DESIGN OF A PERSONAL AERIAL VEHICLE

A Major Qualifying Project Report

Submitted to the Faculty of
WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Science
In Mechanical Engineering

Date: 26 April 2017

Submitted by:

____________________________________________________
Matthew D. Lepine
mdlepine@wpi.edu

Advisor: Co-Advisor:

____________________________________ ____________________________________
David C. Planchard John R. Hall
planchard@wpi.edu jrh@wpi.edu
Abstract
The purpose of this project was to research, design, and analyze a personal aerial vehicle.
One focus of this objective was modeling and structurally analyzing the frame, which had to be
lightweight, yet strong enough to withstand the stresses of the application. This was accomplished
while also identifying other compatible components to complete the design. In pursuit of this goal,
similar technologies were examined, allowing for a unique, yet practical, interpretation of this new
technology. A tenth-scale prototype was designed and fabricated to assist in determining the
electrical components necessary and to act as a functioning example of how a full-scale vehicle
might operate. Finally, recommendations for future action were outlined to allow for further
development of the technology.

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Executive Summary
The purpose of this project was to research, design, and analyze a personal aerial vehicle,
based on quadcopter technology. There are a few of these vehicles already in production, but none
are currently available. The primary objective of this project was to design, model, and analyze the
frame of a personal aerial vehicle. In addition to this, electrical and mechanical components were
selected to allow for proper functioning of the vehicle. During this process, a tenth-scale prototype
was designed and fabricated, to assist in determining the electrical components necessary and to act
as a functioning example of how a full-scale vehicle might operate. Finally, recommendations for
future action were outlined to allow for further development of the technology.
The personal aerial vehicle that was designed, in addition to the corresponding prototype, is
comprised of several parts. Of course, there is a frame that not only houses the components, the
payloads, and the operator, but also can withstand any forces imposed on the system, either from
normal operation or from unexpected situations. The driving force to lift the frame and its added
loads, allowing them to become airborne, is provided by the motor-propeller combination. The
motors are electric brushless outrunner motors, which have high torque and relatively low rotational
speeds, while the propellers are large-diameter, low-pitch propellers for smooth, efficient operation.
A low-weight LiPo battery powers the motors. The electronic speed controls (ESCs) bridge the gap
between the battery and the motors, and allow the motors to spin as intended. Finally, an on-board
flight controller powers the entire vehicle. This computational component takes input from both the
vehicles steering system and its own sensors, converts it into electrical signals, and sends these
signals to the ESCs.
The main designed component of the vehicle is the frame. This frame is a barebones design,
made of tubes of Aluminum 6061-T6. These tubes are of varying sizes and form both the main
frame and the skid-based landing gear. The motor selected is a powerful 9800W brushless outrunner
motor, which provides the torque and rotational speed that the vehicle needs. The propellers are 48-
inch diameter, 10.25-inch pitch propellers that can provide over 140 lbf of thrust at 4200 rpm. The
motors are powered by a 14S (51.8V), 5000mAh LiPo battery that has a high capacity-to-weight
ratio. This vehicle also has 250A ESCs to control the motor RPM. A flight controller and a steering
system were also considered, although were not selected or designed for this design iteration.

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 The prototype frame is made of 3D-printed fiberglass-reinforced nylon, and proportionally
resembles the full-scale vehicle, although its primary function is to contain all of the electronic
components selected for the prototype. These components include 2300Kv brushless motors, 5-
inch diameter propellers, a 3S (11.1V), 2200mAh LiPo battery, 20A ESCs, a small but powerful
flight control board, and a receiver. The prototype is controlled remotely with a transmitter.
Despite the progress made on this first iteration of a complex design, there are still
improvements to be made in the future. The frame can be made out of a stronger, lighter material to
reduce the overall weight of the vehicle. The battery can be improved upon to allow for longer flight
times. The flight controller needs to be selected and programmed. The steering system needs to be
designed. Many safety measures should to be put into place before a human pilot can operate the
vehicle. Finally, this vehicle should be fabricated as a full-scale prototype to allow for a better
understanding of the complexities of operation and to ensure that a more comprehensive design can
be achieved in future iterations. The future of technology is bright, and I believe that this personal
aerial vehicle and others like it will revolutionize transportation.

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Acknowledgements
There have been many individuals who have assisted me with this project throughout the
year, and without whom this project would have not been nearly as successful.
My primary advisor, Professor David C. Planchard, provided guidance and was crucial to
ensuring a robust, cohesive project, while his experience working with design teams was
invaluable.
My secondary advisor, Professor John R. Halla pilot and flight enthusiastshowcased his
experience in and passion for the topic and proved to be indispensable, especially in helping
to clarify several aspects of flight design and in the part selection process.
Barbara Furhman was instrumental in helping me obtain the required components for the
prototype.
Erica Stults guided me through the rapid prototyping process.
Aaron Jaeger increased my knowledge of how some of the electrical components work.
Ryan Wiesenberg assisted me in the steering system selection process.

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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................................... I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF VARIABLES .................................................................................................................................... IX
LIST OF UNITS ................................................................................................................................................. X
LIST OF EQUATIONS .................................................................................................................................. XI
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1
RATIONALE ................................................................................................................................................................................ 1
OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................ 3
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLIGHT ................................................................................................................................................. 3
CURRENT HOVERCRAFT TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................................................ 5
DESIGN PROCESS ........................................................................................................................................... 7
PART DESCRIPTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 13
FRAME ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
MOTORS .................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
PROPELLERS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 18
BATTERY .................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLS (ESCS) .......................................................................................................................... 23
FLIGHT CONTROLLER .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
STEERING SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................................. 27
VEHICLE DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................... 29
FRAME ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
MOTORS .................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 37
PROPELLERS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 38
BATTERY .................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 40
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLS (ESCS) .......................................................................................................................... 41
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 41
OTHER COMPONENTS ......................................................................................................................................................... 42
PROTOTYPE DESIGN ................................................................................................................................. 43
FRAME ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
MOTORS .................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 48

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 PROPELLERS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 50
BATTERY .................................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 51
ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLS (ESCS) .......................................................................................................................... 52
Specifications & Features ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 52
FLIGHT CONTROLLER .......................................................................................................................................................... 53
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 53
TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER ...................................................................................................................................................... 54
Specifications: Transmitter .................................................................................................................................................. 54
Specifications: Receiver ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................... 54
FUTURE WORK ............................................................................................................................................. 55
CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................................. 58
WORKS CITED ............................................................................................................................................... 60
APPENDIX A: FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATION PART 103 ......................................... 64
APPENDIX B: VEHICLE MOTOR SELECTION MATRIX ......................................................... 69
APPENDIX C: VEHICLE PROPELLER CALCULATIONS ......................................................... 71
APPENDIX D: PROTOTYPE BATTERY SELECTION MATRIX ........................................... 73

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Leonardo da Vinci's Early Sketches of a Flying Machine ........................................................... 3
Figure 2: JTARV Hoverbike ............................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 3: Scorpion-3 Hoverbike ....................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4: Colin Furze's Homemade Hoverbike ............................................................................................. 6
Figure 5: Volocopter .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 6: Initial Sketch Side View ................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 7: Initial Sketch Top View ................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 8: Initial Sketch Bottom View .......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 9: Two Sets of Three Coils in a Brushless Electric Motor ............................................................ 16
Figure 10: Energized Coils in a Brushless Electric Motor ......................................................................... 16
Figure 11: Propeller Orientation .................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 12: Roll, Pitch, and Yaw ...................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 13: Power Distribution Board ............................................................................................................ 24
Figure 14: Wiring Harness .............................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 15: PID Control System Feedback Loop ......................................................................................... 26
Figure 16: Example of a Hands-On Throttle and Stick Steering System ................................................ 27
Figure 17: Vehicle Full Assembly Rendering ............................................................................................... 29
Figure 18: Main Frame Isometric View ..................................................................................................... 31
Figure 19: Main Frame Top View .............................................................................................................. 31
Figure 20: Main Frame Right View ............................................................................................................ 32
Figure 21: Main Frame Front View............................................................................................................ 32
Figure 22: Main Frame Static Simulation Stress Distribution Result.................................................... 33
Figure 23: Main Frame Static Simulation Displacement Distribution Result...................................... 33
Figure 24: Vehicle Landing Gear Isometric View.................................................................................... 34
Figure 25: Landing Gear Static Simulation Stress Distribution Result ................................................. 35
Figure 26: Landing Gear Static Simulation Displacement Distribution Result................................... 35
Figure 27: Turnigy Rotomax 150cc Brushless Electric Motor .................................................................. 37
Figure 28: Helix Propeller (H25F 1.20m L/R-LS-03-2) Torque, Power, and Thrust Data ................. 39
Figure 29: Pulse 5000mAh 14S 45C LiPo .................................................................................................... 40
Figure 30: Turnigy dlux 250A ESC ............................................................................................................... 41

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Figure 31: Completed Prototype .................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 32: Prototype Bottom Base Plate ...................................................................................................... 44
Figure 33: Prototype Top Base Plate............................................................................................................. 45
Figure 34: Prototype Arm ............................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 35: Prototype Frame Assembly .......................................................................................................... 46
Figure 36: Prototype Arm Static Simulation Stress Distribution Result .............................................. 47
Figure 37: Prototype Arm Static Simulation Displacement Distribution Result ................................ 47
Figure 38: Graupner Ultra 2804 2300Kv Motor ......................................................................................... 48
Figure 39: Gemfan 5x3 Propellers ................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 40: Turnigy 2200mAh 3S 40C LiPo Battery .................................................................................... 51
Figure 41: Graupner Ultra Control 20A OneShot Race ESC ................................................................... 52
Figure 42: HobbyKing KK-Mini Flight Control Board ............................................................................. 53
Figure 43: Turnigy 5X 5-Channel Transmitter/Receiver ........................................................................... 54

List of Tables
Table 1: Flight Visibility and Cloud Clearance Requirements (Part 103) ................................................ 68
Table 2: Vehicle Motor Selection Matrix ...................................................................................................... 70
Table 3: Propeller Tip Speed & Pitch Calculations ..................................................................................... 71
Table 4: Prototype Battery Selection Matrix ................................................................................................ 73

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List of Variables
C capacity of a LiPo battery
Cprop circumference of the circle made by a propellers tips when rotating
Crating C-rating of a LiPo battery
Iavg average current draw
Imax,battery maximum current draw from a LiPo battery
Imax,ESC maximum current for an ESC
Imax,motor maximum current draw from a motor
P power
T thrust
Tmax maximum thrust
tmax maximum flight time
torque
V voltage
Wtotal total weight of the vehicle

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List of Units
A amperes
g grams
hr hour
in. inches
kg kilograms
kp kiloponds (kilogram-force)
Kv revolutions per minute per volt
s microseconds
mA milliamperes
mAh milliampere-hours
mm millimeters
MPa megapascals
Nm Newton-meters
lbf pound-force
RPM revolutions per minute
V volts
W watts

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List of Equations
Equation 1: Required Maximum Thrust ....................................................................................................... 16
Equation 2: Torque Calculation for an Electric Motor .............................................................................. 17
Equation 3: Maximum Propeller Tip Speed................................................................................................. 20
Equation 4: Maximum Propeller Rotational Speed .................................................................................... 20
Equation 5: Maximum Current Draw from a LiPo Battery....................................................................... 21
Equation 6: Maximum Flight Time ............................................................................................................... 22
Equation 7: Recommended Maximum Current Rating for an ESC......................................................... 23
Equation 8: Maximum Torque for the Vehicles Motor ............................................................................ 37
Equation 9: Vehicle Maximum Thrust Requirement .................................................................................. 38
Equation 10: Vehicle Maximum Thrust Requirement per Propeller ....................................................... 38
Equation 11: Vehicle Maximum Propeller Rotational Speed .................................................................... 39
Equation 12: Maximum Current Draw from a LiPo Battery for the Vehicle ......................................... 40
Equation 13: Maximum Flight Time for the Vehicle at Full Throttle ..................................................... 40
Equation 14: Maximum Flight Time for the Vehicle at 70% Throttle .................................................... 40
Equation 15: Maximum Current Rating for the ESC ................................................................................. 41
Equation 16: Calculation to Confirm the Prototypes Thrust Capacity................................................... 48
Equation 17: Maximum Torque for the Prototypes Motor ...................................................................... 49
Equation 18: Maximum Current Draw from a LiPo Battery for the Prototype .................................... 51
Equation 19: Maximum Flight Time for the Prototype ............................................................................. 51

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Introduction
This Major Qualifying Project (MQP) is centered on the development of a new mode of
personal transportation. This new vehicle is modeled after a quadcopter, a major player in one of the
fastest growing industries of the present day. This report will describe the steps through which I
designed my vision of this technology that has the potential to permanently shift how people think
about how they get around.

Rationale
Carbon emissions are at the highest levels in human history. This exponential rise in
emissions began with the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s, and has continued to increase in
severity as time goes by. One major contributor to this environmental catastrophe is the
transportation industry and, particularly in the United States, the personal transportation sector,
which has hardly seen new innovation in the last century. The advent of the automobile promised a
faster, more efficient way to travel. In the process, this industry ushered in a new era of convenience,
introducing the worlds population to vehicles that produce unnecessary amounts of pollution.
With this in mind, I set out to find a solution. Seeing the impressively fast rise of the remote-
controlled quadcopter industry, I began to imagine a world in which people could travel around on
scaled-up versions of these devices. I conducted some research on current technology in this area,
and foundto my delightthat some of these vehicles are in development, althoughto my
dismaynearly all of these vehicles are being developed for military use. I had envisioned these
devices for use in everyday life, not just in military operations. I wanted to do my part in pioneering
this transportation technology, so I set out to design a personal aerial vehicle that is naturally
intuitive, reasonably inexpensive, and widely accessible.
I envision a future in which these vehicles are the new normal, a future in which the vehicles
of the past are dethroned by renewable forms of transportation. I look forward to the day when
cities will be designed upwards rather than outwards, when a medic can get to a person in need over
rough terrain in very little time, when a businessman can commute to work through the air, or when
a farmer can personally check the status of her crops from above. It is with this mindset that I
approached this project, and is with this spirit that I would like to see it come to fruition.

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Objectives
The primary goal of this project was to design a personal aerial vehicle using 3D modeling
techniques and to identify the necessary electrical and mechanical components required for an
aircraft like this to operate effectively. This entailed design and analysis of the vehicle in SolidWorks.
In pursuit of this main goal, a scaled-down prototype was designed and fabricated. This
model was synthesized and analyzed in SolidWorks, and then 3D printed. Various components
necessary for the proper functioning of this prototype were selected and purchased.
At the conclusion of the project, recommendations for further action were outlined, so that
others can help in progressing towards the goal of a better futurea future in which these personal
aerial vehicles will be a reality.

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Background
This section will review the history of flight and the types of flying vehicles currently in use,
with a focus on quadcopters and the new technology that is currently being developed.

A Brief History of Flight

Humans have dreamed about flying for millennia, especially starting several hundred years
B.C. with the development of the kite in China (The Library of Congress, 2010). Over one thousand
years later in the late 1400s and early 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci designed several flying machines,
although none were actually built; his work was not even known until 1797 (Wragg, 1974). The next
major development in flight came in the summer of 1783 when the Montgolfier brothers
demonstrated the first unmanned hot air balloon flight, which was propelled by a burning pile of
moist wool and old shoes (AIAA). Around the same time, the hydrogen balloon was invented.
Then in 1799, Sir George Cayley conceptualized the idea of a fixed-wing aircraft and in 1804 built
and flew the first successful model glider (AIAA).

Figure 1: Leonardo da Vinci's Early Sketches of a Flying Machine
Source: (The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, 1994)

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 At 10:35am on December 17, 1903, the Wright brothers successfully completed the first
powered, manned, heavier-than-air, controlled flight (AIAA). In the early 20th century, advances in
flight increased dramatically. In 1907, the first helicopter flight was accomplished by Paul Cornu
(AIAA). In 1926, Robert Goddard tested the first rocket using liquid fuel, ushering in the era of
modern rocketry (NASA, 2016). In 1930, Frank Whittle invented the jet engine (The Library of
Congress, 2010). In addition to these advancements, there were many more developments in flight
technology throughout the years that allow the aircraft of today to operate as they do.
There are many types of vehicles that carry humans today. Of course, there are fixed-wing
aircraft, like airplanes, that are so common today. There is also a range of rotorcraft, including
helicopters and autogyros. Helicopters contain powered rotors, driven by an engine or motor, while
autogyros have unpowered rotors.
There are also a number of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that do not carry an on-board
pilot, but are instead controlled remotely by a human pilot or by a predesigned flight path. UAVs
can generally be placed into one of five categories: target & destroy, reconnaissance, combat,
research & development, or civil & commercial (The UAV). Although these are primarily military-
based, there are some civilian UAVs that are becoming increasingly popular. These include fixed-
wing model aircraft and multirotors. This project will focus on a four-rotor multirotor, called a
quadrotor, or quadcopter.
A quadcopter is a helicopter that is driven using four propellers. These propellers are
oriented to provide thrust in a vertical direction and are controlled separately by an on-board flight
controller. The pitch, roll, yaw, and thrust of these vehicles are controlled by the rotational speeds of
the propellers. For more information on how exactly quadcopters fly, refer to the Propellers
subsection of the Part Descriptions section.
Early quadcopters were unreliable and very hard to control. Today, however, quadcopters
are the most popular type of UAV used by the consumer market, thanks to advances in technology
that have increased stability and control, and decreased complexity. The future of quadcopters looks
bright; there are many uses for the technology that will continue to be developed, including aerial
photography, package delivery, disaster relief, agricultural applications, and more (QuadcopterHQ,
2013). As the technology is further developed, new pathways for future uses will be discovered,
opening the door for new industries and inventions.

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Current Hovercraft Technology
Based on quadcopter technology, there are several larger-scale vehicles in development,
many of which were inspirations for this project. One of these is the Joint Tactical Aerial Resupply
Vehicle (JTARV), a collaboration between the United States Army Research Laboratory and Malloy
Aeronautics, a research & development engineering firm based in the United Kingdom. The JTARV
can handle a payload of 300 lbf and has been designed for use on the battlefield for speedy resupply
missions. It is still in development, and will continue to be improved until it is adopted by the
military (McNally, 2017).

Figure 2: JTARV Hoverbike
Source: (Malloy Aeronautics)

Another of these vehicles comes from a Russian startup called Hoversurf, which has recently
developed and tested the Scorpion-3. Unlike the JTARV, this vehicle was developed as an extreme
sports instrument and is set to cost at least six figures to buy (Butcher, 2017). It is designed to hold
a person weighing up to 265 lbf, to travel at a speed of 30 miles per hour, and hover up to 33 feet in
the air (Deamer, 2017). Although the propellers are uncovered and fairly dangerous at the moment,
this design showcases the possibilities for recreational use of this technology.
Although the vehicles that were just discussed are commonly referred to as hoverbikes,
they operate with four rotors. However, not all of these multicopter-inspired vehicles have four
rotors. For example, YouTube content creator Colin Furze created his own two-propeller hoverbike
in his garage using paramotor engines and propellers. This vehicle was just barely able to get him off
of the ground and was incredibly unstable, but it displays the possibility of hobbyists trying to
replicate this budding technology (Furze, 2016).

5

Figure 3: Scorpion-3 Hoverbike Figure 4: Colin Furze's Homemade Hoverbike
Source: (Murray, 2017) Source: (Furze, 2016)

There are several other types of flying vehicles being proposed and in development. One
that is most relevant to this topic is the Volocopter, made by a German company called E-volo. The
Volocopter is a two-seat, enclosed aerial vehicle that uses 18 propellers to achieve lift. It is not only
more sophisticated than the others previously mentioned, but it is also more advanced in its
development cycle. Its applications include precision agriculture, personal transportation, search and
rescue operations, and more (E-volo). Many companies throughout the world, hoping to bring
personal and public transportation to the skies, are developing similar types of enclosed aerial
vehicles and flying cars. All of the types of vehicles mentioned will continue to be improved and will
likely be the future of personal transportation. It is in this environment that this project was begun.

Figure 5: Volocopter
Source: (E-volo)

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Design Process
Last spring during the project selection process, I tasked myself with thinking of an idea
about which I could become passionate. After coming up with several possibilities, I decided to
pursue an idea that I had years ago that involved creating a very large quadcopter that a person could
ride. I performed initial research to see if vehicles like this existed, and discovered that there were a
handful of companies working on developing the technology. With the possibility of these vehicles
being used in a variety of different industries and even in the everyday world, I decided that I wanted
to try to design one of these vehicles myself. Knowing next to nothing about how quadcopters
actually worked, I saw both a challenge and an opportunity to apply my engineering education on a
completely new problem. I developed the idea over the summer, thinking about and researching
some requirements and the general design. Included below are some initial sketches of the design.

Figure 6: Initial Sketch Side View

7

Figure 7: Initial Sketch Top View

Figure 8: Initial Sketch Bottom View

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 By the time A-term began, the vehicle and the projects goals were only vaguely defined.
Therefore, the definition of what I actually wanted to accomplish, along with the design
specifications of the vehicle, were the first order of business. At first, I had wanted to only design,
analyze, and fabricate the frame for the vehicle. I knew that I could not afford to also buy all of the
components and also knew that I did not have enough time to learn how to program the vehicles
flight control software and achieve safe flight on a team comprised of only myself, so I thought that
designing and manufacturing the frame might be my best option. However, after some careful
consideration and suggestions from my advisor, it was decided that diving more in depth into other
parts of the design would be more beneficial than simply having a static frame without any
electromechanical components to make it work. Learning later that the frame would cost
approximately $3,000 for the materials, this goal change turned out to be a much less expensive route.
The projects objectives became to design, analyze, and fabricate a frame in SolidWorksa
computer-aided design (CAD) softwareas well as to select the necessary electromechanical
components to get the vehicle to function. In addition, I planned to come up with recommendations
for further work and improvements for future design iterations based on this initial design
experience.
While I was defining the project, I was also determining several design specifications for the
vehicle. I wanted it to be able to support people between the heights of 50 and 63 (98% of the
United States population), and weighing up to 250 lbf. In addition, I wanted the vehicle to fit within
the size regulations for a commercial motor vehicle; width was the main factor for this specification,
with the regulation defining the maximum value of 102.36 inches. For the operation of the vehicle, I
found that quadcopters are often designed to hover at between 50% and 70% thrust capacity.
Because of this, I decided that the vehicle should be able to hover at 70% thrust capacity for the
maximum 250-lbf user. I had determined this specification before I had selected motors or
propellers, so the selection of these componentsespecially the propellerswas driven based on
the weight of the frame and this design specification. Another specification was the batterys capable
flight time. I had decided that the battery would not be as much of a focus for this project, so I set
the flight time to be only one minute at full throttle. After researching other aircraft similar to this,
the decision was made that the vehicle could be designed to be an ultralight aircraft. For the legal
definition of these vehicles, refer to Appendix A: Federal Aviation Regulation Part 103. From

9
these regulations, some specifications were assigned. One is that the empty vehicle needs to be less
than 254 lbf. Another is that the vehicle should be able to reach speeds in the range of 20 mph to 40
mph, but should definitely not exceed 63.3 mph (55 knots). The vehicle should also reach an altitude
of at least 3,500 feet above sea level, since this approximates the height that most ultralight aircraft
can reach.
After defining the design specifications, the frame design process began. Inspired by a
bicycle frame, I decided to stray from the enclosed vehicle design I originally imagined and began
designing a barebones structure. I began with the frames general layoutthe top and bottom base
sections of the frame, as well as the propeller housingsthen moved onto the structural supports.
Next, I designed the landing gear, which resembles helicopter skids. Finally, I designed the
connectors that would attach the landing gear to the frame and the motors to the housing.
After the general design of the frame was complete, I moved onto the initial component
selection process, beginning with the motor. After researching quadcopters and motors, I collected
information on the most powerful electric brushless outrunner motors available. After putting them
into a selection matrix (see Appendix B: Vehicle Motor Selection Matrix), the most powerful of
these motors was chosen. Next, I moved to the propeller selection process, which required taking
into account the motors power and the calculated thrust requirements of the vehicle. I first searched
for propellers used for powered paragliding to get an estimate of the size of these propellers. After
getting an understanding of the size and general thrust capacity of these propellers, I found an
online static thrust approximation software (Model Aircraft, 2016), which allowed me to experiment
with propellers of different diameters and pitches, to get the proper amount of thrust for the
application. During this process, I learned that propellers should not rotate above a certain
rotational speed, since the propeller tips approach the speed of sound, so this had to factor into
these thrust calculations. This thrust estimation process was continuous throughout the project, as
the weight of the vehicle continued to change.
Once the frame was designed and the thrust was known, I began the analysis process. This
analysis was primarily completed in SolidWorks, but some calculations were done by hand to
confirm the results. In general, forces were applied where the motors were to be mounted and
where the pilot would sit. The bottom of the frame was secured where the main frame would
connect to the landing gear. This would not simulate an actual flight, since at 70% thrust, the vehicle

10
would theoretically begin to hover. Instead, this analysis was a simulation of what would happen if
the vehicle were tightly secured to the ground and the motors were set to full throttle. To ensure the
safety of the vehicle while also attempting to keep it lightweight, the minimum factor of safety for
this simulation was set to be 2.
Using the results of the simulation, a redesign process began, during which the frame was
adjusted to better react to the applied forces by adding supports for more reinforcement or by
removing supports to decrease the frames weight. Then, more static analyses were completed and
the redesign process was repeated. Throughout this time, the battery and the electronic speed
controls (ESCs) were selected to better estimate the frames weight and operation. The weight of
other parts that were not specifically selected was estimated to better determine the vehicles weight.
During B-term, my advisors and I decided that, in order to better understand the
components of a vehicle like the one I began designing and to show others the proportional size and
shape of the full-scale vehicle, a prototype should be designed and fabricated. This process involved
delving much deeper into quadcopter research to understand how each component worked
individually and as part of the assembly.
I began by scaling down the components. The first components that I looked at were the
propellers, since I wanted them to be approximately proportional to those in the full-scale vehicle.
Once a good option for the propellers was found, the motors, ESCs, battery, and the remainder of
the components were selected. For the descriptions of these parts, refer to the Prototype Design
section.
After selecting all of the necessary components, the frame design process began. The goal of
this frame was to hold all the electronic parts while also proportionally approximating the size and
shape of the full-scale frame. This frame went through three major design changes. The first
iteration of the design resembled the vehicles frame exactly, made up of the barebones-type
structural supports. Although my advisors and I decided that this could theoretically be 3D printed,
it would most likely not be strong enough to withstand all of the forces that it would be expected to
experience, due to the obvious difference in strength between ABS plastic and tempered aluminum.
The second design iteration looked like the average injection-moulded quadcopters that are
commonly sold in the consumer market. Although it generally resembled an enclosed version of the
vehicles frame, we decided that it would be too difficult and unnecessary to 3D print. The third

11
design, which consisted of 3D-printed fiberglass-reinforced nylon plates connected by machine
screws and nuts, was ultimately deemed to be the best design. For a closer look at this design, refer
to the Frame subsection of the Prototype Design section.
As the end of B-term approached, the electronic components were ordered. During this
time, the prototypes frame was 3D printed. During C-term, the components were assembled,
connected to each other and to the frame, and tested to ensure that the prototype actually
functioned properly, which it did. Due to complications with some of the componentsincluding
the failure of one motor, and then the malfunctioning of its replacementthis process took most of
the term to complete.
Throughout this process and after the prototype was finished, the vehicles frame and
landing gear were reviewed; some slight adjustments were made after more static analyses were
completed. After the prototype component selection process, all of the selected components for the
full-scale vehicle were confirmed. Although I did not select all of the components that would be
necessary for functional operation of the vehiclesuch as the flight controller and the steering
systemI had a much better understanding of what features to look for in future design iterations.
As C-term ended, the project came to a close. At this point, I reflected back on the entire
project, looking for what went well, what could have gone better, and what to do next. My ideas for
further development of this design can be found in the Future Work section. My thoughts on the
process and on the future of this technology can be found in the Conclusions section.

12
Part Descriptions
In this section, each of the parts necessary for the proper functioning of a quadcopter (or a
quadcopter-inspired vehicle) is discussed. This section does not include specific selections and
descriptions for individual parts, but instead contains a general overview of what each component
does, how it works, and why it is important to the operation of the vehicle. There are also some
equations that assist in understanding a parts selection or operation.

Frame
Without a frame, a quadcopteror really any vehicle or aircraftcannot function. The
frame holds the entire system together. It must be able to house all of the relevant components,
including the motors, propellers, battery, and nearly every component that will be discussed in the
following sections. It should be able to withstand any forces imposed on the system from normal
operation, but more critically, from unexpected and/or dangerous situations. Lastly, it can hold any
payloads necessary for the system to carry, including human pilots.
The frame for a quadcopter can be generally split into two parts: the main body and the
arms. The main bodythe primary structural membercontains most of the central components,
including the battery and the flight control board. It also often carries most, if not all, of the
additional payloads, including the pilot in this case. This part of the quadcopter is either completely
open to the air and surrounding environment, or partially open to the environment. One reason that
this is the case is that it reduces material costs. Since quadcopters are often mass-produced, this
would save money; there are also many hobbyists who build their own quadcopters, and this
minimal material approach can save them time, effort, and naturally, money. However, perhaps a
better reason for this main-body openness is the benefit flowing air provides in the cooling of the
electronic components. Like nearly any electronic system, quadcopters have the possibility of
overheating. However, unlike many of these systems, quadcopters have a built-in advantage of
movingoften at high speedsthrough the open air; the forced convection this provides is often
the reason why many more of these devices do not frequently overheat.
The arms are attached directly to the main frame, and hold the motor-propeller
combination, which provides the quadcopter with thrust. Since the majority of the forces are most
regularly focused in this part of the frame, the arms have to be built to resist failure, fatigue, and
deflection. These supports must also be able to both survive and protect the operator, the

13
bystanders, and the nearby environment from the propellers and other possibly failing components
in the event of a crash, since the arms often must withstand impacts from the quadcopters
surroundings when the pilot loses control of the vehicle.
The landing gear, also attached to the main body, is responsible for providing a surface on
which to land the quadcopter and for absorbing the touch down of the quadcopter, whether in a
controlled or in an uncontrolled situation. There are several types of landing gear for quadcopters,
most of which are similar to those on helicopters or larger aircraft. One option is to have tubular
skids. This is one of the most common systems when working with larger, human-operator scale
quadcopters, like the full-size vehicle documented in this report, because of the low weight of this
type of landing gear, in addition to the added stability and handling this type of landing gear
provides. Another option often used for larger vehicleslike helicopters and other large aircraftis
to have wheels as the landing gear. These are often used for heavier, more powerful aircraft, since it
is often more convenient for these larger vehicles to have wheels, to increase movability while on
the ground and speed when in the air (Gibbings & Cox). These wheels are not often found on
quadcopters, however, simply because they are often unnecessary. What they use instead are stilt-like
protrusions on the bottom of the quadcopter that simply provide supports on which to land.
In general, the frame of a quadcopter must have two primary characteristics: it must be
strongto withstand both common and crash-situation forcesand it must be lightweightso the
quadcopter can perform its most basic function: flight. Since strong materials are often more robust
and heavier than weaker materials, there often must be a tradeoff between the strength of the
materials and the weight of the system. Since aircraft need to be light enough to fly, the components
in these systems are often designed to a factor of safety typically between 1.5 and 2.5 (Engineering
Toolbox); in this application, the components have been designed to a safety factor of no less than
2, since the components have not been thoroughly tested for failure. Of course, there are strong
materials that are also lightweight, such as carbon fiber and some aluminum alloys, but these
materials come at a higher expense.

14
Motors
The motors are the driving force behind a quadcopter; without them, the aircraft would not
even be able to produce the thrust to get off of the ground. The motors drive the propellers,
providing the torque necessary to allow the propellers to achieve thrust. The motors receive power
from the battery, through the ESCs. The ESCs are connected to the flight control board (FCB),
which gets input about how much power is requested from the steering system and outputs signals
to the ESCs, which in turn provide the requested power to the motors.
Many applications use brushed electric motors, which have permanent electromagnets on
the outside, commonly known as the stator, and a spinning armature containing an electromagnet on
the inside, known as the rotor. When electricity is supplied to the motor, the electromagnet creates a
magnetic field that attracts and repels the magnets in the stator. Since the magnetic field produced
only rotates the motor 180 degrees, in order for the motor to continue its rotation, the polarity of
the magnets must change; this polarity change is handled by the brushes, which contact the armature
and flip the polarity of the electromagnet as it rotates, allowing the armature to continue spinning
(Brain, 2006). These motors have some advantages; they are inexpensive, can be wired directly to a
DC power supply, and are simple to use. However, these motors also have their disadvantages; they
have a relatively short lifespan, are noisy, and are relatively inefficient (Miller, 2010).
Because of these limitations, the motors used in the multirotor industry are brushless electric
motors. In this type of motor, the permanent magnets reside on the stator and the electromagnets
are found on the rotor. An electronic controller unitin this application, this is known as the
ESCcharges the electromagnets as the shaft rotates, which makes the rotations and speed control
more precise than they are for brushed motors. In brushless motors, there are pairs of three coils
(Figure 9), and two of these coils are energized at any timeone is being pulled, while the other is
being pushed; the third is not energized and is neutral (Figure 10). This arrangement allows the
torque in the motor to remain constant, which is very difficult to do with any other type of motor
(Learn Engineering). The motors that were chosen for this application in particular are brushless
outrunner motors. These outrunners spin more slowly than inrunner motorswhich can spin at
incredibly high speedsbut outrunner motors have significantly more torque, which is an important
factor when spinning propellers; for this reason, they are more common in quadcopters.

15

Figure 9: Two Sets of Three Coils in a Brushless Electric Figure 10: Energized Coils in a Brushless Electric Motor
Motor
Source: (Learn Engineering)
Source: (Learn Engineering)

In choosing a motor for a particular quadcopter, there are several factors to evaluate. The
initial starting point should be determining how large the quadcopter would be. For this project, the
full-scale vehicle is a very large application, while the prototype is fairly small. Once the scale is
determined, the amount of thrust needs to be defined. An important factor in this calculation is the
propeller selection; therefore, the selection process for the motor and propeller occurs
simultaneously. In general, the desired thrust should be approximately twice the total weight of the
system; this means that the quadcopter could hover at half throttle. However, this ratio varies for
different applications; slower vehicles that capture smooth aerial footage are often designed to hover
at 70% of the throttle, and some racing drones can hover at 10% of the full capacity of the motor
(Liang, 2016). Since the motor and propeller are usually the first two components (after the frame)
that are chosen, the thrust calculations need to be iterative; the weight of the quadcopter during the
first iteration would be an approximation, then as the other parts are selected, the weight would
become increasingly more accurate. For this project, the vehicle and prototype were designed to
hover at 70% of the thrust capacity.
Equation 1: Required Maximum Thrust

!!"# = 0.7 !!"!#$

There are several other factors to consider when selecting motors. One is the stator width
and height; the wider and taller the stator, the more torque the motor can produce. Another factor is
the Kv value, which defines the revolutions per minute (RPM) per volt supplied to the motor. In

16


general, a lower Kv motor will spin slower, but have more torque and a higher Kv motor will spin
faster, but will have less torque. There are also other factors to consider, including efficiency, current
draw, weight, and response (Liang, 2016).
The driving force behind a motor is its torque. For electric motors, the torque can be
calculated as a function of power and RPM. For the brushless electric motors used in this
application, the RPM is a function of a constant, Kv, and the number of volts supplied to the motor
by the battery. Refer to Equation 2 for the calculation used to find an electric motors torque (The
Engineering Toolbox).
Equation 2: Torque Calculation for an Electric Motor
!
!=
!" !

17


Propellers
A quadcopter could have a sturdy frame and some powerful motors, but without the
propellers to provide the thrust, the aircraft would not be able to fly. The thrust is generated as the
propellers spin, pushing air past the blades, andthanks to Newtons Third Law of Motion
providing an equal and opposite force.
Two numbers denote propeller dimensions: size and pitch. Size, usually measured in inches,
refers to the diameter of the circle that a rotating propeller would produce. The higher the Kv of the
motor, the shorter the propeller should be; short propellers produce higher speeds, but have
lowered efficiency. Longer propellers, on the other hand, must spin more slowly, but fly more
steadily, with more efficiency, and can lift more weight. Pitch, also measured in inches, refers to the
distance the propeller would travel through one revolution, similar to a screw traveling through
wood. Propellers with a higher pitch produce more thrust, while propellers with a lower pitch are
more stable and efficient (Montgomery, Motors and Propellers: Heavy Lifting, 2014).
There are several other factors to consider when choosing a propeller for an application. The
material from which the propeller is made plays a role in the performance; for example, carbon fiber
and wooden propellers are known for smooth flight, while plastic propellers are often more resilient
when impacted during a crash. The shape of the propeller also changes performance; propellers with
sharper blade tips are often more efficient, but those with flatter tips produce more thrust. Another
factor to take into consideration is the number of blades on the propeller. Most quadcopters use
two-blade propellers, although some use three- or even four-blade propellers. In essence, the more
blades a propeller has, the more thrust it can produce; however, this improvement is balanced by a
drop in efficiency (Liang, 2016). It is also important to look at the amount of vibration produced by
the propellers. As mentioned previously, some materials are less prone to vibration than others, and
the amount of vibration ultimately depends on the manufacturer and quality of the propeller. Finally,
propellers come in a wide range of prices. These prices are determined by size, material, efficiency,
level of vibration, and many other factors. When deciding on a propeller, it is best to identify the
required quality for the selected application. For example, if the goal is to shoot high-quality aerial
footage, more expensive, smoother-flying propellers would be required; if flying is a casual hobby,
then it might be better to invest in less expensive propellers (Montgomery, Motors and Propellers:
Heavy Lifting, 2014).

18


There are several orientations in which a quadcopter could be designed to operate. For this
project, the focus has been on a quadcopter with an X configuration, with the front left and back
right propellers spinning in a clockwise rotation, and with the front right and back left propellers
spinning in a counterclockwise rotation (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Propeller Orientation Figure 12: Roll, Pitch, and Yaw
Source: (Li, Rennie, & Owen, 2012) Source: (Alex, The Quadcopter: Control the Orientation,
2012)
For reference, the x-axis found in Figure 12 points in the direction of the arrow in the center
of Figure 11, the y-axis points to the left (between propellers 1 & 4), and the z-axis points directly
out of the screen in the center of the diamond. Figure 11 depicts the X quadcopter layout as
viewed from above.
When the quadcopter is hovering, all four propellers are spinning at the same RPM and are
providing enough thrust to lift the aircraft. To pitch forward, the front two propellers (1 & 2) would
spin at a slower rate than the back two propellers (3 & 4) would; this can be achieved by decreasing
the RPM of the front two propellers and/or increasing the RPM of the back two propellers. To
pitch backward, the front two propellers would spin at a faster rate than the back two propellers. To
roll to the right, the left two propellers (1 & 4) would spin at a faster rate than the right two
propellers (2 & 3) would; again, this would be achieved by increasing the RPM of the left two
propellers and/or decreasing the RPM of the right two propellers. To pitch to the left, the left two
propellers would spin at a slower rate than the right two propellers. To yaw left, which would rotate
the aircraft in a counterclockwise direction, propellers 1 & 4 would increase their RPM, while
propellers 2 & 3 would decrease their RPM by the same amount. This allows the quadcopter to
remain level, while the increased torque on propellers 1 & 4as well as the decreased torque from

19


propellers 2 & 3cause the aircraft to rotate. To yaw right, propellers 1 & 4 would decrease their
RPM, while propellers 2 & 3 would increase their RPM by the same amount (QuadQwack, 2014).
When discussing the maximum RPM at which a propeller can rotate, the propellers tip
speed comes into play. When the tips reach approximately 85% of the speed of sound (0.85 Mach),
the propeller efficiency dramatically decreases and noise increases considerably (Warp Drive Props,
2016). That occurs because the local air velocity over the surface of [the propeller] (near the point
of maximum airfoil thickness) will reach Mach 1 and create a shock wave, separating the flow and
dissipating [propeller] energy (EPI, 2017). The following equations calculate the maximum
propeller tip speed and the maximum rotational speed of the propeller, respectively, where Cprop is
the circumference of the circle made by the tips of the propeller as it rotates. By calculating these
values, efficiency can be maximized while noise can be reduced, allowing for a longer, faster, and
more enjoyable flight.
Equation 3: Maximum Propeller Tip Speed

!!"# = 767 !" 0.85 !"# = 651.95 !"

Equation 4: Maximum Propeller Rotational Speed

651.95 !"
!"#!"# =
!!"#!

20


Battery
The battery is the powerhouse of the quadcopter. It supplies the motors, the ESCs, the flight
controller, and the receiver with power. Due to their lightweight and compact nature, in addition to
their high discharge rates, lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) batteries are the standard in the small aircraft
industry.
There are several important specifications that identify these batteries. One is the number of
cells. For example, a battery might specify that it has a 3S configuration. This means that the battery
has three cells in series. Since each cell has a nominal voltage of 3.7V (and a real voltage of 4.2V
when full), this means that the 3S battery has a nominal voltage of 11.1V (or 12.6V when full).
Likewise, if a battery specified that it was a 4S battery, it would have four cells in series, with a
nominal voltage of 14.8V (Montgomery, Speed Controllers and Batteries, 2014).
Another specification is the capacity of the battery, measured in milliampere-hours. Finally,
there is the C-rating of the battery, which works in conjunction with the capacity to determine the
maximum current that can be drawn from the battery before it starts catching on fire, exploding, or
being damaged (RC Model Reviews, 2012). The calculation of this current-delivering capability of
the battery is shown in Equation 5.
Equation 5: Maximum Current Draw from a LiPo Battery

!!"#,!"##$%& = ! !!"#$%&

For example, if a battery has a capacity of 1000mAh and a C-rating of 25C, then the battery
can safely draw 25,000mA, or 25A from the battery. This C-rating, the continuous rating, is always
specified for a particular LiPo battery. There can also be a different C-rating, the burst rating, which
describes how much current can be drawn for a short period of time (10-15 seconds). If a burst
rating is specified, the C-rating is often written as 30C-40C, for example; the first number specifies
the continuous rating and the second number specifies the burst rating (RC Model Reviews, 2012).
There are several general rules for how to treat LiPo batteries. One is that the battery should
not be discharged more than 80% of the specified capacity. It is also recommended to land an
aircraft using these batteries before the cells reach 3.3V per cell (out of the maximum 4.2V per cell
at full charge); at 3.0V per cell, the aircraft could fail and crash (Montgomery, Speed Controllers and
Batteries, 2014). In addition, these batteries should be stored with approximately 3.8V per cell (RC
Model Reviews, 2012).

21


One important calculation to take into account is the quadcopters maximum flying time.
This can be calculated using the capacity of the battery and the average current draw from the
battery (LiPo Battery Calculator, 2012).
Equation 6: Maximum Flight Time
!
!!"#, =
!!"#

Flight time is an important consideration, although it was not a design focus for this project.
For more information on the development of the vehicles battery, refer to the Future Work
section.

22


Electronic Speed Controls (ESCs)

Electronic speed controllers act as a translator, taking signals from the flight controller,
converting these signals to electrical pulses and sending them to the motors. Each motor is
connected to an ESC, so the RPM of each motor can vary independently of the other three motors.
ESCs were mentioned briefly in the discussion of how a brushless electric motor works in
the Part Descriptions section. The job of the ESC is to charge two of the three electromagnetic
coils per set in the motor, effectively causing the motor shaft to rotate.
When choosing an ESC, there are a few primary factors to consider. One is the voltage
rating. This specification identifies how many cellsfor example, 3Sthe ESC can handle. Another
is the refresh rate of the ESC; the higher the refresh rate, the faster the motor can react to signals
from the flight controller. Another factor is the maximum current rating, which must be greater than
the maximum current draw of the motor; often it is recommended that the ESCs maximum current
value be at least 20% greater than the maximum current draw of the motor (Montgomery, Speed
Controllers and Batteries, 2014).
Equation 7: Recommended Maximum Current Rating for an ESC

!!"#,!"# = !!"#,!"#"$ 1.20

Similar to the C-rating for batteries, the maximum current value for ESCs is often written as
two numbers; the first of these is the continuous rating and the second is the short-term (burst)
rating (Academy of Model Aeronautics, 2013).
There are a variety of additional features with which an ESC can be equipped. One is a
battery eliminator circuit (BEC), which provides power to the receiver without needing additional
batteries. Most commonly, this feature is found when using batteries with smaller cell counts, since
the BEC converts the batterys output voltage to 5V, which is what the receiver requires. Another
feature is motor cut-off, which is often a feature within the BEC feature. Motor cut-off does exactly
that; it cuts power to the motor when the battery is low, so the quadcopter can land safely before the
battery is depleted. One feature that cannot be paired with a BEC is the opto-isolation feature,
which isolates the signal sent to the radio transmitter from the signal received from the ESC; this
cuts down on the amount of noise the ESCs receive. One final feature relevant to this discussion is
called a brake feature, and again, it does exactly what the name suggests. When the throttle is at zero,

23


it stops the motor from spinning, effectively stopping the momentum caused by the previously
spinning propellers (Academy of Model Aeronautics, 2013).
The four ESCs in a quadcopter need to somehow connect to the battery. Unfortunately, the
battery only has one output wire. This is where a power distribution system comes into play. There
are three main types of power distribution systems that quadcopters normally use. One is a power
distribution board (Figure 13), which is a simple board that takes the output from the battery and
connects it to the inputs of the ESCs through a simple wiring setup. Another is a wiring harness
(Figure 14), which essentially does the same job as the power distribution board, but in a different
way. Either of these two methods works well; the application and size limitations of the quadcopter
ultimately determine which is selected. The thirdand often considered the bestsolution is to
have a power distribution system inherent in the frame; that is, the connections between various
components in the system can be linked together via contacts built into the frame of the quadcopter.

Figure 13: Power Distribution Board Figure 14: Wiring Harness
Source: (Pyramid Models) Source: (Robot Shop)

24


Flight Controller
The flight controller, sometimes called a flight control board (FCB), is the brain behind the
operation of a quadcopter. Humans do not have the capability to control four motors
simultaneously, let alone efficiently. The flight controller can handle much more simultaneous
complexity; it receives an input from a user and, in conjunction with other sensors, controls the
RPM of the motors accordingly (Montgomery, Flight Controllers: The Processor Behind Every
Multi-Rotor Flight, 2014).
There are several features to choose from when selecting a flight controller for a quadcopter.
The selection of many of these factors depends on the application, whether racing, photography,
autonomous flight, or some other function. One part of every flight controller is the processor; if
the flight controller is the brain of the quadcopter, the processor is the brain of the flight controller.
There are many processors on the market, each with varying levels of processing power; ultimately,
like many of these factors, the choice of processor depends on the application. There can be many
sensors in a flight controller. Some of these sensors are more important for particular situations, and
less important for others. A sensor that is often found in a flight controller is a barometer, which
measures air pressure and helps the quadcopter remain at a particular altitude. GPS, which can be
used in autonomous flight as a fail-safe assistant or with autopilot functionality, is also increasingly
common in flight controllers (Montgomery, Flight Controllers: The Processor Behind Every Multi-
Rotor Flight, 2014).
One of the most important sensors is a gyroscope, whichin conjunction with another
sensor, an accelerometerorients the quadcopter. The accelerometer identifies the gravity field in
the three (x, y, z) axes, determining the angular position of the quadcopter in relation to the center
of the earth. However, accelerometers work best when stationary; when in motion, they can be less
accurate, because of the additional forces caused by the movement of the quadcopter. The
gyroscope defines an angular rate around the three axes. However, this sensor is not a robust
measurement on its own; if not perfectly level when calibratedoften when the quadcopter is first
booted upthe zeroed angular measurements might not line up with the gravitational axes. A
combination of both of these sensorsthe gyroscope and the accelerometerhelps the quadcopter
orient itself and keep itself level (Alex, The Quadcopter: How to Compute the Roll, Pitch, and Yaw,
2012).

25


Quadcopter flight controllers use a control system called PID (proportional-integral-

derivative) to stabilize the aircraft. This feedback-loop system (Figure 15) uses three variables to
adjust the stability in the aircraft; unsurprisingly these variables are P, I, and D. The P value is the
proportional gain coefficient, which is concerned with present errors. This is the most important of
the three variables; the quadcopter could fly with only this P value specified. If this coefficient is too
high, the quadcopter will be more sensitive to angular change, and may overcorrect and oscillate.
Likewise, if the coefficient is too low, the quadcopter will be more slow and sluggish. The I value is
the integral gain coefficient, which is concerned with past errors. Essentially, the higher this
coefficient, the more the quadcopter will drift after stopping, or seem to follow the input from the
user. For windy weather, a higher I value is also useful. The D value is the derivative gain coefficient,
which tries to estimate future errors. This variable essentially acts as a dampener, removing
oscillations caused by the P value (Liang, 2013).

Figure 15: PID Control System Feedback Loop
Source: (Liang, Quadcopter PID Explained and Tuning, 2013)

Knowing precisely how a PID control system works is not required when dealing
quadcopters, in general. Nevertheless, knowledge of how the PID works may allow a user to better
tune the settings of a particular aircraft. When tuning these coefficients, the user often begins with
low PID values across the board, then increases each until satisfied. It is best practice to start with
the P coefficient, adjusting it until it is not sluggish and does not oscillate. The I coefficient is often
the next setting tuned, adjusting until the quadcopter handles as desired. Generally, the D coefficient
remains low, although in higher-sensitivity activities, it would be useful for this value to be higher, to
compensate for the high P value. For this project and for gentle, smooth flight in general, the P and
D values should be somewhat lower, and the I value should be slightly higher (Liang, 2013).

26


Steering System
A steering system is integral to any manned or unmanned aerial vehicle. It allows a user
either in the vehicle or remotelyto control the flight path and behaviors of the aircraft. There are
many types of these systems, from manned throttle-and-stick systems to remote controllers to
programmed GPS-guided flight paths, each to be used in different scenarios. In this section, a
throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) system and a remote transmitter/receiver combination, both of which
have been selectedfor the vehicle and the prototype, respectivelyas steering system options for
this project will be discussed.
There are several options for steering systems in an aircraft, but it was decided that a hands-
on throttle and stick system would work best for the full-scale vehicle. The HOTAS system allows a
pilot to access various functions and commands directly from the throttle lever or flight control
stick, without having to remove his or her hands from the steering commands. This control system
is used most commonly in military fighter jets, but has been used in other aircraft and even in the
steering wheels of open-wheel racecars, such as those used in Formula One racing (Callender, 2003).

Figure 16: Example of a Hands-On Throttle and Stick Steering System
Source: (Edmonds, 2016)

27


For smaller multicopters that are not manned, a transmitter/receiver combination is widely
used. This system allows a user to control the vehicles thrust, pitch, roll, and yaw. There are higher-
quality transmitters that allow for a much wider range of functionality, but a two-stick system that
regulates the aforementioned controls is a transmitter in its most basic state. This transmitter sends
signals to a receiver that is connected to the multicopters flight control board, dictating the
movement of the multicopter. To learn more about this type of steering system, refer to the
Transmitter/Receiver subsection of the Prototype Design section.

28


Vehicle Design
This section contains information about each component in the system. For the designed
components, a more in-depth description of the model is provided. For the purchased components,
full manufacturer specifications are provided, along with a brief description of the part.

Figure 17: Vehicle Full Assembly Rendering

29


Frame
The frame was designed to be a barebones structure that is both lightweight and strong. This
frame needs to be able to comfortably accommodate the user, while is also able to withstand the
stresses that will be put on it. For more information on the design specifications and the
requirements for the frame and vehicle, refer back to the Design Process section.
As this is the first design iteration for this vehicle, it was decided that the frame should be
relatively easy to fabricate, so that a proof-of-concept prototype could be created. This was a major
factor in the material selection process. There are several materials that could have been used for
this design that would allow the frame to be lightweight and durable. Read the Future Work section
for more information on possible frame materials for later design iterations. The best of these
options when the manufacturability was taken into account is Aluminum 6061-T6. This aluminum
alloy is in most regards the most commonly used alloy and can be easily welded. It also has a yield
tensile strength of 40,000 psi and an ultimate tensile strength of 45,000 psi, making it relatively
strong, compared to other aluminum alloys (MatWeb). Another alloy that might have been a good
option, especially when it comes to strength, is Aluminum 7075-T6. It has an ultimate tensile
strength of 83,000 psi, but is not weldable, and therefore would not fit the requirements of this
design iteration (ASM).
The frame, made of aluminum tubes, consists of several components: the main frame, the
landing gear, the seat, and the connectors that join the main frame to the landing gear and seat. The
main frame is comprised of several sections. There is the body, which provides the base support for
the frame, the propeller housings, in which the motors and propellers are located, the steering
system supports, which provides a stand on which the steering system can be mounted, and the
structural supports, which connect the base to the propeller housings and which provide the frame
with additional strength.

30


Figure 18: Main Frame Isometric View

Figure 19: Main Frame Top View

31


Figure 20: Main Frame Right View

Figure 21: Main Frame Front View

As the main frame was designed, static simulations were performed to test the frames ability
to resist the stresses of flight. For these static simulations, the frame was secured where it would
attach to the landing gear. Forces were applied where the motors would be mounted and where a
pilot would sit, to simulate the maximum thrust of 140 lbf (per propeller) and the users maximum
weight of 250 lbf, respectively. This would not simulate flight conditions, since at 70% thrust the
vehicle would begin to hover, but instead simulates a worst-case scenario in which the frame was
secured firmly to the ground while the motors were set to full throttle. The results of the final static
simulation are shown on the next page. These results were confirmed separately with manual
calculations.

32


Figure 22: Main Frame Static Simulation Stress Distribution Result

The frame was designed to have a factor of safety of at least 2. The highest stresses can be
found at the end of the motor mounts, closest to the base part of the main frame. The maximum
simulated stress at these locations was 17,134 psi, which gives the frame a factor of safety of 2.33.

Figure 23: Main Frame Static Simulation Displacement Distribution Result

33


The frame was designed to deflect no more than 1.5 inches. The highest displacement can be
found at the end of the rear propeller housings, farthest from the base part of the main frame. The
maximum simulated displacement at these locations was 1.41 inches.
The landing gear was designed to resemble skids, as commonly used in helicopters. Skids are
generally used in lighter vehicles, especially when the takeoff and landing operations are vertical.
Although wheels are more convenient, the lightweight nature of skids offsets the convenience in
vehicles that are not very heavy (Helis.com). The shape of these skidstwo rails connected by
curved supportswas inspired by the landing gear of the Volocopter VC200, a personal helicopter-
type vehicle (Volocopter).

Figure 24: Vehicle Landing Gear Isometric View

As the landing gear was designed, static simulations, similar to those for the main frame,
were performed to test the frames ability to resist the stresses required. For these static simulations,
the landing gear was secured where it would attach to the main frame. Forces of 280 lbf were applied
in four locations at the bottom of the skids in the upward direction (total of 1,120 lbf), to simulate
the maximum stresses that the landing gear could handle without failure. The maximum force was
found through an iterative process involving several simulations. The results of the final static
simulation are shown on the next page.

34


Figure 25: Landing Gear Static Simulation Stress Distribution Result

This simulation was designed to test the maximum limits of the landing gear, thus giving the
part a factor of safety of 1. The highest stresses can be found near where the landing gear attaches to
the main frame. The maximum simulated stress at these locations was 39,549 psi, whereas the
materials yield strength is 40,000 psi.

Figure 26: Landing Gear Static Simulation Displacement Distribution Result

35


The landing gear was designed to allow for deflections, as they might allow the part to
provide a smoother landing. The highest displacement can be found at the skids. The maximum
simulated displacement at these locations was 1.04 inches.
The frame is the most important designed part of the vehicle design. Without it, the vehicle
could not function properly. It was deemed to be strong enough to resist the forces of operation and
lightweight enough to allow the vehicle to fly within the required specifications. The primary
function of the frame is to contain the electrical and mechanical components necessary for the
proper operation of the vehicle. These components will be discussed in the following sections.

36


Motors
The motor that was selected is the Turnigy Rotomax 150cc Size Brushless Outrunner Motor.
This motor requires a 14S (51.8V) LiPo battery, and can provide 9800W of power.

Specifications
Operating Voltage: 51.8V
RPM: 150 Kv
Maximum Current: 190A
No-Load Current: 5.2A
Power: 9800W
Weight: 2530g

Figure 27: Turnigy Rotomax 150cc Brushless Electric
Motor
Source: (Turnigy)

For this vehicle, there were several selection factors that were analyzed to select the proper
motor for this application. Since they generally provide more torque, it was decided that an
outrunner-style brushless electric motor with a low Kv value was preferable. Other factors, including
the power and the weight of the motor were also considered. For a more comprehensive look at the
selection of the motor, refer to Appendix B: Vehicle Motor Selection Matrix.
The Turnigy Rotomax 150cc Motor is the largest brushless outrunner electric motor that
could be found for the vehicle, and since this application requires a powerful motor, it is the one
that was selected. It has the largest known torque of any of the motors found for this application. In
the future, if a more powerful motor were to be releasedwhich is anticipated to happen within the
next few years, if not soonera better motor could be reselected to better suit the application.
Nevertheless, this motor is theoretically suitable for the vehicle as it stands now.
To calculate the torque of the motor, Equation 8 was used. The value of 9.549 in the
following equation is used as a conversion factor to get the answer to be in units of Newton-meters.
Equation 8: Maximum Torque for the Vehicles Motor
! 9800!
!!"# = = 9.549 = 12.0!"
!" ! 150!" 51.8!

37


Propellers
When selecting the propellers for this application, there were several factors that needed to
be considered. The most important was the thrust capability; they needed to be able to get the
vehicle and user into the air. Another factor was the weight of the propellers, since weight is an
important metric in this type of design. Cost was also a consideration, although it was not as
important as the operation criteria.
The vehicles maximum thrust value was calculated with the assumption that the vehicle
would weigh 140 lbf and the user is 250 lbf.
Equation 9: Vehicle Maximum Thrust Requirement

!!"# = 0.7 140 !"# + 250 !"# = 557.14 !"#

Equation 10: Vehicle Maximum Thrust Requirement per Propeller
557.14 !"#
!!"#,!"#! = = 139.29 !"#
4 !"#!$%%$"&

Initially, propellers used for powered paragliding were researched, since those would be
approximately the correct size and would not be incredibly expensive, like propellers used in small
airplanes would be. After looking at several options, a company called Helix Carbon GmbH, located
in Germany, was found that produces carbon fiber reinforced plastic propellers for use in paramotor
and ultralight applications. According to the company (Helix):
Propellers made of carbon (carbon fiber reinforced plastic) have a long lifespan and
can be repaired very well. Carbon fiber propellers do not react to moisture, so they
do not warp and also give a high dimensional stability. With better strength
properties, the carbon fiber propellers have high vibration compensation. The
vibration of the engine is better absorbed and thus gives a smoother running.
I spoke with Nikolaus von Kummer, a design engineer at the company, who recommended
the H25F 1.20m L/R-LS-03-2 model for this application. Although the pitch dimension of these
propellersa key number in thrust calculationsis unknown, he sent a graph containing values for
torque, thrust, and power of this model of propeller (Figure 28). In this figure, the maximum thrust
value is approximately 64 kp (141.1 lbf) at 4200 rpm, which is just enough thrust for this application.

38


Figure 28: Helix Propeller (H25F 1.20m L/R-LS-03-2) Torque, Power, and Thrust Data

Mr. von Kummer said that the 1.20-meter (48-inch) propeller should rotate slower than 4200
rpm, although based on my calculationsin which I allow the propeller tips to reach 85% of the
speed of sound (651.95 mph)the propellers can rotate at up to 4565 rpm. This means that the
vehicle may be able to produce even more thrust than this chart defines.
Equation 11: Vehicle Maximum Propeller Rotational Speed
!"
651.95 !" 63360 !"#$
!"#!"# = = 4565.49 !"#
! 48 !" 60 !"#/!

Before this selection took place, the pitch required for propellers of different diameters at
their maximum rotational speed was estimated. Refer to Appendix C: Vehicle Propeller
Calculations for a chart containing these values.

39


Battery
The battery that was selected is the Pulse 5000mAh 14S 45C LiPo.

Specifications
Cell Count: 14S (51.8V)
Capacity: 5000mAh
Discharge Rate: 45C
Charge Rate: 5C
Weight: 1882g

Figure 29: Pulse 5000mAh 14S 45C LiPo
Source: (Pulse)
Since the capacity and flight time for the vehicles battery was not a focus, the battery was
selected very simply. First, the battery needed to be a 14S LiPo battery, a specification imposed by
the motor. Weight, of course, was also a factor, but was not a major player in the selection process,
due to the future improvements that are planned; for more information, refer to the Future Work
section.
The maximum current draw from this battery can be found by using the following equation:
Equation 12: Maximum Current Draw from a LiPo Battery for the Vehicle

!!"#,!"##$%& = ! !!"#$%& = 5000!" 45! = 225!

See Equation 13 for the calculation of the vehicles flight time at full throttle. For this
calculation, the average current draw was assigned to be the maximum motor current draw of 190A.
See Equation 14 for the calculation of the vehicles flight time at 70% throttle. For this calculation,
the average current draw was assigned to be 133A, or 70% of the maximum motor current draw.
Equation 13: Maximum Flight Time for the Vehicle at Full Throttle
! 5000!"
!!"# = = = 0.026 ! = 1.6 !"#$%&'
!!"# 190!

Equation 14: Maximum Flight Time for the Vehicle at 70% Throttle
! 5000!"
!!"# = = = 0.038 ! = 2.3 !"#$%&'
!!"# 133!

40


Electronic Speed Controls (ESCs)

The ESC that was selected is the Turnigy dlux 250A HV ESC. This ESC works with LiPo
batteries between 6S (22.2V) and 14S (51.8V), and can handle a continuous current of up to 250A,
and a burst current of up to 275A.

Specifications
Maximum Continuous Current: 250A
Maximum Burst Current: 275A
Operating Voltage Range: 22.2V 51.8V
Maximum RPM: 200,000 RPM
Weight: 456g

Figure 30: Turnigy dlux 250A ESC
Source: (Turnigy)

In addition to being the recommended ESC for the selected battery, this ESC comes with
plenty of features that make it an ideal choice for this application. First, its voltage rating can handle
the 14S battery selected for the vehicle. Next, its refresh rate is impressive; its factory setting for the
refresh rate is 8 kHz, and can allow a motor to spin at up to 200,000 RPM. The maximum current
also follows the recommended 20% buffer between the maximum current draw from the motor and
the ESC, with a 250A maximum current.
Equation 15: Maximum Current Rating for the ESC

!!"#,!"# = !!"#,!"#"$ 1.20 = 190! 1.20 = 228! < 250!

This ESC has an opto-isolation feature, which isolates the signal sent to the radio transmitter
from the signal received from the ESC. This means that there is no built-in battery eliminator circuit
(BEC). However, this is for the best; without the excess heat created by the BEC, the ESC can more
efficiently operate. Nevertheless, the ESC still creates heat in its normal operation; because of this,
the body of the ESC is equipped with a heat sink for more efficient heat transfer and cooling. The
ESC is also equipped with a brake, which can help the motor stop spinning.

41


Other Components
There are several components that are required for proper functioning of the vehicle that
were not selected. In future iterations, these components would need to be selected or designed.
The first is a universal battery elimination circuit (UBEC). This component takes power
directly from the battery andstepping the voltage down to the necessary output, like 5V for
examplesupplies power to components like the flight controller that need lower voltage inputs for
normal operation. This is necessary when the ESClike the one that has been selecteddoes not
have a built-in battery elimination circuit (BEC), but is often recommended even when not necessary
for several reasons. UBECs are more power efficient and do not give off as much heat as an ESC
does when it has a BEC. They are also often more reliable and can safely provide more current than
a built-in BEC can. In addition, UBECs are often classified as switching as opposed to linear.
Linear BECs reduce the voltage from the battery by giving off the excess voltage as heat, which is
not only inefficient, but can allow the BEC or ESC to overheat quickly. This version is typically only
used with batteries up to 3S. For larger batteries (4S and higher), BECs (and UBECs) are often
switching BECs, which means that they regulate the voltage by switching the voltage supply on and
off thousands of times each second. This allows them to not heat up as quickly, allowing them to
control higher input voltage and currents, while achieving an efficiency of roughly 85% (Liang,
2015).
The next component is the flight controller. As the brains of the vehicle, selecting a flight
controller is necessary for aerial operations. However, this vehicle is much larger than other
quadcopters and would not only possibly need a larger, more complex flight controller than smaller
multicopters do, but would also likely need custom software to run the vehicle. This was not within
the scope of this project, but in the future, this does need to be addressed.
The final additional component is the HOTAS steering system. These devices are custom-
made depending on the application, although some are commercially available for use in video
games or digital simulations. For this vehicle, a custom HOTAS steering system would need to be
designed. See the Future Work section for more information.

42


Prototype Design
This section contains information about each component in the system. For the purchased
components, full manufacturer specifications are provided, along with a brief description of the part.
For the designed components, a more in-depth description of the model is provided.

Figure 31: Completed Prototype

43


Frame
The frame for the prototype served two main purposes: to contain all of the necessary
electronic components and to approximate the scaled-down size and shape of the vehicles frame.
The componentsdiscussed in the following sectionsforced the proportional size and shape of
the prototype frame to be different than that of the vehicle frame.
The frame is comprised of several sections. There is the bottom base plate, the top base
plate, the four arms, and the screw/nut combinations that hold the frame together. The base plates
proportionally approximate the vehicles frame width and length fairly well. However, the back of
the base plates had to be lengthened slightly to fit the battery. The bottom base plate is wider than
the top base plate and generally resembles a rectangle.

Figure 32: Prototype Bottom Base Plate

The top base plate has more contours, since it incorporates the seat and steering system
supports into the design.

44


Figure 33: Prototype Top Base Plate

The arms are cantilever platforms on which the motors sit. The arms attach to the four
corners of the base, the top of the arms flush with the bottom of the top base plate.

Figure 34: Prototype Arm

Finally, the machine screws run from the top surface of the top base plate, through to the
bottom surface of the bottom base plate. Some of these screws also pass through the arms, between
the two base plates. Nuts secure the top base plate and arms from below, as well as the bottom base
plate from both above and below, to completely restrict possible vertical movement.

45


Figure 35: Prototype Frame Assembly

There were three complete design changes to the frame, from the start of the process to the
finish. The first design resembled a tenth-scale version of the vehicle frames barebones structure.
This might have been able to be fabricated using 3D printing, but ultimately it was decided that it
would be too weak and complicated for this prototype. The second design was inspired by the
enclosed, injection-moulded quadcopters that are commonly found in the consumer market, and
was also in the general shape of the full-scale vehicles frame. This design was quickly deemed not
feasible to 3D print and did not resemble the vehicle closely enough. Lastly, the third and final
iteration was designed, and was determined to be a suitable representation of the vehicles frame.
Since the frame is essentially made of sheets of material, there was a question as to the fabrication
method to produce the prototype: laser cut or 3D printed? Ultimately, it was decided that it would
be better to 3D print the vehicle out of fiberglass-reinforced nylon, which would allow the vehicle to
be both lightweight and strong.
To ensure that the vehicle would be able to survive the applied loads, a static simulation was
executed in SolidWorks. It involved one of the armsfixed where it would be to the frame
experiencing the maximum thrust forces (4N) that the motor/propeller combination could output.
Like the vehicle frames simulation, this was not meant to mimic the flight behavior of the
prototype, but simulated the maximum stress on the arms if the prototype was secured to the
ground and set to full throttle. The material selected for this simulation was Nylon 101, which does

46


not include the fiberglass reinforcements that the fabricated prototype has, but could approximate
the materials behavior in case the fiberglass reinforcement does not hold. See the visual results in
the simulation distributions below.

Figure 36: Prototype Arm Static Simulation Stress Distribution Result

Figure 37: Prototype Arm Static Simulation Displacement Distribution Result

The maximum stress of 2.938 MPa occurred on the top surface of the arms, closest to where
the arms are secured, due to the bending moment applied by the thrust. Nylon 101 has a yield
strength of 60 MPa, which means that there is a factor of safety of 20.4 for the arm. The maximum
displacement of 1.72mm occurred at the end of the arm, furthest from the secured supports. The
small stresses and displacements that the arms observe will allow the frame to function as intended,
which is essential to the operation of the prototype.

47


Motors
The motors that have been selected are Graupner Ultra 2804 2300Kv Alpha 250 Brushless
Motors. These are brushless outrunner motors that, paired with a 3S battery, can spin at a maximum
nominal rate of 25530 RPM, and a theoretical maximum rate of 28980 RPM at full charge.

Specifications
Number of Poles: 14
Operating Voltage: 2S-4S LiPo
Case Diameter: 28mm
Case Height: 17mm
Magnet Size: 4.5mm
Stator: 2204
Turns / Kv: 2300
Shaft Diameter: 5mm
Weight: 29g Figure 38: Graupner Ultra 2804 2300Kv Motor
Source: (Graupner USA)
Description
These motors are made for use with 5- or 6-inch propellers, which fits the design
requirements. The design provides optimal efficiency and good cooling during operation. The
special multi-turn winding and the 4.5mm magnets ensure high torque with direct drive for optimal
performance and excellent power to weight ratio (Graupner USA). Since this application does not
require fast movement speeds, a lower thrust-to-weight ratio could be sought. The thrust for the
motor/propeller combination was researched (KopterHonks, 2015), and it met the criteria that the
quadcopter could hover at 70% of the thrust capacity; see the calculation below. In fact, according
to the measurements, it can hover at less than 50% of the thrust capacity; this was preferred, to
account for any inaccurate measurements or additional loads applied.
Equation 16: Calculation to Confirm the Prototypes Thrust Capacity

4 ! 0.7 !!"!#$
! = 0.402 !" 9.81 !/! ! = 3.94 !
!!"!#$ = 0.776 !" 9.81 !/! ! = 7.61 !
4 3.94 ! = 15.76 ! 0.7 7.61 ! = 5.33 !

48


To calculate the torque of the motor, Equation 17 was used. The value of 9.549 is used as a
conversion factor to get the answer to be in units of Newton-meters.
Equation 17: Maximum Torque for the Prototypes Motor
! 9800!
!!"# = = 9.549 = 12.0!"
!" ! 150!" 51.8!

49


Propellers
The propellers that were selected are Gemfan 5x3 propellers. As the name suggests, these
propellers are 5 inches long and have a pitch of 3 inches.

Specifications
Length: 5 in.
Pitch: 3 in.
Number of Blades: 2
Material: ABS
Individual Weight: 10g
Hub Inside Diameter: 6mm
Hub Thickness: 6mm

Figure 39: Gemfan 5x3 Propellers
Source: (Gemfan)
Description
The first specification for the prototype model was that it was to be approximately one-tenth
the size of the full-size vehicle design. Since the selected propellers for the full-scale design are
approximately 50 inches in diameter, the propellers for the prototype should be 5 inches in diameter.
Propellers at this diameter most commonly have a pitch of either 3 inches or 4.5 inches. After
selecting a motor, along with the rest of the components, it was determined that a 3-inch pitch
would provide enough thrust for the complete assembly; the calculation for the thrust can be seen in
the motor section above. For this application, a lower-pitch propeller, which has good stability and
allows for better efficiency, is better than a higher-pitch propeller, which has less stability in
exchange for more thrust.
This brand of propeller was selected since it is very inexpensive and since this application
unlike other applications, such as drone racingdoes not require a more expensive, high-quality
propeller. As discussed in the Part Descriptions section, there are two clockwise and two
counterclockwise propellers mounted on the quadcopter in an X configuration.

50


Battery
The battery selected is the Turnigy 2200mAh 3S 40C LiPo pack. This battery aligns with the
motor specifications and has a high weight-to-discharge ratio.

Specifications
Minimum Capacity: 2200mAh
Configuration: 3S1P (3-Cell, 11.1V)
Continuous Discharge: 40C
Burst Discharge: 50C (for 10 seconds)
Weight: 204g

Figure 40: Turnigy 2200mAh 3S 40C LiPo Battery
Source: (Turnigy)
Description
The motor specifies that it can use a 2S-4S battery (2 cells in series to 4 cells in series). A 3S
battery was selected, since it provides a suitable amount of energy without being too large or heavy.
Numerous 3S batteries were plotted in a selection matrix (Appendix D: Prototype Battery
Selection Matrix), noting several specifications, including the capacity, the discharge (C-rating), and
the weight. Thirty batteries were chosen for the selection matrix, with capacity values from
1000mAh to 4000mAh and discharge values from 20C to 40C. The 2200mAh 40C battery had the
best weight to maximum discharge ratio, and was small enough to fit inside the model.
The maximum current draw from this battery can be found by using the following equation:
Equation 18: Maximum Current Draw from a LiPo Battery for the Prototype

!!"#,!"##$%& = ! !!"#$%& = 2200!" 40! = 88!

See Equation 19 for the calculation of the prototypes flight time. For this calculation, the
average current draw was assigned to be 12A, although the actual current draw is likely less than this.
Equation 19: Maximum Flight Time for the Prototype
! 2200!"
!!"# = = = 0.183 ! = 11 !"#$%&'
!!"# 12!

51


Electronic Speed Controls (ESCs)

The ESCs that were selected are Graupner Ultra Control 20A OneShot Race ESCs. This is
the ESC that is recommended from the manufacturer of the selected motors.

Specifications & Features

Maximum Current: 20A
Weight: 7g
Software: Open Source BL Heli 14.2
Processor: 50 MHz Silabs Processor
Amplifiers: DFN 3.3x3.3 EP FET
Programming: BL Heli Software

Figure 41: Graupner Ultra Control 20A OneShot Race
ESC
Source: (Graupner USA)

Description
Although the manufacturer for the selected motors recommended these ESCs, there were a
few factors that had to be taken into consideration. The most important of these factors is the
maximum current draw. Although the maximum current draw of the motors was not specified, 12A
ESCs are very commonly used according to some research into this motor and others like it. A 20A
ESC is most likely recommended, since the motors are often used for racing, in which the system is
often operating near or at full throttle for long periods of time, which is when the largest current is
drawn; 20A is a conservative choice that will likely not cause harm to the quadcopter or the ESC
itself in these high-speed applications. In addition to the maximum allowable current draw, the
weight and size also played roles in this selection.

52


Flight Controller
The selected flight controller is the HobbyKing KK-Mini Multi-Rotor Flight Control Board.
This basic flight controller is inexpensive and does not require complicated programming, making it
a good choice for this prototype application.

Specifications
Integrated Circuit: Atmega644 PA
Gyro/Accelerometer: 6050MPU InvenSense
Auto-Level: Yes
Input Voltage: 4.8V-6.0V
AVR Interface: Standard 6-Pin
Signal from Receiver: 1520s (5-channel)
Signal to ESC: 1520s
Firmware Architecture: KK2.1.5
Figure 42: HobbyKing KK-Mini Flight Control Board
Source: (HobbyKing)

Description
This flight controller in particular is a lot of power packed into a small package. After
researching flight controllers, the KK2.1.5 architecture seems to be one of the best options on the
market, especially for its low price. I originally found the full size KK2.1.5 board, which had the
same architecture, but was much too large for this application. Then, I found a smaller version, the
KK-Mini, which has the same functionality as its larger counterpart, but is condensed into a smaller
package. It has a highly sensitive gyro system, which also allows for auto-leveling, in addition to an
Atmega644 PA 8-bit microcontroller with 64k of memory. It is also user friendly, sporting a 24mm x
18mm LCD screen for easy programming and access, making it a great choice for this application.

53


Transmitter/Receiver
The transmitter/receiver combination selected for the prototype is the Turnigy 5X 5-
Channel Mini Transmitter and Receiver.

Specifications: Transmitter
Frequency: 2.4GHz FHSS
Voltage: 6V
Channels: 5

Specifications: Receiver
Voltage: 4.8V-6.0V
Weight: 6.5g

Figure 43: Turnigy 5X 5-Channel Transmitter/Receiver
Source: (Turnigy)

Description
Since transmitters can be incredibly expensive (thousands of dollars), and this prototype
application does not need a really high-quality transmitter, the goal was to select an inexpensive
transmitter. This 5-channel transmitter was chosen, since the flight controller has 5 channels that can
be read from the receiver. Since transmitters and receivers are often proprietary, the combination
needs to be checked to ensure that they are from the same manufacturer or that they can work
together. Since this transmitter and receiver are sold as one unit, this was not a problem.

54


Future Work
This project was the first major iteration of the design of a personal aerial vehicle. This
project laid a strong foundation for future improvements, but did not produce a comprehensive
design that can be fabricated immediately. There are several enhancements that can be made for
future iterations of the design.
First, the frame can be improved. As it is designed, the current frame is light enough to
perform well with the selected components and strong enough to withstand the stresses of the
application. The chosen Aluminum 6061-T6 alloy was selected not only for its physical properties,
but also because it is easy to cut and weld and is commonly available. However, some composite
materials, like a carbon fiber reinforced matrix, have the potential to make the frame much more
lightweight, while remaining strong, even if this material is not as easily available or workable. If a
new material were to be selected, the frame could be redesigned to optimize the weight and stress
distributions, and could allow components to take up more of the vehicles weight.
One such component that will need to take up more weight in future design iterations is the
battery. As discussed in the Battery subsection of the Vehicle Design section, the current battery
can only last for a couple of minutes of flight time. This is not realistic for a vehicle like this,
especially when a buffer is taken into account, to ensure that the vehicle can land safely. Because of
this, a higher-capacity battery would be necessary. This battery could be a 14S battery (assuming that
the motor is the same) that simply has a higher capacity rating, or it could be a pack of 14S batteries
working in unison to provide power to the vehicle. When selecting this new battery, or designing
this new battery pack, there will have to be a tradeoff between capacity and weight to get to the best
solution. If the battery has less capacity than is optimal and is lighter, the full vehicle would be
lighter and therefore would not have to draw as much current for an average flight. If the battery has
more capacity than is ideal and is heavier, the full vehicle would draw more current, but would have
more power on reserve to handle this current draw. Regardless, the weight of the battery would still
have to allow the vehicle to be light enough to get the desired thrust-to-weight ratio.
Other components that have already been selected can be upgraded to better suit the
changing vehicles needs during the design process. For example, the chosen motor is the most
powerful commercially available motor that could be found. However, this will not always be the
case, as technology is continuously evolving and improving; the motor that has been selected was

55


only available beginning in 2012. When components are improved through future design iterations,
other components will have to be adjusted. For example, the propellers might be a good selection
for the current design, but they might need to provide more or less thrust than they currently do if
the frame becomes lighter, if the motor becomes more powerful, or if the new battery makes the
vehicle too heavy.
In addition to improvements on the frame and chosen components, there are several
components that have not yet been selected, as these were not the main focus for this project. One
of these components is the flight controller. As mentioned in the Other Components subsection of
the Vehicle Design section, this flight controller will need to be a more complex computer system
than other quadcopter flight controllers, since it needs to be powerful enough and reliable enough to
control a manned aerial vehicle. This flight controllers software will also need to be customized for
the vehicle, which is not possible for some current on-board controllers.
The vehicle is essentially useless without a steering system. As HOTAS systems are
customized based on the application, one will need to be designed for the vehicle. It will include a
control stick that allows for adjustment of the pitch, roll, and yaw. On this stick, there will likely be
an array of buttons, almost certainly including some sort of brake. The steering system will also
include a throttle lever, which will be able to adjust the speed of the propellers, thus controlling the
thrust. This too will contain additional buttons for auxiliary functions. Between the controllers will
be a display containing basic informationsuch as the speed, thrust, and battery life remainingas
well as other more complicated functionssuch as the wind speed, the air pressure, and a GPS.
One aspect of the project that was not touched upon was the safety measures in the vehicle.
Before a human pilot can take off, there will need to be certain safety devices and features that will
need to be incorporated into the vehicle. These may includebut are certainly not limited toa
seatbelt, airbags, a parachute system, and possibly even a pilot ejection function in case of a high-
altitude crash landing.
The vehicle is currently only in a digital form; the next step is to bring it into the world. As it
is designed now, the vehicles frame would be fairly straightforward to fabricate, which was one of
the goals of the frame design. It simply consists of tubes of aluminum that need to be cut down to
size and welded together. The rest of the components can be purchased, and all together, the vehicle
as it stands now (including estimations for components that have yet to be selected or designed)

56


comes out to approximately $9,000 ($3,000 for the frame materials and approximately $6,000 for the
rest of the components). Before this would be fabricated, most of the aforementioned
improvements should be addressed, to ensure a comprehensive design.

57


Conclusions
In this project, I achieved my goals of designing a personal aerial vehicle, selecting some of
the most important components, building a working prototype, and coming up with more work that
could be done. In this section, I will reflect on the process, discussing what I did well and what I
could have done better, and also taking a look at my interpretation of the future of this technology.
This entire project was a learning experience, especially since I knew very little about the
topic at the start. By the end of the prototype design, selection, and fabrication process, I knew a
great deal more about quadcopter technology and what would be required for the operation of a
full-scale vehicle than when I began. This is why, after looking back on the design of the vehicles
frame and its components, I was pleased that the vehicle I designed was still relevant. Overall, the
initial vehicle design processaside from the necessary research I had to completewent very
smoothly and felt very intuitive. I attribute this to the well-defined design goals and specifications; I
kept the user in mind, while also thinking of manufacturability and possible operational difficulties.
Of course, with extra time I could have performed more simulations to improve the design, and
with more money I could have manufactured the frame to physically test it, but overall, this part of
the project was a success.
The prototype was also successful, although not as seamless. At first, the prototype seemed
like a good idea; it could be a smaller replica of what the full-scale vehicle would look like and how it
would operate. However, there were some inherent problems with a proof-of-concept prototype like
this. First and most noticeable is that the size of the components does not scale similarly; the
components take up much more room proportionally in the prototype than they do in the full-scale
vehicle. For example, the motors are noticeably larger in the prototype than they are in the vehicle.
This not only meant that the prototype did not resemble the full-scale vehicle nearly as well, but it
also caused problems when designing its frame. Because of the difference in components, the frame
could not resemble that of the vehicle, further adding to the disparity between designs. In addition
to the inherent problems with the prototype design, the fabrication process caused more complexity
than was expected. From regular design changes to delayed shipments of parts, the fabrication of the
prototype consumed more time than anticipated, taking time away from possible design changes or
improvements for the full-scale design. Nevertheless, the prototype did turn out well; it does

58


resemble the full-scale designeven if not as much as I had hopedand it helped me understand
how the components worked in a more-than-theoretical way.
This project examined a technology that is in its infancy. As I write this, there are no
completed available versionsfor recreational uses or for military purposesof this type of vehicle.
I personally do not believe that average people are ready for this technology for use in their everyday
lives. In the next decade or so, when this technology reaches a commercially available status, there
will be people who are interested and who will use it as an ultralight vehicle for recreational use.
However, since this is such a different mode of transportation, there will have to be a massive public
shift in thinking about personal transportation, which will take time and which may never
realistically happen. From an engineering standpoint, there are a few companies that are close to
finishing development of this type of vehicle and will likely have the it available for military use
within the next few years, if not sooner. There are several hurdles that these first pioneers need to
conquer, including safety measures and legal issues; it will take some time, but it will eventually be
realized, even if it is not widely adopted right away.
This project was successful in what it set out to accomplish. There were many tasks
completed, but there is also future work to be done. Even though the project has officially come to
a close, I will continue to improve upon the design and address many or all of the recommendations
I have discussed previously. I am grateful for the opportunity to work on this project, and I am
confident that in the futurewhether it happens in 5 or 50 yearsthat this technology and others
like it will revolutionize transportation in ways we cannot yet imagine.

59


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63


Appendix A: Federal Aviation Regulation Part 103

Source: (Experimental Aircraft Association)

Adopted July 30, 1982, effective on October 4 that same year, Federal Aviation Regulation
Part 103 formally established what truly is recreational flight.
Part 103 established limits on size, performance, and configuration and also established that
people flying them needed no certificate or medical qualification.

FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATION PART 103ULTRALIGHT VEHICLES

Authority: 49 U.S.C. 106(g), 4010340104, 40113, 44701.
Source: Docket No. 21631, 47 FR 38776, Sept. 2, 1982, unless otherwise noted.

Subpart AGeneral

103.1 Applicability.
This part prescribes rules governing the operation of ultralight vehicles in the United States.
For the purposes of this part, an ultralight vehicle is a vehicle that:
(a) Is used or intended to be used for manned operation in the air by a single occupant;
(b) Is used or intended to be used for recreation or sport purposes only;
(c) Does not have any U.S. or foreign airworthiness certificate; and
(d) If unpowered, weighs less than 155 pounds; or
(e) If powered:
(1) Weighs less than 254 pounds empty weight, excluding floats and safety devices
which are intended for deployment in a potentially catastrophic situation;
(2) Has a fuel capacity not exceeding 5 U.S. gallons;
(3) Is not capable of more than 55 knots calibrated airspeed at full power in level
flight; and
(4) Has a power-off stall speed which does not exceed 24 knots calibrated airspeed.

103.3 Inspection requirements.

(a) Any person operating an ultralight vehicle under this part shall, upon request, allow the
Administrator, or his designee, to inspect the vehicle to determine the applicability of this
part.

64


(b) The pilot or operator of an ultralight vehicle must, upon request of the Administrator,
furnish satisfactory evidence that the vehicle is subject only to the provisions of this part.

103.5 Waivers.
No person may conduct operations that require a deviation from this part except under a
written waiver issued by the Administrator.

103.7 Certification and registration.

(a) Notwithstanding any other section pertaining to certification of aircraft or their parts or
equipment, ultralight vehicles and their component parts and equipment are not required to
meet the airworthiness certification standards specified for aircraft or to have certificates of
airworthiness.
(b) Notwithstanding any other section pertaining to airman certification, operators of
ultralight vehicles are not required to meet any aeronautical knowledge, age, or experience
requirements to operate those vehicles or to have airman or medical certificates.
(c) Notwithstanding any other section pertaining to registration and marking of aircraft,
ultralight vehicles are not required to be registered or to bear markings of any type.

Subpart BOperating Rules

103.9 Hazardous operations.

(a) No person may operate any ultralight vehicle in a manner that creates a hazard to other
persons or property.
(b) No person may allow an object to be dropped from an ultralight vehicle if such action
creates a hazard to other persons or property.

103.11 Daylight operations.

(a) No person may operate an ultralight vehicle except between the hours of sunrise and
sunset.
(b) Notwithstanding paragraph (a) of this section, ultralight vehicles may be operated during
the twilight periods 30 minutes before official sunrise and 30 minutes after official sunset or,
in Alaska, during the period of civil twilight as defined in the Air Almanac, if:

65


(1) The vehicle is equipped with an operating anticollision light visible for at least 3
statute miles; and
(2) All operations are conducted in uncontrolled airspace.

103.13 Operation near aircraft; right-of-way rules.

(a) Each person operating an ultralight vehicle shall maintain vigilance so as to see and avoid
aircraft and shall yield the right-of-way to all aircraft.
(b) No person may operate an ultralight vehicle in a manner that creates a collision hazard
with respect to any aircraft.
(c) Powered ultralights shall yield the right-of-way to unpowered ultralights.

103.15 Operations over congested areas.

No person may operate an ultralight vehicle over any congested area of a city, town, or
settlement, or over any open air assembly of persons.

103.17 Operations in certain airspace.

No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D
airspace or within the lateral boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an
airport unless that person has prior authorization from the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that
airspace.
[Amdt. 10317, 56 FR 65662, Dec. 17, 1991]

103.19 Operations in prohibited or restricted areas.

No person may operate an ultralight vehicle in prohibited or restricted areas unless that
person has permission from the using or controlling agency, as appropriate.

103.20 Flight restrictions in the proximity of certain areas designated by notice to airmen.
No person may operate an ultralight vehicle in areas designated in a Notice to Airmen under
91.137, 91.138, 91.141, 91.143 or 91.145 of this chapter, unless authorized by:
(a) Air Traffic Control (ATC); or
(b) A Flight Standards Certificate of Waiver or Authorization issued for the demonstration
or event.
[Doc. No. FAA20008274, 66 FR 47378, Sept. 11, 2001]

66


103.21 Visual reference with the surface.

No person may operate an ultralight vehicle except by visual reference with the surface.

103.23 Flight visibility and cloud clearance requirements.

No person may operate an ultralight vehicle when the flight visibility or distance from clouds
is less than that in the table found below. All operations in Class A, Class B, Class C, and Class D
airspace or Class E airspace designated for an airport must receive prior ATC authorization as
required in 103.17 of this part.

67


Table 1: Flight Visibility and Cloud Clearance Requirements (Part 103)

Airspace Flight Visibility Distance from Clouds

Class A N/A N/A

Class B 3 statute miles Clear of clouds

500 feet below

Class C 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal

500 feet below

Class D 3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal

500 feet below

Class E
3 statute miles 1,000 feet above
(less than 10,000 feet MSL)
2,000 feet horizontal

1,000 feet below

Class E
5 statute miles 1,000 feet above
(at or above 10,000 feet MSL)
1 statute mile horizontal

Class G
(1,200 feet or less above the 1 statute mile Clear of clouds
surface, regardless of MSL
altitude)

Class G 500 feet below

(more than 1,200 feet above the 1 statute mile 1,000 feet above
surface, but less than 10,000
feet MSL) 2,000 feet horizontal

Class G 1,000 feet below

(more than 1,200 feet above the 5 statute miles 1,000 feet above
surface, and at or above 10,000
feet MSL) 1 statute mile horizontal

68


Appendix B: Vehicle Motor Selection Matrix

The following table contains the selection matrix for the vehicles motor. The final selection
is bold. The names of the motors were very long, so they are numbered. The names of these motors
are as follows:
1. Turnigy CA120 150Kv Brushless Outrunner (100cc Equiv.)
2. Turnigy Rotomax 150cc Size Brushless Outrunner Motor
3. Turnigy Rotomax 100cc Size Brushless Outrunner Motor
4. Turnigy Rotomax 80cc Size Brushless Outrunner Motor
5. Turnigy CA80 160Kv Brushless Outrunner (50-80cc Equiv.)
6. Turnigy Rotomax 50cc Size Brushless Outrunner Motor
7. Turnigy 9017 105Kv Brushless Multi-Rotor
8. Turnigy Rotomax 1.60 Brushless Outrunner Motor
9. Turnigy Rotomax 1.40 Brushless Outrunner Motor
10. Turnigy G160 Brushless Outrunner 290Kv
11. Turnigy Rotomax 1.20 Brushless Outrunner Motor
12. F3A SK3 Series 28 Pole Outrunner

69
 Table 1: Vehicle Motor Selection Matrix

Maximum
Battery Size Maximum
Motor RPM (Kv) Power (W) Weight (g) Price Torque
(V) RPM
(Nm)

1 30-70 150 10500 (unknown) 2730 $326.97 (unknown)

2 51.8 150 7770 9800 2530 $417.73 12.04

3 44.4 167 7414.8 7992 2074 $333.84 10.29

4 44.4-51.8 195 10101 6600 1916 $282.32 6.24

5 30-50 160 8000 (unknown) 1545 $157.99 (unknown)

6 37.0 172 6364 5300 1080 $192.30 7.95

7 22.2 105 2331 2600 430 $87.75 10.65

8 37.0 231 8547 2960 849 $135.63 3.31

9 29.6-37.0 228 8436 2775 715 $79.00 3.14

10 33.3-37.0 290 10730 2700 632 $75.83 2.40

11 29.6 280 8288 1924 622 $92.95 2.22

12 42 240 10080 2770 590 $171.17 2.62

70
Appendix C: Vehicle Propeller Calculations
The following table contains the values for maximum rotational velocity of propellers, sized
from 30 to 51 inches in diameter. For some select propeller sizes, the required pitch to allow for 140
lbf of thrust was also included. The final selection is bold.
Table 1: Propeller Tip Speed & Pitch Calculations

Propeller Diameter (in.) Maximum RPM Necessary Pitch (in.)

30 7304.78 15

31 7069.14 ---

32 6848.23 14.5

33 6640.71 ---

34 6445.39 ---

35 6261.24 ---

36 6087.32 ---

37 5922.79 ---

38 5766.93 ---

39 5619.06 ---

40 5478.58 ---

41 5344.96 ---

42 5217.70 ---

43 5096.36 ---

44 4980.53 ---

45 4869.85 ---

46 4763.99 10.5

47 4662.62 ---

71
48 4565.49 10.25

49 4472.31 10

50 4382.87 ---

51 4296.93 9.75

72
Appendix D: Prototype Battery Selection Matrix
The following table contains the battery selection matrix for the prototype. All of these are 3S LiPo batteries made by
Turnigy. The final selection is bold.
Table 1: Prototype Battery Selection Matrix

Maximum Discharge Weight to Maximum

Capacity (mAh) C-Rating (C) Weight (g)
(A) Discharge (g/A)

1000 20 20 87 4.35

1000 30 30 97 3.23

1300 20 26 111 4.27

1300 30 39 107 2.74

1500 20 30 128 4.27

1500 25 37.5 127 3.39

1600 20 32 142 4.44

1600 30 48 128 2.67

1800 20 36 153 4.25

1800 30 54 141 2.61

1800 40 72 168 2.33

2200 20 44 188 4.27

2200 25 55 188 3.42

73
2200 30 66 197 2.98

2200 35 77 199 2.58

2200 40 88 204 2.32

2450 30 73.5 218 2.97

2650 20 53 213 4.02

2650 30 79.6 232 2.92

2650 40 106 250 2.36

3000 20 60 238 3.97

3000 30 90 269 2.99

3000 40 120 278 2.32

3300 20 66 278 4.21

3300 30 99 297 3.00

3600 20 72 299 4.15

3600 30 108 321 2.97

4000 20 80 337 4.21

4000 30 120 347 2.89

4000 40 160 372 2.33

74