EXPERIMENTAL

OPERATING

AND

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

OPTIONAL

LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION UNIT

H112A

H112A_E_1_107
NOV 11
ii

This Page is intentionally blank

 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page A

TYPICAL INSTALLATION .............................................................................................. 1

H112 shown with H112A Linear Heat Conduction Unit and HC112A ....................................... 1
H112A shown without intermediate specimen ....................................................................... 1
Specimen supplied ........................................................................................................... 2

SCHEMATIC H112A Linear Heat Conduction Unit............................................... 3

DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................ 4
Brass Specimen .............................................................................................................. 4
Stainless Steel Specimen ................................................................................................... 4
Aluminium Specimen ....................................................................................................... 4
Brass Specimen with Reduced Diameter .............................................................................. 4

INSTALLATION .............................................................................................................. 6
Temperature Sensors ....................................................................................................... 6
Heating Element ............................................................................................................. 6
Cooling Water Supply ...................................................................................................... 6
Cooling Water Drain ....................................................................................................... 6

OPERATING PROCEDURE ............................................................................................. 7

MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................................. 8
Water Cooling Circuit...................................................................................................... 8
Intermediate Sections....................................................................................................... 8
Toggle Clamps ............................................................................................................... 8
Heated and Cooled Sections Adjustment .............................................................................. 8

USEFUL DATA ................................................................................................................ 9

CAPABILITIES OF THE LINEAR HEAT TRANSFER UNIT H112A WITH THE HEAT
TRANSFER SERVICE UNIT H112 .................................................................................. 10
1. To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
uniform plane wall and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow. .................................. 11
2. To understand the use of the Fourier Rate Equation in determining rate of heat flow through
solid materials for one dimensional, steady flow of heat........................................................ 15
2. To understand the use of the Fourier Rate Equation in determining rate of heat flow through
solid materials for one dimensional, steady flow of heat........................................................ 16
3. To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
composite plane wall and determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of heat
through a combination of different materials in use. ............................................................ 21
 ii

4. To determine the thermal conductivity k of a metal specimen. ........................................ 25

4. To determine the thermal conductivity k of a metal specimen. ........................................ 26
5. To demonstrate that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross- sectional
area for one dimensional flow of heat in a solid material of constant thermal conductivity. ........ 31
5. To demonstrate that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross- sectional
area for one dimensional flow of heat in a solid material of constant thermal conductivity. ........ 32
6. To demonstrate the effect of contact resistance on thermal conduction between adjacent
materials. .................................................................................................................... 38
6. To demonstrate the effect of contact resistance on thermal conduction between adjacent
materials. .................................................................................................................... 39
7. To understand the application of poor thermal conductors and determine the thermal
conductivity k of a poor thermal conductor. ....................................................................... 42
7. To understand the application of poor thermal conductors and determine the thermal
conductivity k of a poor thermal conductor. ....................................................................... 43
8. To observe unsteady state conduction of heat and to use this in observation of the time to
reach stable conditions .................................................................................................. 47
8. To observe unsteady state conduction of heat and to use this in observation of the time to
reach stable conditions .................................................................................................. 48
 iii

SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Symbol Units
D Diameter of element m
A Heat transfer area m2
x Distance or thickness m
V Voltage to heating element V
I Current to heating element A
Q Power to heating element and heat transfer rate W
T Temperature measured C
T Temperature Difference K

k Thermal conductivity W/mK

U Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
R Resistance to heat flow m2K/W
t Elapsed time seconds

Subscripts
hot Heating section
cold Cooling section
int Intermediate section
hotface Contact face of heated section
coldface Contact face of cooling section
1,2,3,4.... Thermocouple positions
 A1

Figure A1
TYPICAL INSTALLATION
H112 shown with H112A Linear Heat Conduction Unit and HC112A
Data Acquisition Upgrade.
Note that the digital temperature indicator and selector switch shown, have been replaced by a
combined indicator and selector

Clamp tensioning screw

Heater Power
T1, T2 & T3

T4 & T5
T6, T7 & T8

H112A shown without intermediate specimen

(T4 & T5 not fitted)

Cooling water
Supply and Drain tubes
A2

Figure A2
Specimen supplied

Intermediate specimen
25mm diameter Brass with
T4 & T5 thermocouples

Heat transfer paste

Paper disc insulator

Cork disc insulator

25mm diameter Aluminium

25mm diameter Stainless Steel

13mm (Reduced diameter) Brass

 A3

Figure A3
SCHEMATIC H112A Linear Heat Conduction Unit

Specimen position

Cooling water inlet

Cooling water outlet

A4

DESCRIPTION
LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION H112A

Please refer to Figure A1 page A1, A2 page A2 and A3 page A3.

The Linear Heat Conduction unit H112A allows the investigation of the basic laws of heat transfer by
conduction through a solid. The H112A is dependant upon the Heat Transfer Service Unit H112, for
heater power and temperature measurement.

The unit is mounted on a plastic base plate that must be placed on a surface, ideally to the left of the
Heat Transfer service Unit H112.

The heat transfer module is cylindrical and mounted with its axis vertical to the base plate. The heating
section houses a 25mm diameter cylindrical brass section with a nominally 65Watt (at 240V AC)
cartridge heater in the top end. An integral high temperature cut out (automatic reset) prevents
overheating. Power is supplied to the heater from the Heat Transfer Service Unit H112 via the 8-pole
plug and lead.

Three fixed thermocouples T1, T2, T3 are positioned along the heated section at 15mm intervals.

The cooling section is also manufactured from 25mm diameter brass to match the heated top section
and is cooled at its bottom end by water flowing through a chamber in the material.

Three fixed thermocouples T6, T7, T8 are positioned along the cooled section at 15mm intervals

Four intermediate sections are supplied to place between the heated and cooled sections.

The heated section, cooling section and all the intermediate sections are located co-axially inside
plastic housings. An annular air gap insulates the specimens from the surroundings and minimise heat
losses/gains.

The heated and cooled sections incorporate centralising O rings to ensure that each are held
concentrically. Similar O rings are fitted to the intermediate sections so that they are installed in
alignment.

Toggle clamps ensure that the heated and cooled sections are held tightly together, with or without the
intermediate sections installed. Slacken the clamp tensioning screw before releasing the toggle
clamps and re-apply tension after fitting a new specimen, thus avoiding over-stressing the clamping
device.

Water for the cooled section is supplied from a local tap via the supplied hoses.

The water flow rate is adjusted by manual control of the supply tap. After cooling the cooled section,
the water is allowed to run to a drain via the outlet hose.

The four intermediate sections supplied are as follows: -

Brass Specimen
30mm long, 25mm diameter fitted with two thermocouples T4, T5 at 15mm intervals along the axis.
With the brass specimen clamped between the heated and cooled sections a uniform 25mm diameter
brass bar is formed with 8 uniformly spaced (15mm intervals) thermocouples (T1 to T8). Refer to
Figure A3 on page A3. The specimen is marked TOP to ensure T4 precedes T5.

Stainless Steel Specimen

30mm long, 25mm diameter. No thermocouples fitted

Aluminium Specimen
30mm long, 25mm diameter. No thermocouples fitted.

Brass Specimen with Reduced Diameter

30mm long, 13mm diameter. No thermocouples fitted.
 A5

In addition, the heat conducting properties of insulators such as cork and paper may be found by
clamping the insulating discs between the heated and cooled sections.

The effect of good thermal contact between conducting surfaces is demonstrated by experiments with
and without toggle clamps.

The value of heat transfer paste may be verified by experiments with and without paste.
A6

INSTALLATION
LINEAR HEAT CONDUCTION UNIT H112A
WITH HEAT TRANSFER SERVICE MODULE H112
Refer to Figure A1 on page A1 and Figure A2 on page A2 and figure 3 on page A3

It is assumed that the basic INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the Heat
Transfer Service Unit H112 have been completed as detailed in the H112 manual.

Ensure that the main switch is in the OFF position.

Place the Linear Heat Conduction unit on a flat surface adjacent to the Heat transfer Service Unit H112

Temperature Sensors
The eight temperature sensors are type K thermocouples and each lead has a number label.

The miniature plugs on each thermocouple have one wide and one narrow flat blade that match the
slots on the thermocouple sockets. Connect the plugs to the corresponding numbered sockets on the
Heat transfer service Unit H112.

Heating Element
Connect the 8-pole power lead to the OUTPUT socket on the front panel of the Heat Transfer Service
Unit H112.

Cooling Water Supply

The Linear Heat Conduction H112A requires connection to a source of clean, cold water with a flow of
approximately 1.5 litres/minute. This should be fitted with an isolation valve so that when not in use
the supply can be turned off.

Connect to the cold-water inlet point using the PVC tubing supplied.

Cooling Water Drain

Connect the PVC tubing to the outlet nozzle. This should be led to a drain and the tube secured so that
it cannot fall out during use.
 A7

OPERATING PROCEDURE
Heat Transfer Service Unit H112 with Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A
Refer to Figure A1 on page A1 and Figure A2 on page A2 and Figure A3 on page A3.

1. Ensure that the main switch is in the off position (the digital displays should not be
illuminated). Ensure that the residual current circuit breaker on the rear panel is in the ON
position. Note that this should be tested for normal operation at intervals specified by
local regulations using the method described in the MAINTENANCE section.

2. Turn the voltage controller anti-clockwise to set the AC voltage to minimum. Ensure the
Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A has been connected to the Heat Transfer Service Unit H112
as detailed in the INSTALLATION procedure on page A6.

3. Ensure the cold water supply and electrical supply are turned on at the source. Open the water
tap until the flow through the drain hose is approximately 1.5 litres/minute. The actual flow
can be checked using a measuring vessel and stopwatch if required but this is not a critical
parameter. The flow has to dissipate up to 65W only.

4. Release the toggle clamp tensioning screw and clamps. Ensure that the faces of the exposed
ends of the heated and cooled sections are clean. Similarly, check the faces of the intermediate
specimen (if in use) to be placed between the faces of the heated and cooled sections. If
instructed in the individual procedures for the experiment, coat the mating faces of the
heated and cooled sections and the intermediate section (if used) with thermal
conduction paste. Ensure the intermediate section to be used is in the correct orientation then
clamp the assembly together using the toggle clamps and tensioning screw.

6. Turn on the main switch and the digital displays should illuminate. Set the temperature
selector switch to T1 to indicate the temperature of the heated end of the bar. Rotate the
voltage controller to increase the voltage to that specified in the procedure for each
experiment.

7. Observe the temperature T1. This should begin to increase.

8. Allow the system to reach stability, and take readings and make adjustments as instructed in
the individual procedures for each experiment. If using the optional Computerised Data
Acquisition Upgrade HC112, additional instructions will be given in the HC112 Manual.

9. When the experimental procedure is completed, it is good practice to turn off the power to the
heater by reducing the voltage to zero and allow the system a short time to cool before turning
off the cooling water supply.

10. Ensure that the locally supplied water supply isolation valve to the unit is closed. Turn off the
main switch and isolate the electrical supply.

11. Note that if the thermal conducting paste is left on the mating faces of the heated and cooled
sections for a long period it can be more difficult to remove than if removed immediately after
completing an experiment. If left on the intermediate sections it can attract dust and in
particular grit which acts as a barrier to good thermal contact.
A8

MAINTENANCE
Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A

Water Cooling Circuit

The unit should be disconnected from the water supply when not in use. If the ambient storage
conditions are likely to be at or below 0C then the unit should be drained by disconnecting the supply
tube and allowing the water to drain through the outlet tube.

Intermediate Sections
After use, the intermediate sections should be cleaned and stored to avoid damage to the contact
surfaces.

Any build up of thermal paste on the contact surfaces should be removed with a liquid metal polish
applied with a soft cloth. Aggressive solvents should not be used as these may affect the plastic
insulation material.

Toggle Clamps
The toggle clamps are in fixed positions on the sides of the cooled section and are not adjustable. The
thermal contact between the heated and cooled sections depends upon clean surfaces and the
compression applied by the toggle clamps.

If the clamps become distorted with use, it is possible to increase tension to the original condition by
VERY CAREFULLY bending the curved wire arms of the clamps. Do not over bend the arms as the
unit can be damaged.

Heated and Cooled Sections Adjustment

The heated section is allowed to slide by an amount that enables adjustment of the tension on the toggle
clamps. The black knob at the top of the unit (See page 1) may be turned carefully to adjust the load on
the toggle clamps. Do not over tension the toggle clamps.

(Cooled Section)
The brass end face of the cooling section should protrude approximately 1mm above the end face of the
plastic insulation that surrounds it.

After adjustment of the heated section, there should be between 0.5mm and 1.0mm gap between the
end faces of the plastic insulators OUTER DIAMETER. This will indicate that the inner diameter and
brass surfaces are in good contact.

If the gap is too large, loosen the M5 hexagonal socket screw on the side of the cooled section with a
2.5mm AF (Across Flats) hexagonal key.

At the bottom of the cooled section is a central M8 hexagonal socket screw that is accessible through a
hole in the base plate. This may be turned using a 4mm AF (across Flats) hexagonal key and can be
used to adjust the axial position of the brass bar relative to the insulation. Keep the brass bar pressed
against the M8 screw while adjusting and when in the correct position tighten the M5 screw on the side
to retain the bar.

To finally check the contact lightly smear the two faces with thermal paste and clamp the heating and
cooling section together. Release the two sections and check the faces to ensure that the paste has been
evenly displaced by contact.
 A9

USEFUL DATA
Linear Heat Transfer Unit H112A

Heated Section
Material: Brass, 25mm diameter, Thermocouples T1, T2, T3 at 15mm spacing
Thermal Conductivity: Approximately 121 W/m K

Cooled Section
Material: Brass, 25mm diameter, Thermocouples T6, T7, T8 at 15mm spacing
Thermal Conductivity: Approximately 121 W/m K

Brass Intermediate Specimen

Material: Brass, 25mm diameter x 30mm long. Thermocouples T4, T5 at 15mm spacing centrally
spaced along the length.
Thermal Conductivity: Approximately 121 W/m K

Stainless Steel Intermediate Specimen

Material: Stainless steel, 25mm diameter x 30mm long. No thermocouples fitted.
Thermal Conductivity: Approximately 25 W/m K

Aluminium Intermediate Specimen

Material: Aluminium Alloy, 25mm diameter x 30mm long. No thermocouples fitted.
Thermal Conductivity: Approximately 180 W/m K

Reduced Diameter Brass Intermediate Specimen

Material: Brass, 13mm diameter x 30mm long. No thermocouples fitted.
Thermal Conductivity: Approximately 121 W/m K

Hot and Cold Face Temperature

Due to the need to keep the spacing of the thermocouples constant at 15mm with, or without the
intermediate specimens in position the thermocouples are displaced 7.5mm back from the end faces of
the heated and cooled specimens and similarly located for the Brass Intermediate Specimen.

(T2 - T3) (T6 - T7)

Hence, T hotface = T3 - T coldface = T6 +
2 2

Note that the equations are of the above form as the distance between T3 and the hot face and T6 and
the cold face are equal to half the distance between the adjacent pairs of thermocouples.
A10

CAPABILITIES OF THE LINEAR HEAT TRANSFER UNIT H112A WITH THE HEAT
TRANSFER SERVICE UNIT H112

1. To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
uniform plane wall and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow.

2. To understand the use of the Fourier Rate Equation in determining rate of heat flow through
solid materials for one dimensional, steady flow of heat.

3. To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
composite plane wall and determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of heat
through a combination of different materials in use.

4. To determine the thermal conductivity k of a metal specimen.

5. To demonstrate that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional

area for one dimensional flow of heat in a solid material of constant thermal conductivity.

6. To demonstrate the effect of contact resistance on thermal conduction between adjacent

materials.

7. To understand the application of poor thermal conductors and determine the thermal
conductivity k of a poor thermal conductor.

8. To observe unsteady state conduction of heat and to use this in observation of the time to
reach stable conditions.
 A11

1. To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
uniform plane wall and demonstrate the effect of a change in heat flow.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7 smear the faces of the heated and
cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp them together without any intermediate
section in place.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below.

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to 90 volts.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V and I.

Reset the heater voltage to 120 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording the parameters T1,
T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V and I when temperatures have stabilised.

Reset the heater voltage to 170 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording the parameters T1,
T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V and I when temperatures have stabilised.

Reset the heater voltage to 200 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording the parameters T1,
T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V and I when temperatures have stabilised.

When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero and
shut down the system as detailed in the operation section on page A7.

The theory being demonstrated, sample observations and calculations are shown in the following
pages.
A12

THEORY
If the heated and cooled surfaces are clamped tightly together and are in good thermal contact, then the
two sections can be considered as a continuous homogenous sample of uniform cross section and
material.

According to Fouriers law of heat conduction:

If a plane section of thickness x and constant area A maintains a temperature difference T then the
& by conduction through the wall is found to be:
heat transfer rate per unit time Q

& A T
Q
x

& = C T
Q
x

Q&
=C
T

x

Where, C is a constant that will be examined at a later stage.

Overleaf are sample test results and illustrative calculations showing the application of the above
theory.
 A13

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 30.9 28.4 25.9 24.5 21.9 20.1 88 0.098
2 41.1 36.9 32.7 29.7 25.5 22.2 117 0.129
3 64.3 56.3 48.4 41.7 33.8 27.2 164 0.184
4 89.3 77.5 65.6 55 42.9 32.6 203 0.226
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA

Sample &
Q T T x x T1 3 T6 8 & T1 3 & T6 8
No. Q Q
1-3 6-8 1-3 6-8 x 1 - 3 x 6 - 8 x 1 - 3 x 6 - 8

-- W K K m m K/m K/m W/mK W/mK

1 8.6 5.0 4.4 0.03 0.03 166.7 146.7 0.051 0.058
2 15.1 8.4 7.5 0.03 0.03 280.0 250.0 0.054 0.060
3 30.26 15.9 14.5 0.03 0.03 530.0 483.3 0.057 0.063
4 45.99 23.7 22.4 0.03 0.03 790.0 746.7 0.058 0.062

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& = V I
Q
= 88 x 0.098
= 8.6 Watts

Temperature difference in the heated section between T1 and T3

T hot = T1 - 3 = T1 - T3
= 30.9 - 25.9
= 5.0 K

Similarly the temperature difference in the cooled section between T6 and T8

T cold = T6-8 = T6 - T8
= 24.5 - 20.1
= 4.4 K

The distance between the temperature measuring points, T1 and T3 and T6 and T8, are similar
x1- 3 = 0.03m
x6- 8 = 0.03m

Hence, the temperature gradient along the heated and cooled sections may be calculated from

T1 3
Heated Section = 166. 7 K/m
x 1 -3
T6 8
Cooled Section = 146.7 K/m
x 6 -8

If the constant rate of heat transfer is divided by the temperature gradients, the value obtained will be
similar if the equation
A14

& = C T
Q
x
&
Q
=C
T

x

is valid.

Hence, substituting the values obtained gives for the heated section and cooled sections respectively the
following values.

& T1 3 8.6
Q = = 0.051 W/mK
x 1 -3 166.7

& T6 8 8.6
Q = = 0.058 W/m
x 6 -8 146.7

As may be seen from the above example and the tabulated data the function

Q&
=C
T

x

does result in a constant value within the limits of the experimental data .

The sample data is plotted graphically on the following page to reinforce the linear nature of the
temperature along the bar
A15
A16

2. To understand the use of the Fourier Rate Equation in determining rate of heat flow
through solid materials for one dimensional, steady flow of heat.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7 smear the faces of the heated and
cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp them together with the Brass Intermediate
Specimen in place.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below.

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to approximately 120 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature gradient along the
length of the bar. If however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-35 C or more)
then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied to the heater. This will increase the
temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the bar.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, I

Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording
the parameters T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, I when temperatures have stabilised.

When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero and
shut down the system as detailed in the operation section on page A7.
 A17

THEORY
If the heated and cooled surfaces are clamped tightly together and are in good thermal contact, then the
two sections can be considered as a continuous homogenous sample of uniform cross section and
material.

According to Fouriers law of heat conduction:

If a plane section of thickness x and constant area A maintains a temperature difference T then the
& by conduction through the wall is found to be:
heat transfer rate per unit time Q

& A T
Q
x
where x = (xhot - xcold)
and T = (Thot - Tcold)
If the material of the wall is homogeneous and has a thermal conductivity k then

& = kA T
Q
x

The negative sign follows thermodynamic convention in that heat transfer is normally considered
positive in the direction of temperature fall. However, for the purposes of the following illustrations
the negative sign will be ignored.

Overleaf are sample test results and illustrative calculations showing the application of the above
theory.
A18

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 48.8 44.7 40.5 37.2 32.8 29.4 25 22.1 117 0.128
2 77.8 70.1 62.3 55.1 47.3 40.2 32.4 26.5 164 0.183
3
4
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
Brass Intermediate Specimen cross sectional Area A= 0.00049m2

Sample &
Q T1-3 T4-5 T6-8 x 1-3 x 4-5 x 6-8 k 1-2 hot k 4-5 int k6-8 cold
No. hot int cold hot int cold

Watts K K K m m m W/mK W/mK W/mK

1 15.0 8.3 4.4 7.3 0.030 0.015 0.03 110.4 104.2 125.6
2 29.9 15.5 7.8 13.7 0.030 0.015 0.03 118.0 117.2 133.5
3
4

The distances between the thermocouple sensors are as follows. Note that the distance between T4 and
T5 is less than the other pairs of thermocouples.

x1-3 = 0.03m
x4-5 = 0.0015m
x6-8 = 0.03m

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& =VI
Q
=117.0 x 0.128
= 15.0 Watts

Hence the thermal conductivity k of the sections of bar are,

&
x1-2 Q
k1-3 =
T1-3 A
0.03 15.0
=
8.3 0.00049
= 110.4 W/mK

and similarly
 A19

0.0015 15.0
k3-4 =
4.4
= 104.2 W/mK

0.03 15.0
k6-8 =
7.3
= 125.6 W/mK

It may be seen that the thermal conductivity in every case is similar. Differences occur due to the heat
losses from the specimen that is not accounted for.

The sample data is plotted on the following page. Note that the temperature profiles are straight lines
and that increased heat flow results in an increased slope.
A20
 A21

3. To measure the temperature distribution for steady state conduction of energy through a
composite plane wall and determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for the flow of
heat through a combination of different materials in use.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7 smear the faces of the heated and
cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp them together with the Stainless Steel
Intermediate Specimen in place.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below.

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to approximately 90 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature gradient along the
length of the bar. If however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-35 C or more)
then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied to the heater. This will increase the
temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the bar.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I

Increase the heater voltage by approximately 30 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording
the parameters T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I when temperatures have stabilised.

When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero and
shut down the system as detailed in the operation section on page A7. Overleaf are sample test results
and illustrative calculations showing the application of the above theory.
A22

THEORY
If the heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together so that the end faces are in good thermal
contact with the stainless steel intermediate section a composite bar of the form shown below is
formed.

Assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the surroundings
through to the cooled end, the heat flow through each section must be equal.

Hence, by applying Fouriers law to each section

& kcold Tcold

Q kint Tint khot Thot
= = =
A xcold xint xhot

From this
& xhot Q
Q & xint Q& xcold
(Thot +Tint +Tcold) = + +
A khot A kint A kcold
Then
(T1-T8) = (Thot +Tint +Tcold)
& xhot
Q & xint Q
Q & xcold
= + +
A khot A kint A kcold
& xhot
Q xint xcold
= + +
A khot kint kcold

Hence (T1-T8) &

Q
= = U (T1 - T8)
xhot xint xcold A
+ +
khot kint kcold

And &
Q
=U
A(T1-T8)

where 1 xhot xint xcold

= + + =R
U khot kint kcold

Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and R is the thermal resistance of the composite
material.
 A23

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 52.7 50.6 48.3 22.7 20.1 19.3 87 0.099
2 76.8 73.3 69.7 26.2 22.7 20.8 116 0.128
3
4
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
Specimen cross sectional Area A= 0.00049m2
Conductivity of Brass heated and cooled section = 121 W/mK
Conductivity of Stainless Steel intermediate section = 25 W/mK

Sample No. Q
& T 1-8 x hot x int x old k hot k int k cold

-- W K m m m W/mK W/mK W/mK

1 8.37 33.4 0.0375 0.03 0.0375 121 25 121
2 14.88 56.0 0.0375 0.03 0.0375 121 25 121
3
4

Sample No. 1 &

Q

( )
U= =U
xhot xint xcold A(T1 - T8)
+ +
khot kint kcold

-- W/m2K W/m2K
1 549.5 510.4
2 549.5 541.2
3
4

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Brass Intermediate Specimen and hot and cold section cross sectional Area

2
D
A=
4
2
0.025
=
4
2
= 0.00049 m

The temperature difference across the bar from T1 to T8

T1 -T8 = ( 52.7- 19.3) = 33.4 C

Note that x hot and x cold are the distances between the thermocouple T1 and the hot face and the cold
face and the thermocouple T8 respectively. Similarly x int is the distance between the hot face and cold
face of the intermediate stainless steel section.
A24

The distances between surfaces are therefore as follows.

x hot = 0.0375m
x int = 0.030m
xcold = 0.0375m

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& = V I
Q
= 87 x 0.099
= 8.37 Watts

Hence
&
Q
U=
A(T1 - T8)
8.37
=
0.00049 (52.7 - 19.3)
2
= 510.4 W/m K

Similarly
1

( )
U=
xhot xint xcold
+ +
khot kint kcold
1

( )
=
0.0375 0.03 0.0375
+ +
121
25 121
2
= 549.5 W/m K

Note that the U value resulting from test data differs from that resulting from assumed thermal
conductivity and material thickness. This is most likely due to un-accounted for heat losses and thermal
resistances between the hot face interface and cold face interface with the stainless steel intermediate
section.

The temperature data may be plotted against position along the bar and straight lines drawn through the
temperature points for the heated and cooled sections. Then a straight line may be drawn through the
hot face and cold face temperatures to extrapolate the temperature distribution in the stainless steel
intermediate section.

The sample data is plotted on the following page.

A25
A26

4. To determine the thermal conductivity k of a metal specimen.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7 smear the faces of the heated and
cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp them together with the aluminium
intermediate section in place.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to approximately 150 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature gradient along the
length of the bar. If however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-35 C or more)
then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied to the heater. This will increase the
temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the bar.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I

Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording
the parameters T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I when temperatures have stabilised.

When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero and
shut down the system as detailed in the operation section on page A7.
 A27

THEORY
If the heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together so that the end faces are in good thermal
contact with the stainless steel intermediate section a composite bar of the form shown below is
formed.

Assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the surroundings
through to the cooled end the heat flow through each section must be equal.

Hence by applying Fouriers law to the Aluminium centre section

& = kint Aint Tint

Q
xint
Where
Tint = (Thotface - Tcoldface)
By re-arranging the formula the thermal conductivity kint of the intermediate section can be calculated
from:
& xint
Q
kint =
Aint(Thotface - Tcoldface)

Overleaf are sample test results and illustrative calculations showing the application of the above
theory.
A28

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 61.6 55.6 49.3 36.6 30.2 25.5 143 0.16
2 92.5 82.5 72.4 49.5 39.4 31.1 190 0.213
3
4
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
Specimen cross sectional Area A= 0.00049m2
Conductivity of Brass heated and cooled section = 121 W/mK
Conductivity of Aluminium intermediate section = 180 W/mK

Sample &
Q Thotface Tcoldface Tint kint
No.
Watts C C K W/mK
1 22.95 46.15 39.8 6.35 220.85
2 40.4 67.35 54.55 12.80 192.87
3
4

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Aluminium Intermediate Specimen and hot and cold section cross sectional Area

2
D
A=
4
2
0.025
=
4
2
= 0.00049 m

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& =VI
Q
=143.0 x 0.16
= 22.95 Watts

Note that the thermocouples T3 and T6 do not record the hot face and cold face temperatures, as they
are both displaced by 0.075m from T3 and T6 as shown.
 A29

If it is assumed that the temperature distribution is linear, as is shown in experiment 1 then the actual
temperature at the hot face and cold face may be determined from the following equations.

(T2-T3)
Thotface = T3 -
2
and
(T6-T7)
Tcoldface = T6 +
2

Hence in sample No.1

(55.6-49.3)
Thotface = 49.33 -
2
= 46.15 C

and (36.6-30.2)
Tcoldface = 36.6 +
2
= 39.8 C

Hence
Tint = Thotface - Tcoldface
= 46.15 - 39.80
= 6.35 C

From the above parameters, the thermal conductivity of the aluminium intermediate section may be
calculated.
& xint
Q
kint =
Aint(Thotface - Tcoldface)
& xint
Q
=
AintTint
22.95 0.030
=
0.00049 6.35
= 220.85 W/mK
A30

The thermal conductivity of the aluminium intermediate sample may also be calculated from the data if
it is plotted on a graph. This allows the Thotface and Tcoldface to be determined by extrapolating the line
back from T3 and T6 to the hot face and cold face positions on the graph.

The data is plotted on page A30.

From the graph the slope of the line for the 22.95 Watt test (Sample 1) is

Tint
= (-) 211 K/m
xint

Hence
&
Q Tint
kint =
A xint
22.95
= 211
0.00049
= 221.5 W/mK
A31
A32

5. To demonstrate that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-

sectional area for one dimensional flow of heat in a solid material of constant thermal
conductivity.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7 smear the faces of the heated and
cooled sections with thermal conducting paste and clamp them together with the reduced diameter
brass intermediate specimen in place.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to approximately 90 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature gradient along the
length of the bar. If however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-35 C or more)
then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied to the heater. This will increase the
temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the bar.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I

Increase the heater voltage by approximately 30 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording
the parameters T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I when temperatures have stabilised.

When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero and
shut down the system as detailed in the operation section on page A7.
 A33

THEORY
If the heated and cooled sections are clamped tightly together so that the end faces are in good thermal
contact with the stainless steel intermediate section a composite bar of the form shown below is
formed.

Assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the surroundings
through to the cooled end, the heat flow through each section must be equal.

From Fourierss law (ignoring the negative heat flow convention)

& = k A T
Q
x
or
&
1 Q x
T =
A k

Hence, T is inversely proportional to area A

For the heated section re-arranging the formula

Thot &
Q
=
xhot khot Ahot
For the intermediate section
Tint &
Q
=
xint kint Aint
For the cooled section
Tcold &
Q
=
xcold kcold Acold

If the thermal conductivity k of the heated, cooled and intermediate sections are all equal (the same
material and material properties) then for a constant Q the only parameter that will affect the
temperature gradient along the assembly will be the area A.

Hence
Tint Q &

xint kint Aint
=
Thot Q&

xhot khot Ahot
A34

If Q and k are constant along the bar,

Tint
Ahot
xint
=
Thot Aint

xhot

A similar equation can be derived for the cooled section of the bar.

Overleaf are sample test results and illustrative calculations showing the application of the above
theory.
 A35

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 43.8 41.5 39.2 21.7 19.4 18 87 0.099
2 65.0 61.2 57.3 26.3 22.5 20 116 0.128
3
4
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
Heated and cooled sections cross sectional Area A= 0.00049m2
Reduced diameter intermediate section cross sectional Area, Aint= 0.00013m2
Conductivity of Brass heated, cooled and reduced section = 121 W/mK

Sample
No.
&
Q Thotface Tcoldface Tint kint
Watts C C K W/mK
1 8.46 46.15 39.8 6.35 220.85
2 14.88 67.35 54.55 12.80 192.87
3
4

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Heated and cooled section cross sectional Area

D2
A=
4
0.025 2
=
4
= 0.00049 m 2

Reduced diameter intermediate section cross sectional Area Aint

Dint 2
Aint =
4
0.0132
=
4
= 0.00013 m 2

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& =VI
Q
=87 x 0.128
= 8.46 Watts
A36

Note that the thermocouples T3 and T6 do not record the hot face and cold face temperatures as they
are both displaced by 0.075m from T3 and T6 as shown below.

If it is assumed that the temperature distribution is linear, as is shown in experiment 1, then the actual
temperature at the hot face and cold face may be determined from the following equations.

(T2-T3)
Thotface = T3 -
2
and
(T6-T7)
Tcoldface = T6 +
2

Hence in sample No.1 (41.5-39.2)

Thotface = 39.2 -
2
= 38.05 C
and
(21.7-19.4)
Tcoldface = 21.7 +
2
= 22.85 C

Hence Tint = Thotface - Tcoldface

= 38.05 - 22.85
= 15.2 C

The temperature gradient in the section of reduced area

Tint 15.2
=
xint 0.03
= 506.6 K/m

The temperature gradient in the heated section

Thot (T1-Thotface)
=
xhot 0.030 + 0.0075
43.8 - 38.05
=
0.0375
= 153.33 K/m
 A37

The ratio of the temperature gradients in the heated and reduced diameter bar are as follows

Tint
506.6
xint
=
Thot 153.3

xhot
= 3.304

This compares with the area ratio

A 0.00049
=
Aint 0.00013
= 3.6982
The differences may be attributed to measurement errors and the assumption that the heat transfer
through the bar Q is without loss to the surroundings.

The data may also be plotted on a graph. This allows the Thotface and Tcoldface to be determined by
extrapolating the line back from T3 and T6 to the hot face and cold face positions on the graph.

The data is plotted on the following page.

The graphical data may then be used to determine the above gradients and confirm the relationship with
the area ratio.
A38
 A39

6. To demonstrate the effect of contact resistance on thermal conduction between adjacent

materials.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7. Ensure the faces of the heated and
cooled sections are cleaned of thermal conducting paste and that the brass intermediate section is also
similarly cleaned.

Lightly coat the mating faces between the cooled section and the brass intermediate specimen with
thermal paste and assemble them together.

Do not coat the mating faces of the heated section and the brass intermediate specimen with thermal
paste and assemble.

Finally, DO NOT clamp the assembly together as normal but leave the clamps open.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to approximately 120 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature gradient along the
length of the bar. If however the local cooling water supply is at a high temperature (25-35 C or more)
then it may be necessary to increase the voltage supplied to the heater. This will increase the
temperature difference between the hot and cold ends of the bar.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, I

Increase the heater voltage by approximately 50 volts and repeat the above procedure again recording
the parameters T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, I when temperatures have stabilised.

Leave the voltage setting at 17 volts and clamp the sections together on the unit. Monitor temperatures
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8 until stable and then repeat the above readings.

When completed, if no further experiments are to be conducted reduce the heater voltage to zero and
shut down the system as detailed in the operation section on page A7.
A40

THEORY
When two surfaces are in contact, paths of thermal conduction only exist where points of physical
contact exist on a microscopic scale.

The degree of conduction will depend on surface finish, contact pressure, alignment and the presence
of any intermediate material. If the surfaces are clean and in air then any air trapped between the
surfaces will act as an insulator.

The addition of a good thermal conducting material that will fill the microscopic gaps will improve the
effective thermal contact and improve conduction. This is the function performed by the thermal paste
supplied. This contains an effective thermal conducting powder mixed in a semi-fluid carrier.

If used correctly most of the thermal paste will be squeezed from between the surfaces and only at the
microscopic level will paste remain between the surfaces. However, if too much paste is applied or the
surfaces are not brought together under firm pressure the paste can act as an additional resistance and
effectively reduce heat transfer.
 A41

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results:
Sample 1 Not clamped
Sample 2 Not Clamped
Sample 3 Clamped

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 54.7 50.8 47.1 34.8 31.0 27.2 23.5 20.6 117 0.128
2 91.7 84.6 77.4 53.6 46.6 38.2 31 25.4 164 0.182
3 86.2 79.1 71.7 53.3 45.9 38.9 31.5 25.7 164 0.182
4
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
Heated, cooled and intermediate brass sections cross sectional Area A= 0.00049m2
Conductivity of Brass heated, cooled and reduced section = 121 W/mK

Sample &
Q
No.
Watts
1 14.76
2 29.41
3 29.41
4

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& =VI
Q
=117.0 x 0.128
= 14.76 Watts

The data is best analysed graphically and has been plotted on the following page for this purpose.

The lower graph lines are the test at 14.76 W heat input with the assembly not clamped. Note that the
continuation of the T6, T7 line matches the slope and magnitude of the T4, T5 line in all three test
results, even when the assembly is not clamped. This is the effect of the heat conducting paste.

Note also that the largest temperature difference is across the surface without paste (between T3 and
T4) even when the assembly is clamped.

Note that clamping the non-pasted assembly does reduce the temperature difference between T3 and
T4, but only by a small amount.
A42
 A43

7. To understand the application of poor thermal conductors and determine the thermal
conductivity k of a poor thermal conductor.

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7. Ensure the faces of the heated and
cooled sections are cleaned of thermal conducting paste.

Select the thin cork disc provided, measure and record the thickness xint of the disc as accurately as
possible (A vernier gauge or micrometer is suitable). Place this between the heated and cooled sections
then clamp the assembly together.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below

Again following the above procedure ensure the cooling water is flowing and then set the heater
voltage V to approximately 90 volts. This will provide a reasonable temperature gradient along the
length of the bar. However care should be taken as the heat transfer rate will be reduced due to the
insulator and the temperature T1, T2, T3 can rise higher than in other experiments.

Monitor temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8 until stable.

When the temperatures are stabilised record:

T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I

Increase the heater voltage by approximately 30 volts and repeat the above procedure, again recording
the parameters T1, T2, T3, T6, T7, T8, V, I when temperatures have stabilised.

If time permits, the procedure may be repeated with the paper disc provided.
A44

THEORY
Thermal insulators such as paper and cork have low thermal conductivity relative to metals and this
means that only a small amount of heat will pass through the material even though a high temperature
difference may exist across it.

This property may be utilised to reduce heat loss (or gain) to or from a body to its surroundings.
Alternatively, the large temperature difference across an insulator may be the prime function, as in the
case of an insulated handle on a cooking utensil.

If a thin section of insulating material is clamped between a heated and cooled surface then a
temperature profile of the form shown below will result.

Assuming that the energy entering the heated end is conducted without loss to the surroundings
through to the cooled end, the heat flow through each section must be equal.

Hence, by applying Fouriers law to each section

&
Q kcold Tcold kint Tint khot Thot
= = =
A xcold xint xhot
Note that in this example the area A is constant

& xint
Q
From this
kint =
A Tint

Where Tint = Thotface - Tcoldface

&
Q xint
Therefore kint =
A Thotface - Tcoldface

Overleaf are sample test results and illustrative calculations showing the application of the above
theory.
 A45

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results
Measured thickness of cork sample xint = 0.00079m

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
No.
C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
1 31.3 30.5 29.7 17.7 16.9 16.8 87 0.099
2 62.7 60.7 58.8 20.9 19 18 116 0.128
3
4
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
Heated and cooled sections cross sectional Area A= 0.00049m2
Assumed Thermal Conductivity of cork composite material = 0.4 W/mK

Sample
No.
&
Q Thotface Tcoldface Tint kint
Watts C C K W/mK
1 8.46 46.15 39.8 6.35 220.85
2 14.88 67.35 54.55 12.80 192.87
3
4

For sample No.1 the example calculations are as follows:

Heated and cooled section and cork sample cross sectional Area A

D2
A=
4
0.025 2
=
4
= 0.00049 m 2
Heat transfer rate from the heater
& =VI
Q
=87 x 0.099
= 8.46 Watts

Note that the thermocouples T3 and T6 do not record the hot face and cold face temperatures as they
are both displaced by 0.075m from T3 and T6 as shown below
A46

If it is assumed that the temperature distribution is linear, as is shown in experiment 1, then the actual
temperature at the hot face and cold face may be determined from the following equations.

(T2-T3)
Thotface = T3 -
2
and
(T6-T7)
Tcoldface = T6 +
2

Hence in sample No.1

(30.5-29.7)
Thotface = 29.7 -
2
= 29.3 C
and (17.7-16.9)
Tcoldface = 17.7 +
2
= 18.1 C

Hence Tint = Thotface - Tcoldface

= 29.3 - 18.1
= 11.2 C

From the parameters overleaf the thermal conductivity of the cork sample may be calculated.
& xint
Q
kint =
Aint(Thotface - Tcoldface)
& xint
Q
=
AintTint
8.46 0.00079
=
0.00049 11.2
= 0.374 W/mK

The data is plotted overleaf to illustrate the large thermal gradient between the hot face and cold face
due to the effect of the insulation.

The hot face and cold face temperatures are determined graphically by drawing the best fit line between
the data points available and then extending to either the hot face or cold face as appropriate.

Note that the temperature difference across the brass sections is much smaller than across even the thin
section of cork insulation due to the difference in thermal conductivity.
A47
A48

8. To observe unsteady state conduction of heat and to use this in observation of the time to
reach stable conditions

It is assumed that the INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING procedures for the linear heat
conduction unit H112A have been completed as detailed on pages A4 to A6.

PROCEDURE
Following the basic OPERATING PROCEDURE on page A7. Ensure the faces of the heated and
cooled sections are cleaned of thermal conducting paste.

Select the thin cork disc and place this between the heated and cooled sections then clamp the assembly
together.

Schematically this produces a system as shown below

Again following the above procedure, ensure the cooling water is flowing.

Disconnect the heater 8-pole plug and then set the heater voltage V to approximately 90 volts but do
not re-connect the heater at this stage.

Start a stopwatch or alternatively use a clock to record regular time intervals and then re-connect the
heater with the voltage still set at approximately 90 volts.

Record V, I and T1 at regular intervals of say 5 minutes.

Note that the experiment can take up to 90 minutes to reach stability.

Note that if the Data Acquisition Upgrade HC112A is available then more temperatures may be
recorded simultaneously.
 A49

THEORY
Heat transfer through a solid material is not instantaneous. If heat is introduced at one end of a solid at
a constant rate Q the temperature closest to the heat source will begin to rise as soon as the heat input
starts. Due to conduction, the heat will transfer along the solid away from the heat source towards any
area of lower temperature.

The rate of heat transfer along the bar and the subsequent temperature rise will not only depend upon
the thermal conductivity (W/mK) of the bar but also the material specific heat (J/kg K), the material
density (kg/m3) and the bar dimensions.

The heat will transfer along the bar and the temperatures along the bar will rise until a steady state
condition exists where all intermediate temperatures are constant. As long as the heat input and the sink
temperature are constant, the system will remain in equilibrium. It is under these conditions that all
previous experiments (1 to 7) have been undertaken.

The subject of unsteady state heat transfer is beyond the capabilities of this unit but the procedure
allows the concept unsteady state heat transfer to be introduced.

Overleaf are sample test results showing the temperature rise of T1 with time.
A50

OBSERVATIONS
Sample test results

Sample
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 V I
Time .
Minutes C C C C C C C C Volts Amps
0 18 86 0.097
5 31.3 86 0.097
10 41.3 86 0.097
20 52.40 86 0.097
32 57.5 86 0.097
38 59.00 86 0.097
47 60.3 86 0.097
56 61.3 86 0.097
70 62.0 86 0.097
96 62.7 86 0.097
Distance
0.000 0.015 0.030 --- --- 0.045 0.060 0.075 --- ---
from T1

CALCULATED DATA
For all of the above sample points the heat input Q was constant.

Heat transfer rate from the heater

& = V I
Q
= 86 x 0.097
= 8.3 Watts
The data is plotted overleaf.

The data illustrates that with small heat inputs the time for all of the system temperatures to reach
stable conditions can be longer than expected. This emphasises the need to monitor temperatures with
time until stability is assured.
A51