project size and complexity
of O&M, for which costs are in the following range.6
Country of installation E&M: The recommended annual budget for electro-
Local rules and regulations on working hours, shift work, mechanical equipment maintenance is 2.0-2.5 percent of initial
and division of work among specialists (e.g., labor union investment costs, typically in the following two tranches:
restrictions), among others
Staff education, experience and skill level 6. Please refer also to Section 13.2.4 to see OPEX benchmarks.

About 40 percent for ongoing plant maintenance, spare Operations Shift Schedule Preparations
parts, consumables and services outsourced to specialized
Shift Turnover
companies
Standard Operating Procedure
About 60 percent for a reserve fund to finance major
rehabilitation works that are required every 7-12 years, Monitoring and Recording of Operating Parameters
and unforeseen incidents Customer Communication
Civil works: The budget for civil works maintenance Safety Clearance and Tagging.
is about 0.4-0.6 percent of their initial investment cost; it
covers underground works, reservoirs, access roads, fencing,
administration buildings, and so forth. 11.6 Typical procedures
11.4.3 Spare parts stock 11.6.1 General
The value of spares in stock for electromechanical, electrical The best O&M procedures for hydro projects aim to minimize
and hydro-mechanical equipment is about 2.5-3.0 percent of the individual generating unit downtime and supply a level of
free on board (FOB) equipment price (according to a statistical operational reliability such that grid demands are met with
evaluation of average hydro projects). available generation.
11.4.4 O&M contracts Each occurrence of equipment failure should trigger an
inquiry into why and how it occurred and how to avoid future
Typically, large utilities have their own operation and recurrence.
maintenance division. Smaller hydropower producers often When a part or piece of equipment must be replaced, due to
outsource the work to specialized O&M companies or to the breakdown or the end of its useful lifespan, it should be replaced
equipment suppliers. with an improved version of the latest technology whenever
Contracts normally cover all aspects of maintaining the available.
entire power station including facilities, structures, buildings and Operating conditions should continuously be monitored and
offices; mechanical and electrical systems and controls; drainage recorded because records are critical tools to diagnose the causes
systems and water treatment facilities; and power station roads of equipment faults, failures, and replacements; and to determine
and security fencing. residual lifespan.
The contract objective is to keep the power generating Equipment manufacturers recommend maximum/minimum
system in good working order, to prevent premature parameters for their equipment, but an operators records,
deterioration and degradation, and to correct any equipment experiences, and history should also be used to set actual limiting
damage, deterioration or malfunction. The O&M contractor values for equipment parameters.
must operate the plant so that it supplies power to the grid The O&M maintenance schedules shall be specified and
system as specified in the owners obligations to the grid operator periodically up-dated using recommendations from O&M
under the power purchase agreement (PPA), which also defines history and records.
legal responsibilities to be passed to the O&M contractor, The number of planned starts/stops of each unit shall be
including penalties for non-performance. minimized to increase the lifespan.
Procurement of equipment spares should be planned based
11.5 Typical operation and maintenance procedures on actual rate of consumption.
11.5.1 General 11.6.2 Maintenance practice

The O&M procedures must be well conceived and comply with Some typical practices and activities at hydropower stations for
ISO 9001- 9004 requirements. The following documents cover main plant maintenance are listed below.
O&M organization and implementation and are essential to 11.6.2.1 Water intake, power water system and associated
manage and record O&M works: equipment
Maintenance:
Water storage (reservoir) and the water conductor system
Preventive Maintenance Work Order Implementation intake, headrace tunnel, surge shaft, emergency valves and
Corrective Maintenance Work Order System pressure shafts, penstock, and main inlet valvescomprise the
vital organs of a hydropower plant.
Predictive Maintenance and Work Order
As a result, conduit isolation equipment, i.e., intake gates,
Calibration of Measuring and Test Equipment butterfly valves, excess flow devices, surge equipment, should be
tested regularly.
Maintenance On-guard Provision
Furthermore, dams must be inspected regularly and
Operation: maintenance work, such as repairing eroded areas must be
Customer Requirement Determination carried out. Larger dams provide a dam-monitoring system that
shows drainage flows, and dam and settlement inclination; this
Handling of Daily Notice of Generation Schedule and
system must be maintained and functioning.
Dispatch
Periodic physical inspection of the inside and outside of
Order the water conductor system should take note of condition, silt
deposition, and conduit system rusting/erosion to monitor any signs
of aging, or stresses due to water hammer, and so forth. Inspection The following works also need to be carried out periodically:
records should note all detailsnormal and abnormalso these can
Check foundations and tighten bolts
be compared with installation data. Abnormalities should be further
investigated and rectified. Painting should be renewed regularly Check vibrations and use history of recorded readings
inside and outside (wherever possible) to protect the conduit system. as guidelines for realignment; check for any looseness,
Deteriorated valve seals should be replaced with new seals of the unbalanced electrical components, increase in bearing
latest materials to prolong the lifespan of the equipment. Hydraulic gaps, coupling misalignment, uneven stator-rotor air gap,
system oil purification and frequent testing should be carried out and so forth
according to manufacturers recommendations. Clean or replace generator air coolers and bearing oil
11.6.2.2 Turbine and its auxiliaries coolers to improve generator performance
Cavitations and/or erosion may lead to turbine wheel damage, Conduct primary and secondary testing of protection
which undermines performance and efficiency. system for correct operation
Conduct regular inspections of turbine runners and Inspect current transformers, potential transformers and
maintain records. As necessary, carry out in-situ welding bus bars for overheating, or temperature rise
repairs on turbine runners to fill cavitations or to repair Inspect circuits for protection and control circuits; conduct
cracks on the runner blades. mock trials of fire-fighting system and evacuation system
A system for monitoring silt content (quantity and size in
11.6.2.4 Transformer and switchyard
PPM) may have to be installed on power stations operating with
heavily silted water to assess silt erosion on turbine components
Continuously monitor oil and winding temperature
and to plan timely repairs or part replacement reducing units/
station down time. Periodically filter oil
Best efficiency microprocessor-based digital PID speed Conduct various oil tests and dissolved gas analysis.
governors provide rapid response.
Check tandelta and insulation resistance, etc. as per
Carry out periodic maintenance of speed governors schedule
and all associated mechanical, electrical, and electronic
Clean and replace oil cooler
components.
Test protection system for correct functioning
Calibrate and test transducers, meters and so forth
periodically Conduct mock trials: check, maintain and inspect
firefighting system, CO2 and mulsifire
11.6.2.3 Generator and its auxiliaries
Test breaker operation time
The main generator parts include the stator and rotor winding,
Operate and test isolator opening and closing
bearings and excitation system.
Check control circuit and breaker operating system
Record insulation resistance (IR) values of stator windings
function
at regular intervals to assess the condition of stator
winding insulation. Periodically clean transformer bushings and insulator
strings
Conduct regular impedance tests (voltage drop test across
each pole) to assess rotor-winding condition. Switchyards are to be kept clean and tidy; area surrounding
the yard is to be kept free from growth of scrubs and bushes to
Maintain cooling system to limit rise in stator winding
diminish risk of bush fire damage to equipment.
temperatures to extend life of stator winding.
11.6.2.5 Emergency diesel generator set
Inspect stator winding to verify its firmness in stator core
slots, because loose stator core, inter lamination, or core Regular maintenance of the emergency set
insulation directly affect winding heating due to eddy-
current loss. Check control and protection system
Carry out recommended maintenance as per schedule, Run DG set at regular intervals
maintain records and take any necessary corrective actions.
11.6.2.6 Other powerhouse equipment
Other precision and critical generator components include
the guide and thrust bearings. The thrust bearing is the main Periodically maintain unit auxiliary, station auxiliary and
bearing holding complete thrust of the rotating mass of turbine station service transformer
and generator unit. Check station batteries and battery chargers
Regularly inspect cable ducts for proper ventilation/heat
dissipation.

76 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT MITIGATION
This chapter illustrates typical E&S

concerns by comparing two common
project types: traditional large
hydroelectric reservoir/storage dams
(large hydro) and run-of-river schemes
(small hydro).
Environmental and
Social Impact Mitigation
12
This chapter provides an overview of key environmental and social (E&S) impacts and mitigation
measures for HPP developments . The chapter explores in greater details the relation with Equator
Principles and IFC Performance Standards, briefly explained in chapter 8 .2 .3 .
Regardless of project size, the project owner is ultimately 12.1 Environmental impacts and mitigation for large
responsible for ensuring that all environmental and social HPP, especially dams
impacts are taken into account following best practices, domestic Of all HPP project types, large hydroelectric dams attract most
regulatory requirements, and financing institution expectations. 7 attention and controversy. Advocates for large dams point
In general, local E&S impacts of HPP projects vary out that such projects are frequently the least-cost option
depending on project size, type/technology, site and other local among potential electric power options, particularly for larger
conditions. Since new energy developments are often catalysts urban areas. Also, they point out that other power generating
for broader socio-economic development, new HPP investments technologies carry negative E&S impacts, and that large dams
must be wisely selected, sited and managed to maximize overall
are a renewable energy source. Critics tend to cite biodiversity
benefits and mitigate any negative consequences. destruction, human settlement displacement, and inappropriate
As discussed, each HPP development is unique and HPPs site selection from a participatory and/or E&S point of view.
vary widely depending on a range of factors, therefore each At the broadest level, site selection is the single largest
project presents an equally complex range of E&S risks.
determinant of the scale of E&S risks linked to any type of dam
However, this chapter illustrates typical E&S concerns by (refer to section 6.5.7 for some of the typical issues to consider
comparing two common project types: traditional large during the site selection process). If the site is wisely selected
hydroelectric reservoir/storage dams (large hydro) and run-of- to avoid or minimize negative E&S impacts, well-designed
river schemes (small hydro). mitigation measures will balance the cost/benefit equation (see
Table 12 1). If the site is unsuitable, no mitigation measures can
redress cost/benefit imbalance.
In general, large dam projects with a smaller reservoir
surface area (relative to power generation) tend to be most
desirable from an E&S standpoint, in part because they minimize
natural habitat losses and resettlement requirements. Most
environmentally benign hydroelectric dam sites are on upper
tributaries; the most problematic sites are on large main stems of
7. Total impacts also include what is referred to as cumulative impacts from multiple rivers [World Bank 2003]. However, the specific context needs
projects. From E&S perspective, one large dam of 1,500 MW situated in a remote area on
one river basin may or may not have fewer negative impacts than the combined/cumulative
to be assessed as dams sited on upper tributaries usually involve
impacts of 100 or 200 small-scale projects located on many rivers. See IFCs Good Practice longer diversion schemes and therefore have the potential to
Handbook for guidelines on cumulative impact assessment; full reference listed in Section 16.
create longer dewatered sections.

Table 12-1: Large Dams: some of the typical negative environmental and social impacts
Impacts Mitigation options
Flooding of Natural Habitats
Some reservoirs permanently flood extensive natural habitats Compensatory protected areas can be established and managed under the
causing local or even global extinctions of animal and plant project to offset the loss of natural habitats due to reservoir flooding or other
species . Very large hydroelectric reservoirs in the tropics are project components, such as borrow pits .
especially likely to cause species extinctions, although such
If an existing area is protected in legislation but not in fact, a useful project
losses are rarely documented due to lack of scientific data .
option is to strengthen on-the-ground protection and management . Ideally, the
Particularly hard-hit are riverine forests and other riparian
area protected under the project should be of comparable or greater size and
ecosystems, which naturally occur only along rivers and
ecological quality to the natural area lost to the project .
streams . From the perspective of biodiversity conservation,
terrestrial natural habitats lost to flooding are usually much Under the IFC PS 6, projects should not be sited where they would cause the
more valuable than the aquatic habitats created by the significant conversion or degradation of natural and critical natural habitats
reservoir . An exception to this can be the shallow reservoirs unless certain specific conditions are met .
in dry zones that can provide a permanent oasis, sometimes
important for migratory waterfowl and other terrestrial and
aquatic fauna .
Loss of Terrestrial Wildlife
During reservoir filling terrestrial wildlife can be lost to Wildlife rescue efforts rarely succeed in restoring wild populations, although
drowning as a consequence of flooding terrestrial natural they have a value in public perception . Captured and relocated animals
habitats, although this is often treated as a separate impact typically starve, are killed by competitors or predators, or fail to reproduce
due to the limited carrying capacity of new habitats . Wildlife rescue is justified
on conservation grounds if (a) the rescued species are globally threatened
with extinction and (b) the new habitat is ecologically suitable and protected .
Otherwise, wildlife conservation efforts would be better served by investing
in compensatory protected areas . To effectively minimize wildlife mortality in
hydroelectric projects dam sites should be selected to minimize the area of
wildlife habitat that is flooded .
Involuntary Displacement
Involuntary displacement of people is considered the most For physical displacement, the main mitigation measure is to resettle displaced
adverse social impact of hydroelectric projects . populations and provide new housing, replacement lands, and other material
assistance . Successful resettlement requires consultation and participatory
Involuntary displacement can also have important
decision making on the part of the resettled and host populations (mandatory
environmental implications, such as when natural habitats are
for World Bank Group-supported resettlement) . Effective resettlement of
converted to accommodate resettled rural populations .
vulnerable ethnic minorities is particularly challenging . The IFC PS 5 specifies
that, among other requirements, to consider feasible alternative project designs
to avoid or minimize physical and/or economic displacement, while balancing
environmental, social and financial costs and benefits, paying particular attention
to impacts on the poor and vulnerable . In cases of economic loss of livelihoods
(based on fisheries, agricultural or grazing lands, river-edge clay for brick and
tile production, or other resources) without physical displacement, mitigation
measures should include replacement resources, job training, or other income
restoration assistance .
Deterioration of Water Quality
Damming rivers can reduce water quality due to lower Water pollution control measures (such as sewage treatment plants or
oxygenation and dilution of pollutants by reservoirs that are enforcement of industrial regulations) may be needed to improve reservoir water
relatively stagnant compared to fast-flowing rivers . Also, quality .
flooding of biomass (especially forests) creates underwater
Selective forest clearing within the impoundment area should be completed
decay; and due to reservoir stratification water quality can
before reservoir filling to mitigate poor water quality resulting from decay of
decline because deeper lake waters lack oxygen .
flooded biomass .
Downriver Hydrological Changes
Major downriver hydrological changes can destroy riparian Managed water releases can mitigate these adverse impacts . Objectives to
ecosystems dependent on periodic natural flooding, exacerbate consider in optimizing water releases from the turbines and spillways include:
water pollution during low-flow periods, and increase saltwater (a) adequate downriver water supply for riparian ecosystems, (b) reservoir and
intrusion near river mouths . Reduced sediment and nutrient downriver fish survival, (c) reservoir and downriver water quality, (d) aquatic
loads downriver of dams can increase so-called river-edge weed and disease vector control, (e) irrigation and other human uses of water,
and coastal erosion, and damage the biological and economic (f) downriver flood protection, (g) recreation (e .g ., whitewater boating), and
productivity of rivers and estuaries . (h) power generation . From an ecological standpoint, the ideal water-release
pattern would closely mimic the natural flooding regime, although this may not
Induced desiccation of rivers below dams (when the water is be feasible for densely settled floodplains where flood protection is a priority .
diverted to another portion of the river, or to a different river)
Dams that generate base load electricity are typically more capable of replicating
kills fish and other fauna and flora dependent on the river; it can
near-natural downriver flows than those that produce peaking power (where
also damage agriculture and human water supplies .
daily water releases may fluctuate sharply, often to the detriment of aquatic
organisms that are adapted to less frequent flow changes) . Environmental
management plans for hydroelectric projects should specify environmental water
releases, including for private sector owned or operated dams .
Water-related Diseases
Some infectious diseases can spread around hydroelectric Public health strategies should include preventive measures such as investing in
reservoirs, particularly in warm climates and densely populated public awareness campaigns and window screens, monitoring disease vectors
areas . Some diseases (such as malaria and schistosomiasis) are and outbreaks, controlling disease vectors, and treating cases .
borne by water-dependent disease vectors (mosquitoes and
aquatic snails); others (such as dysentery, cholera, and hepatitis
A) are spread by contaminated water, which frequently Controlling floating aquatic weeds (see below) near populated areas can reduce
becomes worse in stagnant reservoirs than it was in fast- the risks of mosquito-borne disease .
flowing rivers .
(continued)
Table 12-1: Large Dams: some of the typical negative environmental and social impacts (continued)
Fish and Other Aquatic Life
Hydroelectric projects often have major effects on fish and Managed water releases may be needed for the survival of certain fish species
other aquatic life . Reservoirs positively affect certain fish species in and below the reservoir . Fish passage facilities (fish ladders, elevators, or
(and fisheries) by increasing the area of available aquatic trap-and-truck operations) aim to help migratory fish move upriver past a dam
habitat . However, the net impacts are often negative because but are usually of limited effectiveness due to the difficulty of ensuring safe
(a) the dam blocks upriver fish migrations, while downriver downriver passage for many adult fish and fry .
passage through turbines or over spillways is often unsuccessful;
Fish hatcheries can be useful for maintaining populations of native species
(b) many river-adapted fish and other aquatic species cannot
that can survive but not successfully reproduce within the reservoir . Also fish
survive in artificial lakes; (c) changes in downriver flow
hatcheries are often used for stocking the reservoir with economically desired
patterns adversely affect many species, and (d) water quality
species; introducing non-native fish is not ecologically desirable because of the
deterioration in or below reservoirs (usually low oxygen levels;
often catastrophic effects on native species .
sometimes gas super-saturation) kills fish and damages aquatic
habitats . Freshwater mollusks, crustaceans, and other benthic Often, fishing regulations are essential to maintain viable populations of
organisms are even more sensitive to these changes than most commercially valuable species, especially in the waters immediately below a dam
fish species, due to their limited mobility where migratory fish species concentrate in high numbers and are unnaturally
easy to catch .
Floating Aquatic Vegetation
Floating aquatic vegetation can rapidly proliferate in eutrophic Undertaking pollution control and pre-impoundment selective forest clearing
reservoirs, causing problems such as (a) degraded habitat reduces aquatic weed growth in reservoirs .
for most species of fish and other aquatic life, (b) improved
Physical removal or containment of floating aquatic weeds is effective but
breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other nuisance species
imposes a high and recurrent expense for large reservoirs . Where compatible
and disease vectors, (c) impeded navigation and swimming,
with other objectives (power generation, fish survival, etc .), occasional
(d) clogging of electro-mechanical equipment at dams, and (e)
drawdown of reservoir water levels may be used to kill aquatic weeds . Using
increased water loss from some reservoirs .
chemicals to poison weeds or related insect pests is best avoided due to the
environmental and human health risks it poses .
Loss of Cultural Property
Cultural property, including archaeological, historical, Structures and objects of cultural interest should be salvaged wherever feasible
paleontological, and religious sites and objects, can be through scientific inventory, careful physical relocation, documentation and
inundated by reservoirs or destroyed by associated quarries, preservation in museums or other facilities . However, unique or sacred sites with
borrow pits, roads, or other works . religious or ceremonial significance to indigenous or local people usually cannot
be replaced .
Reservoir Sedimentation
Over time, reservoir sedimentation reduces live storage and Effectively implemented watershed management can minimize sedimentation
power generation to a degree that could also lower the projects and extend the reservoirs useful physical life by controlling road construction,
long-term prospects for renewable energy over the long term . mining, agriculture, and other land use in the upper catchment area . For this
reason, protected areas are sometimes established in upper catchments to
reduce sediment flows into reservoirs, as with the Fortuna Dam in Panama and
the proposed Rio Amoya (Colombia) and Nam Theun II (Laos) projects . Other
sediment management techniques for hydroelectric reservoirs include installing
upstream check structures, protecting dam outlets, flushing the reservoir,
removing sediment mechanically, and increasing dam height, if physically and
economically feasible .
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) are released Greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs can be reduced with a thorough salvage
into the atmosphere from reservoirs that flood forests and other of commercial timber and fuel wood . However, this rarely happens due to (a)
biomass, either slowly as flooded organic matter decomposes, high cost of extraction and transportation, (b) marketing constraints, or (c)
or rapidly if the forest is cut and burned before reservoir filling . political and economic pressures to avoid delays in filling the reservoir .
Greenhouse gases are widely considered to be the main cause
The best way to minimize greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs is to select
of human-induced global climate change . Many hydroelectric
dam sites that minimize flooding of land in general and forests in particular .
reservoirs flood relatively little forest or other biomass .
Moreover, most such hydro projects generate sufficient
electricity to more than offset the greenhouse gases that would
otherwise have been produced by burning fossil fuels (natural
gas, fuel oil, or coal) in power plants . However, some projects
that flood extensive forest areas, such as the Balbina Dam in
Amazonian Brazil, appear to emit greenhouse gases in greater
amounts than would be produced by burning natural gas for
many years of comparable electricity generation .
(continued)

Table 12-1: Large Dams: some of the typical negative environmental and social impacts (continued)
Impacts of Associated Civil Works
Access Roads
New access roads to hydroelectric dams can induce major land New access roads should be sited in corridors that incur the least environmental
use changesparticularly deforestationwith resulting loss and social damage . Forests and other environmentally sensitive areas along
of biodiversity, accelerated erosion, and other environmental the selected road corridor should receive legal and physical protection . Road
problems . In some projects (such as Arun II in Nepal), the engineering should ensure drainage to protect waterways and minimize erosion .
environmental impacts of access roads can greatly exceed those Environmental rules for contractors (including penalties for noncompliance)
of the reservoir . should cover construction camp siting, gravel extraction, waste disposal, water
pollution, worker behavior (e .g ., no hunting), and other good practices for
construction .
Power Transmission Lines
Power transmission line right-of-ways can reduce and fragment Power lines should be sited to minimize concerns and built using good
forests; indirectly, they can increase deforestation by improving environmental practices . Where concentrations of vulnerable bird species exist,
physical access . Power lines are responsible for deaths of large the top (grounding) wire should be made more visible with plastic devices .
birds; power lines are considered an aesthetic blight . Electrocution (mainly of large birds of prey) can be avoided through bird-friendly
tower design and proper spacing of conducting wires . (Refer to WBG EHS Guidelines
for Electric Power Transmission and Distribution .)
Quarries and Borrow Pits
Quarries and borrow pits are used to provide material for To the greatest extent feasible, quarries and borrow pits should be sited within
construction of the dam and complementary works . They can the future inundation zone . Where this is not feasible, pits should be rehabilitated
considerably increase the area of natural habitats or agricultural after use, ideally for conservation purposes such as wetland habitats . (Refer to WBG
lands that are lost to a hydroelectric project . EHS Guidelines for Construction Materials Extraction .)
Impacts Induced Development
Follow-on Development Projects
Hydroelectric dams often make possible new development Assessment of the cumulative impacts is needed . Associated development
projects with major environmental impacts, including irrigation, projects should be planned to minimize adverse environmental and social
urban expansion, and industrial facilities (due to new water impacts . Environmental impact assessment studies should be carried out in the
supplies) . early stages of project planning and the resulting environmental mitigation plans
should be fully implemented .
Additional Dams
The construction of the first dam on a river can make Ideally, the environmental and social impact assessment study for the first dam
subsequent construction of additional dams more economical on any river should include a cumulative impact assessment for any known
because flow regulation by the upriver dam can enhance power proposed additional dams on the same river system . Mitigation measures for
generation at the downriver dam(s) . cumulative (rather than dam-specific) impacts should be completed or well
underway before construction of the second dam .
Source: Adapted from World Bank 2003
12.2 Key E&S characteristics of smaller HPP, Projects can be important and desirable locally, but
especially run-of-river still raise controversy that must be carefully managed
Most smaller hydroelectric projects have smaller environmental throughout the entire development process
impacts than a large dam because small HPPs rely on smaller
Key advantages of smaller hydropower include the
flows diverted from a river, rather than blocking the entire river following:
flow. Indeed, smaller hydro generating facilities are appealing
and an increasingly popular choice for rural and remote regions 1. Most SHPPs can provide electricity with low E&S
with nearby rivers because other energy sources are less viable. impacts. They represent so-called green or low-impact
In addition, construction periods are generally shorter for energy alternatives because they offer:
individual small HPP (SHPP) developments and permitting Lower or more acceptable environmental and social
approval tends to be simpler, which reduces costs and increases impacts than alternative fossil-fuel burning projects
the suitability for local energy needs [UNEP 2007].
Environmental and social benefits balance
Below is a summary of lessons learned from small HPP
environmental and social costs
projects such as many run-of-river schemes. The summary builds
on World Bank 2009, key E&S-relevant features, advantages, Scale of works increases potential sustainability by
and concerns. reducing or eliminating risks normally associated
with large-scale hydro
Features
2. Typically, SHPPs employ run-of-river design and do not
The following are SHPP features:
require reservoir storage capacity
Installed capacity is not an indicator of potential project 3. Do not involve large or complex resettlement or land
impacts acquisition
Small-scale and run-of-river does not mean zero or even 4. Projects can be brought on-line more rapidly and expect
low-impact to benefit from a streamlined review and processing
requirements, assuming government capacity to manage Even small projects can face adverse local attitudes
a streamlined process (not always the case in emerging regarding transparency, communications, and community
economies). development support.
Key concerns include the following: Managing community expectations even for small hydro
can be difficult and challenging.
1. Risks are inherent in any size of project and must
be properly managed to avoid threatening project
12.3 Equator Principles
sustainability or incurring reputational or other risks. In
general, environmental and social concerns for SHPPs may As briefly presented in chapter 8.2.3, the Equator Principles
occur in the following aspects of HPP development: (EP) are a financial industry agreement to determine, assess
and manage social and environmental risks in project finance
At and above dams or barriers and project-related corporate loans. In adopting the Equator
Below damespecially at diverted /dewatered river Principles a financial institution commits to provide loans
reaches only to those projects whose sponsors can demonstrate ability
and willingness to adhere to comprehensive processes for
Associated infrastructureaccess roads, borrow pits and
environmentally and socially responsible management practices.
transmission lines
The EP signatories include global and developing country banks
Operational impacts affecting river flow timing/volumes that provide project finance to companies in emerging markets.
Aggregate impacts of multiple dams, other projects in The Equator Principles emphasize and promote convergence
the same watershed around common environmental and social standards in project
finance. Multilateral development banks, including the European
Land acquisition or physical resettlement (less likely Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and
than for large hydro) export credit agencies through the Organization for Economic
From issues linked to land and resource tenure including Cooperation and Development (OECD) Common Approaches,
access to water resources are increasingly drawing on the same standards as the Equator
Principles when pursuing sustainability in their operations. The
Expectations for associated community development,
EPs are now considered a benchmark of project, energy and
livelihood support and/or benefits sharing
infrastructure finance.
Lessons learned include the following: The third EP iteration was released June 2013 (EP III). See
In general, emerging economy experience with SHPPs Box 12-1.
demonstrates: The 2012 revision of the IFC Performance Standards
on Environmental and Social Sustainability are the technical
Need to consider all impacts, including construction- reference of the EP framework. For bankers and those seeking
related impacts of ancillary works such as roads. capital, the EP and, thus, the IFC Performance Standards provide
Stakeholder involvement and improved two-way key references for minimum required environmental and social
communications are crucial to success and should be risk management practices.
ongoing from inception to commissioning. The EPs were never intended to apply retroactively, but
signatory institutions also apply the principles to upgrades and
Support capacity building of government agencies, beyond
expansions of existing projects where such changes notably alter
project counterparts. For example, local government units
the nature or degree of existing E&S threats or create significant
must often carry out monitoring and compliance tasks but
new E&S risks and impacts.
may lack capacity to do so.
The EPs are a starting point; they reflect a forward-looking
Coordinate inter-agency dialogue among project agency due diligence framework to guide balanced risk decisions but
stakeholders. they are high-level principles and not intended to address site-
Reduce project E&S liabilities by developing clear specific local E&S concerns.
agreements and monitorable outcomes, detailed annual
work plans, and budget resources to accomplish them. Box 12-1: The 2013 EP III Statement of Principles
Clarify process requirements regarding legal framework,
regulations, institutional roles and responsibilities.
Principle 1 - Review and categorization
Desire for efficient review process. Project developers Principle 2 - Environmental and social assessment
desire more rapid and efficient licensing procedures from Principle 3 - Applicable environmental and social standards
authorities. Principle 4 - Environmental and social management system and EP
action plan
Project proponents, often small IPP, may lack sufficient Principle 5 - Stakeholder engagement
experience or resources to successfully implement Principle 6 - Grievance mechanism
programs. Principle 7 - Independent review
Principle 8 - Covenants
Construction and operational delays may threaten a Principle 9 - Independent monitoring and reporting
companys financial viability and ability to meet E&S Principle 10 - Reporting and transparency
commitments.
The Equator Principles full text is available at www.equator-principles.com.

Table 12-2: High-level HPP Screening Scorecard

Sample template for profiling HPP developers/owners with view to optimizing E&S features of new investment projects
Adequacy of available
Success Factor Yes No Partly information to rate success Remarks
factors a
1 . Strong upper management commitment to E&S factors by

project developer/owner
2 . Strong demonstrated commitment of the on-site project

manager
3. Demonstrated will to resolve unexpected impacts/issues
4 . Dedicated staff development for all project E&S needs
5 . Proactive communications with local stakeholders

throughout project cycle; community involvement from the
start
6 . Established community information project website or other

systematic communication platform
7 . Adequate ESIAb and ESMPc with vision toward overall project

sustainability
8 . Clear E&S mitigation implementation procedures following

ESMP
9 . Clear documented targets and commitments conforming to

final ESMP needs
10 .General project monitoring and presence of follow up

mechanisms in company
11 . Specific mechanisms for complaints and grievances
a Sample scale: 1 poor to 5 excellent b Environment & Social Impact Assessment c Environment and Social Management Plan
Source: FICHTNER
EP implications for HPP Project advisors take into account their knowledge of the
HPP developer/owner, project characteristics, and broader
Hydropower developers that obtain or expect to obtain
project context when they rate the proposed HPP according to
finance from EP signatory banks shall adhere to EP and the IFC
a range of factors considered necessary for an acceptable E&S
Performance Standards. Projects receiving finance from these
project profile. Table 12-2 provides a sample scorecard that can
banks would need to demonstrate compliance with EP and the
be adapted and elaborated for rating projects.
IFC Performance Standards.8
Project advisors are responsible for putting scorecard results
Under EP transactions, borrowers commit (make a covenant)
into the correct context. In general, results reveal whether the
to specified actions to manage and mitigate E&S concerns.
project has good or excellent potential, and whether it has
Borrowers that fail to undertake these actions are considered in
established sufficiently rigorous and efficient management of
breach of the covenant, which allows the financing institution
project-related E&S. However, the screening stage is too early to
to take corrective action, up to and including cancelling the loan
accurately evaluate success factors. Consequently, advisors must
and demanding repayment.
exercise their judgment and offer an opinion about whether the
Although smaller SHPP projects may not trigger EP
project developer/owner is likely or unlikely to experience major
thresholds, the spirit of the Principles should guide the
challenges in addressing some project aspects.
development and operation of the HPP. 9 Moreover, there is no
The scorecard is a simple tool to help systematize
such threshold for the application of the IFC PS.
preliminary project assessments but the advisory opinion is
provisional. Only a full HPP due diligence can provide a robust
12.4 E&S screening template adaptable to all HPP E&S review of the proposed project.
project types
Typically during the HPP project-screening phase, financing 12.5 Conclusions
institution project advisors would provide a preliminary opinion
Hydropower can help trigger economic and social development
about the potential E&S viability of the proposed investment,
by providing energy and water management services, now and
regardless of its size or type.
in the future. During lean flows and drought, hydro storage
capacity can mitigate freshwater scarcity by providing a secure
8. As of September 2014, 80 financial institutions in 34 countries have officially adopted source for drinking water supply, irrigation, flood control and
the EPs, covering over 70 percent of international project finance debt in emerging markets.
navigation. Multipurpose hydropower projects provide value
9. Thresholds and criteria for EP application are detailed under Scope at www.equator-
principles.com
beyond the electricity sector as a financing instrument for
reservoirs that help to secure freshwater availability. According Box 12-2: Interactions between hydropower and
to the World Bank, the multiplier effects of large hydropower climate change
projects can create an additional US$0.04 to US$1.00 of indirect IMPACTS FROM HPP ON CLIMATE CHANGE
benefits for every dollar of value generated. Furthermore,
Hydropower offers significant potential for carbon emissions reductions. Baseline
hydropower can serve in large centralized grids, and small
projections of the global supply of hydropower rise from 12.8 EJ in 2009 to 13 EJ
isolated grids; smaller-scale hydropower is a good option for in 2020, 15 EJ in 2030 and 18 EJ in 2050 in the median case. Steady growth in
rural electrification [Kumar et al. 2011]. the supply of hydropower is therefore projected to occur even in the absence of
Major international initiatives 10 have reaffirmed the greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation.
commitment of national governments and international
IMPACTS FROM CLIMATE CHANGE ON HPP
agencies (including the World Bank Group) to more sustainable
hydropower development. This commitment recognizes and As noted by Kumar et al.s report for the IPCC (2011), climate change is
expected to increase overall average precipitation and runoff, but regional
embraces a newly evolving approach to address environmental patterns will vary: the impacts on hydropower generation are likely to be
and social concerns. Both the Equator Principles and the IFC small on a global basis, but significant regional changes in river flow volumes
Performance Standards complement and supplement those and timing may pose challenges for planning. The potential for precipitation
broader goals and pay particular attention to sustainable project patterns to change should be considered in project planning.
financing. Sector trade associations such as the International
Hydropower Association are working to improve sustainability-
oriented protocols for HPP developments.
Hydropower projects have an impact on climate change, and
are impacted by climate change, as summarized in Box 12-2.
Many existing HPP technologies are mature and well
understood, and ongoing developments can ensure continuous
improvement of future HPP developments that will incorporate
such innovations as integrated river basin management,
resource-efficient tunneling, silt erosion resistant materials,
and increasingly fish-friendly turbines [Kumar et al.]. Despite
improved technologies, future HPP projects will continue
to require a rigorous and cost-effective approach to identify
and manage E&S impacts throughout the project cycle, using
verifiable means.
10. These initiatives include the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development; the
2003 World Water Forum; activities under World Commission on Dams; and UNEP Dams
and Development Project.

84 CAPITAL AND O&M COSTS
This section of the guide presents the

typical cost structure of hydropower
plants, and cost ranges for individual
items in HPP construction and
operation.
Capital and O&M Costs

Assessing the financial viability of a hydropower project requires estimates of capital costs (CAPEX) and
operating and maintenance costs (OPEX), plus estimates of the energy yield and associated tariff (see
13
also Section 14 .1 .2 below) . Since this initial assessment helps the developer or investor decide whether to
proceed with the project, detailed and precise information on cost structure and cost level for individual
plant items provides a better basis for the decision .
This section of the guide presents the typical cost structure of Figure 13-1: HPP cost ranges by country
hydropower plants, and cost ranges for individual items in
HPP construction and operation. The aim is to establish cost 9,0000
benchmarks for capital and operational expenditures that will 8,0000
enable project evaluation. As has been reiterated throughout 7,0000
this guide, hydro projects are site-specific, therefore cost
2010 USD/kw
6,0000
estimates presented here cannot substitute for pre-feasibility and 5,0000
feasibility studies. 4,0000
This section will include international cost estimates derived 3,0000
by International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA 2012] 2,0000
and a benchmarking exercise. Since IRENA does not provide 1,0000
a dataset, estimates derived were verified with data from 19
0
individual HPPs. Large Small Small Large Small
to
large
United Brazil India
13.1 International cost estimates Africa
States
IRENA conducted a study designed to provide objective cost European Canada China Other
Union Asia
data for renewable energy technologies, including hydropower.
Cost indicators were derived for investment costs, annual Source: IRENA, 2011
operation, maintenance costs (O&M), and the cost of electricity
generated as measured by levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) (see The O&M costs, typically quoted as percentages of
Section 14 for LCOE definition). investment costs, range from 1.0 percent to about 4.0 percent.
Total investment costs for hydropower vary significantly The IEA assumes 2.2 percent for large HPP and 2.2 percent
depending on the site, design choices and the cost of local labor to 3.0 percent for small HPP. However, those indicators do
and materials. To capture these differences IRENA compiled a not cover major electro-mechanical equipment replacement,
dataset derived from countries around the world and including which are infrequent due to long design lives. Taking this into
different HPP technologies (run-of-river, storage and pump consideration, O&M costs average at US$45/kW/year for large
storage). Study results indicated that total installed costs for HPP and US$52/kW/year for small HPP.
large hydropower projects typically range from US$1,000/kW Electricity generation costs range from US$0.02/kWh to
to US$3,500/kW for Greenfield projects; for remote locations US$0.085/kWh; the lowest costs are for additional capacity at
without adequate infrastructure or nearby transmission existing HPP schemes. Electricity generation costs vary widely
networks, project costs may exceed US$3,500/kW. across countries because some countries, notably in Europe,
Costs for small HPPs are slightly higher because they lack have already constructed most of their exploitable HPP projects.
economies of scale. Small hydro projects range from US$1,300/ Figure 13-2 depicts bands of HPP costs for electricity generation.
kW to US$8,000/kW. Significant cost differences exist for small
and large HPPs across countries, as summarized in Figure 13-1.

Figure 13-2: LCOE by country and region
0.30
0.25
0.20
2010 USD/kw
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
WGA, 2009 Pletka and WGA, 2009 Ecofys, Eurelectric IEA, 2010 IEA, 2010 IEA, 2010 IRENA,
Finn, 2009 et al. (IEA, 2010b) 2011
United States Canada Europe Japan Brazil China India Africa
installed capacity costs per kW. Since information sources

Source: IRENA, 2011
are derived from different years, all plant prices have been
converted to a 2013 price basis.
Second, a benchmark is calculated for each CAPEX
Table 13-1 summarizes typical investment, O&M and costs
component described below by calculating the average across
of electricity generation as derived by IRENA.
the dataset. As CAPEX components determine total CAPEX,
the benchmark for total CAPEX is calculated using CAPEX
Table 13-1: Summary of HPP costs component benchmarks.
Operations Another benchmark is calculated for O&M costs and
and expressed on a per-unit level, US$/kW in 2013 prices, to enhance
maintenance Levelized
Installed costs cost of comparability.
costs (%/year of Capacity electricity Finally, to assess whether high capital and operational
(US$/ installed factor (2010 US$/
kW) costs) (%) kWh)
expenditures are justified by high energy outputs, a benchmark
is calculated for the Levelized Costs of Electricity (LCOE) and
1,050
Large hydro
7,650
2 2 .5 25 to 90 0 .02 0 .19 expressed in US$/kWh in 2013 prices.
1,300 13.2.1 CAPEX components

Small hydro 1 4 20 to 95 0 .02 0 .27
8,000
Capital expenditures (CAPEX) include cost items of all relevant
Refurbishment/ 500 HPP components and for the CAPEX benchmark, seven groups
1 6 0 .01 0 .05
upgrade 1,000
of CAPEX items were defined as follows:
Source: FICHTNER Project development/engineering/environmental and social
costs
13.2 Further analysis of specific CAPEX Civil works
Since data from sources such as IRENA are available only on Electro-mechanical equipment
a highly aggregated level, the following analysis investigates
CAPEX benchmarks, in particular deriving benchmarks for Grid connection
specific CAPEX components. Also the analysis will show Other equipment/construction
whether CAPEX estimates are within the range band derived by
Other non-equipment/non-construction
IRENA. Analysis was based on in-house (Fichtner) data from 19
individual HPPs. Data include small, medium and large HPP in Contingencies
Asia, Europe, South America and Africa, from feasibility studies The non-equipment/non-construction is a residual group
and actual data. of items that cannot be included in any other groups because
First, CAPEX components (Table 13-2) are appraised and they are often related to plant financing. Examples include
aggregated to a level that allows comparability; next, the four accommodation camps, dredging equipment, borrow pits,
types of benchmarks described below for CAPEX and OPEX temporary electricity supply, interest during construction, loan
are analyzed. costs, taxes, or import charges; these costs vary widely among
The first benchmark examines the per-unit level to enable countries, based on national regimes, and are irrelevant for
comparison among all types and sizes of HPP, and calculate benchmarking the main costs of a HPP, hence they are not
included in this study.
Table 13-2: Main CAPEX groups and sub-items Table 13-3: Unit costs for each main cost group and at aggregate
Main Item Sub-item level (US$/kW)
Project Design documentation Coefficient

Main cost of
development /
Engineering / Engineering group Min Median Average Max variation
Environmental and
Supervision Project
social costs 42 .2 216 .8 256 .4 744 .6 0 .78
development
Administration
Civil works 408 .4 1,202 .6 1,396 .8 2822 .1 0 .47
Environmental studies and mitigation costs
E&M
174 .6 774 .9 821 .0 1363 .5 0 .49
Social studies and mitigation costs equipment
Other 1 .3 30 .3 44 .2 136 .9 0 .55

Resettlement action plan and costs
Contingencies 64 .0 204 .4 212 .7 500 .4 0 .58
Permits and licenses
Civil works Mobilization/demobilization Total plant unit

981 .1 2,658 .6 2,531 .9 4,459 .2 0 .40
costs
Access roads
Source: FICHTNER
Diversion works
Intake
Figure 13-3: Total plant cost
Headrace and waterways
Forebay 5,000
Surge tank 4,500

Spillway
4,000
Penstock
3,500
Dam
USDollar/kW
3,000
Powerhouse
Digging of riverbeds/tailrace 2,500
Fishpass 2,000
E&M equipment Turbine 1,500

Governor
1,000
Valves
500
Controller
Generator 0
50% 75%
Hydraulic steel structures
Other Accommodation camp/bungalows

equipment / Source: FICHTNER
construction Dredging equipment
Other
Grid connection Switchyard equipment, and construction costs (hereinafter referred to as

Transmission lines other) and contingencies. Grid connection costs are analyzed
Other grid connection separately; they defy comparability since each plant differs
in its proximity to the existing grid, hence the wide range of
Contingencies Contingencies for the various sub-items
connection costs.
Source: FICHTNER 13.2.2 CAPEX benchmarks
13.2.2.1 Benchmarks of specific unit costs

Table 13-2 shows a full overview of sub-items and their
Total plant costs and individual costs for each of the main
groupings.
CAPEX components differ significantly since each HPP is unique.
In the following section, total plant costs are analyzed to
Table 13-3 presents specific HPP costs expressed US$/kW
identify a benchmark for hydropower plant CAPEX. Total plant
installed capacity.
costs are the sum of costs for project development, engineering,
Average costs for appraised power plants are about
environmental and social costs (hereinafter referred to as project
US$2,500/kW, which conforms to IRENA results. Table 13-3
development), plus costs for civil works, E&M equipment, other
and Figure 13-3 show a wide range of total plant costs, varying
by a factor of close to 5. However, the mean 50 percent of plants
are closer in range, about US$1,600/kWUS$3,200/kW, which

Box 13-1: Case study SHPP in Western Balkan Region Table 13-4: Share of main cost groups in total plant costs (%)
Coefficient
of
For the Balkan Renewable Energy Program (BREP) developed and Min Median Average Max variation
implemented by IFC, Fichtner prepared a budgeting manual, including a
comprehensive CAPEX benchmark exercise covering more than 30 small HPPs Project
3 .0 7 .5 9 .2 17 .2 0 .50
evaluated by Fichtner during 2009-2013, as part of comprehensive training development
materials for SHPP Project Finance. The analysis shows that specific costs of Civil works 33 .2 55 .2 54 .3 76 .5 0 .21
SHPP in the region are typically US$1,300/kW to US$3,500/kW. The average
was about US$2,700/kW. Compared with other SHPP projects evaluated by E&M
14 .9 29 .2 30 .3 56 .6 0 .40
Fichtner in other parts of the world, specific costs of projects assessed in the equipment
Western Balkan region are considered comparably low.
Other 0 .1 1 .2 1 .3 2 .3 0 .53
Contingencies* 5 .4 9 .8 9 .1 12 .6 0 .27
confirms IRENA results, while the mean 75 percent of the plants *At feasibility and prefeasibility level
differ by only US$270/kW downwards and US$380/kW upwards Source: FICHTNER
from this and thus range between around US$1,350/kW and
US$3,600/kW.
As in the IRENA study, outliers occur because some HPP Figure 13-4: Range of civil works shares
construction occurs at sites without infrastructure and with
limited access to transmission.
90%
Individual groups of main cost items show a wide range of
unit costs as reflected by the coefficients of variation, which are 80%
comparatively high for all groups. Starting with 0.47 for civil 70%
works costs and 0.49 for the E&M equipment, coefficients go
up to 0.78 for project development. Relatively low coefficients of 60%
variation for E&M equipment are due to supply by international 50%

manufacturers at international market prices; the values differ
primarily as a result of power plant size and technology. Despite 40%
huge variations in civil works across countries and project sizes, 30%
the civil works variation coefficient is relatively low. Wide ranges
20%
among individual groups of items level out to some extent at
the aggregate level of total plant unit costs; the coefficient of 10%
variations is only 0.40 for total unit costs, the lowest of all
0%
values. 50% 75%
This wide range of unit costs reflects the individual nature of

hydropower plants, and their incomparability due to variations Source: FICHTNER
in site, location, size, hydrology, geology and topography. The
plant with the lowest unit costs per kW is the one with the
highest installed capacity (1,200 MW) that was analyzed for this
report. Furthermore, differing levels of development among the The mean 50 percent of E&M shares range from 20.4 to 37.4
source data affected results. Box 13-1 presents a case study. percent, and the mean 75 percent range from 17 to 46 percent.
13.2.3 Benchmark of shares in total costs Costs ranges are wide for project development, engineering,
environmental and social concerns due to variations in
13.2.3.1 Main CAPEX components how project developers categorize expenses under this main
Table 13-4 figures confirm the importance of civil works; their component. Project development costs range from 3.0 to 17.2
share in total plant costs is 33.2 to 76.5 percent. Figure 13-4 percent of total plant costs, depending on which sub-items are
shows the mean 50 percent of civil works costs are 47 to 61 included in this group. The median stands at 7.5 percent.
percent of total plant costs. Furthermore, the mean 75 percent The last main item, other, captures all equipment and works
varies by only 7.7 percentage points down and 3.1 percentage that do not fit well in any other category; this varies by project,
points up, thus lying from about 40 to 64 percent. Generally and since its overall share in total plant costs is low, it will not be
HPPs with a dam exhibit a high share of civil works costs. These further examined.
figures demonstrate that the share of civil costs in total plant Contingency costs are important and often underestimated
costs can be determined comparatively clearly as it is affirmed by project developers and consultants. Contingencies are applied
by civil works comparatively low coefficient of variation of only to various cost items to cover uncertainties associated with their
0.21. scope and cost. Price contingencies for potential price increases
Electro-mechanical equipment (E&M) is the second are not addressed since the CAPEX values are expressed in 2013
important CAPEX component; it averages 30.3 percent of total price values.
project costs (Figure 13-5) but ranges from 14.9 to 56.6 percent, To compare the share of the contingencies this analysis
exhibiting wide cost variations similar to those of civil works. considered 14 prefeasibility and feasibility reports (actual costs
Figure 13-5: Range of electromechanical equipment shares
13.2.3.2 Grid connection

The main cost factor for grid connection is the distance between
60%
the plant and the existing grid. A remote plant with a long
transmission line will incur very high costs so an HPP would
50%
be economically viable only at sites with highly favorable
hydrological conditions to produce a high energy yield. However,
40% if a grid connection is close to the plant, or facilities can be
shared with other users, potential costs are substantially reduced.
30% Because grid connections costs are completely a function of
the distance between the plant and the grid, the share of grid
20% connection costs in total costs ranges from 0.3 to 8.7 percent
(Table 13-6).
10%
Table 13-6: Share of grid connection costs in total costs

0%
50% 75% Min Median Average Max
0 .3% 4 .5% 4 .1% 8 .7%
Source: FICHTNER Source: FICHTNER
no longer include contingencies). The contingency share of total 13.2.4 OPEX Benchmark
plant costs appears below in Table 13-5. Expenditures for operation and maintenance (OPEX or O&M
costs) include staff costs, regular maintenance and spare parts,
Table 13-5: Share of contingencies in total plant costs consumables, and insurance.
Min Median Average Max OPEX found in the documents used for this analysis also
included concession fees, water utilization fees, or land lease
5 .4% 9 .8% 9 .1% 12 .6%
charges, which varied by country.
Project developers and consultants have options for
Contingencies average 9.1 percent of TPC; the median
calculating OPEX for a power plant. Most OPEX are calculated
was 9.8 percent. The industry practice is to use 15 percent
as a specified percentage of total plant cost; or total project cost,
contingency for civil works costs, 7.5-10 percent for
which includes cost of financing. Another option is to compute
electromechanical equipment costs, and 7.5-10 percent for grid
OPEX cost based on installed plant capacitycosts per kW,
connection costs.
or by using annual energy output (costs per kWh). Generally
Civil works are among the most critical risk areas for cost
OPEX are considered less important than CAPEX because their
increases, so provisions must be made to factor that in. For
contribution to production costs is much smaller.
example, during feasibility studies final investigations into soil
Typically, OPEX cost estimates were not disaggregated by
conditions have not yet been carried out, but soil conditions are
item, merely calculated as percentage (1.0 to 3.0 percent) of total
a major cost-driver for civil works. The same holds true during
project costs. Therefore, no real benchmark is possible nor is it
the construction phase when the contract has already been
advisable to calculate a benchmark of shares in total CAPEX.
signed with the civil contractor. The risks of cost increases are
Thus OPEX estimates can be reasonably calculated only at a
even higher if a tunnel must be built. Therefore an experienced
per-unit level. Similar to the CAPEX benchmark in the previous
geological expert should undertake individual risk assessments.
chapter, OPEX are calculated per unit of installed capacity in
In practice, contingencies are adjusted throughout
US$/kW using 2013 pricing.
all project phases, but are typically higher during earlier
Typically, O&M costs are disaggregated into variable
phases when there are more unknowns as shown in Figure 13-6.
and fixed costs, but most hydropower O&M costs are fixed.
Therefore, O&M cost estimates include only one key figure,
Figure 13-6: Contingencies which captures both fixed and variable costs.
To complement the data set, O&M costs were also computed
for projects without O&M costs in the related study, using a
value of 1.5 percent of total project costs. This is reasonable
since most of the OPEX analyzed are likely at the lower end of
the benchmark range of 1.0-3.0 percent mentioned. Table 13-7
show the results. Not surprisingly, O&M costs per kW differ
significantly especially with plant size and hydro type. OPEX
costs in the 19 projects analyzed ranged from US$2.30/kW to
Source: FICHTNER
US$64/kW. This extreme spread is likely due primarily to labor

costs, which vary widely among countries. In addition, the 13.2.5 Benchmark of levelized cost of electricity
spread results from the wide range of CAPEX unit costs, which
Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is defined as the ratio of the
are the basis for determining OPEX unit costs for most projects,
net present value (NPV) of total costs (CAPEX and OPEX) and
as described. Moreover, the minimum value of US$2.30/kW
the NPV of the energy produced over the entire plant lifetime
is an exception and is far below the second lowest value. Both
(assumed to be 30 years). To calculate the NPVs a real discount
median and average are moderate figures, US$32.50/kW and
rate of 8.0 percent is applied.
US$33.20/kW installed capacity.
The LCOE is recommended as a first benchmark figure
to assess project competitiveness and financial viability in the
Table 13-7: OPEX unit costs first stage of appraisal. If the LCOE is lower than the expected
OPEX Min Median Average Max level of wholesale tariff (per kWh), the project is considered in
principle to be financially viable. If the LCOE is higher than
US$/kW 2 .3 32 .5 33 .2 63 .9
the expected level of wholesale tariff the project may be unable
to achieve the necessary returns and therefore is not financially
Source: FICHTNER
viable. More detailed analysis would be needed both on project
costs and the power market. For example, the HPP may provide
The mean 50 percent of OPEX are between US$25.50/kW
and US$45.10/kW in a narrow range around the median value. firm capacity and energy during peak demand times when
The mean 75 percent differ by about US$40/kW upwards and electricity could be sold at a higher price. Also, other means
almost three times as much downwards, thus demonstrating a of supporting the project (subsidies) or additional revenues
large range (Figure 13-7). (climate-related) may be available to make it financially viable
OPEX vary greatly among countries due to national labor (Figure 13-8).
cost differences however, in practice OPEX are set at a fixed rate
(see Section 13.1), which depends on project size and technology.
For example IEA applies 2.2 percent for large hydropower plants
and 2.2-3.0 percent for small hydropower plants.
Figure 13-7: Range of OPEX Figure 13-8: LCOE variation
70 9.0
8.0
60
7.0
50
6.0
US Cents/kW
USDollars/kW
40
5.0
30 4.0
3.0
20
2.0
10
1.0
0
50% 75% 0.0
50% 75%
Source: FICHTNER Source: FICHTNER

Table 13-8 shows that the LCOE of the HPPs analyzed have
a comparatively wide range. The lowest value is 1.6 cent/kWh
and the highest 8.3 cent/kWh, a factor of more than five between
lowest and highest. The lowest value of 1.6 cent/kWh is for the
largest plant with a total installed capacity of 1,200 MW, fully
demonstrating economies of scale. However, economies of scale
are generally not applicable, as the second lowest LCOE value
is found for a small plant with an installed capacity of only
15 MW. The highest LCOE is observed for an HPP of similar
size to the second lowest. The LCOE of these two plants vary by
a factor of >3.
Average LCOE is 5.4 cents/kWh and the median is 6 cents/
kWh. The mean 50 percent of the LCOE is in a narrow range
from 4.2 cents/kWh to 7 cents/kWh. However, the range for the
mean 75 percent is considerably wider between 2.9 cents/kWh to
7.5 cents/kWh, demonstrating the great variety among plants in
average generation costs.
Table 13-8: Levelized costs of electricity

LCOE Min Median Average Max
USCents/kWh 1 .6 6 .0 5 .4 8 .3

92 ECONOMICS AND FINANCIAL ANALYSES
Most hydropower projects

provide relatively inexpensive
power and other benefits to local
communities, such as jobs.
Economics
and Financial Analyses
14
The decision to implement a proposed project is based on detailed assessment of all factors that could
affect the projecttechnical, institutional, environmental and social, economic and financial .
Financial and economic analyses serve different purposes but The financial analysis evaluates potential profitability from
both are needed especially in large hydro projects (see Box 14-1). the perspective of an investor by examining project benefits and
Smaller projects with feed-in-tariffs (FiT) may not require an costs to an enterprise. A profitable project must have an equal or
economic analysis because the process of developing a FiT should higher return than a hurdle return on investment. The investor
have taken into account all economic considerations. Differences requires a higher return on investment if risks are higher, however,
between small and large hydro schemes appear in Box 14-2. investors have different perceptions of risk. Therefore, the hurdle
return rate reflects the investors perceived project risk.
Box 14-1: Economic vs . financial analysis
The economic analysis adopts a macro perspective and
evaluates the project benefits to the economy and society by
Financial Analysis comparing two scenarioswith the project and without the
project. In addition, economic analysis includes externalities.
Conducted from an investor perspective
Uses market prices to determine project financial viability and sustainability Additional information on economic and financial analyses
No externalities included such as environmental benefits and costs can be found in the World Bank publication, Economic
Analysis of Investment Operations: Analytical Tools and
Economic Analysis
Practical Applications; and in the Asian Development
Economy-wide/society perspective Bank publication, Guidelines for the Economic Analysis of
Uses economic prices (values) derived from market prices by excluding
taxes, subsidies, profits and tariffs to reflect the real value of the project to
Projects.11
society
Externalities such as environmental benefits and costs are included 14.1 Financial analysis
Crucial for large hydro projects; might be unnecessary for small projects
The financial analysis evaluates overall project financial viability
of a project. Financial analysis for hydropower projects can be
challenging for the following reasons:
Box 14-2: Differences between small and large hydro projects
Hydrology: Power generation depends on water flow,
which is affected by weather conditions and seasonal
Several significant differences that exist between small and large hydropower variations. Therefore, power generation and income from
plants are important when conducting financial and economic feasibility analyses.
power sales are variable and uncertain (especially for run-
First: The per kilowatt investment costs might be lower for large hydropweplants
r than of-river projects).
for smaller ones due to economies of scale (see Section 3 for details). IRENA
estimates the average per kW investment cost of small HPPs to be 1,300- Hydropower projects entail high front-end costs and high
8,000 US$/kW. For large HPPs, IRENA estimated average per kW investment construction risks, but operating lifespans are long and
costs are 1,050 to 7,650 US$/kW.
operating costs are low.
Second: Some small hydropower projects are evaluated as a single-purposenon-essential
,
project. Therefore, such projects will have fewer or different benefits than On the positive side, hydropower project cash flow is not
larger facilities that can be justified by benefits such as flood control and vulnerable to coal and gas price fluctuations because it
recreation, among others, in addition to increased power provision.
does not use fuel.
Third: Many small hydropower projects are designed as run-of-riverplants,
implying that no ability to store water and schedule peak power generation The following section describes typical key assumptions for
(firm capacity). a financial analysis; it explains important output indicators and
Fourth: In many countries, small hydropower plants are developedunder a provides practical examples for context.
feed-in-tariff (FiT) scheme, i.e., any output will be purchased at a specified
price. Larger HPPs often supply their power under a PPA, if permitted under
11. Full references for World Bank and ADB Economic Analysis are listed in Section 16.
the market model.

14.1.1 Key Assumptions Box 14-3: Why do discount rates matter?
Table 14-1 presents an overview of financial analysis core

assumptions for hydropower plants of any size and technology. The choice of discount rate (economic and financial) affects the present value of
Financial analysis is conducted from the investor perspective future costs and benefits, thereby affecting project return and profitability.
and evaluates project impact on investor cash flow. Financial Hydropower plant investment costs are high operating costs are low, implying that
analysis does not consider any external effects such as under a lower discount rate, hydropower development is favored. Thermal plants
environmental and social considerations, unless they delay require less capital expenditure at the beginning of development, which means
thermal development is favored under a higher discount rate (i.e., more cash is
construction and affect costs, they can be monetized and provide available to put in the bank).
a revenue stream to the project.
For example, consider two alternatives. The first is an HPP with storage and a
capacity equivalent coal-fired power plant under a discount rate of 10 percent.
Table 14-1: Financial analysis assumptions Depending on the CAPEX of both projects, yet, assuming that the CAPEX of the
HPP are higher, the TPP will most likely yield lower levelized unit costs (LUC) than
Financial analysis assumptions
the HPP (the concept of LUC is outlined in Section 14.1.2).
Analysis perspective Project sponsor or lender
However, if a discount rate of 5.0 percent were to be applied, the LUC of the HPP
Evaluation period Financial life of project (varies) potentially could fall below the LUC of the TPP. Therefore, the HPP would be
more profitable under a lower discount rate as opposed to a discount rate of 10
Adjustment for inflation Includes inflationary effects percent.
Project costs are valued using their
Project input valuation
purchase costs, i .e ., market prices on the national market model. In countries with multilateral
Financial discount rate; financial rate of or competitive market models, large hydropower plants often
return (including inflation) that could supply base power because their marginal costs are relatively
be expected if money were invested in
Discount rate
another project, based on typical average
low. However, storage hydro plants and in particular pump
cost of capital for a similar project storage plants, are able to provide peak power by pumping
(WACC) stored water during off-peak periods and releasing that water
Interest paid on borrowed during peak periods. This creates additional tariff benefits
Included
funds during construction because pump storage plants can cash in the price difference
between peak and off-peak tariffs, if such a differential exists in
Source: FICHTNER
the market model.
The output of most small hydropower plants is taken off
As Table 14-1 describes, the financial rate of return is the under a feed-in-tariff scheme (FiT), which guarantees a fixed
discount rate that could be expected if money were invested in price for electricity produced by a renewable energy source such
the next best project option (opportunity cost of capital). The as SHPP over several years. Cost differences between the market
appropriate discount rate is referred to as the weighted average price and the feed-in-tariff may be recovered from consumers
cost of capital (WACC). The WACC is defined as the after-tax through a supplement on the retail price, or recovered through
weighted average of an investors entire source of finance such other sources such as taxes.
as common stock, retained earnings, preferred stock and debt. Most PPAs and feed-in-tariff schemes are shielded from
Generally, deriving investor WACC can require multiple complex market fluctuations since the agreements include negotiated
calculations, but in essence WACC calculation is as follows:12 or fixed prices. Instead, market risk is passed to the off-taker.
Merchant plantsindependent power plants (IPPs) without
a PPAmust sell electricity at their own risk, particularly
WACC = Weight of Equity x Cost of Equity in deregulated markets in which electricity is purchased in a
+ Weight of Debt x Cost of Debt competitive market at varying volumes and prices.
In addition to the two examples given above, several other
schemes exist. For example, regulated tariffs could be established
where the value of debt is calculated as after-tax value. on a project-by-project basis, negotiated tariffs with one or more
Furthermore, several issues must be anticipated regarding off-takers, or market-based incentives for renewable energy such
HPP financial analysis assumptions, which will be outlined as renewable energy credits, the price of which varies with the
below (see Box 14-3). market.
The financial analysis must consider how the tariff regime
Revenue under which the plant sells its power will affect cash flow. For
Larger hydro facilities supply power under a purchase price example, merchant plants have volatile revenues because they
agreement (PPA) or based on wholesale market prices, depending sell varying volumes at varying prices; income varies according
to whether a plant provides base or peak power.
12. For further information please consult:
Armitage, Seth. The Cost of Capital: Intermediate Theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Hydrology
University Press, 2005.
Johnson, Hazel. Determining Cost of Capital: The Key to Firm Value. London: Hydrology determines how much water will be available for
FT Prentice Hall, 1999. electricity generation throughout the year, based on historical
Pratt, Shannon P., and Roger J. Grabowski. Cost of Capital: Applications and Examples.
4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010. seasonal rain patterns and geography. Hydrological study results
are essential for the financial analysis since plant operation is
N
crucial to project financial viability. Hydrology determines the Ct
optimal size and average load factor for a hydropower plant,
NPV (i, N ) t
0
which summarizes how much electricity can be produced (1 i)t
throughout the year with a specific installed capacity. Therefore,
hydrologys stochastic nature makes it essential to assess project where is the financial discount rate (WACC), the
sensitivity to annual energy yield fluctuations and to predict how net cash flow at time t and the total number of time
much electricity can be sold throughout the year, because project periods.
cash flow will be volatile. NPV is a central tool in discounted cash flow analysis and
Hydrology is affected by climate change impacts (rain is a standard method for using the time value of money to
patterns, water flows), which has potential to increase appraise long-term projects. Used for capital budgeting and
uncertainties connected to water flows and hydrology. Section widely used throughout economics, finance, and accounting,
14.3 provides more detail on hydrology based on which NPV measures the excess or shortfall of cash flows, in
sensitivity analysis could be carried out to assess the impacts on present-value terms, after financing charges are met.
financial parameters.
NPV can be described as the difference between total
Economic lifespan discounted cash inflows and cash outflows. NPV compares
Hydropower plants can have an operating lifespan of up to 50 todays present value of money to the futures present value
years or more, which is quite long compared to thermal power of money, taking inflation and returns into account.
plants. Typically economic and financial analyses assume a The NPV can also be derived for only the equity share of
lifespan of 3040 years. the investment (discounted with cost of equity).
Hydropower plants cost structure includes high capital costs Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE): The LCOE13
and low operating costs compared to thermal plants, which have is defined as the NPV of all costs divided by the NPV of
smaller investment costs but higher operating costs due to fuel electricity generation. In essence, the LCOE is the constant
use. This implies that hydropower projects have longer-term price per unit of energy that allows the investment to just
benefits and therefore may seem less attractive if the analysis break even over the period of analysis. Broadly speaking,
period chosen is too short. the lower the LCOE, the more profitable the project will
Therefore, even though the period selected for the financial be (See example in Box 14-4).
analysis may be shorter than that considered for the economic
analysis, it should still be long enough to capture longer-term Financial internal rate of return (FIRR): The internal
project benefits. rate of return (IRR) on an investment or project is the
In addition, the financial analysis should consider residual annualized effective compounded return rate or rate of
values of the HPP if the analysis period is shorter than the plant return that results in a zero net present value of all cash
operating lifespan. flows (positive and negative).
Capital costs Specifically, the IRR of an investment is the discount rate

at which the net present value of investment costs (negative
Hydropower plant capital costs are frequently subject to
cost overruns or project delays; this risk is mitigated through Net operating income
contingencies, discussed in Section 13. Capital costs can
Debt service coverage ratio
Debt
Total debt service
increase due to environmental or social considerations, such as
cash flows) equals the net present value of investment
resettlement. Because these sources of cost overrun are common,
benefits (positive cash flows).
a conservative financial analysis is recommended to take into
account all potential cost increases. Generally, an investor seeks a project with a high IRR
In addition, capital costs should be subjected to sensitivity compared to other investments in the same (risk) category
analysis to derive the effect of varying costs on cash flow. This is or sector.
discussed in Section 14.3. The FIRR can also be derived net of financing, called pre-
14.1.2 Financial analysis results/outputs tax FIRR on equity. The equity FIRR should be larger than
the opportunity cost of equity.
Typically, financial analysis is conducted through complex
custom spreadsheet models to calculate financial viability and Debt service coverage ratio (DSCR):
cash flow under a range of financing assumptions. The investor This is the ratio of cash available for debt servicing of
must determine financial performance, based on the following interest, principal and lease payments over the financing
financial modeling outputs: period. It is a benchmark used to measure an entitys ability
to produce enough cash to cover its debt (including lease)
Financial net-present value (NPV): The NPV is a stream of
payments. The higher this ratio is, the lower the investors
annual cash flows generated by the project over a given
risk. Lenders will demand that the DSCR be >1 by some
time period discounted by a pre-specified discount rate
margin to be confident that the debt can be repaid.
(i.e., time value of money) to a single value. Within the
context of the financial analysis, the appropriate discount
13. Sometimes referred to as Levelized Unit Costs (LUC).
rate to derive the net-present value is the WACC.

Box 14-4: LCOE example

[
This example will describe the derivation of the LCOE for a hydropower project, using the following variables as inputs:
Annual power generation: 342 GWh per year
Installed capacity: 66 MW
Investment costs (CAPEX): US$165 million
O&M costs: 1.2 percent of CAPEX per annum
Construction period: 4 years with equal cost disbursement
Lifespan: 60 years
Discount rate: 10 percent
The table below presents the basic time series calculation to derive net present values of generation and total costs. Typically this would be calculated for all 60
years of project lifespan, but the table provides only an example.
Construction period in years Operational period in years
1 4 5 2 64
Power generation per

Elect . Gen . GWh/a 0 0 342 342
year=342
CAPEX m$/a Capex/Const . Period = 41 .25 41 .25 0 0 0
1 .2% x US$165 million (CAPEX)

Opex m$/a 0 0 1 .992 1 .992
= Opex per year = 1 .992
Total m$/a Capex + Opex = Total = 41 .25 41 .25 1 .992 1 .992 1 .992
On the basis of the table above the net present value regarding total costs (CAPEX+OPEX) can be calculated with a discount rate of 10 percent according to the
following:
64
Total costst

NPVCosts
t 1 (1 10%)
t
144.32m$
Similarly the net present value for the electricity generation can be calculated according to the equation below:
64

Generationt
NPVGen. 2328.23 GWh
t 1 (1 10%)
t
Once net present values have been derived, the levelized unit costs or long run marginal costs can be derived:
NPVcos ts
LUC LRMC 0.06 *100 6$cent / kWh
NPVGen .
If a DSCR shortfall is forecast or if it occurs, a Debt Box 14-5: Typical benchmarks for key financial parameters on
Service Reserve Account, designed to cover this shortfall, SHPP projects
may be required.
The DSCR is particularly important given the hydrology Some financial attractiveness and eligibility criteria from Best Practice SHPP
implications; debt should be structured to address seasonal Projects are presented below:
variations, so that the DSCR is covered in dry months. Internal Rate of Return on the project(IRR) over 10 percent
Net Present Value on the project(NPV) equivalent to at least 25 percent of
Discounted payback period: This is the period needed to the investment. It should be expected that the Discount Rateor Weighted
recoup initial capital investments; the shorter, the better. Average Cost of Capital (WACC) feed into NPVshould be 9.0 percent or
higher (depending on market interest rate level).
Illustrative examples are given in Box 14-5 and Box 14-6. Simple Payback Time (SPT)Ideally fewer than 10 years for a SHPP
project, but varies from market to market and can vary from 1015 years
Debt Service Cover Ratio (DSCR)usually in the range of 1.21.5
14.2 Economic analysis Exact criteria are subject to discretion and decided upon in each case
Economic analysis is conducted primarily in response to a based on complete financial due diligence and financial structure. Domestic
benchmarks for these criteria often depend on the economys underlying
request by the country in which the project will be located,
interest rate, country risk and general level of economic development, and are
or an international financial institution such as development subject to changes over time.
banks. However, for large hydro projects especially in case of
Box 14-6: Financial analysis example: Large hydropower in The discount rate appropriate for economic analysis is the
Vietnam economic discount rate, which is the rate of return or interest
rate of the entire economy, i.e., the national opportunity cost of
The project under consideration is a large hydropower facility at the Ma River, capital. In comparison, WACC is applicable only to an individual
Quan Hoa district, Thanh Hoa province in northwestern Vietnam. The project investor since the WACC calculation is based on a single
is designed with an installed capacity of 250 MW. investors cost of equity and debt.
Key Assumptions Project costs and benefits are valued at economic prices that
Six years construction /two years partial operation/39 years full operation exclude taxes, subsidies, import duties, etc., as these costs do not
US$349 million CAPEX/ O&M costs of 1.5 percent of CAPEX add to economic productivity and are merely transactional in
Energy output is 1,019 GWh per annum nature.
WACC is 4.7 percent In addition to the assumptions above, the hydro-specific
Results assumptions made under Section 14.1.1 apply equally to the
economic analysis.
FIRR is 6.46 percent, which is larger than the WACC of 4.7 percent
LUC are US$0.0289, which is smaller than average generation costs of Some projects can produce substantial macroeconomic
US$0.031 benefits including for communities near the construction site,
such as jobs and lower electricity costs. In the following section,
Conclusion
benefits and costs are elaborated from a communal and macro
As the FIRR rate of return is larger than the WACC, the project is profitable perspective, respectively.
from a financial viewpoint.
14.2.1.1 Local economic benefits and costs
Most hydropower projects provide relatively inexpensive power
negotiated tariffs, economic analysis is essential and provides all and other benefits to local communities. Local benefits should be
stakeholders (including developers) with valuable insights on the weighed against negative impacts.
value of the project to the economy. Local economic benefits from hydropower plants include the
Economic analysis evaluates project costs and benefits following:
from the perspective of the economy/society. Benefits and costs
(transnational, national and regional) including project external Creates local jobs and trains workers
effects are quantified and expressed in monetary terms to derive Develops infrastructure, such as roads and electricity
the economic net benefit.
Improves local services, such as enhanced water supply,
The following section provides more information on the
schools and healthcare facilities
assumptions underlying the economic analysis, some of which
overlap with the financial analysis. The section will outline Boosts agricultural productivity and marketing, for
significant output indicators and present a case study to illustrate example through enhanced irrigation systems
a practical application of economic analysis. Promotes other business activities
14.2.1 Assumptions Increases fishing opportunities (difficult to quantify)
Table 14-2 below provides an overview of general assumptions Boosts tourism and leisure opportunities (difficult to
for economic analysis of hydropower projects. quantify)
Local economic costs from hydropower development are
incurred mainly by larger facilities, and include:
Table 14-2: Economic analysis assumptions
Requires human resettlement (among the most prominent
Economic analysis assumptions
costs)
State, and/or national and community
Analysis perspective
perspective Requires environmental and social mitigation (among the
most prominent costs)
Economic life of project, i .e ., until
Evaluation period
decommissioning Diminishes local resources during construction, i.e., local
Exclude inflationary effects; price changes communities face fewer resources, such as electricity
Adjustment for inflation different from inflation can be included (difficult to quantify)
(escalation)
Project inputs valued using their

Opportunity cost of land used for HPP development
Project input valuation economic opportunity costs, derived by
excluding taxes, tariffs, subsidies, etc . 14.2.1.2 Public economic benefits and costs
Economic discount rate; real rate of Hydropower projects can provide a substantial boost for the
return (excluding inflation) that could macro economy, depending on the national power market
Discount rate
be expected if money were invested in
another project context, and can provide a host of other macroeconomic benefits
such as:
Interest paid on borrowed
Not included (financial cost)
funds during construction Lower electricity costs represented by the difference
between hydro generation and the next best power
Source: FICHTNER
alternative. Hydro option avoids fuel-cost volatility and
features a long lifespan.

Box 14-7: Economic costs and sedimentation
Reduced electricity rationing (load shedding) due to
increased capacity (if applicable), calculated as cost of Reduced project lifespan due to extrn
alis
electricity not served Sedimentation remains one of the most severe problems faced by storage
hydropower projects. Small particles that are carried along in the flow of
Increased investment and national income due to the river accumulate and settle in the stilled dam area. As more sediment
providing cheaper and more reliable electricity, calculated accumulates, dam storage capacity declines and the river downstream
using regression analysis and a dataset of similar projects from the dam carries less sediment than before the dam was installed. This
situation has severe implications for project economic costs since sediment
Reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels, less need to accumulation reduces project lifespan through turbine abrasion, i.e., increased
accumulate foreign currency, hence lower currency risk for wear on the turbine from sediment entering.
national economy This happened at the Warsak Dam Project in Pakistan; during periods of high
flows sediment entered the intake structure of the dam and led to rapid turbine
Possible increased support for rural electrification deterioration. Originally, the plant was designed to evacuate sediment through
programs the spillway; but water flow during high flow periods was underestimated.
Reduced greenhouse gas emissions Adverse impacts
More environmental benefits from reducing alternative Sediment is bad for turbines but beneficial for agriculture because it carries
nutrients important for fertilizing plants and soil. When a dam blocks the flow
fossil fuel-based electricity generation of sediment, agriculture suffers an economic cost, which is what happened
Reduced health costs and better overall air quality from in Egypt with the Aswan Dam. Before the dam was constructed, the annual
flooding of the Nile River contributed to soil fertility due to the nutrients carried
pollution externalities, using regression analysis, if data are in the sediment. After the dam was constructed, soil fertility suffered and crop
available yields were reduced.
Downstream benefits such as irrigation, water supply, Therefore, sedimentation incurs two types of economic costs for large storage
flood mitigation, increased potential for water-based hydropower projects: (i) reduced project lifespan, and (ii) reduced agricultural
production.
transport, increased ability to regulate additional
downstream hydropower plants (if applicable and can be
difficult to measure) 14.2.2 Economic analysis results/outputs
Increased tax payments to government Once costs and benefits have been identified and are expressed in
monetary terms, the economic net benefit is derived as illustrated
National benefits must be evaluated against their costs.
below in Figure 14.1.
Typical macro costs for hydropower projects, depending on plant
Project viability can also be assessed using the following
size, include the following:
indicators, which have the same underlying logic as the
Land acquisition costs, calculated as real economic value indicators outlined in Section 14.1.2 (see also Box 14-7 for
of land, including opportunity cost example):
Capital expenditures and operation and maintenance Economic net-present value
costs; disaggregated into shares of national currency and
Economic levelized cost of electricity
foreign currency, also, potential risk posed by foreign
currency exposure to exchange rate volatility Economic internal rate of return: As mentioned in Section
14.2.1, for the economic analysis, the economic internal
Costs incurred due to design, investigation, monitoring,
rate of return should be compared to the economic
adaptive management, planning and sighting
discount rate (not to the WACC, as was the case for the
Capital and service costs related to environmental and financial analysis).
social mitigation
Economic cost/benefit ratio: Compares the monetary value
Costs related to replacing major equipment or major civil of total benefits to the monetary value of total costs. The
works ratio should be larger than one, indicating that project
Subsidies if needed benefits outweigh the costs.
Not all regional/national costs and benefits apply to every

hydropower project however, any of the above costs and benefits
that are at hand and quantifiable should be included in the
economic analysis to capture the largest possible context. Box
14-7 illustrates the economic costs of sedimentation.
Figure 14-1: Derivation of economic net benefit
Benefits Other
Environmental
Gross power from benefits
costs, Environmental Annual net
benefits per avoided O&M costs such as
Resettlement benefits benefit
annum pollution flood
per annum etc.
control, etc.
Source: FICHTNER
Box 14-8: Economic analysis example: Large hydropower Box 14-9: Sensitivity analysis example
in Vietnam
Below are two examples of sensitivity analysis outputs with respect to costs
The Ma River large hydropower project in Vietnam illustrates the following: and electricity prices.
Benefits Effect of costs on IRR
16
Power and electricity: Measured as avoided costs, i.e., in the absence of the
Ma River project, other projects would be developed to meet the demand. 15.4
Therefore, the benefit is quantified by estimating the marginal value of coal 15
and gas-fired power production and the value of avoided thermal capacity. 14.5
Internal Rate of Return (%)

Reduced CO2 emission 14
Avoided generation costs: avoided variable costs of thermal power production 13.7
Reduced dependency on thermal fuels

13
Increased agricultural productivity 12.8
Improved flood control

12 12
Assumptions
In addition to the assumptions made under the financial analysis, the following 11
assumptions are valid for the economic analysis:
Inflation of 2.7 percent (OECD) and 5.0 percent (local) 10
Capacity benefit of $1,116/kW -20% -10% Base Case +10% +20%
Flood control benefit at around US$5.4 million Effect of electricity price on IRR
Economic costs exclude value-added taxes and contingencies 20
Loss of forest value at US$8.0 million 18.4

18
Economic discount factor at 12 percent
Internal Rate of Return (%)

Results 16
The EIRR of 19 percent is larger than the discount rate 14

The project exhibits economic levelized electricity costs of US$0.05/kWh 13.7
with a net present value of US$361 million. 12
Conclusion 10
The project is economically feasible and the project guarantees economic 8.4
sustainability. Project benefits outweigh project costs, thereby contributing to 8
national economic development.

6
Low High
Base Case
14.3 Sensitivity analysis

The sensitivity analysis varies essential parameter inputs for
financial and economic analysis, while all other variables remain Source: FICHTNER
constant, ceteris paribus. Uncertain parameters/inputs are
identified and the effects of their variations on key outcomes help
determine the amount of contingency that should be included in Tariffs
project investment (see Box 14-9 for example). Environmental mitigation costs
Typically, the effects of input parameter variations are
Hydrology variations affect project profitability because
monitored through:
revenue from electricity sales declines during dry years.
IRR (financial and economic) Consequently, investors should conduct probability estimations
LCOE (financial and economic) during the financial analysis, in particular cash flow analysis.
Dry years reduce net operating income and could reduce investor
Debt service coverage ratio ability to service the debt. Therefore, an investor would demand
Typical parameters subjected to sensitivity analyses are the a DSCR of greater than one to ensure profitability even if
following: dry years occur frequently. Hydrology should be subjected to
sensitivity analysis due to its stochastic nature.
Investment costs: Typically varied by 10 percent,
To analyze hydrology sensitivities, the probability and
reflecting under- or overestimation of work magnitudes
impact of dry years is calculated.
or unit prices (variations can be increased or decreased
depending on project size and national context). The Dry year, 75 percent (P75): this is the annual energy
variation interval should be increased when evaluating production which is reached with a probability of 75
the project at a very early stage because of higher risk and percent;
increased uncertainty.
Very dry year, 95 percent (P95): this is the annual energy
Construction delays: due to adverse weather conditions or production, which is reached with a probability of 95
other impediments to project implementation according to percent.
schedule
Alternative economic and financial discount rates

Using the definition of relative dry years helps derive flow Debt service coverage ratio
duration curves for average years, and for P75 and P95 years, as
Simple payback period
seen in Figure 14-2.
Economic analysis investigates project feasibility from the
perspective of the economy and society by comparing local
Figure 14-1: Impacts of hydrology on water discharge and public costs and benefits. Typical parameters include the
Source: FICHTNER
following:
Economic IRR
1.8
1.6 Economic LUC

1.4
Average year Economic cost/benefit ratio
1.2
Discharge [m3/s]
Q75% year
The sensitivity analysis reveals the impact of variations to
1 Q95% year
input parameters to derive overall robustness of the analyses
0.8
towards change.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 Box 14-10: Common pitfalls and issues to anticipate

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Days
Financial and economic analyses have a high degree of explanatory power

but are only as good as their underlying assumptions.
Flow duration curves and their underlying probability Many underlying assumptions such as demand forecasts and price forecast
distributions help derive annual electricity generation for average are subject to a high degree of uncertainty and should be treated as a best
years, P75 and P95 which offers valuable insight into generation guess extreme caution.
Accurate estimates of financial costs and investment costs are deemed
capacities during bad years compared to generation capacity necessary and should be done under due diligence. Cost estimates are
during average years. frequently undervalued due to unforeseen scope adjustments, procurement
efficiency and local capacities.
Hydrology is among the most critical parameters to consider, including in
14.4 Conclusion the cash flow analysis due to the potential impact it could have on the debt
Financial and economic analyses serve different purposes but both service covering ratio.
are needed especially in large hydro projects. However, there are The long operational lifespan of hydropower plants should always be taken
some common pitfalls and issues to anticipate (see Box 14-10). into consideration, distinct from thermal alternatives.
Environmental and social issues must be considered during HPP project
Financial and economic analyses help determine HPP development, in particular resettlement and its associated costs, which could
project attractiveness and viability. be substantial.
Successful HPP development requires a well-developed communications
Financial analysis uses the following parameters: strategy, and early and continuous engagement with stakeholders, in
particular the local community.
Financial internal rate of return (IRR)
Financial levelized cost of electricity (LCOE)

106 FINANCING HPP PROJECTS
A major consideration in financing

hydropower schemes is that high
up-front capital costs can make
them less attractive in the short
term, but this is offset to a degree
by long operating lifespans and
low operating costs that provide
significant long-term benefits.
Financing HPP Projects

Financing hydropower projects is complex due to hydro-specific characteristics such as hydrology,
15
potential for cost overruns and delays, and long-term benefits . This section will discuss available financing
schemes, in particular those suitable for risks common to hydro projects .
For more information on hydropower (project) financing, see the increase capital costs. Also, a major consideration in financing
following resources: hydropower schemes is that high up-front capital costs can make
them less attractive in the short term, but this is offset to a degree
Head, Chris (2000) Financing of Private Hydropower
by long operating lifespans and low operating costs that provide
Projects, World Bank Discussion Paper 420, 2000. The
significant long-term benefits.
paper provides details on the hydro financing process,
Characteristics of hydro power plants include the following:
financing arrangements and a broader context such as
regulatory framework, off-take contracts and project Site-specific. Each hydro project is unique and several
implementation. alternatives exist to develop a potential hydro site.
Head, Chris (2006) The Financing of Water Construction. Construction periods are long and risks are
Infrastructure: A Review of Case Studies, World Bank, high due to local geological conditions, flooding, lack of
2006. This paper covers economic and financial viability, site access, and other risks.
project risks, bankability and financing instruments.
High proportion of civil works. This increases risk because
Plummer, Judith (2011) Options Assessment for final cost predictions are highly uncertain, particularly in
Structuring and Financing new Hydropower in PNG countries with high inflation rates.
PPIAF, 2011. The paper covers financing options under
High capital costs.
Public-Private-Partnerships in Papua New Guinea.
Long plant lifespan of around 50 years.
Box 15-1: Financing small hydro Hydrology. Power output can be unpredictable due to the
stochastic nature of water flows, in particular for run-of-
river plants.
Small hydropower projects might be less profitable, therefore more difficult
to finance than larger projects. Many hydropower cost components are fixed Environmental/social considerations. Hydropower
regardless of project scale so larger hydro facilities offer economies of scale development requires considerable investment in
the larger the facility, the lower the costs. For example, a typical feasibility communications and mitigation measures for E&S.
study might account for 1.0-2.0 percent of total costs of a large hydro facility;
for a small hydro plant the study might account for 5.0 percent of total cost. Externalities. Larger facilities can provide multiple benefits
In addition, most small facilities are designed as run-of-river so output depends such as flood mitigation, irrigation, aquaculture, reserve
on the water flows, which can vary seasonally and annually, creating revenue drinking water supply and recreational potential, among
uncertainty. Therefore small hydropower plants are highly cost-sensitive; the others.
impact of unforeseen costs is higher.
These characteristics have direct implications on the
Consequently limited-recourse project finance (see Section 15.3.1) is difficult
for small hydro plants without support mechanisms such as Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) financing package: Long-tenor private finance is essential since
schemes and standardized contracts such as PPAs, concession agreements, hydro development costs are front-loaded and its technical
or step-in-rights. lifetime is long (see Box 15-2).
High construction risks require well-planned mitigation
measures and risk-sharing arrangements to attract
15.1 General financing considerations
financiers and keep tariffs low. The EPC contract is a
Hydropower project financing is complex because it is highly critical component of risk sharing.
dependent on hydrology and uncertain water flows imply
uncertain electricity generation and income. Financing must be Long-term off-take agreements will make hydropower
structured to mitigate this risk. Hydropower project financing projects more attractive to private investors to compensate
schemes must take into account the potential for frequent cost for the fact that generation and power sales are variable
overruns, delays, and any potential resettlement that could due to water flows stochastic properties.

15.2 Financing options Figure 15-1: Project vs . corporate finance
This section discusses financing options for hydropower projects.

15.2.1 Project vs. corporate finance
Corporate finance. A lending institution offers financing
to corporations that will implement the hydro project and
assume responsibility for debt servicinginterest and capital
repayments. The lender focuses on the corporations ability to
service the interest and repay or refinance the debt.
Project finance. The focus is hydro project bankability
because the project, or the project-company will rely on project-
generated cash flow alone to cover lender obligations. Under
this scheme, project assets may serve as collateral to reduce
lender risk. For example, sales agreement proceeds (off-take
agreements), or shares pledged in the project company or that
project physical assets could become the property of the lender in
case of repayment default.
Figure 15-1 highlights key differences between project and
corporate finance.
The key advantage of project finance is that it limits investor
exposure to the project assets and safeguards their other assets.
The opposite is also true; if project investors go bankrupt, the
project company is not affected.
A corporate finance scheme could be beneficial if a project
has small capital requirements and high financial viability,
despite the difficulty of estimating cash flows.
15.2.2 Key Players
Figure 15-2 presents the key stakeholders in HPP project finance.
The cast of players varies depending on HPP complexity, but
usually includes the following:
Sponsors or SPV shareholders. A Special Purpose Vehicle
(SPV) is established by the investors. The majority
shareholder is usually the main sponsor who is running the
project.
Source: FICHTNER
Figure 15-2: Project players and finance structure
Shareholders
Dividends & Capital

Interest
Principal &
Power Purchase Project Company Financial Interest
Off-taker (SPV) Banks
Agreement contract
Payment
Construction O&M
contract contract
Insurance Operating Operating

Company Company Company
Service
contract
Service
Suppliers
Source: FICHTNER
For larger hydropower facilities, the national undertaken to derive the effects of risks. The following are key
government or a government agency is often the risks from the perspective of project developers and lenders:
sponsor; or the private sector could be involved
Hydrology. Poses the highest risk for HPP development
through a PPP scheme.
because it determines plant power generation and
For small HPP projects, private investors are often revenues. Reliable data are a prerequisite for sound
the sponsors. project planning; this risk can be minimized through
long-term time series of daily hydrological data and a
Lenders. Normally a financial institution (bank) will
sound methodology to determine expected water flow at
provide most of the debt resources needed. For larger
the potential site. Nevertheless, uncertainties will exist
projects with higher risk, it is common for more than one
about future discharges because they could deviate from
bank or financial institution to provide funding to spread
historical values, due to climate change for example.
the risk among them. Lenders are typically categorized as
This risk is out of the control of the developer, but can be
follows:
simulated.
International commercial banks
Permitting/licensing. This is a complex process with
Local banks (rarely provide long-term financing) high potential for delays and increased costs because it
Development banks or multilateral financing involves multiple agencies and approvals. Risk mitigation
institutions (e.g., IFC, KfW, EBRD, ADB, AfDB, involves familiarity with specific requirements, early
IDB, EIB, GGF, among others) engagement with the relevant agencies and collaboration
with experienced local partners or consultants; also,
Off-taker. Typically this is a national or regional power
early engagement of the local community and affected
utility or single buyer; also, power could be sold directly
stakeholders.
to an end-user under a bilateral agreement, or to a power
broker via a PPA, which is usually the case for larger Payment default. The off-taker (utility) may be unable to
hydro installations. Often, smaller facilities sell electricity fulfill payment obligations. To mitigate this risk, an escrow
under feed-in-tariff schemes, which guarantee a fixed price. account with a minimum holding could be established;
Off-taker creditworthiness is crucial for project financial also, the Government could issue a guarantee.
viability. Local currency devaluation. If the financial market is
Contractors. Construction and equipment suppliers are the sufficiently developed, formal hedging is possible. In same
primary suppliers to the SPV before the HPP power plant cases, tariffs (e.g. Feed-in Tariffs) may be indexed to a
becomes fully operational. foreign currency providing adequate protection. If these
two options do not apply, the SPC must assume the foreign
Operating company. If the SPV does not cover O&M,
exchange risk.
an agreement must be undertaken with another service
provider for project operation and maintenance. Change in the regulatory framework: If the tariff and
off-take terms (e.g., obligation to take all electricity
Insurance company. Insures the project against investment
produced) are affected by a regulation supporting HPPs, it
risks such as construction delays, operation failures,
is possible that the government may change the regulation
or late payment from power purchaser or electricity
retroactively affecting signed PPAs. This is not common,
administration. Insurance is necessary before project
but it has happened in recent years, mostly on wind
completion and during plant operation:
and solar projects and it could happen in HPP projects.
Insurance during pre-completion phasecovering Potentially this risk can be covered, but in either case, the
construction risks, environmental and political risks, developer should assess the sustainability of the regulatory
framework and the ability of the off-taker to pay.
Insurance during post-completion phasecovering
O&M risks (operational failures), environmental, Cost overruns and schedule delays. As noted earlier, HPP
political, non-payment and transfer risks. projects are dominated by upfront civil works costs, which
Risk mitigation actions for the project are based on constitute 50 percent or more of total project costs (see
Section 13.2.3.1). Because each HPP project is a one-off,
sponsors, bank requirements, and managerial discretion.
exposure to external factors such as geology, natural
hazards, or extreme weather, these costs are unpredictable
15.2.3 Risks and mitigation measures and high-risk. Some of these risks can be controlled
Risks can strongly influence hydropower project financing. Most through comprehensive technical assessments; also, some
project lenders are risk-averse and seek secure repayments; but risks could be shifted to the EPC.
equity investors accept higher risks for which they are entitled to Market dynamics. Countries dominated by hydro
higher returns. generation may experience typical seasonal market
Risks can reduce project attractiveness for some lenders; challenges such as inadequate supply during the dry season
other lenders are willing to accept more risks for higher yields. and oversupply during the wet season. During dry months,
But if the project risk profile is too high, project financing may a relatively low percentage of generated power is sold at
not be feasible. Thus, a well-prepared financial analysis should premium prices when demand is high. During the wet
include a detailed risk analysis. season, prices are low and there is likely an oversupply of
Some risks could and should be mitigated to keep lender generated power, unless it can be exported. Consequently,
interest rates low. Mitigation measures vary depending on the the developer must consider the increased risks from future
risk, so financial modeling and sensitivity analysis should be
Figure 15-3: Risks and project development
Project is economically
viable and a government
priority
Yes
Financially Yes Political Yes Commercial Yes Project riskrOk? Yes Private Sector
viable? risk Ok? Risk Ok? Project
Yes Yes Yes Yes

No No No No
PPP
Overt Partial risk Government Mitigate/
subsidy? guarantees guarantees? Insure?
No No No No
Public Sector
Project
Source: Head 2006
additions to power generation, which could affect power

supply market dynamics. (PPPs). In the BOT framework, a third party, such as
A detailed list of hydro development risks is found in Section public administration, delegates the task of designing,
17.2. Potential risks influence how the project is financed. Figure building infrastructure, financing and operating the plant
15-3 displays this notion graphically. for a fixed period (e.g., 20 years) to a private sector entity.
During this period the private sector entity will collect all
15.2.4 Financing sources and schemes
project-generated revenues, which should be adequate to
Selecting an appropriate HPP project financing scheme and cover the obligations to the lenders and provide a
sources of finance depends on project size, capital requirements, reasonable profit commensurate to the risks assumed.
project financial viability, and project risks. For the largest When the concession agreement ends, the facility is
projects, the public sector may be the only source of finance, transferred to the public administration without further
however if capital requirements and risks are low, a corporate remuneration to the concessionaire.
finance scheme might be appropriate. Typically, complex projects
BOObuild-own-operate. Under this finance model
opt for project finance as outlined in Section 15.3.1.
the private company retains the facility and any residual
Figure 15-4 below summarizes how project size relates to
project value because the physical life of the project
the choice of financing scheme and provides a matrix to select an
coincides with the concession period. A BOO scheme
appropriate scheme.
involves very large investments and a long payback period.
Figure 15-4 also implies that some hydro projects are too
small for project finance and too risky for corporate finance, Depending on the financing option, appropriate debt sources
which could create a potential financing gap. will be selected (Table 15-1).
Common private sector financing models include the Figure 15-5 summarizes sources of finance most likely to be
following: applied under different financing schemes.
Financing terms, not only the interest rate but also the tenor,
BOTbuild-operate-transfer. This is the preferred funding
affect significantly the tariffs, as illustrated in Box 15-2.
mechanism for small HPP and is applied extensively in
infrastructure projects and public private partnerships
Figure 15-5: Financing instruments for project structures
Figure 15-4: Financing options in relation to project size
Private
High Equity
Project
Public finance may Private
Capital Investment
financing Project financing

Debt
be the only option
possible may be possible Export Credit
and Guarantees
US$ with enhancements
100m Public
May be too large for Debt
Corporate ? concessions and too small for Public

financing cost effective credit enhancement Equity
possible Concessionary/grant finance may be available Concessionary

finance
Low
High Financial viability Low
Private Private Private Private Split Private
Project Project Project Project Project Project
Source: Head 2006 100% Minority Majority Direct Public- Parastatal
Privately Public Public Public Private Agency/
Owned Holding Holding Subsidy Government
Instrument likely to be used Instrument possibly used
Source: Head 2006

Table 15-1: Sources of finance 15.3 Conclusion

Types of Hydropower finance is complex due to the following
Source Interest Tenor characteristics:
Finance
Bilateral sources Long operating life

Concessionary or multilateral
finance grants development Very low Long-term High capital costs
or soft loans agencies; carbon
credits High construction risks
Public investment Site-specific, each development is unique
(government-
supported) Some Dividends Environmental and social considerations
public equity is cans start low
Public equity
indirectly funded and increase
Indefinite External benefits and multipurpose benefits often
through bilateral/ over time not monetized by the project developer.
multilateral
development banks Uncertain power generation due to variable
Low rates
hydrology
Government loans, Medium to
set by
public bonds, long-term HPP financing requires long-tenor, making it harder to
Public debt government or
or multilateral
development
with optional attract private investment.
development banks grace period
banks
Risks influence investor choices; high-risk projects are
Variable but likely to be developed and financed by the public sector;
Finance through
Medium to commonly
Export credit Export Credit
high short- to low-risk projects attract private sector investors. Projects
Agencies
medium-term with risk mitigation measures can be developed and
Short- to financed as a PPP.
Private Private banks, High (may be medium-term
commercial commercial arm of lower with a (possibly Risks and project development type influence debt and
debt development banks guarantee) extended with equity sources.
guarantees) Overall financing scheme depends on project size and
financial viability. Box 15-3 provides examples of HPP
Private sponsors, High dividends
private investors, are expected
Depends on project finance.
Private equity concession
commercial arm of as risk
length
development banks compensation
Box 15-2: Debt tenor and tariffs Box 15-3: Financing hydropower: International experience
Finance can significantly affect a hydropower project tariff, as is the case Theun Hinboun (120MW) Lao PDR
with many infrastructure projects. However, with hydropower the relationship The first IPP concession project; initial concession period of 30 years and
between finance and tariff is magnified by the following hydropower option for 10-year extension. Most of the electricity is taken off by Thailand.
characteristics: The project was financed with a debt-to-equity ratio of 55/45, primarily due to
the Asian currency crisis; the equity share was financed through an ADB loan.
Technical lifespan of up to 60 years
Royalties of 5.0 percent are paid to the Ministry of Finance and dividends to
Debt repayment can be as short as 12 years the state. After the concession period the plant reverts to the government.
Development costs are high and front-loaded
Allain-Duhangan (120MW) India
As a result, actual tariffs needed to service debt are likely to be much higher
The project was privately developed by a local and foreign sponsor as a
during initial project years. The graph below illustrates 10-year and 20-year
merchant plant without a long-term power off-take agreement. Most power
debt tenors; resulting tariffs are compared to the levelized tariff (i.e.,
was sold directly to industrial off-takers (eligible customers). The project was
discounted average tariff).
financed with a debt-to-equity ratio of 65/35; debt was provided by an IFC loan
6.50
and local banks.
10 year tenor
6.00 San Roque (345MW) Philippines
5.50 20 year tenor When public sector finance failed the project was successfully implemented
5.00
under a PPP scheme. Under this split ownership project the dam was publicly
Project levelized tariff
financed through a soft loan; the power station was financed through a
4.50
debt-to-equity ratio of 75/25. The debt was sourced through export credits,
C/Wh
Current tariff level

4.00 Japanese government loans and commercial loans. The generated power was
Tariff required to meet
3.50 project cash flow taken-off by a utility, backed by sovereign guarantees.
3.00
2.50
2.00
1 5 11 16 21 26 31
Yea r
Source: Plummer (2011)

The graph above shows that the longer the debt tenor, the closer the tariff will
be to the levelized tariff. Therefore, hydropower investments should be seen
as long-term investments and possibly long tenor debt should be sourced to
keep tariffs at bay. The high tariffs that result from short tenor debt make hydro
projects unattractive due to decreased economic viability.

108 REFERENCES
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Head, C., The Financing of Water Infrastructure: A Review of Case Studies, World Bank, 2006. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/
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49464B01PUBLIC1.pdf
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Commission Intelligent Energy Europe Project Database, No Date (Project duration 06/2012 to 06/2015). http://ec.europa.eu/
energy/intelligent/projects/en/projects/restor-hydro
Horlacher, H.B., Globale Potenziale der Wasserkraft (in German), Wissenschaftlicher Beirat Der Bundesregierung Globale
Umweltvernderungen, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2003. http://www.wbgu.de/fileadmin/templates/dateien/
veroeffentlichungen/hauptgutachten/jg2003/wbgu_jg2003_ex03.pdf
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No Date. http://impacto.co.mz/Licenca_Ambiental1.html
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.org/GB/Dams/role_of_dams.asp
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Roadmap.pdf
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Environmental and Social Performance Standards, 2012. http://www.ifc.org/performancestandards
Good Practice Handbook: Cumulative Impact Assessment and Management, 2013.
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CumulativeImpactAssessment.pdf?MOD=AJPERES
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publications-docs/2013%20IHA%20Hydropower%20Report.pdf
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) website, 2014. http://www.irena.org
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Kumar, A., T. Schei, A. Ahenkorah, R. Caceres Rodriguez, J.-M. Devernay, M. Freitas, D. Hall, A. Killingtveit, and Z. Liu, Chapter 5:
Hydropower in IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Prepared by Working Group
III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss,
S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlomer, C. von Stechow (eds)] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2011. http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/
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-global-hydropower-increases
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Projects, Sustainable Development Working Paper 162003, November 2003. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/LACEXT/
Resources/258553-1123250606139/Good_and_Bad_Dams_WP16.pdf
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Organization, International Center on Small Hydro Power, 2013. http://www.smallhydroworld.org/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/
WSHPDR_2013_Final_Report-updated_version.pdf
Merle-Beral, E., Improving Regulatory Procedures for Renewable Energy Projects; Guidelines for IFC Advisory Teams, International
Finance Corporation (IFC) - World Bank Group. Forthcoming, 2015.
Morgan, G., Environmental and social impacts of small-scale hydropower: Issues and Challenges
Presentation at World Bank Water Week, February 18, 2009. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWAT/
Resources/4602122-1213366294492/5106220-1234469721549/14.3_Environment_and_Social_Impacts_Small_Hydro.pdf
Mosonyi, E., Water Power Development: Low-head power plants, 3rd Edition, Budapest, Hungary, Akadmiai Kiad, 1987. (Out-of-print)
Plummer, J., Options Assessment for Structuring and Financing new Hydropower in PNG, Website of the Public-Private Infrastructure
Advisory Facility (PPIAF), 2011. www.ppiaf.org/sites/ppiaf.org/files/publication/PNGconceptNov.pdf
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Decision-Making on Dams and Their Alternatives, Nairobi, Kenya, 2007. http://www.unep.org/dams/files/Compendium/
Compendium.pdf
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USACEPublications/EngineerManuals.aspx
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110 ANNEX
Detailed geological mapping of a

project site must be carried out to
provide information on potential risk
zones, etc. To complement geological
mapping, further geotechnical and
geophysical site investigations are carried
out during project feasibility phase.
Annex
17.1 Comprehensive checklist for hydropower projects
17
Table 17-1: HPP project checklist
Initial Due
Screening Screening Diligence
Information required (Phase 1) (Phase 2) (Phase 3) Description
General Information
Site selection X X X Already in the PFS (at Phase 2) information on project location
and access must be provided, preferably with a location map . Also,
Access to site X X the distance from project to grid system and feed-in point shall be
addressed .
Connection to grid X X
Key HPP parameters Key project parameters shall be summarized in a table, including
the following:
Installed capacity
X X X Annual energy generation
Design head
Design discharge
Number of units
Geology
General geology of project area X X General geological information of project area is provided in the PFS
and FS . Further information on seismicity will be included in the FS
Seismicity X and will be assessed in Phase 3 .
Geological mapping Information During the FS, detailed geological mapping of project site must
on risk zones X be carried out to provide information on potential risk zones,
etc . To complement geological mapping, further geotechnical
Geotechnical and geophysical and geophysical site investigations are carried out during project
investigations design parameters X feasibility phase . The type of investigations, the laboratory test
as per results from laboratory tests results and their impacts on the design are described in the FS .
Hydrology
Catchment area (general description The project area hydro-meteorological characteristics together with
and key data) X X catchment area information (e .g ., elevation, area, slope, etc .)
shall be provided in the PFS and the FS . General hydrology
Hydro-meteorological stations information must be assessed in Phases 2 and 3 .
and data available (runoff, rainfall, X
temperature, etc .) A detailed hydrological analysis is carried out in Phase 3 based on a
detailed description in the FS report . This includes presenting the
Hydrological analysis: data basis (e .g ., number of gauging stations, type of data, length of
time covered by records)
Flow available for power generation X
Flood discharges
(continued)

112 ANNEX
Table 17-1: HPP project checklist (continued)
Initial Due
Environment and Social
Environmental and social impact During Phase 2, an assessment must be carried out to establish
assessment prepared X X whether the project fulfills the environmental and social legal
requirements . Typically this includes preparing an environmental
Minimum flow X and social impact assessment (ESIA); then based on the results, an
environmental and social management plan (ESMP) is prepared .
Protected areas
In general, environmental issues may have been briefly addressed in
the Phase 2 based on PFS results, but usually are described in detail
in the FS to thoroughly evaluate environmental risks and quantify
X necessary mitigation measures .
In this connection, determining the minimum flow is crucial
because flow is the key determinant of annual energy generation,
which determines project viability .
Power output and electricity generation
Determination of installed capacity X Although expected power output and power generation are
noted in the PFS (at Phase 2), determining installed capacity and
Computation of annual power calculating annual energy generation are carried out in detail in the
generation X FS (Phase 3) . The computations are based on hydrological analysis
results, i .e ., flow available for power generation .
Probability analysis for dry years
In this connection, special attention is paid to the quality of the
hydrological database (daily or monthly average flow data) . Using
X monthly average flow data usually results in overestimating annual
energy generation .
The probability analysis for dry years should be included in the FS to
assess the financial risk of low energy production .
Layout and design of HPP
Project concept and general layout X X X Project concept presentation and the general layout of the HPP
scheme are part of project appraisals in Phases 2 and 3 .
Detailed description of structural
components, including hydraulic The FS (Phase 3) provides detailed descriptions of all project
computations: dam, weir, diversion X structural components including detailed drawings (plan views,
structure, intake waterways, sections, etc .) . Hydraulic computations must be presented in the FS
powerhouse, tailrace to verify the dimensions of the hydraulic structures .
DrawingsProject overview and
general layout plan X X
DrawingsDetailed drawings of all
structures X
Electro-mechanical and hydro-mechanical equipment
Selected turbine type X X Detailed information on E&M equipment and hydraulic steel
structures is usually part of FS and thus can be evaluated only in
Description of hydraulic steel Phase 3 .
structures X
Turbine types are selected according to available head and selected
Description of electrical equipment X design discharge .
Transmission and grid connection
General description of connection to The general description of the grid connection is part of the PFS and
the grid system X X FS . The FS then provides detailed information on all transmission
system components to be assessed as part of due diligence (Phase 3) .
Description of switchyard X
Description of transmission line and
feed-in point X
Project implementation schedule
Planned timeline for project A detailed implementation schedule must be prepared for the FS .
implementation X The implementation schedule must consider not only construction
time for the civil works, but also manufacturing, delivery and
Detailed implementation schedule installation time for the E&M equipment . A preliminary schedule,
divided into civil works components, to be prepared for the PPS will be the basis for assessment during
E&M equipment (manufacturing, Phase 2 .
delivery and installation), X
transmission line components,
commissioning and testing
(continued)
Table 17-1: HPP project checklist (continued)
Initial Due
CAPEX
Preliminary cost estimate divided in Generally, a preliminary cost estimate is given in Phase 2, which
main components: civil works, E&M X X includes the cost relation of the main project components (i .e ., civil
equipment, transmission line works, E&M equipment and transmission system) . During Phase 2, it
is recommended to check that the list of cost items is complete and
Detailed cost estimates based that the estimates are adequate .
on BOQ and/or quotations for
Detailed cost estimates are part of due diligence (Phase 3) . Costs
engineering and design, civil works,
for civil works are usually based on the bill of quantities (BOQs)
E&M equipment,transmission line,
and unit costs of materials . These figures must be benchmarked to
environmental mitigation, project
comparable costs for national civil works . The assessment must be
management and supervision
X undertaken by an independent engineer experienced in the local
civil sector .
For the E&M equipment and the transmission system, assessment
of the CAPEX is based on supplier quotations . This should include a
completeness check, i .e ., not only the equipment but also delivery
to the site, and implementation, including commissioning
OPEX
Preliminary cost estimate divided During Phase 2, rough estimates for main cost components should
into main components:concession be checked . These include the following:
and other fees, salaries, insurance,
X X Maintenance costs: about 0 .5% of CAPEX for civil structures; 2 .0%
and maintenance
for equipment .
Salaries: about 2 employees per plant, depending on size and
number of plants and degree of automation .
Detailed cost estimate based on Insurance costs: about 0 .5% of CAPEX (civil works and
operational concept: concession and equipment) .
other fees, salaries, insurance costs,
maintenance costs,other costs Concession fee: annual concession fee is usually 2% of revenues
from generated electricity sales .
X
In Phase 3 of the appraisal process, the focus shall be on the
developers operational concept, especially staff for plant O&M
and maintenance procedures . Based on this, estimated staffing
expenses and maintenance costs will be assessed .
Source: FICHTNER
17.2 Risks associated with hydropower projects
Table 17-2: Risks of Hydropower Projects
Risks Description Mitigation
Political risks
Due to local or national changes in government, Enact special legislation, sovereign guarantees,
Political change
policy, legislation, regulation, instability, or unrest political-risk guarantees
Due to damage to project implementation Enact anti-corruption policy, vet contractors,

Corruption or developer reputation caused by effects of insist on transparent practices, adopt third-
corruption party monitoring
Due to shortcomings in administration or changes

Enact special legislation, sovereign guarantees,
Licensing in the legal framework that might delay licensing
political risk guarantees
process
Develop treaties, agreements, water

Upstream and downstream riparian rights and
Transboundary issues management plans, benefit-sharing
treaties, border security issues, etc .
agreements, co-development, co-ownership
Economic and financial risks
Enhance supervision, enhance investigation and

Due to inflation, commodity prices, competition design, adopt fixed-price EPC, hedge against
Cost escalation
for resources, etc . price increases of inputs, transfer risk through
bonds, contracts, insurance, etc .
Foreign exchange Due to currency gap between costs and revenues Transfer risk to contractor, hedging
Due to changes in tariffs, regulatory mechanism

Electricity market Seek long-term off-take agreement, hedging
for setting prices, etc .
(continued)

114 ANNEX
Table 17-2: Risks of Hydropower Projects (continued)
Risks Description Mitigation
Economic and Financial Risks (continued)
Seek sovereign guarantees, refinance option,

Due to financing instruments/tenure of available
Financing package low debt interest rate, longer repayment
finance
periods
Prequalify contractors, contract terms and

Performance of contractors / schedule
Delays due to inadequate scheduling conditions, transfer risk through bonds and
delays
insurance, warranties and guarantees, etc .
Technical Risks
Thorough hydrology analysis, contingency

Due to lower or higher-than-expected water
Hydrological margin for output, detailed investigation during
flows, floods, unusual seasonal variations
feasibility and design phases
Geotechnical seismic Due to geological activity structural problems arise Detailed analysis, site-specific design
Electro-mechanical equipment Due to underperformance as per project Supervision, inspection, quality assurance,
performance specifications reliability tests, guarantees and warranties
Supervision, inspection, quality assurance,

Construction Due to construction delays
reliability tests, guarantees and warranties
Detailed O&M contracts, guarantees and

Operation and maintenance Due to underperformance of O&M
warranties
Social Risks
Due to conflicts with local water users or Formal agreement with stakeholders, modify
Land and water use conflicts
downstream riparian, water use design
Due to resettlement, local employment and Formal agreement with stakeholders, modify
Resettlement and social unrest
compensation design
Due to threats to public safety or health during all Safety management plan, formal agreement
Public health and safety risks
project phases with stakeholders, modify project
International objection on social, Develop and carry out strategic

environmental or cultural grounds communications strategy, modify project
Preservation of historically significant sites and Design pre-project activities to investigate,

Cultural heritage issues
artifacts preserve, or modify project
Environmental Risks
Water quality Modify project, compensate for impacts
Sedimentation Modify project
Upstream/downstream flow regime Modify project, compensate for impacts
Wetlands protection Modify project, compensate for impacts
Modify project, compensate for impacts, pest

Biodiversity
management
Fish habitat Modify project, compensate for impacts

Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank IEA International Energy Agency
18
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator IFC International Finance Corporation
B/C Benefit/Cost ratio IHA International Hydropower Association
BOO Build-Operate-Own IP Indigenous Peoples
BOT Build-Operate-Transfer IR Insulation Resistance
BREP Balkan Renewable Energy Program IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
CAPEX Capital Expenses IRR Internal Rate of Return
DSCR Debt-Service Coverage Ratio kW Kilowatt
E&M Electrical and Mechanical LCOE Levelized Cost of Electricity
E&S Environmental and Social LUC Levelized Unit Costs
EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration MFWL Maximum Flood Water Level
EP Equator Principles NPV Net Present value
EPC Engineering, Procurement and Construction O&M Operation & Maintenance
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment OPEX Operating Expenses
ESMP Environmental and Social Management Plan PFS Pre-Feasibility Study
ESMS Environmental and Social Management System PID Process & Instrumentation Diagram
FDC Flow Duration Curve PM Preventive Maintenance
FIDIC Fdration Internationale des Ingnieurs-Conseils PMF Probable Maximum Flood
FIRR Financial Internal Rate of Return PPA Power Purchase Agreement
FiT Feed-in Tariffs PPP Public-Private-Partnership
FS Feasibility Study SHPP Small Hydro Power Plant
GIIP Good International Industry Practice SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
GIS Geographic Information System TBM Tunnel Boring Machines
GRP Glass-fiber-reinforced Plastic TPC Total Plant Costs
GW Gigawatts TWh Terawatt-hours
H Head USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers
HPP Hydro Power Plant USGS US Geological Survey
HVAC High-Voltage Alternating Current WACC Weighted Average Cost of Capital
ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams

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A Guide for Developers and Investors

Cover Image: Large PhotoBigstock/Danny Wilde, Small PhotoWorld Bank

3 . Overview of Hydropower Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 . Design and Typical Layouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

7 . Hydrology and Energy Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

8 . Permits and Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

11 . Operation & Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

12 . Environmental and Social Impact Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

13 . Capital and O&M Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

14 . Economics and Financial Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

15 . Financing HPP Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

A Guide for Developers and Investors

A Guide for Developers and Investors

A Guide for Developers and Investors

A Guide for Developers and Investors

Grid connection to permitting and licensing, local opposition to the project,

Large hydro 1,o507,650 22 .5 25 to 90 0 .020 .19 Phase Check by bank Data/study

A Guide for Developers and Investors

This guide aims to provide a

Estimated global technical potential

A Guide for Developers and Investors

Figure 3-2: Current hydroelectricity production and available technical potential

North America (25%)

Latin America (21%)

Middle East (5%)

Asia and Pacific (18%)

United States (16%)

Brazil (25%) Production

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000

Box 3-1: From ancient to modern times

Source: British Museum, Department of Source: The Guardian

A Guide for Developers and Investors

Figure 3-5: Estimate of commissioned capacity in 2012

Sources: IHA 2013 and FICHTNER

Figure 3-6: Expected mid-term evolution of hydropower installed capacity

RoW Brazil China

Russia United States Canada

North America Central and South America Europe and Eurasia

A Guide for Developers and Investors

This chapter provides an overview

exist in nature, for instance when a stream runs down a steep

A Guide for Developers and Investors

1. Micro hydropower projects can supply electricity for an

Figure 4-2: Installed Figure 4-3: Francis Turbine at the FS

Source: Minor, Wasserbau

the product of available flow and head. Hence, even high-head

For more information about pumped storage plants, please refer

Box 4-1: Examples of storage and run-of-river HPP schemes

Source: Wikimedia Source: Wikimedia

Installed capacity: 2080 MW Installed capacity: 148 MW

A Guide for Developers and Investors

Box 4-2: Typical layouts of HPP schemes

High and medium head schemes Low head schemes

Source: Strobl & Zunic, Wasserbau

DIVERSION SCHEMES (POWERHOUSE IN REMOTE LOCATION DOWNSTREAM OF THE DAM)

High and medium head schemes Low head schemes

Source: Minor, Wasserbau

Figure 4-7: Diversion weir