44

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RELATED STUDIES

Disaster preparedness is both a condition and a choice. While the knowledge of

disasters is a condition for learning their eventual management, the choice of capacities

to build is directly proportional to the degree of disaster risk reduction which the

researchers may deem acceptable or tolerable to a certain community. In being so,

disaster preparedness may yet prove to be the one, single factor which finally would

institute the much-needed resilience as well as change internal and external for the

social development of the City of Manila, or of any other city, for that matter. For the

selected barangay of this study, it could well be the framework in its need to transform its

own condition of vulnerability into capability and turn its own choice of mere self-

preservation into managed self-livelihood. Thus, the PDRRM Act of 2010 have sought to

take into account all the comprehensiveness and sensitiveness, complexities and

perplexities, improvements as well as impediments which are all involved in the

preparation of a highly-exposed urban community to all kinds of disaster.

A review of literature and related studies, therefore, is of primary concern to the

researchers so they will be able to understand more about the problems stated in this
 45

study, and through a steady process of elimination and validation, learn how to later on

proceed with the search for a credible set of summary of findings, conclusions and

recommendations. It is, should the researchers say, a vital organ of this researchs own

development plan.

This review, therefore, shall present the legal basis, local and foreign literature,

related studies, as well as a synthesis. It is the fervent prayer of the researchers that the

great amount of literature gathered for this study shall not only work for the end-result of

answering the problems presented in this research, but also as a great source of

additional knowledge which could be developed for the advancement of disaster

management as an academic subject or course, in general, and for the enhancement of

community disaster preparedness, in particular.

LOCAL LITERATURE

Logically, this is how the researchers may begin this review: with a plan. The

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) is first mentioned in

(e), Section 3-Declaration of Policy of the IRR of R.A. No. 10121:

 46

It is the policy of the State to develop, promote and implement a comprehensive

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) that aims to

strengthen the capacity of the national government and local government units (LGUs),

together with partner stakeholders, to build the disaster resilience of communities, and

to institutionalize the arrangements and measures for reducing disaster risks, including

projected climate change risks, and enhancing disaster preparedness and response

capabilities at all levels.

In the No. 2 Priority Area of the NDRRMP, disaster preparedness is set to

establish and strengthen capacities of communities to anticipate, cope and recover from

the negative impacts of emergency occurrences and disasters.

This priority area, more or less, summarizes the 4 Cs the researchers have

indicated in the Introduction.

For the study at hand, the NDRRMP establishes the approach the researchers

can use to answer many, if not all, of the problems stated in Chapter I-Introduction,

Statement of the Problem. In using similar profiling techniques and methodologies, the

researchers can put in place the following in relation to the set of questions the
 47

researchers posed as a result of the implementation of R.A. No. 10121 in Barangay No.

649, Zone 68, Manila.

Disaster Preparedness

Outcome In-Charge
Communities are equipped with necessary According to National Disaster Risk
skills and capability to cope with impacts of Reduction and Management Plan
disasters
Department of Interior and Local
Government, or DILG (to coordinate)
Office of the Civil Defense, or OCD (to
implement)
Timely response and vigilance of men and According to Manila Disaster Risk
women well-equipped for emergency Reduction and Management Plan
situations that spells the difference
between life and death in these situations Manila Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council (see Executive
Order No. 09, series of 2013, Office of
the Mayor, Manila)
Includes, but not limited to, the following: According to the concerned barangays
1. Barangay Profile, Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and
2. Land Area, Boundaries and Management Plan
Waterways
3. Barangay Income Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction and
4. Business, Schools, Hospitals and Management Committee of the
Other Establishments Barangay Development Council
5. Risk/Hazard/Vulnerability Map
6. Contingency and Evacuation
Plan/s
7. Early Warning Systems
8. BDRRMC Priority Projects
9. Barangay Disaster Readiness
Profile
10. Barangay Disaster Readiness
 48

Checklist
11. Directory of BDRRMC Officers
and Members
12. Resolution Adopting the
BDRRMP

According to a joint study participated in by Dr. Doracie B. Zoleta-Nantes in 2004

(pre-Hyogo Framework for Action World Conference), there are different types of

approach in the scientific research of hazard-related human behaviors. One such

approach mentioned has directly associated disaster preparedness with age-related

demographic variables (e.g., age, civil status), socio-economic related demographic

variables (e.g., highest educational attainment, income, home ownership) and psycho-

social-behavioral variables (e.g., training, risk assessment).

This categorically puts this thesis in a position of credibility. Like the matter of

risk perception briefly implied in the earlier portion of this study, it validated the direct

relationship between the socio-demographic profiles of the respondents.

This lead premise serves as a link chain which now connects the study of human

behavior in terms of preparation to a disaster by both as individual person and as

member of an organization. For instance, the individual behavior to disaster

 49

preparedness of the barangay constituents as respondents and the organizational

behavior to the same variable of the BDRRMC as another group of responses.

The interdependent activities initiated by these abovementioned human

behaviors are then developed and categorized as belonging to one of the different

schools of thought in management (Zulueta, F.M., De Lara, G.M.C., and Nebres, A.M.,

1999). This is an essential linkage since the researchers are evaluating the

implementation of R.A. No. 10121 in Barangay 649 while keeping in sync how the law

provides that disaster preparedness be carried out within the context of disaster

management. Thus, it is clear that the study of disasters and disaster preparedness also

requires a grasp of basic management concepts and principles.

In being so, the researchers observed that disaster preparedness belongs to the

social systems school of management (Zulueta, et. al, 1999). This school views

management as a social system and considers the organization as a social organism

which is subject to pressures and conflicts coming from the social environment. Its

doctrines, Zulueta & company continued, include the concepts of cooperation,

adaptation, segregation and differentiation. Cooperation is the primary thrust in the

 50

organization of the social systems school where people work together for a common

good.

This, in effect, validates the two elements of a disaster risk, vulnerability and

capacity, as having social aspects (Lomerio-Ondiz, R. Ph. D. & Redito, B.M., 2009).

For Martires, C.R. (2011), a social system is a complex and dynamic set of

relationships among its actors interacting with one another. Thus, R.A. No. 10121

acknowledges the need to adopt a disaster risk reduction and management approach

that is holistic, comprehensive, integrated and proactive in lessening the socio-economic

and environmental impacts of disasters including climate change, and promote the

involvement and participation of all sectors and all stakeholders concerned, at all levels,

especially the local community. Disaster preparedness, aside from being a multilevel

system (global, regional, national, community, individual), becomes also multi-relational

(physical, social, economic, environmental). Within the social system of the community,

there are still various subsystems interdependent with each other.

On the other hand, Tomas D. Andres (1992) pointed out that teambuilding is an

advantageous approach to the complex task of disaster preparation. He believed that

 51

the best results are obtained when people work together with a sense of commitment to

one another as well as to the organization. His approach is similar to the social system

model since he defined a team as organic made up of components in the person of its

members, but these come together to form a cohesive whole which is greater than the

sum of its parts. It is also interdependent. Each member supports each other. Andres

(1992) concluded that if the team succeeds, they all succeed; if it fails, they all fail.

He also emphasized that, in taking teambuilding as a management approach,

one must be concerned with the innate social values each and every member has in

order to minimize their input of efforts while maximizing their output of productivity. This,

of course, is equally and generally important to disaster management in terms of

efficiency and to disaster preparedness, in particular. According to him, the Filipino is an

expert in human relationships. He can create systems to make relationships serve his

purpose.

The works of F. Landa Jocano, Jaime Bulatao, Lourdes R. Quisumbing and Ma.

Leonora V. De Jesus on Filipino values (Martires, C.R., 2011) provide management

some insights that will help them understand why Filipinos think, feel, act and perform in
 52

certain ways. This, in turn, would help us understand the resilience of Filipino urban

communities in terms of disaster risk reduction.

On the subject of Community Risk Assessment, the researchers felt that in order

to have a firm handle on what risk assessment is, there must first be a clear meaning of

what disaster risk is. Disaster risk (Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito, 2009) may be synonymous

with the so-called disaster equation, but it has manageability factors to reduce the

negative effect of hazards. This manageability could be associated with capacity. This

can be illustrated by the formula:

Disaster Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability

Capacity

Manageability, Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito continued, is the degree to which a

community can intervene and manage a hazard.

Meanwhile, the two explained that assessment is a critical examination and

estimation of the object or phenomenon (Bernhat, 1987). It is a process of collecting,

interpreting and analyzing information from various sources.

 53

The duo pointed out that risk assessment is the systematic and logical process

used to determine disaster risk reduction priorities by evaluating and comparing the

levels of risk (high or intolerable, medium or tolerable, low or minimal). This comprises

the process by which individuals, communities and societies cope with hazards. Disaster

risk assessment deals with the Hazard, Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (HVCA)

and peoples perceptions of risks. The researchers have already slightly touched on

HVCA in Chapter I. The implication that is observed by the two DRRM analysts is that

disaster risk will be based on peoples perception. Thus, they will be the one to make

decisions to adapt, to modify or to ignore the risk.

The researchers of this study concluded that community risk assessment is of

major importance to the design of disaster preparedness the concerned organization will

plan and undertake.

In contingency planning, Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito averred that advanced

planning and execution is the key to protection. They offered some tips to follow, such

as, but not limited to:

a. Knowledge of barangay disaster plan.

b. Posting of hazard/risk map.

 54

c. Access to updated information on the daily weather advisory.

d. Understanding of Early Warning Signals (EWS), such as the Public Storm

Warning Signal (PSWS).

e. The dissemination strategy of standard warning information.

f. Designation of evacuation for families & livestock.

g. Inspection of evacuation routes and protecting them with sandbags, if possible,

and signage to ensure safe passage to the camp.

h. The availability and accessibility to emergency response equipment as well as

trained volunteers with a prepared search and rescue plan.

i. A community protection plan for potable water supply sources.

j. The cleaning and unclogging of drainages through peoples cooperation and

initiative.

k. Inspection and preparation of a Survival Kit, and re-supply if necessary.

l. Ensuring that each family member understands the danger of a disaster and its

associated risks.

The three (3) main objectives of warnings are (Lomerio-Ondiz & Redito, 2009):

1. To inform, advise and instruct the population of the impending threat.

 55

2. To call those in the danger areas for action by explaining precautionary

measures that should be taken by the families, and,

3. To be alert, prepared, and stand by for possible worse events.

The communication system of disaster preparedness is likened to the human

circulatory system with regards to the role it plays in contingency planning. Within the

communication structure, the researchers find such activities as coordinating and

facilitating all the available resources to its priority users in a timely and appropriate

manner. Also, the system unifies the chain of command necessary to the entire disaster

management cycle of prevention, mitigation and adaptation; alertness and preparedness;

response; and recovery.

Filipino values also affect the communication process, especially in disaster

preparedness. Martires, C.R. (2011) explains that ones need to belong to a group is

stronger than the need to assert ones individual identity. This is reflected in behavior that

shows pakikisama (togetherness), smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR), tayo-tayo (us

and we-ness), and bayanihan (unity and cooperation). Using a go-between in the

communication process facilitates the transaction for a positive feedback. Herein lies the

value of community-based development project management in disaster management. In

 56

the long run, communication may yet prove to be the enduring factor in any study of

disaster preparedness efficiency.

In the introduction to his book, Alwin B. De Leon, Ph. D. (2010) stated that

community-based development projects are participatory in nature. Thus, communication

not only serves as the lifeblood of the organization, it is also its major linkage to the

organizations environment. This is the rationale for tapping the Civil Society

Organizations (CSOs) as regular members of the BDRRMC since they serve as the link

chain which brings about the necessary balance between the top-down and bottom-up

approach of managing community development plans and projects.

Finally, the management concept of leadership affects the triumvirate variables

of disaster preparedness, namely, contingency planning, communication system and

capacity-building. While contingency planning is considered in R.A. No. 10121 as a

distinct management process replete with its own set of concepts and principles, and

disaster communication is institutionalized as one of the powers and functions ((h),

Section 9 of the PDRRM Act of 2010) of the implementing arm of the NDRRMC, which is,

the Office of Civil Defense (OCD), capacity involves collective attributes such as social

relationships, leadership and management. Flora Generalao (1984) of the University of

 57

the Philippines (U.P.) conducted a study wherein she pitted task-oriented leadership

against relationship-oriented leadership relative to situational control in a leadership

contingency model. The results of the study showed that: democratic leadership behavior

elicits highest member satisfaction than autocratic leadership. This, in turn, will reflect on

the effectiveness and sustainability of contingency planning, communication system and

capacity-building in disaster preparedness.

In contrast, however, of the local literature the researchers have presented in

this study, the researchers opted to keep things in perspective and set the balance by

presenting not necessarily opposing viewpoints, but, rather, critical ones the researchers

may later on find significant to the research.

To begin with, Prof. Kenneth Cardenas (2010) of the U.P. Department of

Sociology deftly described the relationships which now exist in the so-called culture of

disasters. He said that adding to this complex tangle of social systems, social values,

self-styled management concepts and ecosystems, Filipinos are only beginning to learn

the rules of disaster risk reduction and management. Urban people, he reiterated, are

less sensitive to the ecosystems. Beyond that the researchers are not equipped to
 58

handle the problems in urban areas because the researchers do not have any

experience dealing with them.

Dr. Rene N. Rollon (2010), Associate Professor and Director, Institute of

Environmental Science and Meteorology, U.P. Diliman, has a view on disaster

preparedness which is much more realistic. He averred that, on the management side,

prevention is always an ideal strategy. For instance, human settlements in coastal areas

should be avoided unless some aggressive measures are in place (high and expensive

dikes, retaining walls, etc.). Obviously, such incongruence between natural processes

and the human use of physical resources have been demonstrated on many occasions.

Indeed, especially for urban centers like Metro Manila, preventive measures (e.g.

relocation, job generation, easement areas, no settlement zones, etc.) may be very

expensive. However, the annual cost of lives and properties attributed to the disrespect

for these natural processes is not cheap either, and, is, in fact increasingly frustrating.

According to Fernando P. Siringan (2010), Ph. D. Professor, Maritime Science

Institute, U.P. Diliman, there are places that can be avoided, places where relocation

might be necessary, or places where mitigation for certain hazards may still be possible.
 59

On the other hand, Dr. Minerva SD. Olympia (2010), Associate Professor and

Coordinator for Research College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, U.P. Visayas,

shares that risk reduction measures are community-specific. Countries with long

coastlines such as the Philippines are considered naturally high-risk since exposure and

vulnerabilities are high.

Dr. Guillermo Q. Tabios (2010), Professor, Institute of Civil Engineering, and

Director, National Hydraulic Research Center, U.P. Diliman, summarized the role the

community plays in disaster management related to preparedness, adaptation and

mitigation.

He started by saying that there is a long list of what the community can do in

disaster management, especially in relation to preparedness, adaptation and mitigation.

The community should establish and organize planning and response teams during pre-

disaster and emergent post-disaster phases. A basic requirement is to develop

emergency or evacuation plans such as routes, protective shelters, and food provisions

in case of disaster. The multi-hazard maps in particular are very useful for this purpose.

With these disasters or emergency plans, communities can conduct periodic drills and
 60

exercises for the safe evacuation of households, schools and commercial and industrial

establishments.

Tabios (2010) further explained that to ensure preparedness for the response

phase of disaster management, the community organization should also train and

organize quick response volunteer teams to provide rescue as well as logistic and

psychosocial support. For large scale community-based planning, long-term and

sustainable programs should be developed in partnership with the local government and

even private organizations to reduce poverty by providing affordable shelter, food, and

water for resettled or relocated communities to reduce their disaster vulnerability.

Communities frequently exposed to extreme climatic events and hazards can also

develop adaptation measures such as encouraging water management and waste

management practices that are resilient to climate extremes and hazards.

LOCAL RELATED STUDIES

One of the key findings of a qualitative study completed recently by the Institute

of Philippine Culture (IPC) based at the Ateneo de Manila University stated that many

residents in poor communities that were heavily affected by Typhoons Ondoy and
 61

Pepeng in 2009 are still struggling to recover due to lack of assets and working capital to

restore their livelihood lost to the floods. Using focus group discussions and key

informants interviews, the study titled The Social Impact of Tropical Storm Ondoy and

Typhoon probes into the long-term effects of the twin disasters that hit the country in

2009. The study was supported by a trust fund from the Australian Agency for

International Development (AusAID) administered by the World Bank. The study says

that since 2009, these communities reported overall reduction in incomes due to loss of

assets and working capital.

The study notes that affected residents assets, savings and working capital for

livelihood activities were dissipated.

In another study, the observations made in the book printed and published by

the Department of Health, Republic of the Philippines, entitled RESPONDING TO

HEALTH EMERGENCIES AND DISASTERS: The Philippine Experience (2005), about

a fire which broke out at the locale of this study, Barangay 649 (BASECO), on January

11, 2004 in the evening, the last two directly related to communication system in disaster

management:
 62

1. There are no rules and regulations that guide the DOH (Department of Health), CHD-

NCR (City Health Department-National Capital Region), and NCR Health Emergency

network with regards to when each agency should respond (aside from the general

rule that all should respond when LGUs request assistance)

2. The existing health emergency management system among the different agencies in

NCR needs a review to improve networking, coordination, cooperation, and

collaboration.

FOREIGN LITERATURE

The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) came out of the World Conference for

Disaster Reduction held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, from 18 to 22 January 2005.

It is the first plan to explain, describe and detail the work that is required from all

different sectors and actors to reduce disaster risk governments, informational

agencies, disaster experts and many others bringing them into a common system of

coordination. The HFA outlines five priorities for action, and offers guiding principles and

practical means for achieving disaster resilience. Its goal is to substantially reduce

disaster losses by 2015 by building the resilience of nations and communities to

 63

disasters. This means reducing the loss of lives and social, economic, and environmental

assets when hazard strikes.

Disaster preparedness is considered as Priority Action 5: STRENGTHEN

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS FOR EFFECTIVE RESPONSE AT ALL LEVELS. The

HFA rationale states: At times of disaster, impacts and losses can be substantially

reduced if authorities, individuals and communities in hazard-prone areas are well-

prepared and ready to act and are equipped with the knowledge and capacities for

effective disaster management.

Fortunately, the Philippines National progress report on the implementation of

the Hyogo Framework for Action (2009-2011) interim, is made available online.

The progress report for Priority for action 5, Strengthen disaster preparedness

for effective response at all levels, is hereby summarized:

 64

Core Indicator 1 Strong policy, technical and institutional capacities and

mechanisms for disaster risk management, with a disaster risk reduction perspective are

in place.

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with

recognized limitations.

National programmes or policies to make schools and health facilities safe in

emergencies: YES.

Means of Verification:

1. Policies and Programmes for School and Hospital Safety: YES

2. Training and Mock Drills in Schools and Hospitals for Emergency

Preparedness: YES.

Core Indicator 2 Disaster preparedness plans and contingency plans are in

place at all administrative levels, and regular training drills and rehearsals are held to test

and develop disaster response programmes.

 65

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with

recognized limitations.

The contingency plans, procedures and resources in place to deal with a major

disaster: YES.

Means of Verification:

1. Contingency Plans with Gender Sensitivities: YES

2. Operations and Communications Centre: YES

3. Search and Rescue Teams: YES

4. Stockpiles of Relief Supplies: YES

5. Shelters: NO

6. Secure Medical Facilities: YES

7. Dedicated provision for women in relief, shelter and emergency medical

facilities: NO.

Core Indicator 3 Financial reserves and contingency mechanisms are in place

to support effective response and recovery when required.

 66

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with

recognized limitations.

Financial arrangements in place to deal with major disaster: YES.

Means of Verification:

1. National Contingency Funds: YES

2. Catastrophe Insurance Facilities: YES

3. Catastrophe Bonds: NO

Core Indicator 4 Procedures are in place to exchange relevant information

during hazard events and disasters, and to undertake post-event reviews.

Level of Progress Achieved: 4. Substantial achievement attained but with

recognized limitations.

Agreed method and procedure has been adopted to assess damage, loss and

needs when disasters occur: YES.

 67

Means of Verification:

1. Damage and loss Assessment Methodologies and Capacities Available:

YES

2. Post Disaster Need Assessment Methodologies: YES

3. Post Disaster Needs Assessment Methodologies include Guidance on

Gender Aspects: NO

4. Identified and Trained Human Resources: YES

The progress report puts into position the questions this study is going to try to

answer by bringing about the different management concepts and principles which the

researchers could use in DRRM as well as a review of DRRM programs and researches

of other countries.

Similar to the review of the local literature, the researchers begin by asserting

the relevance of the study of hazard-related human behaviors (The Impact of Risk

Perception xxx, a joint study by a grant from local and foreign research institutes, 2004).

The paper asserts that past U.S. studies have for the most part, employed an
 68

adjustment/contextual paradigm (Burton, Kates, & White, 1978; Mitchell, 1999; Eraybat,

K., Okazaki, K., & Ilki, A., 2010). In such studies, hazard-related behaviors, risk

perception, disaster preparedness, and willingness to pay for governmental mitigation

were found to be associated with demographic variables (Turner, Nigg & Heller-Paz,

1986; Lindell & Perry, 1992; Edwards, 1993; Palm & Carroll, 1998; Tierney, Lindell, &

Perry, 2001; Tierney, 2001; Wachtendorf & Sheng, 2002).

In the study, the concepts and principles between human behavior and

motivation are also relevant. In Maslows Hierarchy of Needs theory (Martires, C.R.,

2011), he saw human needs in the context of hierarchy and further concluded that when

one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivation; one therefore

goes up the structure to satisfy the next set of needs. In disaster management, Maslows

concept is crucial since prioritization is a constant activity in disaster preparedness

whether in the contingency planning, communicating, or capacity-building stage.

Frederick Herzberg enhanced Maslows theory by identifying factors into two

subdivisions: the motivating factors and hygienic factors. The theory would have a direct
 69

effect on how the researchers could measure the socio-demographic and disaster

profiles of respondents from Barangay No. 649, Zone 68, Manila.

B.F. Skinner went one step farther than Maslow and Herzberg by proposing that

man learns from his environment and greater control of his environment improves his

development. The operant conditioning theory is of major significance to the 4 Cs the

researchers have formulated as the key areas of concern in understanding the problems

the researchers have stated in the study.

The training and drill practices required to enhance disaster preparedness of

communities make use of Skinners principle in utilizing positive reinforcement with the

end in view of the occurrence of a desired response or behavior.

Numerous other studies have been conducted on the subject of motivation.

Among the most salient and pertinent to human resources management are those

conducted by Argyris, Hersey and Blanchard, Armstrong, White and Schachter (Marties,

2011).
 70

For G. Tyler Miller, Jr. (1990), formal risk assessment is difficult, imprecise and

controversial. It involves determining the types of hazards involved, estimating the

number of people likely to be exposed to the hazard and the number likely to suffer

serious consequences, and estimating the probability of each hazard occurring. He

explained that one way to improve system reliability is to move more of the potentially

fallible elements from the human side to the technical side, making the system more fool-

proof or fail-safe. But chance events such as a lightning bolt can knock out automatic

control systems. And no machine or computer program can replace all the skillful human

actions and decisions involved in seeing that a complex system operates properly and

safely.

On the subject of disaster preparedness in the context of capacity-building,

resilience is the effect sought by such process and activity. Resilience is defined by Miller

(1990) as the ability of a living system to restore itself to original condition after being

exposed to an outside disturbance that is not too drastic. Taken in the context of

disaster management, the researchers now infer that community resilience can only be

raised and built once the concerned organization reaches an acceptable or tolerable

level of risk. Herein lies the dilemma of having to develop, promote and implement
 71

capacity-building strategies under the brunt of intolerable risk exposure, high degrees of

vulnerability and the preponderance of hazards.

Bert Metz, Ogunlade Davidson, Rob Swart and Jiahua Pan (2001) concurred

that there must be identification and assessment of mitigation technologies and

measures that are required to deviate from business-as-usual in the short term. This is

done so in order to raise the level of resiliency and not the tolerance of nations and

communities to all kinds of disaster. Thus, it is no longer unfamiliar to us to see on mass

media people who refuse to evacuate their homes in the face of impending danger

because they have misunderstood their sense of tolerance as a sense of security and

resiliency.

In terms of communication system as a DRRM strategy, M.K. Magunda (2010)

explained that public awareness activities foster changes in behavior leading towards a

culture of risk reduction. According to her, the over-all objective of the communication

strategy is to widely disseminate information on disasters and risk reduction and its likely

effects, in order to save lives and livelihood.

 72

Magunda (2010) added that communication to the public in general should be

viewed three-ways:

1. This should act as an early warning strategy, communication on the

impending disasters and their effects is fundamental to raising

awareness, getting the population prepared and understanding of the

problem;

2. Targetted and strategic communication should be made locally, to

mobilize the donors, partners, civil society, and other stakeholders to

support implementation of the contingency plan; and

3. Local leaders and elders (or in the case of the Philippines, CSOs) are

very crucial in the society set-up, and should be involved in information

dissemination. They should also play key roles in the mitigation

measures.

Any discussion about disaster management would invariably lead it to the

subject of leadership. It is implied in (b), Section 1, RULE 2, Definition of Terms of the

IRR of R.A. No. 10121: capacity may include infrastructure and physical means,

institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills, tools, systems,
 73

processes, appropriate technologies and collective attributes such as social

relationships, leadership and management.

Treedy Heller (1982) believed that the essence of leadership is followership. This

renders the bottom-up and proactive approach in disaster risk reduction and

management as the most viable method currently available for communities, especially

those in the urban areas.

Fiedlers model, on the other hand, claims that group performance depends on

the interaction of the leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. In practice,

leadership of a disaster situation requires another dimension. The researchers would like

to believe that they are in the right path in thinking that risk analysis, both as a policy and

as a decision-making tool, is this critical factor.

FOREIGN RELATED STUDIES

Magunda M. K. (PhD) published a study on August 2010 entitled Study on

Disaster Risk Management and Environment for the Karamoja Subregion. The study

focused on:
 74

- Assessment of environmental change as a parameter of disaster risk in the

Karamoja region

- Assessment of environmental causes and the associated consequences

- Assessment of the dynamics between disaster, environmental impacts and

the needs of the communities in Karamoja

Koos van Zyl (2006), meanwhile, discussed in his A Study on a Disaster Risk

Management Plan for the South African Agricultural Sector the dependent factors of

flood hazard such as the depth and velocity of the water, duration of the flood and the

load carried such as the sediment, salts, sewage and chemicals. He added that flood

events and impacts appear to be increasing on a global scale.

SYNTHESIS OF THE STUDY

As comprehensive and as well-researched as the literature and related studies

of local and foreign disaster risk reduction and management practices are today,

presently there is also a growing threat in the increasing magnitude and frequency of

disasters and disaster risks that the nations and communities of this world are painfully

beginning to realize.
 75

As such, the level of preparedness of local communities must be evaluated in

terms of degree and direction with utmost urgency. Already, many countries-signatories

are hinting of new and updated strategies for the post-2015 Hyogo Framework for Action

wherein the entire planets disaster risk reduction and management master plan would

be up for thorough assessment.

Relative to the local literature, this study serves to verify a joint research project

participated in by a Filipina, Dr. Doracie B. Zoleta-Nantes, in 2004, regarding the

approaches in the scientific research of hazard-related human behaviors (e.g., risk

assessment, risk perception). The study stated that one approach mentioned has directly

associated disaster preparedness with age-related demographic variables (e.g., age, civil

status), socio-economic related demographic variables (e.g., highest educational

attainment, income, home ownership) and psycho-social-behavioral variables (e.g.,

training, risk assessment).

This study serves to amplify the association between demographic and disaster

preparedness variables, which is one of the specific questions under the statement of the

problem.
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However, this study was constrained to exclude income from the socio-economic

related variables since the researchers feel it would be of great disservice if income

(along with assets and working capital) would not be given its own in-depth analysis vis-

-vis disaster preparedness outside of the scope of the study.

In a related matter, the findings involving the 2009 Institute of Philippine

Cultures qualitative study stating that many residents in poor communities that were

heavily affected by Typhoons Ondoy and Pepeng are still struggling due to lack of assets

and working capital, this study serves as the stepping stone in establishing indicators for

public services, infrastructures and economic activities as elements of disaster risk. The

questionnaire would be tested for its validity and reliability in the treatment of data

regarding risk and risk analysis.

As the researchers have stated in the beginning of this chapter, disaster

preparedness is a matter of condition and of choice. Thus, this study has taken the

proper route in effectively measuring the level of disaster preparedness by using the two-

fold approach: evaluation of its strength as well as its direction.

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The researchers would like to note that a holistic, integrated and results-based

approach could be formed by giving cognizance to a very vital factor in disaster

preparedness, which is, risk assessment. This study further notes that sound risk

analysis could be formed through the equally vital factor called common sense.

Community risk assessment, contingency planning, communication system, and

capacity-building are just some of the sub-components of a truly effective disaster

preparedness strategy, and with this in mind, the researchers believe they have covered

enough ground to put the framework of this study into play, and be able to achieve the

objective/s of the research.

It is with a great appreciation of the vast literature and related studies the

researchers have shown that, in the future, disaster risk reduction and management will

be completely hardwired to the educational system, be recognized as a regular subject

and later on, may even be an enduring college course.