TheUniversalEncyclopediaOfMathematics Text

GEORGE ALIEN
AND ttNWBJ
" -
UNIVERSAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS
THE UNIVERSAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
MATHEMATICS
WITH A FOREWORD BY
JAMES R, NEWMAN
Editor, The World of Matketiwtics
London
GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD
RUSKIN HOUSB MUSEUM STREET
ATHERTON PU3LIC LIBRARY

FIRST PUBLISHED IN ENGLAND IN 1964
This book is copyright under the Berne Convention.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of
private study; research, criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright Act, 1956, no portion
may be reproduced by any process without written
permission. Enquiries should be addressed to the
pubiisriers.
This English version George Allen & Unwln Ltd, 1964

Translated and adapted from
MEYERS RECHENDUDEN
published by Bibliographisches Institut in Mannheim, 1960
iV, 39086
ytw *i-z[*
<1SS
eked
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

in 10 point Times Roman type
AT THE PITMAN PRESS
BATH
CONTENTS
Publisher's Note PQ?e 6
Foreword *
ALPHABETICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA UNDER SUBJECTS 11
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE 492
I. Arithmetic 492
II. Algebra 499
in. Applications 507
iv. Geometry and Trigonometry 513
v. Analytical Geometry 536
vi. Special Functions 557
vn. Series and Expansions in Series 572
viil Differentia! Calculus 582
ix. Integral Calculus 587
MATHEMATICAL TABLES 599
Explanations of Use of Tables 706

PUBLISHER'S NOTE
We believe this may be the popular encyclopedia or
first
reference book of mathematics of its kind, arranged in
alphabetical order of subjects. It is based on the Rechenduden
of the Bibliographisches Institut in Mannheim. Well over
200,000 copies of this were sold within two years. The present
version has been thoroughly adapted to Anglo-American needs
and has been considerably altered in the process. We are
grateful to the mathematicians on both sides of the Atlantic
who have undertaken this task or helped us with their advice.
The book starts from the beginning of secondary school
mathematics and includes many of the topics studied for a
university degree. It is not addressed to the professional
mathematician, but it wilt help the student to become one.
It is intended for the Man in the Street, the harassed parent,
and the technical or engineering student; or for the scientist,
engineer and accountant for whom mathematics have not lost
their fascination.
The encyclopedia is reliable and the explanations clear. It
contains a large collection of formulae (arithmetical, algebraic,
geometric, trigonometric, special functions, series, differential
and integral calculus). There are also tables of mathematical
functions (powers, square and cube roots, logarithms, trigo-
nometrical functions, exponential functions, length of arcs and
angles in degrees and radians, tables of differences) every
value electronically calculated separately, with no interpolated
values.
FOREWORD
I am glad of the opportunity to say a few words about this clearly
written, sensibly arranged and reliable reference work.
It is a translation of a widely used German compendium, designed
to serve the needs of high school and college students, which encom-
passes many branches of mathematics from arithmetic through the
calculus and includes a collection of essential formulae and tables.
While the higher branches such as group theory or algebraic topology
are not treated, the coverage within the limits indicated is succinct
and to the point, and it is safe to predict that the book will be a much
consulted companion, a comfort for the student, engineer or teacher to
have within arm's reach.
The thought may readily cross one's mind that there must be several,
if not indeed many, references of similar scope already available.
Curiously enough, despite the immense growth in popularity of

mathematical studies since the last world war, and the expanding
mathematical curricula in the schools, this is not the case. Populariza-
tions of mathematics abound, and the textbook field has been almost
literally swamped with new approaches and innumerable revisions of
standard works; also, there has been an outpouring of self-help and

self-teaching guides. But if you are looking for an explicit, simply-
written, alphabetically-arranged lexicon of mathematics, geared to
average requirements, which explains such matters as angles, the
design and operation of calculating machines, conic sections, continued
fractions, mathematical induction, regular polygons, the Pythagorean
theorem, the real number system, infinite series, nomography, log-
arithms, linear transformations, the solution of equations, the binomial
distribution, complex numbers, Archimedes's spiral, the computation
of interest, the indefinite integral, Pascal's triangle, the Roman number
system, rigid motions, Platonic solids, the use of determinants, the
nature of vectors, trigonometric relations, and many other concepts,
methods and applications of mathematics, you will find this book
unique.
The treatment of most topics seems to me just right. A straightfor-
ward, unencumbered definition is usually followed by a more detailed

discussion, which often includes a number of and
carefully selected
worked out examples. Where diagrams are used they are helpful and
utilitarian, not introduced for decoration. It is not assumed that you
already know about a subject before looking it up, but it is assumed,
7
FOREWORD
and quite properly, that you are equipped to make your own way at that
level. For instance, if you look up affine transformations, you are
assumed to be reasonably conversant with the fundamentals of analyti-

cal geometry, and if logarithms are your quarry you must at least have
some notion Df the behaviour of exponents. Jt would, of course, be a
mistake to suppose that you can teach yourself all about a topic by
reading the relevant article in the encyclopedia. That is not its purpose.
What it sets out to do and what I believe it is successful in doing in a
remarkably high proportion of its entries is to explain the elements of a
concept or method, to indicate its connections and relations with other
parts of mathematics and to give the reader the proper bearings and a
good start in following up, if he is so inclined, by consulting appropriate
texts and monographs.
Teachers will, J believe, be grateful for this book, for themselves and
for their students. Parents will like it, as will the adult reader who still
retains a flickering interest in

mathematics which his earlier schooling
has not extinguished. The book is a prize I wish I had had when I was a
student, and even now I look forward to having it on my shelf.
James R. Newman
CHEVY CHASE, MD.
SEPTEMBER 1963
UNIVERSAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS
;
ATHEftTON puuLIC LIBRARY
ALPHABETICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
UNDER SUBJECTS
Absolute value
The absolute value of a real number a, written \a\ (read : mod a),
equals a if a is positive, and a if a is negative, e.g. | 2| = 2,
|+2] The absolute value of a complex number z = a + ib
= 2.
is reckoned as z = Va + b2 In the Argand diagram (see below),

2
.
the absolute value (modulus) of a complex number is the distance

from the origin of the point representing the number.
Acute triangle
A triangle is said to be acute if each of the three interior angles
is less than 90 (i.e. if all interior angles are acute).
Addition
Addition is one of the four fundamental operations of arith-
metic. The addition sign is *+' (read: plus). The numbers which
are added are called summands.
4 + 3 = 7
Summand plus Summand equals Sum
Addition offractions
Fractions can be added directly only if they have equal denom-
inators, e.g.
yj + n= n'
If fractions with unequal denominators are to be added they
must first be brought to their least common denominator (see
below).
Addition of literal numbers

Identically-named numbers can be added (and subtracted) by
adding the coefficients
2a + 3b + a + 4b = 3a + lb.
11
/Ute^^ L'ôL-.c LIBRARY.
ALPHABETICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
UNDER SUBJECTS
Absolute value
The absolute value of a real number a, written |a| (read : mod a),
equals a if a is positive, a is negative, e.g. 2| = 2,
and a if |
|+2| = 2. The absolute value of a complex number z = a + ib

is reckoned as z = Va + b In the Argand diagram (see below),
2 2
.
the absolute value (modulus) of a complex number is the distance

from the origin of the point representing the number.
Acute triangle
A triangle is said to be acute if each of the three interior angles
is less than 90 (i.e. if all interior angles are acute).
Addition
Addition is one of the four fundamental operations of arith-
metic. The addition sign is '+' (read: plus). The numbers which
are added are called summands.
4 + 3 = 7
Summand plus Summand equals Sum
Addition effractions
Fractions can be added directly only if they have equal denom-
3 4 7
mators, e.g.
fj yj^fj'
+
If fractions with unequal denominators are to be added they
must first be brought to their least common denominator (see
below).
Addition of literal numbers

Identically-named numbers can be added (and subtracted) by
adding the coefficients:
2a + 3b + a + 4b-3a + lb.
11
: : :
ADDITION THEOREMS FOR TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Summands may be interchanged {commutative law)',
a + b = b + a.
With more than two summands, brackets may be inserted
(associative law)
a + b +c= (a + b) +c=a+ (b + c).
Addition of directed numbers

No further rule is needed for the addition of positive numbers
a + (+b) = a + b, 5 + (+3) =5+3= 8.
To add one negative number to another, its absolute value is
subtracted:
a + (-b) = a-b, (-a) + (-b) = -(a + b);

5 + (_ 3 ) =5_3=2 , (-5) + (-3) = -(5 + 3) - -8.
Addition of powers and surds

Powers and surds must be treated like literal numbers for the
purposes of addition, e.g.
a2 + 4 . b* + + 4 a2 = 5 a2 + 4(# +
4 cz
. . . c 3);
3V2 + 5V3 + V2 = 4V2 + 5V3.
Addition of complex numbers

In adding complex numbers the real and imaginary parts must
be added separately, e.g.
(5 + 3/) + (17 - = 22 + 2i.
Addition theorems for trigonometric functions

The addition theorems enable us to calculate the functions
sin (a + cos (a
/?), /0, sin (a +
/S) and cos (a
/?), given sin a,

sin /S, cos a and cos /?, and to calculate tan (a /?), tan (a /5), +
cot (a +
/?), cot (a
/?), given tan a, tan /?, cot a, cot /?.
The addition theorems are as follows
I. sin (a + = sin a cos + cos a sin
ft) /? j8
II. sin (a /0 = sin a cos cos a sin ($
12
III. cos (a + ft)

= cos a cos ft
sin a sin ft
IV. cos (a. ft)

= cos a cos ft + sin a sin ft
= tan a + tan ft
V. tan(oc
1
+ /S)
tan a tan ft
tan a tan
VI. tan(a-) = ft
+ tan a tan 1 ft
cot a cot 1
cot(a + ) =
ft
VII.
cot + cot a /?
cot a cot +1
VIII. cot(a-# = cot a
ft
cot ft
The proof of formulae I-IV can be derived with the help of the
following figures.
In Fig. 1, clearly,
OD = cos DE = OD sin a = sin a cos

ft, ft,
OE = OD cos a, Zd = sin C^ = AD sin a. ft,
Further, ^4C = AD cos a = sin ft cos a.
Xg
Then sin (a + ft)
=
AO
= AB = AC + CB = AC + DE,
that is, sin (a + ft)

= sin a cos /? + sin ft cos a.
Similarly,
cos (a + ) = = OB=OE-BE=OE- ~CD,
that is, cos (a + ft)

= cos a cos /? sin a sin /?.
In Fig. 2, similarly,
y4D = sin DE = AD cos a = cos a sin

ft, ft,
OD = cos DC = OZ) sin a = cos sin a,

ft, /?
0C = OX) cos a = cos cos a, ft
-4.E = /4D sin a = sin sin a. j8
13
: :
Fig. 2
Then sin (a - /?) = AB = EC = DC - DE = sin a cos /?

-
cos a sin /?,
and cos (a /?) = OB = OC + CB == OC + EA =

cos a cos + sin a sin /? /?.
Formulae V-VIII are obtained immediately from the relations
sin< cos<i
tan
,
<p = -zzn anc*

,
cot
,
9
COS0 sin<
Trigonometric functions of double angles

If the values of sin a, cos a, tan a and cot a are known, sin 2a,
cos 2a, tan 2a and cot 2a can be calculated by putting a in
the addition theorems
sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a;
cos 2a ^= cos 2 a sin 2 a = 2 cos 2 =
a 1 1 2 sin2 a;
2 tan a cot a 2
tan 2a = 2
cot 2a = 1
1 -tan a' 2 cot a

More generally, sin (a) and cos (a) can be calculated, given
sin a and cos a (n a positive integer)
sin (na) = 1
1
) cos"
-1
a sin a I ., I cos n_3 a sin3 a +
-0
sin s*
G) cos" a a
14
AFFINE-SYMMETRICAL
cos (a) b cosn a 1

-2 2
2) cos" a sin a + I
^ I cos"
-4
a sin 4 a
Trigonometric functions of half angles

a a a
Given sin a, cos a, tan a, and cot a, then sin -z, cos ^, tan -z
a
and cot ^ can be calculated as follows.
Since we know cos 2<x = 2 cos2 a 1 = 2 sin2 a, 1
a
we have cos a == 2 cos2 ^ = 12 sin2 a
1 -z>
a /l cos a a /l
-+ cos a
that is,
.
sin -z =J _- ; cos -r = /
2
Dividing, we have
a /l cos a _ sin a _ cos a 1

__
2
"~"
V 1 + cos a 1 + cos a ~~ sin a '
and similarly
a /l + cos a
cot 7; = \A /
ii
cos a

2 1
Affine
Two figures (solid or plane) which are derivable one from the
other by an affine transformation (see below) are called affine
with respect to one another. E.g. an ellipse can be regarded as the
affine image of the circle on its major axis. Ellipse and Circle are
affine with respect to one another.
Affine-symmetrical
A plane figure is called affine-symmetric if a straight line exists
such that the part of the figure lying on one side of the line is
transformed into the part lying on the other side by an affine
15
AFFINE TRANSFORMATION
reflection (see Reflection, affine). E.g. the oblique kite-like figure
of Fig. 3 is affine-symmetrical with respect to the diagonal AC.

The other diagonal BD gives the direction of reflection.
An ellipse is affine-symmetrical with respect to a diameter dv
The conjugate diameter dz gives the direction of reflection (see
Ellipse).
-*
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Affine transformation
An affine transformation of the points of space is a reversible
single-valued (one-to-one) transformation in space, in which the
ratios of distances separating three points P, Q, which lie on a R
straight line remain unchanged. I.e. if P', Q', R' are the image
points of P, Q, R, and if =
PQ
QR
= c,
P'Q'
then -=-
Q'R
= c.
If a general point P has coordinates x, y, z in a given rectangular

coordinate system and the image point P' has coordinates
x', /, z* in the same coordinate system, then the sets of coordi-
nates are connected by equations of the following form:
x' = axx + a^y + a3z + a4 ,
/ = b x + b*y + b3z + 4
x Z> ,
z' = c x + c*y + cz z + c
x .
4
Here the coefficients ait bt , ct are real numbers which satisfy the
condition that the determinant
a, a9
D= bx u%
bo bo #0.
16
(If D a* 0, all the image points P' lie on a single line.)

Under affine transformation straight lines transform into
straight lines. If two straight lines are parallel the image lines are
parallel also.
Types of plane affine transformation

(In what follows, P(x, y) is to have the image point P'tf,y')
in the same rectangular coordinate system.)
1. Parallel displacement. Equations:
_ / ,
Displacement distance: d = Va\ + b\. The
4
direction of the parallel displacement is that of
_
y y +
, ,
o4
tne yne j i ning the origin to the point Q(aif bj.
2. Reflection in a straight line in the plane
Reflection in the x-axis: in the 7-axis:
/=-y; y'=y.
3. Rotation about a point in the plane
(a) Rotation about the origin through angle <5,
= x cos 6 + y sin d,
x' . .
=
y (x) sin d + y cos d.
. .
(b) Rotation about the point P(x z , yJ through angle d,
x' x = (x x ) s g . cos d + (y y ) sin d,

z .
/ yz (x x z) . sin d + (y - y ) cosg . <5.
The transformation 1, 3(a) and (b) are so-called Rigid motions
(see below) orcongruent transformations in the plane. In a rigid

motion the originating figure and the image figure are always
congruent. All rigid motions in the plane can be obtained by
compounding transformations 1 and 3(a).
4. Magnification
(a) Parallel to the x-axis, (b) Parallel to the j-axis,
x === a^x t x == x,
y=y; / = V-
17
(c) In the direction of the line joining the origin to the point
v
Q(ax ,b&
xf sas atXt
/ = by.
(d) If the magnifications (a) and (b) are effected simultaneously
we obtain
x!=ax x t
y = by.
If a1 = b a, we obtain the similarity
1 transformation
X? ax, / = ay, in which all lines proceeding from the origin
are magnified in the ratio a: I.
All affine transformations of the plane can be obtained by
combining transformations 1, 2, 3(a), 4(a) and 4(b).
Important examples of affine transformations in space

(Inwhat follows, P(x, y, z) is to have image point P'tf,/, zT)
in the same rectangular coordinate system.)
1. Parallel displacement
xf= x + a4 ,
The direction of the parallel displacement is
that f the line
J oinin S the ori g in to the point
'
/
y
== v +
y -r b *>
Q(a^ j>4 c<t). The d isplacement
, distance is
*=z + cA .
d=s Val + bl + cl
2. Reflection in a plane
(a) in the (x, j)-plane, (b) in the (y, z)-plane,
x' = x, x*= -x,

y=y> y=y,
z' = z; J = z;
(c) in the (x, z)-plane,
/ = -*
zf = z.
18
:
3. Rotation about a straight line
(a) about the x-axis, (b) about the j>-axis,
xf= x, xf x cos e + z sin e,

. .
y = y cos d + z sin d,
. . y' = _y,
/ = ^ sin + z cos , <5 . <3; z' = x sin e + z cos e;

.
(c) about the z-axis,
=x
x' . cos +7 sin ,
/=x . sin + y cos ,
4. Reflection in a point
(a) in the origin: (b) in the point P, (x P ,y v , z p):
/= -y> / - y* = -(y - yJ*

z
7
= z; z v = (z z).
Z?
Transformations 1 and 3 belong to the rigid motions in space

(see Rigid motions).
5. Magnification parallel to the
(a) x-axis: (b) ^-axis (c) z-axis:
x' = ax t x'= x, x' = X,

y'=y, / = by, y=y>
/ = z' = cz.
7
z; z ss= z;
The magnifications (a), (b), (c) can be effected simultaneously,
= ax,
x? y= ty, /= cz.
lfa = b = cwe obtain a i
6. Similarity transformation. In the similarity transformation,

all lines proceeding from the origin are magnified in the ratio a: I.
19
:
ALGEBRA
Algebra
For historical reasons elementary algebra embraces a wide
variety of topics, but its central problem is the study of algebraic
equations (see Equations).
Modern (abstract) algebra generalises the study of ordinary
addition and multiplication, and is the theory of systems of ele-
ments on which operations with specified properties are defined.
Algebraic curves
A curve is called algebraic if an algebraic function can be
found which represents it.
Examples:
Straight lines, Conic sections
Neil's parabola
Folium of Descartes
Lemniscate
Conchoid
Cissoid
Algebraic numbers
Every algebraic number is the solution of an algebraic equation
(see Equations) :
a xn + a^"-1 + . . . + an = 0,
where aQ ax ,
, . . ., a n are rational coefficients.
The following are examples of algebraic numbers
/
x = 2, x = |, x = V 2TV3, x = %2 + V2.
x= 2 satisfies x 2 = 0,
x= f satisfies 4x 3 = 0,
x = V2 + V3 satisfies xi 4x + = 0,
2
1
x = ^2 + V2 satisfies x8 - 4x* + 2 = 0.
20
ALTERNATE ANGLES
Classification of the algebraic numbers
algebraic numbers
/ \
rational numbers algebraic irrational
/
integers
\ numbers
fractions
Many algebraic numbers are expressible as surds, e.g.
x= V2 + V3.
But there are also algebraic numbers which cannot be expressed
by means of roots, for algebraic equations of order higher than 4
cannot in general be solved in terms of roots. Those algebraic
numbers which can be expressed by means of roots are of special
interest, particularly those expressible in terms of square roots,
x= V2 + V3.
These can be represented by line-segments, since they can be
constructed in the plane by the use of ruler and compass only.
Conversely, every line-segment which can be constructed by
means of ruler and compass may be represented by a surd in
which only square roots enter (see Duplication of the cube,
Trisection of the angle).
Algebraic sum
An algebraic sum is a sum of directed numbers, e.g.
(+5) + (-3a) + (-46*) + (-0-6) + (+5ab).

Instead of, as here, adding the negative numbers, one can also
subtract the absolute values of these negative numbers. The
example above then becomes:
5 _ 3a _ 4#s _ .
6 + 5ab .
This type of expression also is called an algebraic sum.
Alternate angles
Alternate angles occur where two parallel lines are intersected
by a third line. Alternate angles lie on opposite sides of the trans-
versal and opposite sides of the parallel lines, and are equal (see
Angle).
21
ALTITUDE THEOREM (EUCLID)
Altitude theorem (Euclid)
In a right-angled triangle the square on the altitude equals the

rectangle formed by the two segments into which the altitude
divides the hypotenuse: h 2 =
pq (Fig. 6). Proof: By Euclid's
theorem, b 2 =
cq (p = +
q)q; but by the theorem of Pythagoras
b2 =h2 +q
2
. Therefore (p q)q h2+ 2
, = +q
that is, pq h2 =
(Fig. 6).
By means of this theorem a rectangle can be transformed into
a square of equal area. We lay the sides p and q of the rectangle
alongside one another, construct the Thales circle on the combined
segment p + q, and erect at F the perpendicular whose intersec-
tion with the circle C, gives the length of side h = FC of the
required square (Fig. 5). Similarly, of course, a square can be
transformed by means of the altitude theorem into a rectangle of
equal area, with one side given.
i pH
p
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
22
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Altitudes of a triangle
The perpendicular from a vertex of a triangle onto the opposite
sideis called an altitude of the triangle. Every triangle has three
altitudes (ha , hbi h c) which may lie either inside or outside the
triangle or may coincide (for right angled triangles) with a side
(leg of the right-angled triangle).
An acute-angled triangle has three internal altitudes.
An obtuse-angled triangle has one internal and two exterior
altitudes.
A right-angled triangle has one internal altitude, the others
coinciding with the legs of the triangle.
The three altitudes of a triangle intersect in the orthocentre.
The three feet of the altitudes form a new triangle (see Triangle).
Analysis
Analysis is that part of mathematics concerned with the investi-
gation of functions. Nowadays one usually understands by

Analysis (the term higher analysis is also used) the differential
and integral calculuses and the branches of mathematics which
have developed from them.
Analytical geometry
Analytical geometry the study of geometrical relations by
is
means of the techniques of analysis. In this way one field of

mathematics is used to assist the development of another. As it
was Descartes who first unified geometry and algebra in this way,
the use of coordinates or sets of numbers to represent points and
other geometrical structures is spoken of as Cartesian geometry,
although Descartes did not himself use 'Cartesian coordinates'.
We have an everyday use of coordinates in map-references, and
coordinates in analytical geometry are developed and refined
from such examples as this. In the translation from geometry to
algebra, those points which have a given property (which lie for
example on a circle or sphere) translate into sets of coordinates
satisfying an algebraic equation; points with two properties (such
as lying on two different circles) translate into sets of coordinates
satisfyingtwo algebraic equations and so on.
;
Although by taking n coordinates (n = 1, 2, 3, .) it is easy

. .
to define a geometry of n dimensions, we shall confine ourselves

ton = 2 (analytical geometry of the plane) and n = 3 (analytical
23
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THE PLANE
geometry of space) in what follows below. By means of quadratic

equations we can develop elegantly the theory of conic sections
(see Conic sections, Curves of the second order, Ellipse, Hyperbola)
and of quadric surfaces (see Surfaces of the second order).
Analytical geometry of the plane

1. Points in rectangular coordinate systems. If an aircraft is to
be directed to a given position, we may give the instructions
geometrically, in terms of a map with positions marked and
distances drawn, or algebraically, in terms of an agreed set of
coordinates, those of latitude and longitude. This is possible
because each position has coordinates of latitude and longitude
and (within agreed ranges of values) conversely.
In analytical geometry we operate with coordinates in much
the same way. In place of the equator and the meridian of
Greenwich we take two lines or axes at right-angles to each other,
a 'vertical' line or j-axis and a 'horizontal' line or x-axis. The
first or x-coordinate of a point P is the distance of P from the
j-axis, measured positively to the right or negatively to the left.

The second or j-coordinate of P is from the
the distance of P
x-axis, measured positively upwards and negatively downwards.
In analytical geometry we translate problems involving points
such as P into problems involving coordinates such as (x, y).
We note that if P is on the j-axis then x = 0, while if P is on
the x-axis then y = 0. In fact these equations are necessary and
sufficient conditions for P to he on one or other axis.
We note also that if P lies in the upper-right-hand quadrant
of the plane, conventionally known as the 'first' quadrant, then
both x and y are positive. Similar rules apply to the other quad-
rants, numbered in anti-clockwise direction by convention.
X y
I + +
II +
III
IV +
A point lying on the x-axis has ordinate y = 0.
A point lying on the j'-axis has abscissa x 0.
24
2. Distance between two points. The distance between two points
pi(xi, yi) and P2 (x2 ,y2) by Pythagoras's theorem (Fig. 7) is
d=V(x2 -x^ + (y2
- yi)\
*iKh)
i
>r
P.fx. IT,
J
7
T
.y
\
** x
1 H
!
m X
Fig. 7 Fig. 8
3. Mid-point of a line-segment. The mid-point of a line- M

segment with end-points P&^yJ and /> (x
2 2 y 2 ) has coordinates ,
which are the average of the coordinates of P and P i.e. ,

x 2
_ x1 + x2 _yiyz ,. v
m
=
4. Division of a line-segment in the ratio X (Fig. 9).
(a) Inner division: X = (positive). If P^, j x) and P2 (x2 ,^2)

are the end-points of the line-segment, then the point of division
Pz(x3 3) has coordinates:
,
_ nxx + mx2 xx + Xx2 _ nyx + my _ y + fo

3
+m l+A'^3_ + +Aw~ 2 x
1
2
'
(b) Outer division: X =- (still positive). The point of division

has coordinates
nx + mx2 _ x Xx2
xA = x x
m-n ~ - X 1
'
~ny + my y ~Xy^
M = m-n l-X
1 2 x
25
'W*,*)
Fig. 9
5. Area of a triangle. Suppose the triangle has vertices Px (x x, jj),

P2 {x 2 ,y) and P3(x3 ,y3), the three points being laid out in the
anticlockwise sense. The area of the triangle is
A = i[*i02 - )>z) + *2(>3 - Ji) + *z(yi - Ja)]-

(This expression is obtained by subtracting the trapezia F1P1PlPa
and PZP2P3F3 from the trapezium P^P^;
Fig. 10.)
/ x
jf *W
Fio. 10
K y,)
x, 4
,
H
26
This formula can be written as a determinant (see below):
yi
A = l x% y%
Xa y*
Equation of a straight line. The straight line through the
6.
points Px and P2 consists of all the points P(x, y) such that the
area of the triangle PPXP2 is zero, that is,
1 x y
1 xx yx = 0,
1 Xj y2
or (*i y* *2ji) + x(yi yd + j(*2 *i) = > which we may
rewrite as
Ax + By + C = 0, (a)
where A, B and C are constants (independent of x and y). It

follows that every straight line has the form (a). Conversely,
every equation of the form (a) represents a line, in fact the line
joining the points 10, =-) and (p 01, unless A = or
B= which cases we have a line parallel to one of the axes.

in
It isconvenient to be able to recognize the equation (a) of
lines which are specially situated, and in general to be able to
adapt the equation into equivalent forms which reflect more
readily the properties with which we happen to be concerned.
(i) Lines specially situated. A
line parallel to the x axis (equa-
tion y =
0) has equation of the form j> =
b, where b is the distance
between the line and the axis. Similarly, a line parallel to the
j>-axis has equation of the form x a. = A
line through the origin,
that is, the point (0, 0) at which the two axes intersect, has
equation of the form Ax By +
0, which it is convenient to
write as y = mx.
Convenient forms of the equation of a line. As we have just
(ii)
seen, a line through the origin has equation of the form y mx.
m is a measure of the slope of the line, in fact it is the tangent
of the angle between the line and the x-axis (Fig. 1 1). If the line
does not pass through the origin, then (unless it is parallel to the
j-axis) its equation has the form
y = mx + ,
27
Fig. 11
and time the line passes through the point 5(0, w) on the
this
j-axis and again makes an angle with the
A:-axis with tangent m.
More generally, the line through the point Px {xi>y\) and
making a similar angle with the A:-axis has equation of the form
y - y = m (x - xj.
x
The straight line meeting the x-axis in P(a, 0) and the j-axis
in Q(0, b) has the equation (Fig. 12)
- +^= 1, (a ^ 0, b # 0).
If the equation of a straight line in the general form
Ax + By + C= is divided through by the constant
VA* + B 2
is the Hessian normal
the result
pFo(x ,Yo) form. This equation
Ax+ By+C =
VA + B2 2
has the following properties

(Fig. 12):
Distance of point P (x g ,y )
d-x cos 6*y sin b-p = +C

-/>
Fig. 12 VA* + B*
28
:

represents the absolute distance ojC the straight line from the
origin if the sign of the root taken so that p is positive. If S is
is
the angle which the perpendicular from the origin to the straight
line makes with the positive x-axis then
cos o = j _ and sin o =

VA + B 2 2
VA + B* 2
The equation may then be written
x cos d + y sin p 0. <5
The distance d of a point PQ(x y ) from the straight line can ,
be calculated with the help of the Hessian normal form:
d = x cosd+y smd-p or d= -f==-

(Fig. 12).
The distance of the origin from the line is a special case of this
formula.
Example: The straight line y = fjc + 4 has the Hessian
normal form
' - 12
Ax + 3v
V16
,
+ 9
n
= 0, .
Le.
4x +-f -:L
3v
5
12 n
= 0.
By substituting the coordinates of a chosen point in the equation

J
= 4jc + 3v - 12
d ^ , we can obtain the distance of the point from
the straight line. The distance of the origin is d 1r. The

distance of the point P (8, 0) from the line is
d=
J 4x8 + 3x0-
-
12
= 4.
A
Note that in reckoning the distance of points from a straight line

by means of the Hessian normal form, we assign to all points
which he on one side of the line positive distances and to points
on the other side negative distances.
7. The intersection of two lines
(i) Point of intersection of two straight lines (two curves). The
coordinates of the intersection of two straight lines (curves) must
29
y
satisfy the equations of both lines (curves). The coordinates of

the point of intersection are thus the solutions of a system of two
equations with two unknowns.
Example: Intersection of the straight lines y x 2 and +
y
5x
2. Let the coordinates of the point of intersection be
(x s , s). Then: I.
ys = 5x 2, s
II.
ys = x + 2. s
This system of equations has the solution

^= l,j, = 3(Fig. 13).
Angle of intersection of two straight lines. The angle of

(ii)
intersection oftwo straight lines with equations y = xx nx m +

and y = m^x + 2 can be determined from the formula
tan0 = m m7 (Fig- 14).

+ m1m 2
1
Fig. 13 Fig. 14
The angle obtained is that specified by moving anticlockwise

from the first line to the second. In the above example (under (i))
mx 1 and m% = 5, so that
,
tan <f> = 5-1 = 23' that is
= 33 42'. +5
1
<f>
If the denominator (1 + m m^
x is zero m2 = and the
l
lines are perpendicular to one another.
30
8. Analytical geometry of the circle.
Equation of the circle. For every point of the circumference of
a circle with the origin of the coordinate-system as centre we have
from Pythagoras's theorem the equation
*+/r a
(Fig. 15).
Fig. 16
If the centre is not the origin, but some other point 0(a, b), the
equation of the circle is
(x - af + (y - bf = r 2 (Fig. 16).
The significant features of this equation are that the coefficients

of x2 and y2 are equal and there is no term in xy. These are
necessary conditions for the general equation of the second
degree, which then has the form
Ax2 + Af + 2Bx + 2Cy+D = 0,
to represent a circle, and if we exclude from consideration pairs
of lines they are sufficient. We
can obtain the coordinates of the
centre from this equation. Dividing through by A we obtain
x2 +y2 + 2jx + 2jy + ^ = 0.

If we then complete the square we have
+2 A X + A 2+ ^ + 2 A y + A -^~-{-A +
that
*
is,
T 2 2 2
'
/ ,
B\ 2 / , C\ 2 D B2 C2
X + A) + ,
[r + A)=-A + A2 + A2 >
31
which is the equation of the circle centre O ( -7, 7 1 and

radius
r= v- + A 2 + A2 '
Example: The equation 4x2 + 4y2 + \2x + 20y 3= re-

presents a circle since the coefficients of x2 and j2 are equal and
there is no term in xy. Division by 4 and completing the square
gives
That is
The centre of the circle is O ( ^, ^ | and the radius
r = iV37.
(i) Equations of circles specially related to the coordinate system.
Centre lying on the x-axis 0{a, O) :
(x a)2 + y 2 = r\
Centre lying on the j-axis: 0(0, b)
x2 + - b)2 = r\
A circle whose centre 0(a, O) lies on the x-axis and which
touches the j>-axis has the equation:
( X _ af + y2 = a2 or x2 -2ax+y2 = (Fig. 17).
Similarly, the equation of a circle which touches the x-axis and

has its centre 0(0, b) on the j-axis has the equation:
x2 + (y _ b)2 = b2 or x2 - 2by + f = 0.
(ii) Equation of a circle through three given points. If a circle
passes through three points i i(x1 ,j>1), P2 (x2 ,yz) and P3(x3 ,yJ,
>
the coordinates of these points must satisfy the equation of the

circle. In this way we obtain the three conditions necessary to
32
define uniquely the quantities c, d and r, where (c, d) are the
coordinates of the centre and r is the (positive) length of the

radius:
(*i-c)2 + Oi-</)2 = 2 >-
,
(*2 ~ cf + (y2 -d)2 = r\

(*3 - cf + {yz -d? = r\
(iii) Intersection of a circle and a straight line (Fig. 18). Given
the circle x2 y
2
+ =
r 2 and the straight line y mx = + n. Re-
quired, the points of intersection of these two curves.
Fig. 17 Fio. 18
We have the system of equations

(I. x2 + f = r2
mx + n
(II. y
to solve. The second equation gives y2 = m x2 + 2mnx + n2 2
.
Put this in the first equation and we get x + m2x2 + 2mnx + n 2 2
r2 This is a quadratic equation for the x-coordinate of the

.
point of intersection and has solutions
mn 1
- n2
Vr 2(l + m2)
XlA ~~
+ m2 x 1 + m2
.
We now use the second equation, y mx n, to calculate the = +

^-coordinate of the points of intersection, namely,
n m
yx - 7-7 a T-3T-2 Vr 2(l + m 2) - n\
1 + m
^1.2
1 + m
'* 2 2
33
Theexpression under the root-sign, r 2(l ) n , is D= + m2 2
called the Discriminant of the circle. The discriminant allows one

to decide whether a straight line has no points in common with
a given circle, whether it touches it or whether it intersects it in
two points.
1. D= 2
r (l + m 2) n 2 negative. The solutions given above,
xx and x2 as well as yx and y2 , are pairs of conjugate complex
numbers, i.e. there are no (real) points of intersection.
2. D = r\\ + m2) n 2 = 0. xx and x2 are equal, as are yx
and y2 and so the
, line touches the circle in the point which has
coordinates
mn n
x = y ~ + m2
1 + m
2 '
1
3. D = r 2(l + w2) n2 positive. In this case there are two

real solutions for both x and y. The line cuts the circle in two
points.
(iv) Mid-points of parallel chords. A chord of the circle
x2 + y2 = r2 with gradient m has mid-point
M (n^'iT^" 2 )'
The locus of mid-points of chords with gradient m is the straight

line y = x, i.e. the diameter of the circle which cuts the
chords at right-angles.
(v) Tangent to the + y2 = r 2

circle x2 .
1. A straight line with gradient m is a tangent to the circle
x2 + y2 = r 2 if the equation r 2 (l + m2) n2 = is satisfied ,
i.e. if the intercept of the line with the 7-axis is n = rVl + m2 .
It follows that for a given direction the equation of a tangent is
y = mx + rVl + m 2
. The point of contact has coordinates
mr r
x =
Vl + m2 '
' VI + m2
2. If the point P^x^y^ lies on the circle x2 + y2 = r2 , the
xx
tangent through this point has gradient m = (perpendicular
34
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF SPACE
to the radius through Pj), and the equation of the tangent is
y yx = - (x
Xl ). + yy = r
xhis reduces to xxt x
2
.
(vi) Tangent to the circle (x a) + (y b)2 = r 2

2
The .
general equation of a tangent for this circle is (x a)^ a) +

(y b)(yx b) = r
2
where a and b are the coordinates of the
,
centre 0(a, b), and xx and yx

respectively the coordinates of the
point at which the tangent touches the circle.
(vii) Polar line of a point with respect to the circle x2
y
2
r2 . + =
Suppose the two tangents are drawn to a circle from a point
po(x >yo) outside the circle. Let the points of contact of these
tangents be P^,yj and P2 (*2 , 2). The linqf joining these points
j
iscalled the polar line or polar of the point , and P
is called P
PP
the pole of the line X 2 . The polar line of a point with respect P
to the circle x2 y
2
+ =
r 2 has equation x^x y r 2 . The +y =
polar line of a point with respect to the circle (x a) 2 (y b)2 +
= r 2 has equation (x a)(x a)
(y +
b)(y
b) r 2.
(viii) The Radical Axis of two circles. If the equations of two
circles are given with the coefficient of x2 the same in both, the
equation of the radical axis is obtained by subtracting one
equation from the other.
Example: To determine the radical axis of the circles
x2 + y2 - 36 = and (x - 3)2 + (y - 2)2 - 25 = 0. Subtrac-
tion gives 6x - 9 + Ay - 4 - 36 + 25 = 0, that is,
6x + Ay 24, or y fx + 6.
9. Analytical Geometry of the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola.
(See Conic sections, Curves of the second order, Ellipse, Hyperbola
and Parabola?)
Analytical geometry of space

1. Position of a point relative to the coordinate axes and the
coordinate planes. A three-dimensional space is divided by a rect-
angular coordinate-system into eight octants by a straightforward
extension of the method used in two-dimensional space. The
positive direction of the z-axis is chosen in the manner of a right
handed screw when associated with increasing angles in the
xy-plane. The octant in which the point P(x, y, z) lies can be then
determined from the signs of the coordinate-values (see Co-
ordinate-systems).
35
:
The possibilities are:
X y z
I + + +
II + +
II +
IV + +
V + +
VI +
VII
VIII +
A point P(x, y, z) lies in one of the coordinate planes if one of

its coordinates is zero
for points in the jcy-plane, z= 0;

for points in the j>z-plane, = 0; x
for points in the zx-plane, y = 0.
A point lies on a coordinate axis if two of its coordinates are

zero:
points on the x-axis have y = and z = 0;
points on the y-axis have x = and z 0;
points on the z-axis have x = and y = 0.
2. Distance between two points. By Pythagoras's theorem, two
points Pi(xlt yx , Zj) and P2(x2 , y2 , z^ have distance apart
d - V(x2 - xx) + (y 2
2 -7i)
2
+ (H - *i)2 -
3. Direction of a line-segment. The direction of a line-segment

with end-points i>i(x1 ,j i, , Zj) and P2(x2 y2i Zg)
, is specified by the
three numbers
X& ~~ X-^
cos a =
V(x2 --
*i)
2
+ o2 ->'l)
2
+ (^-"^
cos/? = J2-7l
V(x2 -"
*l)
2
+ 0>2 -^l)
2
+ (^2--^l) 2
*2~-*1
cosy = \2 I /,. ,^2 i {~ ~ \2
36
a, and y are the angles which a line through the origin and
/J
parallel to the line-segment makes with the coordinate axes,

cos a, cos /?, and cos y are called the direction-cosines of the
line-segment. They satisfy the relation
cos2 a + cos2 + cos2 y =

jff 1.
4. Straight line. In discussing plane coordinate geometry

(above, p. 27), we saw that the general equation of a line / can
be put in the form
y mx + ,
where m and n are constants. If we now put x = ax + a2 ti where
t is variable and ax and a2 are (arbitrary) constants, we have
y = m{ax + a2 + n = (ma1 +
t) ri) + ma2 f
= ^ + bz t (say),
where Z?x and b 2 are constants. In other words, points on the line
/ have coordinates of the form
(ax + a2 t, bx + brf).
We is identical with our

confirm that the locus of such points
original line by noticing that substituting these coordinates into
the equation of any line f defines exactly one value if of t, giving
the point of intersection of / and /' if P is finite or showing the
lines to be parallel if t' is infinite.
In the same way, a straight line in space can be represented by
three linear functions of a parameter t:
x = ax + a2 y bx + b2
t, t, z =c +c x 2 t.
Substituting all possible real values of t we obtain the coordinates

of points P{x, y, z) which lie on the straight line.
all
One of az , b % and c2 is certainly non-zero, since otherwise we

have only a single point. If c2 0, then t
Z Cy
^ This value = .
can be substituted in the two other equations, giving
+
Cla
I. x = a (z Cj),
C 2
L
H. 7 = 61 + -g (z-c1 ).
37
This is one example of the general property of a straight line,
namely that it can also be represented by a system of two linear

equations in the three variables x, y and z. If a definite value k
is substituted for one variable (say z) we can calculate the x and
y coordinates of the point on the straight line whose z-coordinate

is k.
5. The plane. A plane can be represented by a linear equation
Ax + By + Cz + D 0. We confirm this by noting that (in
general) three planes, or one plane and one line, intersect in a
unique point. If the equation is divided through by we get D
the equation in a form from which the intercepts of the plane on
the coordinate axes can be obtained:
x y z
The plane cuts the x-axis in the point Px I -, 0,

0J,
the j-axis
in the point Pv (o, -, Oj and the z-axis in the point
P ( 0, 0, I. The usual way of indicating the intercept-form is
x V z
a b c
If the equatio n of a plane Ax + By + Cz +D= is divided

through by Va + B + C we obtain the Hessian normal
z 2 2
,
form. The sign of VA + B + C

2 %
chosen as opposite to 2
is
that of D. The Hessian normal form is therefore
Ax + By + Cz +D
VA + B + C2 ~
2 2
The perpendicular from the origin on to the plane has length
D
P VA + B +
'
2 2
C2
38
ANGLE
and the direction-cosines of the plane (defined as those of a line
perpendicular to the plane) are
cos a as COS /? as
VA + B + C2
2 2
,
iV^ + ^+C 2
= C
cosy
Va + b +
2 2
c*
If we substitute the coordinates of an arbitrary point P{xlt yly z2)

in the equation, we obtain the distance d
d = Axx + By + Cz + D
x x
VA* + B2 + C 2
of the point from the plane.
6. Surfaces of the second order. A
functional equation of degree
two in three variables x, y and z has the general form:
F(x, y, z) = aux2 + a22y2 + a3Zz2 + 2anxy + 2a13xz

+ la^yz + 2aux + 2a2iy + 2a3iz + au =
Such an equation represents a locus of points in space which
has two points in common with a general line and so is a surface
of the second order (see Surfaces of the second order):
Angle
An angle is formed by two rays / and m proceeding from a
point A. I and m are termed the arms or sides of the angle and
A the vertex (Fig. 19). Angles are usually
denoted by small Greek letters, by /_A
where A is the vertex (if this is unambig-
uous), or, if B and C are points on / and
m, by /_BAC (where we note that the
vertex is the middle letter).
An angle divides the plane in which
it lies into two parts, the interior and
the exterior of the angle, where vertex Fig. 19
and arms are taken to belong to neither
part.
39
ANGLE
Construction of an angle (with ruler and compass). Given an
angle a with arms a, b and vertex O; to mark off this angle on a
straight line m in the clockwise sense, with the given vertex V
(see Fig. 20), describe about O and V equal circles with arbitrary
radius r.
Fig. 20
The angle a cuts off an arc x on the circumference of the circle

with centre O. This arc is marked off (with the compass) on the
circle about V, measured from the point of intersection of the
circle with m. The end point B gives one point of the required
arm, which is obtained by joining VB.
Sum of two angles (construction). To construct the sum of two
angles we lay out the angle a on one arm of /? (alternatively /?
on a) in such a way that no point of the interior of a lies in the
interior of /? (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21
Difference of two angles (construction). To construct the

difference a /? of two angles a and /S we lay out the angle a
on one arm of p in such a way that the interior of /? lies wholly

within the interior of a. The part of the interior of a which does
not lie within /9 is then the interior of the angle a
/S (Fig. 22).
40
ANGLE
Fig. 22
Comparison of angles (Fig. 23). Given any two angles a and /?,
a with arms m and n and vertex O, @ with arms a and 6 and
vertex V. If we lay out the angle /? on m with vertex so that the
arm a lies on m, and Z> lies on the same side of m as n, then 6 lies
Fig. 23
either in the interior of a, or on n, or outside the angle a. In the

first case /? < a, in the second case the angles are equal, and in
the third case > a (Fig. 24).
Adjacent supplementary angles. If two angles a and /? have
vertex and one arm in common, and if the other two arms lie
in a straight line, they are said to be adjacent supplementary
(Fig. 25).
Fio. 25
41
ANGLE
Right angles. An angle which adjacent supple-
is equal to its
mentary angle is called a 'right angle'. The

is assigned
right angle
the size 90 (90 degrees, see below angular measure), and so
adjacent supplementary angles add up to 180, i.e. to two right
angles, in other words, they form a straight angle (see below).
Acute angle, obtuse angle, straight angle, convex angle, round
angle. An angle which is less than one right angle is said to be
acute. An angle which is greater than one right angle and less
than two right angles is said to be obtuse.
Acute angles are less than 90.
Obtuse angles are between 90 and 180.
The straight angle equals 180.
Convex angles are between 180 and 360.
The round angle (perigon) equals 360.
Vertically opposite angles. Two angles which have vertex in
common and whose arms taken in pairs form two complete
straight lines are said to be vertically opposite to one another.
In Fig. 26 a, y and 0, 6 are pairs
of vertically opposite angles.
Vertically opposite angles are
equal. Thus a = y and d.
Angular measure
/x i Fig. 26
(l) Sexagesimal measure:
1 (= 1 degree) is Ath of a right angle.

I' (= 1 minute) is iftrth of a degree.
1" (= 1 second) is eoth of a minute.
(ii) Radian measure: the measure of an angle in radian (circular)
measure is the length of arc cut off by the angle on the unit circle
(i.e. circle with radius 1) with centre at the vertex of the angle.
Radius and arc must be measured to the same scale. We have:

360 = 277 radians = 6-28319 radians (approximately),
180 = v radians = 3-14159 radians,
90 = tt/2 radians = 1-57080 radians,
1 = 0-017,453,3 radians,
1' = 0-000,290,9 radians,
1" = 0-000,004,8 radians,
1 radian = 57 17 44-8".
42
ANGLE
In scientific work the angular unit is often omitted in repre-
senting an angle, it being understood that the measure is in
radians.
Measurement of anglesis carried out by means of a protractor,
that a half-circle of metal or plastic graduated into 180.
is,
Angles formed by transversal to parallel lines. The angles formed

by a transversal to a set of parallel lines (Fig. 27) are called step
Fig. 27
or corresponding angles, alternate angles and opposite angles.

They arise when two parallel lines l and l are intersected by a
x 2
third line / which is not parallel to the first two, but lies in the
same plane as they do (Fig. 27).
Step angles: step or corresponding angles lie on the same side
of the transversal /, and on corresponding sides of the parallels
Opposed angles: opposed angles lie on the same side of the

transversal /, and on different sides of the parallels /
x l2 , .
Alternate angles: alternate angles lie on different sides of the

transversal / and on different sides of the parallels A, /.
In Fig. 27:
% and ota, fit and /?2 y x and y 2 d 1 and d 2

, , are step angles;
oti and d2 , ftx and y2 yx and /92 dx and o^ are opposed angles;
, ,
.
x and y2 ,
(i
x and 52 yx and <%, dx and fi2 are alternate angles.
,
Properties of angles formed by a transversal

(1) Pairs of step-angles are equal.
(2) Pairs of alternate angles are equal.
(3) Pairs of opposed angles are supplementary (add up to 1 80).
43
;
ANGLE
Conversely: If two lines lx and /2 are cut by a third line / and if:
(a) the angles of a pair on the same side of / and of lv l2 are equal
or
(b) the angles of a pair on opposite sides of / and of /x , /2 are
equal; or
(c) the angles of a pair on the same side of / and on different
sides of lv l2 add up to 180;

then lt and /2 are parallel.
Angles of a triangle. A triangle possesses three interior angles

which add up For further propositions see Triangle.
to 180.
Angles of a quadrilateral (see Quadrilateral). The four interior
angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360.
Angles of a polygon (see Polygon). Every polygon possesses the
same number of interior angles as vertices. The sum of the
interior angles of a polygon with n vertices is (n 2) 180, and
n 1
so for a regular n-agon each interior angle equals 180 .
Angles in a circle
Circumference angle (Fig. 28): A

circumference angle a is
formed by two chords of a circle proceeding from a single point
on the circumference. The circumference angle cuts off an arc on
the circle
Central angle (Fig. 28); central A
angle is formed at the centre of a
circle by two radii. It too determines
an arc of the circle. The central angle
is double the circumference angle
corresponding to the same arc.
Circumference angles on equal arcs
of a circle are equal. Two circum-
ference angles whose arcs together
comprise the full circle, add up to
360.
Circumference angles on a semi-
circle are right angles (see the Theorem
ofThales, p. 428).
Angle between chord and tangent
FlG 28 (Fig. 28); The angle between a chord
44
ANGLE
s of a and the tangent t at an end-point of the chord is equal
circle
to the circumference angle a on the arc which lies between t and s.
Angle of sight. The lines of sight which proceed from the eye
to the end-points of a line-segment form together the angle of
sight, the angle suspended by the segment at the eye of the
observer (Fig. 29).
Two points can be distinguished by the eye if the angle of sight
determined by the points is not too small. The angle of sight
Fig. 29 Fig. 30
must be at least 60"-90" for a normal eye to distinguish the points

concerned. Optical instruments (magnifying glass, telescope,
microscope) serve to enlarge the angle of sight.
An angle of sight in a vertical plane is called an angle of
elevation.
Angle between two planes. Non-parallel planes intersect in a
straight line. At a point on this line, perpendiculars to the line
can be constructed in each plane (Fig. 30). These two perpen-
diculars determine a new plane and form an angle a with one
another in it which is called the angle of intersection or angle of
inclination of the two planes.
Angle between a straight line and a plane. A straight line, which
is not parallel to a given plane, intersects the plane in a point (its
45
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO CURVES
trace).The projection of the line onto the plane forms with the
line an angle, which is called the angle between the line and the
plane, or the angle of inclination of the line to the plane.
Solid angle. A cone comprises the system of all rays proceeding
from a fixed point and passing through the points of a given
curve. Cones may be measured in solid angular measure, by
taking the sphere of unit radius with the vertex of the cone as
centre and evaluating the area of the surface segment cut out by
the cone on the sphere. The size of this area is taken to be the
Fig. 31
measure of the solid angle of the cone. An octant has solid
angle =, a hemisphere solid angle In. The full solid angle is Att.
The circular cone (cone obtained by rotating a straight line

about another coplanar line as axis) possesses solid angle
O 4tt sin
2
-=, where = is the angle between the line rotated and
the axis of rotation.

Complementary angles. Two angles which add up to 90 are
said to be complementary, e.g. the angles adjacent to the hypo-
tenuse of a right-angled triangle are complementary.
Supplementary angles. Two angles which add up to 180 are
said to be supplementary, e.g. neighbouring interior angles of a
parallelogram are supplementary.
Angle between two curves

The angle which two curves C x and C2 form with one another
at their point of intersection is defined to be the angle formed
by the tangents tx and t
% to the two curves at the point of inter-
section (see Fig. 32).
46
ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES
Fig. 32
Angle-bisector
The bisector of a given angle is the straight line which passes
through the vertex of the angle and divides the angle into two
equal angles. The bisector of an angle is its axis of symmetry.
Construction of the bisector of an angle (see Fundamental con-
structions). In a triangle three angle-bisectors (wa w
p
wv), corre- , ,
sponding to the internal angles, can be constructed. The term

angle-bisectors of a triangle is usually applied to the line-segments
extending from the vertices of the bisected angles to the opposite
sides of the triangle. They intersect in a common point, the centre
of the inscribed circle, and divide the sides of the triangle in the
ratio of the sides adjacent to the angle bisected (see Triangle).
Angle of intersection of two lines
The
angles of intersection of two straight lines is the angle
formed by the lines at their point of intersection. The angle of
intersection y> of two straight lines /x and 72 can be calculated
from the gradients of the lines as follows:
Gradient of 1st line lx : m = tan o^

1
Gradient of 2nd line 72 : m2 = tan a^

c,.
Since y = ax Oa
, A
and tan y> =
1
X.
tan
+/
tan cn
1
-
tan cu
tan
-,
oc
2
we have
tan y> = =-*- ^-

1 + WjWa
(see Fig. 31).
47
ANGLE OF SIGHT
Angle of sight
The lines of sight, proceeding from the eye to the end points
of a segment, together form the angle of sight (see Angle). If the
angle of sight occurs in a vertical plane we speak of the angle of
elevation. In surveying, etc., a theodolite is used to measure angles
of sight.
Angle (solid)
For the measurement of a solid angle, see Solid angle and

Spherical trigonometry.
Angles, measurement of
The measurement of an angle in drawing is carried out by
means of a protractor; for surveying, and similar applications, a
theodolite is used.
Annulus
The area bounded by two concentric circles in a plane is called
an annulus (or circular ring). If the circles have radii R and r,
where R>
r, then the area of such a figure is
A = nR* - nr2 = n(R + r)(R - r).
ApoIIonius (Apollonius of Perga, c. 200 B.C.)

The of Apollonius can be used to construct a triangle for
circle
which the ratio of two sides, the third side and a further indepen-
dent element are given. The circle of Apollonius passes through
the point of intersection of
the sides of the triangle
whose ratio is known. Its
centre O lies on the third
side. Further, it cuts the
third side in two points
which together with the end-
Fig. 33
points of the side form a
harmonic range (Fig. 33).
48
AREA, CALCULATION OF
Apollonius's problem
The problem of Apollonius is to construct a circle which
touches each of three given circles (see Circle).
Arc
A segment of a circular line bounded by two end-points is
called an arc. The straight line obtained by joining the two end-
points of the arc is called the chord of the arc. The angle which
has the centre of the circle as vertex and which is obtained by
drawing the radii through the end-points of the arc is called the
central angle of the arc. If an arc of length b lies on a circle of
radius r and has central angle of a degrees then:
b=2m m
Archimedes's spiral
The archimedean spiral is a transcendental curve which can be
represented in polar coordinates by the equation r =
aO, a
constant (Fig. 34).
Fig. 34
Area, calculation of
For some purposes the area of a figure is determined by the
number of unit squares contained in Square measure).
it (see
Congruent figures have equal area, but of course figures with
equal areas need not be congruent.
49
Area, calculation of
Areas of rectangle and square. A rectangle with sides a and b

has area
A= a . b.
A square with side a has area

A= a2 .
Area of a parallelogram (Fig. 35)

From Fig. 35 we see that the parallelogram must have ABCD
the same area as the rectangle ABEF, since the rectangle ABEF
arises out of the parallelogram by cutting off the triangle BEC,
at the same time adding to it the congruent triangle AFD. This
shows that the area of a parallelogram is A = gh, that is, the
product of a side and the associated altitude is.
Fig. 35 Fig. 36
Area of a trapezium. A trapezium ABCD can by Fig. 36 be

transformed into a parallelogram of equal area. We have:
a +
A=m . h = ir c . h,
that is, the mean parallel multiplied by the altitude.
C D
Fig. 37
Area of a triangle (Fig. 37). On any side of a triangle a con-

gruent triangle can be placed diagonally opposite to the original
triangle. The resulting figure is a parallelogram whose area is
50
double that of the triangle. The area of a triangle is therefore

equal to half the product of one side of the associated altitude.
If we denote the altitude associated with a side by the appropriate
suffix we have:
a h b h c h
A -Ldl - -
<>
-
2 2 ~ 2 ~ 2
Heron's Formula: If we denote by s = r half the
perimeter of a triangle, the area of the triangle is
A= Vs(s - a)(s b)(s - c).
Trigonometrical Formulae for the calculation of the area of a

triangle (in these formulae a, b, c are the sides of the triangle,
a, /?, y the angles of the triangle, r the radius of the circumscribed
circle, p the radius of the inscribed circle, s = r

J
I. A = ps,
II. A= \bc sin a = \ca sin $ \ab sin y,
TTT
III. A = â2
1
2
sin /?
:
sin
sin
a
y
= 1
- b%
2
, . sin y sin a
tz
sinp
=2 1
::c 2
sin a
:
siny
sin /?
->
Ar
Area of a right angled triangle. The area of a right angled

triangle is equal to half the product of the shorter sides,
a . b
A==
T"
Area of an isosceles triangle (Fig. 38)
51
Area of an equilateral triangle (Fig. 39).
a% r-
4
Fio. 38 Fig. 39
The area of a figure with a curved boundary can, in particular

cases,be determined by integration (see Integration). An elemen-
tary and rough method for determining the area of a figure with
a curved boundary is the following graphical one (Fig. 40): We
Fio. 40
cover the figure with a grid of squares of equal size, and count
the number of squares which lie wholly within the figure; we then
estimate the area of squares part of which lie within the figure.
Naturally an approximate value only is obtained. Millimetre
paper serves well for this purpose.
Area of a circle
A = 7rr2 (r =s radius),
52
ARITHMETIC
or, equivalently,
d2
A=ir.-r (d as diameter), rr = 3*1415....
Area of an ellipse. With semi-axes a and bt the area is
A = nab.
Area, measurement of
In the metric system the unit of area is the are = 100 m8
(square metres).
1 km2 = 1 =
square kilometre 10 6 m2 ,
hectare
1 = 10 4 m2 ,
are 1 = 102 m2 ,
1 dm2 =
square decimetre
1 = 10
-2
m2 ,
1 cm2 = square centimetre =

1 10 m
-4 2
,
1 mm2 = 1 square millimetre = 10~ m2 6

.
In English measure:
144 square inches = 1 square foot,

9 square feet = 1 square yard,
4840 square yards = 1 acre,
640 acres = 1 square mile.
Area-preserving transformation
In such a transformation corresponding segments of surfaces
contain equal areas.
The congruent transformations (rigid motions) are area-
preserving.
Arithmetic
Subdomain of Mathematics (see below). Wedistinguish: (i)
common arithmetic, that is, calculation with definite numbers,
(ii) literal arithmetic, calculation with numbers represented by
alphabetical letters (algebraic calculation). In both the same laws

hold for calculation.
53
: 1
ARITHMETIC
There are four fundamental operations (i) Addition counting :
together. The result of an addition of summands is called the

sum. (ii) Subtraction = taking away, the inverse of addition.
The result of taking subtrahend from minuend is called a differ-
ence, (iii) Multiplication = making manifold. The result of
multiplying factors together is called a product, (iv) Division =
splitting into parts, the inverse of multiplication. The result of
dividing a dividend by a divisor is called a quotient. The following
laws hold for addition and multiplication: (i) Commutative Law:
a+ b = b + a; p .q = q .p. (ii) Associative Law: (a b) + c +
= +a (b + c) and (a b) c . .
a (b c). (iii) Distributive Law: . .
(a + b)c = ac + be. When the minuend is less than the sub-

trahend, subtraction can only be carried out if negative numbers
are introduced. If the dividend is not an exact multiple of the
divisor, the division of integers leads to fractions.
A. fraction represents an implied division; the dividend is the
numerator, the divisor the denominator. Numerator and denomi-
nator are divided by a horizontal or sloping fraction bar, or by
3
a double point, e.g. 7 = 3/4 =3 -f- 4. Fractions with numerator
1 are called unit fractions \y> ) According as the

y Z

numerator is smaller or larger than the denominator the fraction

is called proper or improper. An improper fraction (mixed
17 2
numbers) is an integer plus a proper fraction, e.g. -= = 3 =. The
value of a fraction is unaltered if numerator and denominator

are both multiplied or divided by the same number. The rules for
calculating with common fractions are illustrated by the following
examples
3
+
2_4_
7 7 7~7 ;
9 14" 9
"
14 ~ l' 2 ~ 2
~" 10
V
2* 5 6~2 :
6~2'35~r5~5*
54
ARITHMETIC
To add or subtract fractions with different denominators we

reduce each to a common denominator, e.g.
4
4.?_llZ 2.5 28 + 10 38 3
5
+ 7~5.7 + 7.5"~" 35 ~ 35 35"
The least common denominator is the least common multiple

of individual denominators, and is the most economical common
denominator to use. A
double fraction is a fraction in which
7/3-=*
numerator and denominator are themselves fractions, e.g. ^/
Two fractions whose product is unity are called reciprocal, each
e tag cane, *e ôca, *. Ce, ., f and |, 3 an d

|
Continued fractions (see art.) may be used to yield approximations
to fractions with large numbers.
Fractions whose denominators are powers of 10 are called
decimal fractions. Proper fractions have zero unit, e.g. 0-34.
The unity-entry is divided from the decimal-entry by a point, e.g.
6*205. Every common fraction can be transformed into a (finite
or infinite) decimal fraction, if a sufficient number of zeros is
appended, with a decimal point, to the numerator which is then
divided by the denominator. If a denominator contains only 2
and 5 as prime factors the division is terminated in a finite
number of terms, e.g. j? = 5-0000 -r 16 = 0-3125; the decimal
fraction has a finite number of places. If the denominator contains

other prime factors the division results in an infinite decimal
fraction in which a sequence of figures constantly repeats itself,
3
e.g. = = 0-428571. The rules for calculating with decimal fractions
correspond to those for integers.
Other calculating operations are raising to a power, extraction
of a root, and taking of the logarithm. Explanation: Power =
product of equal factors, e.g. a* = axaxaxa
(read, a to
the fourth); a =
base, 4 = power (exponent). In raising a to
the power n, a and n are known and we wish to find a
n
b. The =
first inversion of this procedure comprises the extraction of a
root: a =
Vb (read: th root of b\ where n, the degree of the
root and b, the radicand are known, and we wish to find a. The
55
ARITHMETIC
second inversion comprises the taking of the logarithm, when a

and b are known and we wish to find n: n = log b (read: log b
a
to base a); b is an antilogarithm: 3 = log 1000, since 103 =
10
1,000; 10 = log2 1024, since 210 = 1,024. The notion of a power
is extended to fractional exponents by means of the definition
vb = b n, e.g. VcF = a*; to negative exponents by means of the

definition = arn \ and can be extended further to irrational
exponents. The rules for calculating with logarithms follow from

the rules for calculating with powers. a p .a9 a*** implies =
log a a?*9 =p +
q t whence (putting a? b and a9 =
c): log a be =
loSa b + loga c. Similarly we get loga - = loga b loga c and
loga b* = t. log b. In taking a logarithm the base and the
number taken must both be positive.
Natural logarithms, in which the base is
e = 2-718,281,828,495...
are of particular importance in theoretical mathematics; log,, is
written In. Common Briggsian logarithms are used for practical
calculations (base 10; written as log). E.g. (rounded off to four
decimal places).
log 27-38 = 1-4374, log 27,380 = 4-4374,

log 0-02738 = 0-4374 -2;
the whole number of the logarithm (1, 4, 2 in the examples) is
called the characteristicand the decimal-part the mantissa. The
characteristic is equal to one less than the number of digits
behind the decimal point; the mantissa depends only on the
sequence of digits in the number.
Literal calculation introduces, in place of definite numbers,
lettersof the alphabet, in order that rules and laws of calculation
can be represented as general 'formulae'. An algebraic sum is a
sum of terms comprising arbitrary signs which is called binomial,
trinomial, etc., according as contains 2, 3, etc., terms. The
it
trinomial 5a3 17 2b +
9abc +
said to be homogeneous and of
is
the third degree since every term contains three literal factors
(aaa, aab, abc). The fixed numbers 5, 17, 9 are called coefficients;
56
ARITHMETIC MEAN
they do not enter into the degree of the expression. Thus
ax* +
Ab&y
6cx2y2 \3dxf +ley* is a polynomial with
five terms, homogeneous in x and y of degree 4. On the other
hand if the various terms have different numbers of literal factors
the expression is non-homogeneous (e.g. 5a3 lab).
Manipulation of polynomial expressions
(i) (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2 .
(ii) x n - y n = (x - y)(xn~l + xn~2y + x"-y + . . .
+ xyn-2 +jw~1);
here the second bracket contains a sum of n terms each with
(n
1) factors ordered according to diminishing powers of x
and increasing powers of y.
(iii) The binomial theorem: the powers of a binomial expression
(a + b) are:
(a + bf = a2 + lab + b2 ; (a + by = a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab2 + Z>
3
;
~ ^
(a + b)n = an + na^b + ^
! a*-2' 2>
2
+
(w
x
1)(
^ 3

2)
-a*-3*3 + + nab*- + b\ 1
If the exponent is n, then the expression on the right is a sum of

(n + terms of the nth degree. The coefficients of the individual
1)
summands are given, for different values of n, by Pascal's Triangle
in which each number is obtained as the sum of the two numbers
to the right and left above it. For the nth power the kth binomial
coefficient (see below) is
njn - 2) -k+a
l)(n
1.2.3.
. .
.
.
.k
(n
-
Arithmetic mean
The mean (average = average value arithmetic mean) x of =
a set of n numbers is obtained by dividing the sum of the numbers
by n.
57
ARITHMETIC MEAN
The general expression is
1 1 n
*o = ~ (*i + x2 + - + *) = 2 Xkl
Example: The A.M. of the six numbers 8, 9, 13, 8, 12, 10 is:
8 +9+ 13 + 8 + 12+10 = 60 =
Xn
v~ 6
-r
6
10.
In our example:
Xl =8 jc3 = 13 x5 = 12 = 6
x2 =9 x4 =8 x6 = 10 fc = 1, 2, . . ., 6.
The apparent error of a measurement is the difference

between this measurement and an estimate of its true value,
calculated as the A.M. of a number of measurements.
If x1( x2 x3 , ., xn are n measurements of an unknown
, . .
quantity X made under the same conditions, the most likely

value of X is conventionally taken to be the A.M. of the measure-
ments.
~~
Xj + X2 + . '
xn
n
The apparent errors v { of the individual measurements are then:
V-y X ' X-y, V% == X Xj, . ., Vn = X Xn .
The apparent errors have the following properties:

(1) The sum of the apparent error is zero
vx + v2 + . . . + vn = (x - Xj) + (x - Xj) + + (x - xJ . . .
= n x (*! + x + . + xj 2 .
+ X + X3 + + X
X-y 2 . . .
n
(î + x + 2 . . . + xn = 0. )
(2) Minimal property of arithmetic mean. The sum of squares

of apparent errors associated with the arithmetic mean x as
estimated value,
|>? = (x - xtf + (x - x*) + 2

. . . + (x - xj2 ,
58
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
is lessthan the corresponding expression with any other mean
value x' taken as estimate.
We prove this as follows. If v[ x' jclf v'% = x/ x2 , . . .,
K xn are the apparent errors formed using the mean

value xf # x, then
= (V - xtf + (y - x^f + + (*' - xj2 . . .
2 -
- hx' 2*'(*! + x + + xn) + x\ + x\ +2 . . . . . . + xl
= nx'* - 2x? .n x + x\ + x\+. . + xl . .
while with the arithmetic mean x *i + x2 + . . . + xn

n
Iv2 = i vl + vl + . . . + vl = (x- Xl)* + . . . + (x + Xn)*

- nx> - 2*^ + x2 + + xn) + x\ + xl + . . . . . + xl
- nx* - 2wx2 + + xl + + x2 jcf . . . .
If we subtract the first expression from the second we have

n(x' 2 - 2x'x + Jc )
2
= nix' - jc) > 0,
2
that is, the first expression is positive if xf # x and zero if

x? x, as required.
For a continuous distribution with distribution function F(x)
(see Statistics) the mean value (*) is calculated from the integral
+00
x dF(x).
J-00
Arithmetic sequence
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which two
consecutive terms always have the same difference. If the differ-
ence is d, the terms of the sequence are:
ax = a, a2 = a + d, az =*a + 2d t a4 = a + 3d, . . .,
an = a + (n l)d.
59
: :
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
Example: ax = 2, a2 = 4, 3 = 6, . . . ; d = 2.
ax =ais called the initial term and a n the general term of the
sequence. In an arithmetic sequence each term is the arithmetic

mean of its neighbours
<*n = Mflnr-l + fl
+l)'
Ifwe form the differences of consecutive terms of the sequence

we obtain a new sequence, the first difference-sequence, which
comprises equal terms. We therefore call the original sequence
an arithmetic sequence of the first order.
Example: Arithmetic sequence of first order: 3, 9, 15, 21, ... .
1st difference-sequence: 6, 6, 6, ...
Arithmetic series
The (unevaluated) sum of terms of an arithmetic sequence is
called an arithmetic the series has only a

series. If finite number
n of terms its sum Sn can be calculated
Sn = ax + (ax + d) + . . . + {ax + (n - \)d)
and, reversing the order of the terms,
Sn = (i + (" - 1)<0 + (! + (- 2)d) + ... + av
Adding pairs of corresponding terms, we have

2Sn = K+ {ax+ {n - \)d)) + ((! + d)+(a + (n- 2)d)) 1
+ . . + {{ax + ( - l)d) + a,)

.
= n(2a x + (n - \)d),
that is,
Sn = ^ (2ax + {n - \)d) = ^ (a + an x ).
Example: To calculate the sum of the numbers from 1 to 100.

We have n = 100, ax = 1, d = 1 and a n = 100. Thus:
*ioo = 50(1 + 100) = 5050.
Interpolation
If new terms are inserted between the terms of an arithmetic
sequence in such a way that the extended sequence is also arith-
metic, an interpolation is said to have been effected.
60
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
Example: 4 new terms are to be inserted between each pair of

terms of the sequence 1, 4, 7, ... . Let the new terms be
blt b2 b3 64 ; b &i b 6 , b lt b 8 ; b 9 , . . .
, , .
The new sequence is:
1> blt b2i bZi bit 4, b5 , b 6 , b v b 8i 7, b9, . . . .
We must have:
4= + 5d, that
I is, d= I.
Accordingly, the new sequence runs:
1, 1-6, 2-2, 2-8, 3-4, 4, 4-6, 5-2, 5-8, 6-4, 7
Arithmetic sequences and linear functions
The y = a + dx form, for equi-

values of the linear function
distant values of x, an arithmetic sequence of the first order.
Conversely: the terms of an arithmetic sequence with initial term
a and difference d are values of the linear function y = a + dx,
the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 being substituted for x.
. . .
Example: y =2+ 3x
X= i 2 3 4
y= 2 5 8 11 14
Arithmetic sequences of higher order

A sequence of numbers whose Ath difference is constant is
called an arithmetic sequence of the Ath order.
Example:
(i) The sequence of square-numbers is an arithmetic sequence of
the second order.
Primary sequence: 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 . . .
1st difference-sequence: 3 5 7 9 1113...

2nd difference-sequence: 2 2 2 2 2...
61
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
(ii) A sequence of the fourth order:
-1 -3 9 71 243 609 1277 . . .
1st difference-sequence: 2 12 62 172 366 668 .. .
2nd difference-sequence: 14 50 110 194 302 .. .
3rd difference-sequence: 36 60 84 108 .. .
4th difference-sequence: 24 24 24 . . .
Arithmetic sequences and rational integral functions

The rational integral function
y = b xk + b^*-1 + . . . + bk_xx + bk
yieldsan arithmetic sequence of the fcth order if equidistant
numbers (e.g. the natural numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .) are . .
substituted for x. Conversely, the general term of an arithmetic

sequence of the fcth order can be represented by a rational integral
function of the kth degree.
Example: The sequence
-1, -3,9,71,243,609,1277,. . .
is an arithmetic sequence of the 4th order. To determine the

general term. This must be of the form:
= *o4 + binS + btfi2 + bzn + *4

an
For n = 1, a = 1, whence:
1
6 + *x + * 2 + *3 + *4 = -1,
for n = 2, a2 = 3, whence:
16* + %bx + 4*2 + 2*3 + *4 = -3,
for n = 3, az = 9, whence:
81* + 27^+ 9*a + 3*3 + *4 = 9,
for = 4, a4 = 71, whence:

/i
2566 + 64*! + 16*2 + 4*3 + *4 = 71,
for = 5, a 5 243, whence:
625* + 125*! + 25*2 + 5*8 + *4 = 243.
62
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
We have 5 equations in 5 unknowns (viz. b bx b2t bz and bj.

, ,
This system of equations has solution
b = 1, bx = 4, b2 = 6, b3 = 7 and bA = 3.
The general term is therefore
cB = - 43 + 62 - 7 + 3
and the sequence is obtained by substituting the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, for n in this expression.
. . .
If an arithmetic sequence of the Ath order has a finite number

of terms, these terms can be added to give their sum, which is
an expression of the form:
sn = v**1 + V + V* -1
+ . . . +A-i2 + A" + Vi-
Example: What is the sum of the first n square numbers?
Sequence of squares: 1 4 9 16 25 36
Sum-sequence: 1 5 14 30 55 91
From this we calculate
1st difference-sequence: 4 9 16 25 36
2nd difference-sequence: 5 7 9 11
3rd difference-sequence: 2 2 2
To obtain the sum we put

= by + bjn2 + b2n + b3
sn
For == 1 we have: sx = 1, so that:
ô + î + ^2 + h h
for = 2 we have: s2 = 5, so that:
Sb + 461 + 2Z>2 + 63 = 5,
for n 3 we have: sz = 14, so that:
27*o + 9bx + 3b 2 + b3 = 14,
for n = 4 we have: 4 = 30, so that: .s
646 + 16^ + 46a + bz = 30.
63
ARITHMETIC SERIES
Solving these equations we obtain
ô = 3 b = % b = & b3 = *
i z
The sum of the
sn -
111
first
3/1
3
n square numbers
+ 22 + in - (w +
is therefore:
l)(2w + 1).
Arithmetic series
An arithmetic series is the (uncalculated) sum of the terms of
an arithmetic sequence (see above).
Associative law
An associative law asserts the irrelevance of the order in which
operations are performed:
a + (b + c) = (a+ b) + c for addition;
a . (b . c) = {a . b) c = a b
. . . c for multiplication.
Asymptote
A straight line is called an asymptote of a curve, if the curve
and the line approach indefinitely close together but never meet.
Examples: The function y =- has the straight lines x

(the j>-axis) and y = (the jc-axis) as asymptotes.
2 2
y
= + b- x
jc
The hyperbola -2 70=1 has asymptotes y and
b
y
' x.
a
Axial symmetry
Aplane figure is called axially symmetric if a straight line exists,
the axis of symmetryt such that the figure can be superposed on
64
BINARY SYSTEM
itself by rotation about or reflection in the line. E.g. an equilateral
triangle is axially symmetric with respect to each of its altitudes
(Fig. 41).
ymmetry
Axioms
Propositions which are laid down with-
out proof, in order to prove further
propositions (theorems) from them.
Euclid's geometry is the classic example
of the number and variety of theorems
that can be proved from a few simple
axioms.
Fio. 41
Binary system
The binary system a number system using only two symbols,
is
for example The base of the binary system is 2. Every
and 1.
number can be uniquely represented as the sum of powers of 2,

and so can be uniquely represented in the binary system, e.g.
58 = 32+16 + 8 + 2
= 25 + 1 24 + 23 + 22 + 1 21 +
1 . . 1 . . . .
2
= 111010 when written in binary notation.

Conversely the binary number,
10011 = 1 . 24 + 22 + 1
+ . 23 . . 21 + 1 .
2
= 16 + + + 2+1 = 19 when written in deci-

mal notation.
Decimal Number Binary Number
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
65
BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
Similarly we can transform decimal fractions into binary

fractions, e.g.
z is written in the binary system 1 -i- 10 = 0-1
r is written in the binary system 1 -f- 1 1 = 0-0101 . .

.
j is written in the binary system 1 -J- 100 = 0-01
r is written in the binary system 1 -r- 101 = 0-001,100,11 . ...
Every fraction which is a negative power of 2 is represented by

a finite fraction in the binary system; all other fractions are
represented by infinite periodic binary fractions. Calculation
with binary numbers is widely used in electronic calculating
machines (see Calculating instruments and machines).
Binomial coefficients (see Binomial Theorem)

Binomial coefficients are the coefficients appearing in the
expansion of powers of binomials, and are written
l
1,1, read n over k' (n and k positive integers).
For n ;> k ;> 1,
n(n - - 2) (n - k +
0- l)(w
1.2.3.
. .
.
.
.k
1)
(see also Theory of combinations), and in particular
For consistency we put
= l = l and = tf k is a P ositive
(o) ( k)
'
(o) *
integer greater than n.
66
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
If for conciseness we put 1.2.3 . . . n =n ! for positive

integers n (read -factorial or factorial ri), see Factorial, and
0! = 1, then
'-. (*)-( I t)-(orî*i) for " s *^ <L

Further,
'(r) -CM,:,)-
4. If 7M is also a positive integer we have
("r)-C)(5)+G-.)ffl + W + -
Binomial coefficients can also be formally calculated for negative
integers and for fractionalnumbers (see Binomial series).
Binomial distribution
If the probability of a given event isp, and the probability of
the event not occurring is 1 p = q, then the probability of the
event occurring m times out of n trials is <f>(m) = m n-m

I
J p q .
The function <f>(m) represents the binomial distribution for the

given number n. In particular, if p = q (as in tossing a coin to
obtain 'heads'), the values occurring in the binomial distribution
are proportional to the binomial coefficients (see art.).
Example: The probability of drawing a black ball from an urn
containing b black and w white balls is p = jr and the
w
probability of drawing a white ball is q = jr . If this experi-
ment is repeated m times, each time the ball being put back in
67
BINOMIAL EQUATIONS
the urn and the balls shuffled afresh, the probability of drawing
a black ball x times in the
The mean value of the binomial distribution

m trials is m- () pq
.Xy-mx
= q).
is mp m{\
The variance is mpq = mp(l p).
When m
is large, the binomial distribution approximates to
the Gaussian normal distribution (see Frequency curve).
Binomial equations have the form xn a= (see Equations).
Binomial expression (see Polynomial)

An expression with two terms and having the form a + b or
a b is called a binomial expression. For the powers (a + b) n
and (a b) n see Binomial Theorem.
,
Binomial formulae
The powers of the binomial expressions (a + b) and (a b).
These are
{a + bf = 1,
(a + b)1 = a + b,
(a + bf = ai + 2ab + b2
(a + bf = a3 + 3a% + 3ab % + b9 , etc.
(a - bf = 1,
(a - bf = a - b,
(a - bf = a% - lab + b\
(a-bfâ3 - 3a2b + 3ab* - b3 , etc.
In general
= an + ~2
(a + b)
n
(fj
a^b + (\ a
n
b* + . . .
+ (" 1
)flfr"- 1 + *".
(a - bf = an - ("\ a^b + ()
a n-*b* - . . . + (~l) nb n
68
BINOMIAL THEOREM
n n
(the last term, ( \) b is positive if n is even and negative if n
is odd ; see Binomial Theorem).
Binomial series
The binomial series is as follows:
(1 + x) = + 1
Q, + GMd* + "-G)*
The expansion holds for all fixed real a and for all x in the
interval 1 <x< +1. The coefficients I ,

J
are the Binomial
coefficients (see above). They are calculated according to the

formula
(<x\ _ a(a l)(a - 2) ... (a - k + 1)
k\
1. If a is a positive integer the series is identical with the
Binomial theorem (see above) and holds for all x.

2. If a is a positive number the series also converges for
x = 1 and we have
, - + G)-Q + (:)-G) + --*

3. If a is a number greater than 1 the series also converges
for x = +1 and we have 1 + a +(*) + (*

J
+ ...= 2".
In all other cases the binomial series is divergent.
Binomial Theorem
The binomial theorem is as follows
(a + b)
n = an + (
") a^b + {^\ a^b2 + . . .
+ 1 ab "~X + bn '
( l)
Here the coefficients ( i ) (2)' * '

_ t ) are the Binomial
(
69
:
BINOMIAL THEOREM
coefficients (see above). These are calculated according to the

formula:
(n\ n(n lXn - 2) . . . (n -*+ 1)
k) 1.2.3. . .k
for n >k^ 1.
/6\
= 6.5.4.3.2 = r /6\ 6.5.4 _
e * l5J 1.2.3.4.5
6'
\3 j
" 17273 = 20 '
/6\
\4/
6.5.4.3
1.2.3.4 ' (
\2/
6
)=^
1.2
= 15
^
o !-<
so that
(a + bf = a6 + 6a 5b + I5a*b 2 + 20^3 + 15a2Z>4 + 6ab 5 + b\

The binomial theorem is proved by induction. That is, it is
shown to hold for n = 1, and further shown

that if it holds for
any given value of n then it also holds for the next higher value
of n.
The binomial coefficients can be arranged in the form of
Pascal's triangle (see below), in which each interior number is
the sum of the nearest two numbers in the previous row. In
the first row of the
triangle are the coefficients of (a + b), in the
second those of (a + b)\ in the third those of (a + 6)2 in the
,
fourth of (a +
bf and so on.
Expansion
(for further terms, see Pascal's triangle)
Q 1
Q
0.
G) G)
70
BISECTION OF A SEGMENT
In the binomial theorem the exponent n is a positive integer.
To calculate the powers (a n
+
b) when n is a negative integer or
a fraction see Binomial series.
Biquadratic equation
Equation of the fourth degree, containing the unknown raised
at most to the fourth power. Its normal form is
x* + ax* + bx* + cx + d=0

(see Equations).
Bisection of an angle
Describe a of arbitrary radius r about the vertex O,
circle
intersecting the in A and B, and then describe about A and
arms
B two equal circles intersecting in C; the line w joining C to O
bisects the angle. The angle bisector w is the line of symmetry of
the angle (see Axial symmetry, Fig. 42).
/R
x
Fig. 42 Fig. 43
Bisection of a segment
Describe about the end points A and B of the segment circles
of equal radii r (r > J. The circles intersect in the points C

and D. The straight line through C and D intersects the segment
in its mid-point M (Fig. 43). It is the perpendicular bisector (see
71
BRACKETS
below) of the segment AB. the axis of symmetry of the

It is also
points A and B. The points A
and B lie symmetrically, as mirror
images, about the line through C and D (see Axial symmetry).
Brackets
The bracket a mathematical symbol which expresses a calcu-
is
lating instruction and means that the calculation symbolised

within the brackets must be carried out before the others. Thus
a . (b + c) signifies that b and c should be added and then multi-
plied by a whereas a b . +
c means by convention that a and b
should be multiplied, and the product added to c. The first
expression given is therefore essentially a product, the second a
sum.
Example: 3 . (5 + 2) = 3 7 = 21, .
3 . 5 + 2 = 15 + 2 = 17.
The following rules are used in calculation with brackets

If a '+'-sign stands in front of the bracket the bracket may be
omitted without affecting the value of the sum:
(a + 2b - 3c) = a + (2b - 3c) = a + 2b - 3c.
Conversely, if required such brackets may be inserted without

affecting the value of the sum of a polynomial expression
a + 3b - c = a + (3b - c).
If a ''-sign stands in front of the bracket, in omitting the
bracket all signs within must be reversed
-(3a -b+ 2c - Ad) = -3a +b- 2c + Ad.
Conversely, if brackets are inserted after a ''-sign, all signs

enclosed must be reversed
a + 2b - c- d+ 3e = (a + 2b) - (c + d - 3c).
Association of terms of a sum in groups by means of brackets

does not alter the value of the expression (associative law) :
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c; 3 +4+2=3+6=7+ 2.
72
CALCULATING INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES
Multiple brackets
If an expression contains a bracketed expression within which
a further part stands in brackets, and we wish to eliminate the
brackets, then the innermost pair of brackets must be dealt with
first. In such circumstances different types of brackets are com-
monly used to avoid confusion; round brackets, 0> are sometimes

referred to as parentheses and curled brackets, {}, as braces, the
term bracket itself then being reserved for the square type, [].
a - {b + [2c - (d+ 4e)]} = a - {b + [2c - d- 4e]}

= a {b + 2c d 4e}
= a b 2c + d + 4e.
Brianchon (1785-1871, Paris)
BrianchorCs Theorem. In every hexagon circumscribing a circle
or conic, the straight lines g, h and k joining opposite vertices
meet in a single point Q, the 'Brianchon Point'. Here one vertex
is said to be opposite to another if the two are separated by two
vertices. Thus in Fig. 44 A and D B and
t E, C and F, are pairs
of opposite vertices.
Calculating instruments and machines

There exists a great variety of machines and instruments for
carrying out numerical calculations. According to the principle
73
on which their operation is based, we distinguish between analogue
and digital devices. In an analogical procedure a particular
physical process is taken to represent either another physical
process or an abstract mathematical model. Numbers are repre-

sented by continuously varying quantities {e.g. lengths, angles of
rotation, electrical tensions). A
calculation is carried out by
operating with these physical quantities, using known physical
laws.
To the class of analogue devices belong the slide-rule (addition
of segments) and the planimeter (pointer moving round a geo-
metrical figure to register the figure's area). Analogue methods
are particularly suited to the type of problem in which a rapid
survey is required of the influence of a parameter or parameters
in a given physical set-up.
Digital computers operate with discrete entities, counted, for
example, by the movement of cog-wheels or by electrical current
impulses. To this class belong hand-calculating machines,
business machines, punched-card devices and programme-con-
trolled digital computers. Using digital machines one can work
with numbers to an arbitrary number of places, and consequently
reach any desired degree of accuracy. Equations with infinitesimal
terms are not directly soluble, but must first be transformed, by
methods of approximation, into finite equations. The following
devices, on account of their frequent use, are treated in greater
detail below:
1. The slide-rule
2. Electrical analogue computers

3. Desk calculating-machines
4. Programme-controlled digital computers.
1. The slide-rule
The slide-rule operates by the addition and subtraction of line-

segments, using the laws employed in calculating with logarithms.
The numbers from 1 to 10 are laid out on a logarithmic scale
of length /, i.e. 1 is taken as the origin of the scale (since
log 1= 0), 2 as 0-3010/ (log 10 2 =
0-3010), 3 as 0-4771/ (log 10 3
= 0-4771) and 10 as 1/ (log 10 10 = 1). Two identical logarithmic
74
can slide along one another,
scales are constructed, so that they
one on the frame and the other on the lower edge of the slide.
Multiplication and division. Application of the rules that
multiplication corresponds to the addition of logarithms and
division to subtraction yields the appropriate procedures. Calcu-
lation is carried out with mantissae only, i.e. without regard to
the characteristic. The position of the decimal point has to be
determined mentally. Since 1 and 10 have equal mantissae,
identical scales can be thought of as cyclically laid out to the right
or to the Whether the slide is drawn out to the
left. right or left
depends on which side the result can be read off.
Example 1: 2*5 x 1-5
1 1-5 Addition of the segments a and b
1 2 2-5
Result: 3-75
Example 2: 3-5 X 5-6
1 b 5-6 10
1-96
1 |
3-5 h 10
bx a
Result: 1-96 -> 19-6
Addition of segments a and b using scale-cycle.
75
Example 3: 8 -r 2-4 Subtraction of the segments a and b.
1 2-4
t a 8>(J
1
Result = 3-33
Example 4:
1*5 3 -r 5 Subtraction of the segments a and &

using scale-cycle
10
t
Result: 6->0-6
Reciprocal scale. Most slide-rules have a reciprocal scale in the

10
middle of the slide, where the logarithms of the values are
laid out. The reciprocal scale is suited to division, in which the
form a X -r is used instead of a -r b, the adjustments being
chosen as for examples 1 and 2, and to multiplication in which
a . -r is used instead of a -r b, adjustments being chosen as for
examples 3 and 4.
Upper scales. A
slide rule usually possesses two further logarith-
mic scales which slide along one another, each laid out in half-
measure compared with the lower scales, one on the frame and
the other on the upper edge of the slide. The square is the corre-
sponding magnitude on the lower scales.
Example 5: 42 = 4x4 1 Result =16
76
The square-root is obtained in a similar way. The given number
is expressed in the form x x 10 n where x lies between 1 and 10
and n is an integer. The given number istaken on the left or
right of theupper scale according as n is even or odd, the result
being read off on the lower scale.
Example 6: V400 (400 =4X 102, n is even)

upper scale
ri ht
. !s2 in g.
1 100
1
f 10
Result: 2 -20.
Example 7: VO^ (0-6 = 6x 1(H; n is odd)
1 10 60 100
1
f 10
Result: 7-76 - 0-776
Multiplication and division can be carried out as in examples
1-4 using the upper pair of scales; however, the lower scales are
preferable for accuracy, there being twice as much room for
interpolation and reading off.
Further scales. Various types of slide-rule have other scales,
for example e*, trigonometrical functions, log, 1 x2 x3 etc. , ,
These in general relate to the lower normal scale, results being

obtained directly using the cursor (reading window).
Notes on procedure. We aim at the smallest possible loss of
accuracy in carrying out a calculation.
(a) In order to place the decimal point correctly, each calcula-
tion must be roughly carried out mentally.
(b) For multiplication and division, employ the lower scales
and the reciprocal scale only.
77
(c) For expressions of the form
ax X a2 X . . . X am
bx x bz x . . . x bJi
alternately divide and multiply, so that the number of settings is
kept as small as possible.
(d) For multiple products, use the reciprocal scale.
Example 8: 3*5 x 68 x 0-26 (one setting)
10 6-8
Reciprocal scale
2-6
3-5
f
Result: 6-18 -* 61-8.
a +b+ c
Special applications. To solve the quadratic equation

x2 + Ax + B = 0,
B
the form x +A+ - = Q\s used.
Example 9: x 5-58 + -7 =
7
The rule is set to give values a and b = -. We require
a
a +b= 5-58.
Reciprocal scale
78
The solution is obtained by systematic testing with this setting.
a *=-7 a +b
a
1-75 4 5-75
2-0 3-5 5-5
1-9 3-68 5-58
*i X%
Some other types of equations with three terms can be solved by

the same procedure, using square- or cube-scales.
Example 10: x* 6-11jc 4 =

(The equation x* + ax* + c = can be put in this form by
taking x = -.
1 \
1
4
Divide by x to get x* 6-11 = 0, and set the scale as
shown. x
a = x3 Cubic scale
Reciprocal scale
x a = Xs *-*X a-b
2 8 2 6
2-1 9-26 1-91 7-35
2-01 8-1 1-99 6-11
79
2. Electrical analogue computers
These computers contain a series of calculating elements. For
each element the terminal voltage bears a specified relation to the
input-voltages, the magnitudes used in a calculation being repre-
sented by electrical tensions. Present-day analogue computers
have calculating-elements for:
(a) Summation
(b) Integration
(c) Multiplication by a constant factor
(d) Multiplication
(e) Reversal of sign.
There are further devices available yielding approximations to

special functions, as well as devices presenting the results of
computations in graphical form (as curves).
The programming of a mathematical problem is effected by
standardising the variables of the problem to bring them into
correspondence with the machine-variables and by suitable
juxtaposition of the machine-elements (either directly or by way
of a switch-board). Initial conditions can be inserted or altered
in accordance with the outcome of a particular computation, so
as to permit of a fresh computation. In general, time is the only
independent variable entering. The accuracy of a computing-
element in such an analogue device reaches about 0-1 per cent
compared with the amplitude of the voltage involved.
Analogue computers are especially suited to the solution of
systems of ordinary differential equations with constant or
variable coefficients and given initial and boundary conditions.
If the machine-time is chosen to be equal to the time occurring
in the actual problem to be computed, then the physical system
at the root of the problem can be simulated by the analogue
computer.
3. The desk calculating machine

The desk machine adds numbers by successive
calculating
partial revolutions of cog-wheels. Multiplication is carried out by
continued addition, subtraction by reversal of the direction of
rotation, and division by continued subtraction. These machines
contain a keyboard or levers for setting up numbers, a revolution
register (for registering the multiplier in a multiplication), a
80
product register (recording the results of addition, multiplication
and subtraction) and, in some cases, a storage register for the
later use of intermediary results. The revolution and product
registers can be moved sideways on a carriage to facilitate calcu-
lation with multi-digit multipliers. Further, most machines have
a transfer-device which, for example in the case of the product
a.b c, does away with the need to set up by hand the inter-
.
mediary result a b on the keyboard. The machine is operated

.
either electrically or by hand. There are also in use machines

provided with a tabulator for printing results, e.g. certain
business-machines.
Procedures
for carrying out practical calculations
1st Step. Prior mathematical work.

(a) Determination of method of solution of the problem (the
formulae involved are either evaluated directly or an appropriate
method of approximation is employed, e.g. the Runge-Kutta
procedure for integration).
(b) Determination of the degree of accuracy required (number
of decimal places to be employed).
(c) Systematic control of errors.
On account of possible mistakes it is necessary to check the
calculation, e.g. by sample testing. To avoid unnecessary waste
of time in long calculations it is advisable to build in as many
tests as possible (e.g. column-sums tests).
2nd Step. Design of computing-blank.

During the actual carrying out of a computation, the whole
must be concentrated on the machine.
attention of the operator
Accordingly the calculating procedure is first divided into unit
operations, and a computing-blank is prepared, giving, for each
step, the requisite computing-instructions and the parameters
involved. Actual intermediary and final results are later entered
in this blank.
Example: Evaluation of y = ax + bx + c
2
say, y = 2%2 + V5x + 3

81
Computing-blank with actual entries:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
x x2 = (l)
2
2x2 = 2(2) l-5x = 1-5(1) v=(3) + (4) + 3
0-1 0-01 0-02 0-15 3-17

2 4 8 3 140
3rd Step. Actual computation.

In electrically-operated machines, keys are provided for
individual operations.
In hand-operated machines, all operations are effected by
turning a crank. Division is carried out by repeated subtraction,
continued until a negative number appears in the product
register. The operator proceeds to the next step only after a single
addition has restored a positive value in the product-register. A
calculation should be carried out independently by two persons,
particularly if no built-in checks are possible.
Special calculations
1. Square root, a = V~A. We commence with an approximate

value for the root, a ; a better approximation is given by the value
^-5 and further improved approximations are given by the
iterative formula
A
T + an
u n+l
2
(the number of valid places is roughly doubled at each step).
Example: a = v3
a =2
ax = -j- = 1-75
a2 = 1-732143
a3 = 1-732051
a* = 1-732054 etc.
82
2. Cube root, a = %A. Corresponding iterative procedure:

first approximation, a^\
an+i = j ' = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
3. Calculation with double accuracy. The usual desk machine

has a keyboard allowing for 10-digit numbers, a revolution-
register with 10 places, and a product-register with 20 places, thus
permitting calculation with 10-figure numbers. However, a higher
degree of accuracy than this may well be required (e.g. for
Fourier-analysis in radio-technology). To carry out a computation
with 20-place accuracy, we proceed as follows.
We split up the numbers involved into their first and second
ten places
A = (10!% + AJ
B = (lO 10 ^ + B2)
We form A B by separate calculation of A x B x and A2 B2
with appropriate carrying-over; for the product we have
A B=
. (10
10
A + AJilV*^ + BJ
= (A x x BJ1Q20 + (A x x B2 +A 2 X BJ10.
(The term A 2 X B2 yields, after rounding-off, a quantity giving
at most 1 in the last decimal place of the 20-place result, and
thus can usually be neglected.)
io 10 v
= A /, B*
W^B l ~ wb~J\ aPProximately-
t [
Care must be taken that the first place of Bx # 0, so that quadratic

and higher terms can be neglected in the development of
l + BjlQ^-ôX 10Bj
83
4. Programme-controlled digital computers

Construction. In the modern electronic computer, the step-by-
step control of the calculating procedure is taken over by the
machine's control unit. The individual instructions of a pro-
gramme, the data to be manipulated and intermediary results are
held ready in a storage unit. An arithmetic unit carries out the
fundamental arithmetic operations as for desk machines, and
tests for sign or zero-value. Input and output devices regulate the
reading-in of the programme and the initial data, and the presen-
tation of results. Schematically the interrelationship of compo-
nents is as follows (Fig. 45):
Fig. 45
The arithmetic unit. The arithmetic unit is essentially a device

for addition. Subtraction can be carried out with complements,
multiplication by continued addition, and division by continued
subtraction. These four basic operations are usually wired into
the computer, and can be upon as occasion demands by
called
some computers have an instruc-
single instructions. In addition,
tion for extracting the square root. For problems in which the
range of values occurring in intermediary and final results cannot
be anticipated, most machines use the 'floating decimal-point'
principle. With base 10, a number is expressed as the product of
a power of ten and a number lying between 1 and 10. The so-
called characteristic of the number is obtained by augmenting
the exponent of the power of 10 by a fixed integer, e.g. 50. The
84
number represented by sign, characteristic and mantissa,
itself is
e.g. the 8leading places. Thus we have a kind of semi-logarithmic
representation.
Examples:
1. 1-234 = 1-234 x 10 50 1234000;
2. -0-001234 = -1-234 x 10"3 -47 1234000;
3. 12340 = 1-234 X 10* 54 1234000.
The addition of number 50 (the base of the characteristic)
this
ensures that the characteristic is positive over a very wide range.
In using a floating-decimal-point in place, e.g. of 10 fixed decimal
places, a range of values covering 100 decimal places
(10-50 <x<10 50
)
is obtained.
We speak of the standard form of a number if the first figure
of the mantissa is non-zero, of unstandardised form otherwise.
E.g. given 50 1234000 =
51 01234000, the left side is in standard
form, the right unstandardised. The need for unstandardised
calculations can arise in considering the accuracy of a result. It
may well happen that in the subtraction of nearly equal numbers,
the first places of the mantissa vanish, and subsequent standard-
isation may then suggest a spurious accuracy in the result.
The arithmetic unit can test whether a number in one of its
registers has a particular sign (sign-testing), or is zero (zero-
testing), or that a given number is in a given position. The
result
of the test is reported back to the control so that further progress
of the calculation can be made dependent on this (logical)
decision. The arithmetic unit provides for the carrying out of its
operations in the following (or similar) registers:
(a) Accumulator-register, in which the result of an addition
or subtraction appears.
(b) Multiplicand-divisor register for registering multiplicands
or divisors.
(c) Multiplier-quotient registerregistering multipliers or quo-
tients.
The basic individual element from which an arithmetic unit is
constructed is a switch, e.g. a mechanical switch, electromagnetic
relay, valve or transistor. Modern valve or transistor computers
85
achieve 200,000 or more additions of 10-place decimal numbers
in a second. Since the switches involved are in general capable
of only two states, the internal use of the binary number-system
is required (the digits and 1 alone being effectively used).
The binary system uses the number 2 as base. Any number
can be represented by the sum of powers of 2. For example:
13 = 8 + 4+l = lx23 +lx2 +lx2= 1101 2
156 = 128 + 16 + 8 + 4 = x 2 + X 24 + x 23
1
7
1 1
+ 1 x 22 = 100 11100
The use of other number codes can offer the advantage of auto-
matic checks on accuracy, as against the drawback of smaller
calculating speeds.
Storage unit. When called on, the store takes up information
(data; intermediary results; in stored-programme computers, the
programme as well). It contains a number of storage-locations
each of which can be 'called on'by reference to a unique 'address'.
The following devices are used for storage: Small ferromagnetic
rings (magnetic cores); drums, tapes or discs with magnetic
coating (magnetic drum, magnetic tape, or magnetic-disc stores);
paper tapes, or cards with fixed storage by means of punched
holes (punched tape, punched cards); pins with changeable
positions (mechanical storage); relays (electromagnetic storage).
There exist two types of store, internal and external. An internal
store is in loose connection only with the computer, i.e. it can be
separated without affecting the functioning of the computer. An

external store sometimes serves for the temporary storage of
blocks of numbers from the internal store, parts of which can
thus be released for information more urgently needed in the
computation.
The different methods of storage are distinguished by the
access-times they allow, i.e. the time taken from a call on the
store to the transfer of the information required from the store

to the arithmetic unit. Modern computers with magnetic-core
storage have access-times as small as (4 6) x 10~ sees, and
6
storage-capacities of up to 32,000 10-place numbers. In assessing

the efficiency of a computer, storage-capacity and access-time
must be taken into account as well as actual calculating-speed.
Input and output. Input and output comprise the procedures of
86
giving in and taking out data and instructions, and controlling
exchanges with an internal store. Keyboards, punched tape,
punched cards and magnetic tape are used as input media. The
most rapid means of input is afforded by magnetic tape, and,
using this, at the present time up to 40,000 alphabetical or
numerical characters can be fed per second into a magnetic-core
store; punched cards reach input speeds of about 500-600
characters per second; punched tape for normal rates of operation
with photoelectric sensing, between 200 and 1,000 characters per
sec. Output likewise can be effected by punched tape, punched
cards and magnetic tape; and frequently also by means of tele-
printer, tabulating machine, or automatic typewriter. Oscillo-
graphs are also used for graphical representation of output
functions (photography being used for permanent records).
Output speeds are smaller than input speeds, except in the case
of magnetic tape. In order that calculation should not be inter-
rupted during input- and output-times, so-called buffer-stores are
frequently introduced.
In large modern computers input and output are undertaken
almost exclusively with magnetic tape. Separate devices are used
for transferring information to and from the tapes, e.g. from
or
to punched cards. Choice of input and output units depends pre-
dominantly on the nature of the problems being dealt with. Such
problems fall into two broad groups.
(a) Commercial data-processing problems (characteristically
involving the handling of large quantities of data, frequent input
and output, little calculation).
and technological problems (emphasis on actual
(b) Scientific
computation; smaller quantities of data involved).
Thus for commercial problems, computers with rapid input
and output units are preferable; on the other hand scientific
problems usually call for rapid computation.
The control unit. The control unit controls the actual computa-
tion. According to the way in which the
control unit is given its
individual instructions, we distinguish between plug-board,
punched-tape, punched-card and stored-programme computers!
Special computers with built-in programmes are
also in use. In
plug-board computers the sequence of calculating-steps is
deter-
mined by connecting wires on a plug-board. The small
flexibility
of such apparatus restricts its use to situations in
which small
87
numbers of standard calculations are continually repeated (for
instance, in pay-roll calculation). The more conventional punched-
card machines (tabulators, calculating punches) belong in this
category.
For punched-tape and punched-card-controlled machines (not
to be confused with machines in which programmes are inserted
in an internal store by means of punched-cards or punched-tape)
successive instructions are delivered directly from punched tape
or from a sequence of punched-cards. This type of control is
required if storage-capacity is small. On account of the large
access-time, these machines are very slow. The control unit itself
is similar in construction to those of stored-programme machines.
In stored-programme machines, the control unit contains an
order-register which takes up orders and interprets them. An
order contains an operation part, in which the type of operation
to be performed (arithmetic operation, position-shift, sign-test
or input or output operation) occurs, numerically coded. It also
contains at least the store-address of the operand (for example,
the address of the number to be added to the content of the
accumulator, the address of the location in which a result from
the accumulator will be stored, or the address of the storage
location whose contents are to be abstracted). An instruction-
counter contains the address of the next order. If the access-time
to all storage-locations are equal, as with magnetic core stores,
the computer operates in such a way that instructions are stored
at successive locations and successively called upon. In this case
an instruction does not need to contain the address of the sub-
sequent instruction. On the other hand, in the case of machines
with magnetic drum storage it may be possible for the programme
to be so arranged that after carrying out an order, the storage-
location of the next instruction is immediately accessible.
We distinguish according to the number of operands which
are taken up in an order, between single and multiple address
systems. For example, the Bell-System of the IBM 650 is a
3-address programme system; the instruction 3 A
B C means:
multiply (operation code =
3) the contents of the storage-
location A by the contents of storage location B and bring the
result into the storage location C. According to whether a sub-
sequent address is or is not given, we further speak of (multiple-
or single-, +
1) address-systems or (multiple- or single-, 0) +
.

address systems. (The Bell-System is thus a (3 0) address- +
system; provision of an operand and a subsequent address
comprises a (1 +
1) address-system.)
In the case of stored-programme machines, calculation with
orders can be carried on exactly as with numbers. This makes
possible the use of a section of a programme for different storage
domains, provided the addresses are suitably transformed. This
address-calculus is an essential part of the programming.
In practice problems frequently arise where similar operations
are performed on data placed in consecutive storage-locations,
e.g. matrix-operations. In such cases, so-called index-registers
are
useful. For 'indexed operations', the contents of an index register
under consideration are taken from or added to the address part
of the order. The control unit works with this 'effective address',
the order itself being unchanged in its storage-location. Special
testing and addition orders on the index register make it possible
to establishhow often the particular section of the programme is
to be run through.
Example: Suppose we wish to evaluate the sum
N
y = I,x = x1 + x2 +
i . . + xN ,
=
i l
where N= 30, xt being entered in the storage-location 1000,

*2 in 1001, . . .,*30 in 1029.
The written programme for this runs as follows:
Order 1 : Insert 30 in index register A.
Order 2: Clear the accumulator.

Order 3: Add the contents of the storage-location (1030
content of A) to the accumulator.
Order 4: Subtract 1 from the number in the index register and
test whether result is zero or not. If [A] ^ proceed
to order 3, otherwise to 5. By this means order 3 is
gone through exactly 30 times, corresponding to
locations 1000 to 1029.
Order 5: Store accumulator (giving the required value

y).
The functions of the control unit and storage unit ('memory')

have suggested the often-used expression 'Electronic brain'.
89
; ;

Actually, of course, each step the computer takes will have been
programmed by a human controller.
Programming. Before actual encoding, a problem must be
thought through with a view to all possible contingencies. In
order to formalise the method of solution clearly a. flow-diagram
is constructed (Fig. 46).
Example: Calculation of
+ 2x + 1 for x <1
-^-K 2
+ 3* for x > 1
(input by means of punched cards, printed output).

The following signs and symbols are sometimes used in writing
out flow-diagrams (Fig. 47).
(a) Decision, switches, branch-

ings;
(b) Direction of data flow, next

step of procedure;
(c) Arithmetic operations, etc.
(d) Programme-modifications;
(e) Error-stop;
(f) Punched -card (input or
output);
x 2 + Contents of
the Intermediate
(g) Magnetic tape (input or
store in result
store for y output)
(h) Printed output;
(i) Drum (external store), input
or output.
r
Fig. 46
In order to translate a flow diagram into the machine code, it

is firstof all necessary to be familiar with the type of machine
to be employed (type of calculating register, type of orders
allowable, whether a one- or many-address machine). It is further
necessary to provide a system of storage-allocation, i.e. it is
necessary to know which quantity is lodged in which storage
location.
In manual programming there exist great possibilities of error
in both these procedures, but it is possible to let part of the
90
a) d)
A
b)
p.
)
CZ3
0)
Fig. 47
programming work be done by the machine itself. Thus a series

of aids to programming have come into existence.
1. Sub-programmes. Every calculating centre possesses a
library of programmes comprising frequently occurring calcu-
lating routines. Subject to certain modifications (in the specifica-
tion of parameters, type of entry, store-locations used) such sub-
programmes can be incorporated into a programme as required.
For routine problems {e.g. solution of systems of linear equations)
the sub-programme becomes the working-programme, the actual
programming required being confined to preparation of the input
quantities.
2. Auxiliary programmes. For input or output, etc., there are
different proceduresdependent on the type of machine used. In
order not to burden every programmer with these procedures,
input and output programmes are available in programme-
libraries for as many special cases as possible.
3. Superprogrammes (symbolic input programmes, etc.). For
complete encoding in the machine code, and the allocation of
storage there exist programmes which translate a pseudo-code
(order-code not directly suited to the machine) into the machine
code. There are two types of such superprogrammes, inter-
pretative programmes and translation programmes.
(i) Interpretative programmes. The initial coding uses a pseudo-
code. An additional input super-programme then translates the
pseudo-programme order by order into machine steps which the
machine then carries out.
Example: Bell-system for the IBM 650. The pseudo-order
3A B C is first interpreted as a multiplication order for data
occurring in the locations A
and B, on the basis of which the
sub-programme for this multiplication is run off and the result
91
stored in the location C, whereupon the next pseudo-instruction

is interpreted. In the above case the interpretative programme
occupies 1,000 of the 2,000 storage locations. The number of
orders needed is always essentially less for programmes using the
3-address code than for those using the one-address machine
code. The possibility of calling on elementary mathematical
functions by means of a single order is a further advantage of
this system.
Disadvantages of interpretative systems are the reduction of
calculating speeds occasioned by the necessary interpretation of
each order, and the reduction in storage-locations occasioned by
the storage of the super-programme.
Interpretative systems exist for many useful types of calculations
which cannot be directly programmed (e.g. matrix operations,
floating point operations for machines without built-in floating
point).
(ii) Translation programmes. In translation programmes the
machine programme is produced from a pseudo-programme by

the machine itself. In an entirely separate operation, the super-
programme translates the pseudo-instructions and provides the
machine programme, ready for use, on punched cards or magnetic
tape. Compared with the interpretative programme, this has the
advantage that the translation time occurs once only. But of
course this time, since the output time for the machine programme
must be allowed for, is greater than the unit interpretation time,
and so an interpretive system is preferable for a programme which
is employed only a small number of times.
Different degrees of this automatic programme-preparation are

possible with translation programmes.
(a) Symbolic Programming.

Instead of the usual numerical operation code, standard
abbreviations (e.g. ADD for the addition operation) are intro-
duced. For data- and instruction-stores no numerical addresses
are given, symbols being substituted (e.g. Xfor the store con-
taining a variable x). The direction of symbols to fixed storage-
addresses is undertaken by the machine itself, as is the choice of
subsequent addresses. For the rest, programming takes place
analogously to the procedure using a machine code with exact
references to special machine components. The advantage of
92
symbolic programming lies primarily in the avoidance of errors
incoding and of the duplication of entries in the store, and also
in the full utilisation of the capacity of the computer,
programmes
being run through in the shortest possible time.
(b) Formula Programming.

(1) The programme language should depart as little as possible
from the customary symbolic language of mathematics, and be
independent of the machine, i.e. the programme-rules should be
kept to a minimum. (ALGOL (algorithmic language) groups
have been set up by several scientific societies for the development
of such a general pseudo-programme language.)
(2) It should be possible to feed in a programme in a simple
way (perhaps by direct input of a formula, or even by the spoken
word). Such a method of programming requires for each type of
computer a separately worked-out programme which in a pre-
liminary run-through translates these formula-instructions into
a proper machine-programme. The best-known development
today in this field is the FORTRAN (formula-translator) system
for the computers IBM 704, 709 and 7090. The programme for
summing xlt . . ., x appears in the following way in Fortran:
7=0
DO 1 I = 1-30
1 Y= Y+ X(l)
Each row corresponds to an alphanumerically punched punched-
card.The value Y, which later is going to contain the sum, is
first put equal to 0. In this example, the abbreviation
DO
corresponds to the mathematical symbol for summation; it means
that this section of the programme is run through up to the order
with numerical label 1 (this 1 can only occur once in the pro-
gramme) from I = 1 to I = 30. The symbols all occur in the
above form, and in such a way as to be intelligible to the machine.
In the Fortran system floating-point arithmetic is used. The super-
programme consists of about 25,000 orders, and the individual
types of operation are translated by built-in sub-programmes.
Every programmer is in a position to write such a programme
after a very short time spent in getting acquainted with the pro-
cedures used (usually 2-3 days). The time spent in programming
is as short as could be wished (about one-tenth or one-fifth
of
93
that required for a symbolic programme). disadvantage is that A
the programmer has no direct insight into the machine pro-
gramme. Improvements in the machine-programme are barely
and must therefore usually be carried out in the original
possible,
pseudo-programme, involving a further translation-procedure.
Special procedures for automatic computers

Commercial data-processing problems. Here, collection and
1.
transfer of data, not calculation, are the primary problems. This

requires simultaneous access to 2 or more files (a basic card-index
and one or more moving files). Special large-volume stores {e.g.
the RAMAC (random-access) store of IBM with storage for
6 million alphanumerical characters and more) make possible the
storage of a basic file.
The simultaneous use of several files is possible if individual
files are stored according to some common characteristic {e.g.
personnel number). For punched cards, the sorting is carried out

by special sorting-machines. In sorting, a batch of cards is divided
according to one column into 10 compartments (one for each of
the figures 0-9) and subsequently reunited so that cards in the
0-category come at the beginning and those in the 9-category at
the end. If the key to the sorting extends to more than one
column we repeat for the tens-column the procedure gone through
already with the units-column using the sorted batch. This yields
the sequence
00, 01, 02, . . ., 09, 10, 11, . . ., 90, 91, . . ., 98, 99.
Continuing the process for further columns, any required sequence

can be obtained.
In using magnetic tape, at least two input and two output tapes
are required for sorting. Instead of being on punched cards,
records appear on successive sections of magnetic tape. First of
all the store is filled from an input tape. The record with the
smallest reference-number is then sent out on an output tape
and the empty location in the store filled from the input tape.
The record with reference number next lowest (compared with
that of the one just sent out) is transferred to the output tape and
the procedure continued until no suitable record is available in
the store. (This results in a so-called string on the first output
tape.)
94
:
:

By the same means a further string is produced on the second
output tape. In proceeding from one string to another
it is
important that a different output tape should be chosen: the
third
string, for example, must either be put on a third output tape or
added to the contents of the first tape. In the second sorting-stage
(or 'pass') the output tapes become input tapes.
Before being fed
into the store the two tapes must be compared to
find out which
contains the record with the lowest reference-number.
Example: (two locations in store used). Given input tape with
numbers to be sorted: 123, 101, 088, 211, 100.
reference
First pass
Store 1 : 123, 101

Output tape 1 101
Input : 088
Output tape 1 123
Input : 211
Output tape 1: 211
Input : 100
No number available in the store is now larger than 211.
Output tape 2: 088, 100
Second pass
Input tape 1 : 101
Input tape 2 : 088
Output : 088
Input tape 2 : 100 (< 123, which would be the next record
on tape 1);
Output : 100
Input tape 1 : 100 (contents of tape 2 have been exhaust-
ed);
Output : 101
Input tape 1 : 211
Output : 123, 211. Sorting complete.
On the average strings contain, after each pass with n store and
locations used, at least n times as many records as before.
The
first input tape can be regarded
as comprising strings of one
95
record each, so that for A records the maximum number of passes

required, r, is such that n
r~x r
<A^n
.
For commercial applications are usually needed: straight-

forward storage organisation; capacity for massive output; and
choice of input and output media so that output data can readily
be used again, punched cards or magnetic tape being almost
always most favourable on account of their suitability for sorting.
The computer should be rapid, reliable and simple to programme
and if possible should operate directly with decimal numbers.
2. Technical and mathematical problems. The algorithmic
method of writing is especially suited for the programming.
x<
Example: e* = T -tt = 2 tt
X
with t = 1, t n = - tn_v
The formation of a new tn and subsequent summing can take

place over and over again using the same section of the pro-
gramme up to the point where the next term (t t) does not contri-
bute to the prescribed accuracy.
In choosing between several procedures, preference will not
always be given to the shortest; the expense of the programming
must be taken into account. Iterative procedures are especially
suitable. To conserve storage-space, functions should be calcu-
lated wherever possible and not abstracted from tables. (In place
of series, approximations in which maximum departures from
actual values are known should be used where available.) Fixed
decimal point calculation should only be used if the range of all
intermediary values can be anticipated before the calculation is
carried out. Desirable qualities in the computer used are: rapid
calculation-time (parallel-working machines are very suitable),
large storage-capacity, and if at all possible, built-in floating-
point, and index register.

The extent to which the calculation is proof against machine
errors (failure of valves, for all problems.
etc.) must be determined
Independent calculation checks are in use; such methods use
so-called twin-control, in which the same calculation is performed
twice independently, any discrepancy in the result causing the
computer to stop, so indicating that an error has occurred. In all
other cases checks must be built into the programme.
96
CALCULUS OF OBSERVATIONS
Programme testing
After preparation of a computer programme (directly, or by

translation of a pseudo-programme), it is necessary to test its
accuracy. This is done by calculations of simple test-examples for
all sections of the programme. The possibility of errors gives rise
to a sequence of diagnostic or post-mortem programmes, which

help in localising programming errors. Tests for errors must be
effected with as small as possible expenditure of machine-time.
Three types of diagnostic programme are in use:
1. Inspection of the whole or part of the contents of store and
register (to check to what extent the intermediary results are

correct; thisis the least used method).
2. For a branching programme (in which the machine selects
one of two or more possible subprogrammes) intercalation of an
:
intermediary programme which prints out the conditions which

lead to branching and the intermediary results.
3. Recording of each step of the computation with the associ-
ated register- and store-contents.
Procedure in working with programme-controlled automatic

computers
1st step: Establishment of numerical procedure (degree of
accuracy required, fixed or floating point, input and
output arrangements, built-in checks for non-auto-
matically checked computers).
2nd step: Construction of the flow-diagram.
3rd step: Choice of operations-code (pseudo-code or machine-
code) and coding.
4th step: Computing of simple test-example (programme testing).
5th step: Carrying out of computation (automatic).
Calculus of observations
In the calculus of observations the aim is to obtain the most
probable value for quantities of which varying observations have
been taken. In general the adjustment of errors of observation
follows the Method of Least Squares, introduced by Legendre
and Gauss (see Error).
97
CATENARY
Catenary
The catenary is a transcendental curve which can be represented
by the equation
a 2 -
where a is a constant and e = 2-718, . . . is 'Euler's number*

(see e\ (Fig. 48).
Fio. 48
In a suitably chosen coordinate system, an (ideal) chain

suspended from two points, not immediately above one another,
has the above equation.
Cavalier perspective
This is a method of mapping used in descriptive geometry. In

cavalier perspective a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate
system, together with the object to be mapped, is projected by
general (oblique) parallel projection onto an image plane; the
image plane is taken to be vertical and to lie parallel to the y>
z-plane of the coordinate system which is to be transformed.
The^-axis lies horizontally, the z-axis vertically. All figures which
98
CENTRAL PERSPECTIVE
lie in a plane parallel to the image-plane are transformed con-
gruently. The image of the positive x-axis is in general inclined
at an angle of 45 to the negative ^-axis. In the direction of the
*-axis segments are in general shortened in the ratio 1:2.
Cavalieri (1598-1647)
CavalierVs theorem. If two solid bodies are of equal height and
have bases of equal area, and if all plane sections parallel to the
Fig. 49
bases and at the same distances from the corresponding bases

are equal in area, then the two solids are equal in volume.
Cavalieri's theorem cannot be proved by the methods of elemen-
tary mathematics, but the above figures make the proposition
plausible (Fig. 49).
Central angle
An angle between two radii of a circle (see Angle, Circle).
Central perspective
Central perspective is used to provide a clear two-dimensional

representation of a three-dimensional object. In central perspec-
tive the object to be depicted is projected from a fixed point P,
the centre of projection (or point of sight), by rays of projection
onto a projection, image or picture plane. The image is then seen
99
CENTRAL PERSPECTIVE
as viewed from the point of sight P. In Fig. 50 a square prism is

represented in central perspective. The prism stands perpendicular
on a horizontal plane; it is viewed from the point of sight, P, and
projected onto the image-plane. The point of sight is distant h
above the horizontal plane, and d from the image-plane. If the
perpendicular is dropped from the point of sight P onto the image
Fig. 50
plane we obtain the principal point H. P H= h and PH = d.

The line in theimage plane through H
parallel to the horizontal
plane is called the horizon.
The fundamental laws of central perspective are suggested by
the figure.
(1) The images of straight lines perpendicular to the horizontal
plane are straight lines perpendicular to the horizon.
(2) The images of straight lines parallel to the horizon are
straight lines parallel to the horizon.
(3) The image of a straight line / is also a straight line and
passes through the point S in which / intersects the image plane.
The projection ray through P parallel to / intersects the image
100
CENTRE OF SIMILARITY OF TWO CIRCLES
plane in the vanishing point F of /. The image line /2 of / is deter-

mined by F and S. The vanishing points of horizontal straight
lines lie on the horizon. Parallel lines have the same vanishing
point. The vanishing point is the image of the 'infinitely distant
point' of a line.
Central projection
From a point (the centre of the central projection) are con-
structed rays joining the point to some solid or plane figure (the
projection rays); these intersect an image plane in the image
points, or the image figure. The image figure is said to arise from
central projection onto the image plane.
Centra] symmetry
Central symmetry in a plane is a special
case of axial symmetry (see Symmetry). A
figure is said to be centrally symmetric with
respect to a point, the centre of symmetry,
if when rotated through 180 about the
centre of symmetry, the figure comes into
coincidence with itself.
Example: A parallelogram is centrally symmetric with respect

to the point of intersection of its diagonals (Fig. 51).
Central symmetry in space

A
solid figure is said to be centrally symmetric with respect to
a point, the centre of symmetry, if on reflection in the point the
figure coincides with itself (see Reflexion in a point).
Example: A cube is centrally symmetric with respect to the
point of intersection of its space-diagonals.
Centre of similarity of two circles

The intersection of the common
outer tangents of two circles
is called the outer centre of similarity of thetwo circles; the inter-
section of the common inner tangents of two circles is called the
inner centre of similarity of the two circles. The centres of
similarity of two circles lie on the line of centres of the two circles
and divide the line of centres harmonically (see Circle).
101

CENTROID OF A TRIANGLE
Centroid of a triangle
The centroid of a triangle is the point of intersection of the
lines joining vertices to the mid-points of opposite sides. Each of

these lines is divided by the centroid in the ratio 1 2 (see Triangle). :
Ceva (1648-1734)
Cevds theorem. Three concurrent lines passing through the
three vertices of a triangle intersect the sides of the triangle in
such a way that the product of three non-adjacent intercepts on
the sides is equal to the product of the other three intercepts
(Fig. 52): AY BZ CX = AZ
. . . ~BX . CY.
c
Fig. 53
Chord
A chord of a circle is a straight line joining two points of the
circle (see Circle).
Chord formula of plane trigonometry

If a, b and c are the sides of a triangle, a, &y its angles and r
the radius of its circumcircle, then
a = 2r sin a, b = 2r sin /? and c = 2r sin y,
that is, =
-a
sin a
-b
sin
q
p
= -
sin
c
This formula rests on the fact that a peripheral angle is half as big
as a central angle on the same chord (Fig. 53).
102
CIRCLE
Chord theorem
Iftwo straight lines intersect in the point P in the interior of a
and cut the circle respectively in points A and B, and C
circle
and D, then
PA:PC = PD.PB (Fig. 54).
Circle
Definition and terminology (Fig. 55). The circle is the locus of
points having the same distance from a fixed point O, called the
centre of the circle. A
line joining two points on the circle and
passing through the centre of the circle, is called a diameter (d).
Secant
Circumference
Fig. 54 Fig. 55
A line joining the centre to a point on the circle is called a radius

(r) of the circle. We have d = 2r. The totality of points on the
circle is called the circumference of the circle. The circumference
bounds the area of the circle, which lies to the left if the circum-
ference is described in the anti-clockwise sense. A
point belongs
to the interior of a circle if its distance from the centre of the
circle is less than the radius r. A
point lies outside the circle if its
distance from the centre of the circle is greater than the radius r.
Circle and straight line

A circle and a straight line can have either two, one, or no
points in common.
If the line has two points in common with the circle, it is called
a secant of the circle. The segment of the line lying between the
two points is called a chord of the circle (Fig. 55).
103
CIRCLE
A secant divides the area of the circle and its circumference,

each into two parts. The parts of the circumference are called
arcs. The parts of the area are called segments.
A diameter of a circle is a line of symmetry of the circle. A
diameter of a circle divides the circumference into two semi-
circular arcs, and the area of the circle into two semicircles.
A straight line which has only one point in common with a
circle, is called a tangent of the circle. The common point of
circle and tangent is called the point of contact of the tangent
(Fig. 56).
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point
of contact. There is a tangent through every point of the circum-
ference of a circle.
Point of contact
Tangent
Fig. 56 Fig. 57
Angles in a circle
If we draw a chord of a the end-points of the chord cut

circle,
off an arc on the circle. If we
construct the radii which pass
through the end-points, we obtain an angle a which has the centre
of the circle as vertex; we call this the central angle belonging to
the chord and to the arc (Fig. 57). The part of the area of the
circle lying within a central angle is called a sector of the circle.
Equal chords in circles with equal radii have equal arcs corre-
sponding to them, and subtend equal angles at the centre. If we
draw through each end-point of a chord a line, such that the two
lines intersect on the circumference of the circle, an angle is
formed whose vertex lies on the circumference. This is called a
peripheral angle.
104
CIRCLE
Different peripheral angles can be constructed corresponding

to the same chord. These may lie on different sides of the chord,
with their vertices lying on opposite arcs. A peripheral angle is
half the size of the central angle associated with the same chord.
Peripheral angles whose vertices lie on opposite arcs, add up to
180 (Fig. 58; <x + =
180). All peripheral angles belonging
to equal chords, and with vertex on one and the same side of the
Opposite are
Fig. 58 Era. 59
chord, are equal (Fig. 59; a = = =

/? y . . .). If we draw a
tangent to the circle at one end-point of a chord, an angle is

formed which does not contain the centre of the circle. This angle
is equal to the peripheral angle associated with the chord.
Constructions
1. Circle through three given points. The perpendicular from
the centre of a circle onto one of its chords bisects the chord, the
arcs associated with the chord, and the central angle of the
chord (Fig. 60).
Conversely the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the centre of the circle. It follows that, given three points A, B
and C which are to lie on the circle, the centre of the circle must
lieon the perpendicular bisectors of the segments AB, BC and
CA. The centre of the circle is thus the point of intersection of
any two of the three perpendicular bisectors. The circle is the
circumcircle of the triangle (Fig. 61). The segments AO, BO
and CO are all radii of the circle.
2. Circle of Thales. The locus of right-angle vertices of right-
angled triangles with the segment AB as hypotenuse is a circle,
105
CIRCLE
called the Thales circle on AB. To construct it we take the mid-

point O of the segment as centre and half the length AB as radius
(Fig. 62).
3. To construct the locus of points at which the segment
_
AB
subtends a given angle e (Fig. 63). Draw at A the angle e adjacent
Fio. 60 Fig. 61
Fio. 62 Fig. 63
to the segment; next, erect at this point the perpendicular to the

free arm of the angle e and draw the perpendicular bisector of
the given segment. The two lines intersect in a point O. Describe
about O the circle with radius OA. This circle is the required
locus, for peripheral angles on it corresponding to the chord AB

are equal to the angle e between the tangent at A and the chord
itself.
106
CIRCLB
4. Tangent to a point of a circle. Draw the radius OB at the

point B of the circle. Then the perpendicular to OB at B is the
required tangent t (Fig. 64).
5. Tangents from a point to a circle (Fig. 65). Join the point P
to the centre of the circle O, and construct the Thales circle on

the segment OP (with mid-point H of OP centre of Thales circle,
and HP = HO = radius of Thales circle). The Thales circle cuts
the given circle in two points B1 and B The straight lines through
.
2
p CPole)
Fro. 64 Fio. 65
P and Bx and through P and 2?2 are the required tangents from P
to the circle. Bx and B2 are the points of contact of the tangents.
The segment joining Bx and B2 is called the chord of contact,
and the straight line through B1 and Bz is the polar (or polar line)
of the point P. The point P itself is called the pole of the line
through Bx and 2?2 Pole and polar uniquely and reversibly
.
determine one another (see Polarity). The correspondence *pole-

polar' is called a polarity. Finally, the tangent segments P~B
X and
PB2 are equal in length.
6. Circle touching three given straight lines. The centre of a
circle which touches two given straight lines a and b lies on the
bisector of the angle which the lines make with one another. If
107
CIRCLE
a third line c is given, the centre of the circle also lies on the
bisector of the angle between a and c (and on the bisector of the
angle between b and c). By Fig. 66 we see that there are four
centres O, O a Ob and O These are the centres of the incircle
, . of
the triangle ABC and of the three excircles (escribed circles) of
this triangle. The radii are obtained by dropping perpendiculars
from the centres onto a side of the triangle ABC.
Fig. 66
Congruence and similarity of circles

All circles of equal radius are congruent. All circles are similar
to one another.
Circle and triangle

For every triangle, a circle can be constructed which passes
through the three vertices of the triangle; we call it the circum-
scribed circle of the triangle. For its construction, see the con-
struction of a circle through three points. The circle which
touches the three sides of a triangle and lies wholly within the
triangle is called the incircle (inscribed circle) of the triangle.
108
CIRCLE
The circles which lie wholly outside the triangle and which
touch the three sides of the triangle or their extensions are called
excircles (escribed circles) of the triangle. For the construction
of these circles see the construction of circles which touch three
straight lines (Fig. 66). The segments on the sides of the triangle
measured up to the points of contact of the incircle and excircles
can be calculated. They are (Fig. 67):
w=W = <L]L =sSt
rr CH =
CG a + b-c
r =s c,
1r -~7?
AU = AK = b + -c-a = s a,
a
BH-BK= -= = s-b,
AD AE= - = s b,
m = TF= b +C-a=
s -a.
AD*DBsc
The radius of the incircle can also

be calculated (see Half-angle Fig. 67
theorems). We have:
to' -g_./ - *->,

2 s a V s(s a)
and so
= ,
- a)..tan a^ Hs a)(s b)(s c)
p (s -
^J-
109
CIRCLE
Similarly,
P P
r l(s a)(s c)
tan
2
=
s-b - V - 6)
and W P - J - *)tan^; (
jfr
tan
2
=
s c = V/-j(s
j($
7 r
c)
and , so r
p = (s c) tan :=
2
For the radii of the excircles we have:
a y
pa =j . tan ^, P& = -s tan ^,pe =s . tan ^;
or, equivalently,
js(s ) (.? -- c) /s(s a)(s c)
S(S fl)(5 b)
-J- s c
The following relations hold between

the radius p of the incircle, the three
radii pa , p 6 , p c , and the radius r of the
circumscribed circle:
- =-+-+ -; pa + Pb + Pc ~ P = 4r;
P Az Pft Pc
s(s - a)(s - b)(s -c) = p.pa .pb .p

Fio. 68 (see also Triangle).
Circle and quadrilateral

In general the vertices of a quadrilateral do not lie on a circle.
If they do, opposite angles add up to 180 (Fig. 68). The area of
such a quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d and semi-perimeter
s = a + b + c + d is
A = V(s - a)(s - fc)(s - c)(s - d).

110

CIRCUS
The radius r of the circumscribed circle of this quadrilateral is
1
r = . V(ab + cd)(ac + bd)(ad + be).
^j
We have for the diagonals e and /: ef=ac + bd (Ptolemy's
Theorem, Fig. 69).
_ Had + bc)(ac
be) + bd) \ab + cd)(ac + W)
~ V ab + cd f :
J- ad + be
In general the sides of a quadrilateral are not tangent to a single
circle.They are if, and only if, the sums of opposite sides are
equal (Fig. 70).
8^ "'//
Fig. 69 Fro. 70
Circle and polygon

In general a polygon will possess neither an inscribed nor a
circumscribed circle. However, the regular polygons (those whose
sides and angles are equal) possess both (see Regular polygons).
Relations ofproportionality in the circle

Secant theorem and chord theorem. Suppose two straight lines
pass through a point JP and intersect a circle in A> B and C, D
respectively. Then the four segments PA, PB, PC and PD satisfy
the proportionality relation PA: PC = PB.PD. This theorem is
called the secant theorem (Fig. 71) if the point P lies outside the
111
CIRCLE
circle and the chord theorem (Fig. 72) if P lies inside the circle.
There is no corresponding theorem for when P lies on the
circumference of the circle.
Fig. 71 Fig. 72
Tangent theorem. The tangent theorem is a special case of the

secant theorem. If a secant and a tangent intersect in a point P
the segment between P and the point of contact of the tangent is
the geometric mean of the segments formed by P and the points
of intersection of the secant with the circle.
(PBf = PC. PD; PC.PB = PB.PD (Fig. 73).
Fig. 73 Fig. 74
Special case of chord theorem. If we have two perpendicular

chords one of which passes through the centre of the circle (i.e.
is a diameter) then (Fig. 74) PA: PC = PD:PB. Since the seg-
ments on the chord which do not pass through the centre are
equal (PC =
PD), we have PC 2 = PA.PB. That is, half the
length of a chord is the geometric mean of the intercepts on the
diameter perpendicular to it.
112
CIRCLE
Construction of arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means

Draw a diameter AB of the circle and perpendicular to it any
chord CD Draw through P
cutting the diameter in the point P.
another chordEF such that PE is equal to the radius of the circle.
Then we have for the segments PA = a and PB = b:
PE is the arithmetic mean between a and b, PE = -z
PC = PD is the geometric mean between a and b, PC = ab;

since PF.PC = PD:PE (Fig. 75),
PF is the harmonic mean between a and b,
^
PF =
2ab
a +b
Fig. 75 Fig. 76
Two circles, position relative to one another

If two have the same centre, they are called concentric
circles
have different centres they are called eccentric.
(Fig. 76); if they
The radii and the distance between the two centres together
determine the position of the circles relative to one another.
Distance between Relative position

centres of circles
e= concentric position \
c<r -ri 1 no intersection, smaller? no common tangents
within larger circle /
c = r -r2
x contact from within one common tangent
rx + r% > c> r ra x two points of intersec-
tion two common tangents
e= rx + ra contact from without three common tangents
c> r + r2 x no intersection four common tangents
113
CIRCLE
The common chord of two intersecting circles is perpendicular to

the line of centres and is bisected by it (Fig. 77).
Fig. 77 Fig. 78
Common tangents of two circles. From the table on the previous

page we can determine when two circles have common tangents:
I. There is one common tangent when c = rx r (Fig. 78).
2
II. There are two common tangents when rx + r > c> rx r*
2
(Fig. 79).
III. There are three common

tangents when c = rx +
r2 (Fig.80).
IV. There are four common
tangents when c> rx +
r2 (Fig.81).
Fig. 79
Fig. 80
Fig. 81
CIRCLE
Construction of the common tangents.

Outer tangents: Describe about the mid-point Ox of the
(a)
one circle an auxiliary circle with radius rx r2 (= O^Cj) t and

on the segment Ox
2 construct the Thales circle. These two
circles intersect in the points Cx and D
x . Draw those radii of the
circle with centre O
x and radius rx which pass through x and C
Dx ; let the end-points of these radii be Ax and B
x r espectively.
Then the lines through Ax and Bx parallel to Cx 2 and Dx 2
respectively are the required common outer tangents (Fig. 82).
FiO. 82
(b) Inner tangents: Describe about Ox an auxiliary circle with

radius rx + (= O x C^. By means of the Thales circle on the
r2
line o f cent res construct the tangents from 2 to the auxiliary
circle, 2 CX and O z Dx The required inner tangents pass through
.
Ax and Bx parallel to 2 CX and Oz Dx respectively (Fig. 83).
Fio. 83
Centre of similarity of two circles. The intersection of the two

common inner tangents is called the inner centre of similarity
of the two circles, and the intersection of the two common outer
115
CIRCLE
tangents the outer centre of similarity. In Fig. 81 C is the outer

and D
the inner centre of similarity of the two circles. The centres
of similarity of two circles lie on the line of centres of the circles,
and they divide the line of centres harmonically in the ratio of
the radii. In Fig. 82 E is the outer centre of similarity and we
have EO % -.EOx = r2 :rv In Fig. 83 we have for the inner centre
of similarity (F) FO^Fdx = r2 :rv
Three circles
Centre of similarity of three circles. The three outer centres of

similarityA Xi A 2 and A z of three circles lie on a straight line.
Fig. 84
Any two of the three inner centres of similarity Ilt I% and Iz are
collinear with one of the outer centres of similarity (Fig. 84;
Theorem of Monge, 1746-1818, Paris). These straight lines are
called the axes of similarity. The line through A x A 2 , A z is called
,
the outer axis of similarity, the others inner axes of similarity.
116
CIRCLE
Construction: Draw the three lines of centres Ox 2, 2 Oz and

Oz O x In the three circles construct parallel diameters dx , d2 and
.
d$. Join the end-points of the diameter dx and d2 , and let the joins
of centres through Ox and
intersect the line
2 in A 3 and Iz .
Carry out the same construction with the diameters d2 and d3

and with the diameters d3 and dXt so obtaining in turn the centres
of similarity A x and Ix and A 2 and I2
, .
Problem of Apollonius. The problem of constructing a circle to

touch each of three given circles is called the problem of Apollonius.
1. If two circles with centres O and
x % and radii rx and r2 are
given together with a third circle, with centre Oz and radius r
3 ,
which touches the first two circles externally at the points B

x
and fia respectively, then the products of the segments from the
external centre of similarity A to the points B and B is constant.
x 2
Fro. 85
That is, ABX AB2 = tx t2 , where tx and t2 are the distances

. .
from A to the points of contact of the common tangent of the

first two circles (Fig. 85). In the same way, given a circle with
centre touching the given circles at the points C and C (one

4 x 2
externally, and enclosing the other), then if / is the inner centre
of similarity of the given circles the product lCx lc is constant
.
2
independent of the size of the third circle.
2. Construction of the tangent circle of three given circles.
We construct first the radical centre P of the three circles (radical
centre = intersection of the three radical axes of the three circles,
see above), mark off their outer centres of similarity A x A2 A3
, ,
and the straight line through A XA 2A 3 (outer axis of similarity),

and determine the pole of this line with respect to each of the three
117
CIRCLE
given circles; in this way we obtain the points Q lt Q 2t Q3 [Con- .
struction of the pole of a line with respect to a circle, see above:

we join any point of the line to the centre of the circle, and draw
the two tangents from the point of the circle. The chord joining
the points of contact of the tangents intersects the line through
the centre of the circle perpendicular to the straight line in the
pole of the line.] If we join the points Qlt Q 2 , Q
z to the radical
centre P, the points of intersection of these lines with the given
8j
oJ
\\
Or
î
.-^- -
V\
-'"$1 'D,n
o;
Fig. 86
circles are the six points of contact Blt B2 B3

, and D D2 D3
Xi ,
(Fig. 86).
To construct the remaining tangent circles, we determine the
pole of each of the three inner centres of similarity with respect
to the three given circles, and join the poles to the radical axis;
118
CIRCLE
>l
N /
N \ /
'Oc
Fro. 87
the intersections with the given circles are the required points
of contact (Fig. 87).
Calculation of the circumference of a circle

Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 B.C.) calculated the circle's
circumference by comparing the length of the circumference with
the lengths of the perimeters of inscribed and circumscribed
regular polygons each of n sides. As n increases, the sequence of
perimeter lengths of inscribed polygons progressively increases
while that of circumscribed polygons progressively decreases.
The two sequences have a common limit, the circumference C.
This is
C = 2rx 3-141...
The number 3-141... which appears here is denoted by the
Greek letter it.
119
CIRCLE, SECTOR OF
Archimedes extended his calculation as far as polygons with

22 223 22
96 sides and found that -= <n < -r-r. The number -= is still
today often used as an approximation to tt.
Calculation of the area of a circle

We can evaluate the area of a circle in a similar way. We
calculate the areas of inscribed and circumscribed regular n-sided
polygons and find for the area A of a circle with radius r the value
A = 7rr 2 .
Calculation of the area of a sector of a circle
The area of a sector is to the whole area of a circle as the

associated central angle is to 360. Therefore, if a is the number
of degrees in the central angle,
2
77T a ,_ rtX
^=360 <***>
Calculation of the area of a segment of a circle

The area of a segment is:
2
_7rr a s(r - h)
S
360
' (Fl- 89>-
Fio. 88 Fig. 89
Circle, sector of
The area of a circle cut out by a central angle is called a sector

of the circle. Let the circle have radius r and let the central angle
be a degrees. Then the area A of the sector is
2
77T a
*~
i
360
120
CIRCUMCIRCLE
Now the circumference of the circle has length 2rrr, and so the
=
iW We
arc associated with the central angle a has length / -rrjr.
therefore have
A= \. (Fig. 90)
Circle, segment of
If a circle is divided into two parts
by a secant the parts are called seg-
ments (see Circle).
Fro. 90
Circular cone
A cone whose base is a circle is called a circular cone (see Cone).
Circular measure
The size of an angle in circular measure is the arc-length which
the angle cuts off on a unit circle (R =
1) having the vertex of
the angle as centre. The size of a right angle in circular measure
. TT IT
is
^ or -z radians. The circular measure of an angle is related to
the measure of the angle in degrees by the equation:
a degrees = 2tt t~ radians.

Tables relating degrees to radians are useful in calculation (see
Table III; also Angle, Angular measurement).
Circumcircle
A
circle which passes through all the vertices of a polygon is
called the circumcircle, or circumscribed circle, of the polygon.
Not all polygons possess a circumcircle. The following are
examples of those which do: all triangles, squares, rectangles,
isosceles trapezia and regular polygons (see art.).
121
CIRCUMFERENCE
Circumference
The circumference of a circle, i.e. the complete circular arc, is
of length litr, where r is the radius of the circle (see Circle).
Circumference angle
The angle between two chords of a circle, whose point of inter-
section lies on the circumference of the circle (see Angle, Circle).
Cissoid
The Cissoid is the algebraic curve with the equation
y\a x) .x ,
3
or in polar coordinates
r a sin <f>
tan <f>.
Fig. 91
Coefficient
The determinate (constant) numbers which occur as factors of
literal terms in an algebraic sum are called coefficients, e.g. in
3 3
la + -t x = 4, 7 and -z are coefficients.
The multiplication sign between coefficient and literal expression

is commonly omitted.
122
,
COMBINATORY ANALYSIS
Combinatory analysis
Combinatory analysis is the branch of mathematics concerned
with the ways in which a given number of objects (elements) can
be grouped together, or arranged together in groups. Every
grouping of an arbitrary number n of objects is called an arrange-
ment; it is called an arrangement without repetition if each
element occurs once only.
(1) Simple permutations. The simple permutations of n elements
comprise the possible orderings of the n elements taken all
together. If the objects are all different, there are n candidates
for the first position,
1 remaining candidates for the second,
n 2 for the third, and so on. The number of such permutations

is therefore n(n 1)( 2) 2 = n\
. . . . 1
Example: three objects a, b, c can be ordered in 3 = 6 ways. !
abc, acb, bca, bac, cab, cba.
If of the n objects, are alike of one kind,

px pz alike of a second
kind, etc., the number of different orderings possible is reduced to
,\nJ
PlW- />*
Example: three objects, a, a, b(n = 3, p 2, p2 = x 1); number

3'
of distinguishable orderings = ^-j = 3, viz.
aab, aba, baa.
(2) General permutations. Here we consider the number of

arrangements (permutations) of n (different) objects taken r at a
time with or without repetition.
(i) Without repetition: There are n candidates for the first
position, n 1 remaining candidates for the second, ., . .
n +r 1 for the rth. The number of permutations is therefore
nl
0i 1X 2) .(n-r+l) = .
. .
,
(n r)l .
3''
Example: three objects a, b, c; r = 2;
(
= 6; the per-
mutations are: *** z''
ab, ac, be, ba, ca, cb.
123
COMMENSURABLE?
(ii)With repetition: There are n candidates for each of the r
and so the number of permutations is n r
positions, .
Example: three objects a, b, c; r 2; 3

2 =
9; the permuta- =
tions are:
aa, ab, ac, bb, be, ba, cc, cb, ca.
(3) Combinations. The combinations of n elements taken r at

a time are the ways in which r elements can be chosen from the
total number, no regard being paid to the order of elements
within the new group.
(i) Without repetition: Each element can occur only once.
Each combination corresponds to r! permutations, so that the
number of possible combinations is , __* .

}
. , that is, I )
Example: four elements, a, b, c, d. The combinations of pairs,

elements being taken without repetition, are ab, ac, ad, be, bd, cd.
:
/\ /4 \ 4.3.2.1
The numberi_
is - - YTlTTl =
6'
^J ^J
(ii) With repetition: Each element can be chosen more than
once for a particular combination. The number of possible
combinations is then I )
Example: n = 4, r = 2 a,b,c, d: aa ab ac ad
bb be bd
cc cd
dd
/4 + 2-l\ /5\ 5.4 ^
Commensurables
Two or more quantities are called commensurable if they are
both measurable or divisible by a third quantity.
Examples: 20 and 25 are commensurable, since they have the
same divisor, 5.
The distances 20 yards and 12 yards are commensurable, since
they can both be exactly measured by the distance 4 yards.
124
COMPLETION OF A PARALLELOGRAM
Quantities which cannot be measured or divided by a third
quantity without remainder are called incommensurable, e.g.
lines of length 1 and Vl are incommensurable.
Commutative Law
For addition: a + b = b + a,
that is, summands are interchangeable.
For multiplication : a.b=*b .a,
that is, factors are interchangeable.
In both cases a and b may be either real or complex numbers.
Compasses
A pair of compasses serves primarily for the construction of
circles. Itcomprises two arms, held together at one end by a
joint, so that theycan be separated and held apart at a constant
angle. One arm has a pointed end, which can be stuck in the
surface, the other ends in a pencil or drawing-pen and serves to
describe the circle.
Complementary angles
Two angles which add up to
90 (one right angle) are said to
be complementary. E.g. the
angles adjacent to the hypo-
tenuse of a right-angled triangle
are complementary angles (Fig. Fig. 92
92), a + = 90.
Completion of a parallelogram (see also treatment of Surfaces)

Given a parallelogram ABCD, an arbitrary point P on a
diagonal and lines EG, Fi/ through this point parallel to the sides
of the parallelogram, then the two parallelograms EBFP and
125
COMPLEX NUMBERS
HPGD (which are not cut by the diagonal) are equal in area
(Fig. 93).
Proof: The triangles denoted by Roman numbers are pairwise
congruent (I to II and III to IV), and so they are taken away
if
from the triangles ABC and A CD, which are likewise congruent,
then the residual figures are equal in area.
Complex numbers
A complex number is the sum of a real number (see below) and
the square root of a negative number.

Example: 5 + V 3.
Since the square of a real number is always positive, the square
roots of the negative real numbers form a new type of number,
misleadingly referred to as imaginary numbers. Since every
negative number is the product of (1) and the corresponding
positivenumber it suffices to introduce a new number for Vl,
which is referred to as the imaginary unit, and is denoted by i;
if b signifies a positive number, then V b = i . V+b, e.g.
-5 = i.V+5.
The sum of a real and an imaginary number is referred to as
a complex number.
Examples: 1 + i, 5 + 3/, -z + 7-83/, VI + / . a/3.
The real summands are called the real parts of the complex
numbers.
Example: In +
the real part is 1 ; 1 is called the real unit.
1 /
The imaginary summands are called the imaginary parts of the

complex parts. E.g. 1 +
i has imaginary part /; i is called the
imaginary unit. A
complex number whose imaginary part is equal
126
COMPLEX NUMBERS
to zero a real number. If the real part of a complex number is
is
equal to zero, we have a (pure) imaginary number. A one-to-one
correspondence can be established between the complex numbers
and the points of a plane, the Gaussian number plane. The complex
number z a = +
ib with real part a and imaginary part ib is
associated with the point P with abscissa a and ordinate b in the
Gaussian plane (see number plane and further below).
The absolute value \z\ of a complex number z a ib is = +
defined as
\z\ = + Va2 + b = 2
r.
In the number plane, \z\ is equal to the distance r of the point

P(a, b) corresponding to z, from the origin of the number plane.
Example: z 1 + / has the absolute value
..|z|+vT+T-+Vz
1
The angle <f>, which the line *
joining the point P(a, b) to the ->P(a h\

"1 /
o
origin makes with the positive c
Is* I
real axis, is called the argument

of the complex number z =a r,
+ ib (r andare the polar co-
<f> }
,
1
ordinates of the point P(a, b) in

the plane). As we see from Fig. y
9\
94, rand are related to the
<f> Real axis
numbers a and b by the follow-
ing equations: Ro. 94
a r cos <f>
= r sin < COS

,
= -a = .
a
From this we get z = a + .& = r(cos ^

: + i sin This is Euler's
<f>).
form of the complex number z. (cos <f> + i$in.<f>) is a complex
127
COMPLEX NUMBERS
number with absolute value 1. Complex numbers with absolute
value 1 lie on the unit circle in the number plane, with centre at
the origin.
Two complex numbers zx a ib and z2 a ib which = + =
differ only in the sign of their imaginary parts are called conjugate
with respect to one another. This is often written z2 zx or
zi *2 (reat* : 'z-one equals z-two bar'), e.g.
zx =1+ U h. * *
Two
complex numbers are equal, if they coincide in respect of
both and imaginary parts.
their real
Addition of complex numbers. Two complex numbers zx =
ax + ibx and z2 = a^ + ib2 are added by adding the real and
imaginary parts of each number; the result is the new complex
number
z - zx + z2 - (ax + ibi) + (a2 + ibj ax + a^ + i(b x + b^\

e.g. (5 + /) + (3 - 2/) = 8 - /.
Subtraction of complex numbers. The subtraction of two com-

plex numbers is carried through as in addition:
zi z = <h +
2 ibi (*2 + *a) = ai ~ <h + Kh 2);
e.g. (7 - 3/) - (2 + 3/) = 5 - 61.
Multiplication of complex numbers. Two complex numbers
zi =a + i ib x and z2 = a^ +
are multiplied by carrying out
ib 2
formal multiplication of the binomial expressions and putting
*
2
=-l:
zi z%
+ ibx)(a + ib%) = a^ 6 6 +
(i 2 X 2 /(a^, + a^,);
e.#. (1 + 0(2 - = 2 + + /(2 - 1) = 3 + 1 1.
Division of complex numbers. In the division of complex

numbers, we write the quotient of the complex numbers to be
divided as a fraction, and multiply numerator and denominator
by a number (the conjugate of the denominator) which makes
the denominator real. Thus, if zx ax + ibv and z2 a^ + ib% = =
=^0:
128
COMPLEX NUMBERS
ax + (ax + 2 ~ ib d
~ z*~ zx ~ ib x #>i)(fl
Zl
z2 a2 + ib 2
~~
(a2 + ib^ - ib
a| + A|
+ b xb 2 g^ axb2 0^2 .
+ + "
+ 68 fli *>!
'
flS
5 - (5 - 0(1 - /
(5-Ot(1 + 0- iT,- (1 + 0(1 .
, , x
E.g.
m
- 5-1-5/-,- 4
2- .6
/
2
s=2

- 31
.
-
Multiplication of complex numbers in the Eulerian representation

If the numbers zx = r x (cos <j>
x +
we have:
i sin ^ and z2 = r2(cos < 2 +
i sin ^2) are multiplied together
zx . z2 = r2 (cos ^j + sin ^ r2 (cos + sin $3) i . < 2 f
= /y-g (cos x cos $2 sin x sin $2 + cos 0i sm ^2

<f> (f>
*
+ cos 2 sin ^j).

i <
By the addition theorems for the cosine and sine functions, we

have:
cos <f>x cos <f>2 sin <f>x sin <f> z cos (^>x
<f>%)
+
2 + sin x = sin
sin cos < 2 cos < (<f>x
-& ^2),
<f> x <f>
and so
zx . z2 = fy-2 [cos (^ + <&j) + 1 sin (& + <a)].
7h words: in multiplying complex numbers together absolute

values are multiplied and arguments added. E.g.
2 (cos 60 + / sin 60) . 3 (cos 45 + i sin 45)
=6 [cos (60 + 45) + sin (60 + 45)] 1
=6 [cos 105 + sin 105} = 6 [-cos 75 +

/ . / sin 75].
In particular,
zn = [r (cos j> + 1 sin ^)]

n = rn (cos + <f>
i sin ^)
B
sb r n [cos (^) + i sin (^)].
129
COMPLEX NUMBERS
In words: in raising a complex number z to the power n, the
absolute value, r, of the number is raised to the power , and the
argument <j> of z is multiplied by n.
Example: z = 1 + = V2 (cos 45 + sin 45)

i . /
z2 = 2 (cos 90 + sin 90) = 2/ /
z3 = 2 V2 (cos 135 + sin 135) i .
-2V5.(-iV2 + /.iV2)
= -2 + 2/.
Division of complex numbers in the Eulerian representation
Similarly, in dividinga complex number zx by a complex
number z2 the absolute value
, r x of z x is divided by the absolute
value r2 of z2 and the argument 2 of z2 is subtracted from the
, <f>
argument x of zx <f>
.
zx -r- z2 = rx (cos <f> x

+ i sin ^) -r r2 (cos < 2 + f sin <a)
=r f cos (& ~ &) + ' sin î ~ ^)];

e.g. 2 (cos 60 + 1 sin 60) -7- 3 (cos 45 + 1 sin 45)
= [cos (60 - 45) + i sin (60 - 45)]

I
= | (cos 15 + * sin 15).
Roots of complex numbers

De Moivre's formula
(cos <f>
+ i sin <f>)
n = cos + (n<j>) i sin (n<f>)
(cos <f>
i sin <f>)
n = cos (<) / sin (n<f>)
may also be used for the extraction of roots of complex numbers.

The nth root of a complex number z is obtained by taking the
th root of the absolute value r and dividing the argument by n. <f>
Vz=* ^r(cos0 + *sin) = ^(cos^ + i sinM-
130
COMPLEX NUMBERS
This is the so-called principal value of Vz. There are in 1)
further values for tfz, for given any integer k we have

cos {<f> + k 360)
. = cos <f>
and sin (<f> +k . 360) = sin <f>.
We therefore have
Vz = Vr + 2kir) +
[cos (<f>
i sin (<f>
+ 2kn)]
__ n/- /cos 6 + 2kir
<y r i
j. sin
. 6 + 2kiT\ .
z
\ /
For & = this yields the principal value.

For k = 1, 2, 3, . . ., 1 we obtain different secondary values.
Example: the th root of unity z = fl. We have
1 = cos + i sin 0,
and so : z = cos + i sin 0,
360 360

.
z,1 cos h i sin
n n
720 720
z,,
z
= cos 1- i
.
sin
n n
*-i = cos
2( - 1)180
+ i
.
sin
2(n -
l)180
c
For n = 3, z = cos + i sin 0=1,
zx = cos r
360
H i
.
sin
360
r = cos 120 + i sin 120
c
= -i2^2'
+ ^V3
720 720
z2 = cos 5 \- i sm -r = cos 240 + 1 sm 240
J*
2 2
131
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Geometrical interpretation of calculation with complex numbers
(1) Conjugate complex numbers (see above; Fig. 95). The
numbers z = a + ib and z2 = a ib are conjugate complex.
In the number plane, these correspond to mirror-image points in
the real axis. In the Eulerian representation
zx r (cos <f>
+ i sin <)
z2 r (cos <f>
i sin <f>).
The mirror-image relationship is reflected in the difference

between the arguments of the two conjugates. If the argument of
zx is <f>, that of z2 is <f>. (We have cos( <j>) = cos(+<j>) and
sin ( <f>)
= sin (+</>), see Trigonometry.)
*$>+**
ZfO + 16
^62,.0-lfr Real axis

Fig. 95 Fig. 96
(2) Addition. The sum is z zx + z2 = ax + a2 + i(Jj\ + b%)

(see p. 128). The addition of complex numbers corresponds to
the addition of Vectors (see below). construct a parallelogram We
corresponding to the two numbers (Fig. 96), and the diagonal
passing through the origin terminates in the point zx z2 + .
The point of the number plane correspond-

(3) Multiplication.
ing to the product zxz2 has argument x + 2 and absolute value <f> <f>
rx . r 2 (Fig. 97).
(4) Division. Similarly, the Eulerian representation provides

the easiest geometric representation of division. The point in the
number plane corresponding to the quotient has argument

z*
r
$1 "~ ^2 anc* absolute value (Fig. 98).
/"a
132
CONCAVE
(5) Raising to a power (Fig. 99). In the Eulerian representation

the nth power of a complex number z = r (cos < + / sin <f>) is
n
zn __ r j
cos (p^ _|_ i s in (n<j))], which at once gives the geometric
representation.
Real axis Real axis
Fig. 97 Fig. 98
(6) Extraction of roots. The principal value Vz of the th root
of a complex number z has as argument the nth part, -, of the
argument <f>
of z (Fig. 100) and as absolute value Vr where r is
the absolute value of z (see above).
Real axis Real axis
Fig. 99 Fig. 100
Concave
Concave = curved from the inside (see also Convex).
133
CONCENTRIC
Concentric
Two circles with the same centre are said to be concentric with
respect to one another.
Conchoid
The conchoid is an algebraic curve represented by the equation
Construction: We draw an arbitrary line through the fixed point

A(a, 0), intersecting the j-axis in B. From B outwards are con-
structed the two segments BP of length c on the straight line
chosen. The end-points P of these segments are points of the
conchoid (Fig. 101).
Fig. 101
Conditional equations
Equations involving an unknown are called conditional
equations (see Equations (2)).
Cone
Given a closed curve c lying in a plane, and a point S not in
the plane, then a cone is formed by joining S by a straight line
134
CONE
to each point of the curve. These lines (elements or generators s)
may be regarded as infinitely extended in both or one direction;
or they may be thought of as line-segments lying between S and c.
In the latter case, the surface of the cone is formed of the gener-
ators together with the plane area enclosed by c. S is the vertex
of the cone.
The length of the perpendicular from the vertex onto the base
is called the altitude H
of the cone. The volume of a cone is
G.H
V = , where G is the area of the base. In particular, for a
circular cone in which c is a circle radius r, V = z

A right circular cone is a circular cone whose vertex lies directly
above the centre of the circle which forms the cone's base. Other
circular cones are called oblique. The axis of a cone is the line
joining the vertex to the centre of the base (Fig. 102). A plane
Fig. 102 Fig. 103
through the axis of a right circular cone intersects the cone in an

isosceles triangle whose principal altitude is the axis of the cone
and whose base is a diameter of the circle forming the base of
the cone.
A plane through the axis of an oblique circular cone is a non-
isosceles triangle.
The angle between the axis and any generator of a right circular
cone is cone (Figs. 102, 103).
called the angle, a, of the
The lateral area of a right circular cone is (r = radius of base)
A = ttts (Fig. 104) and the total area of the surface is Ttr{r + s).
By the theorem of Pythagoras, in a right circular cone with
135
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION
altitude H, length of a generator s and radius of the base-circle r,
we have: s2 = r2 + H% .
If the lateral surface of a right circular cone is slit along

a
generator it can be developed (i.e. 'rolled out') onto a plane.
There results a sector of a circle with radius s and central angle
6
360 r
9
.
= .
J
degrees (Fig. 105).
Fig. 104 Fig. 105
Conformal transformation
A transformation is called conformal (angle-preserving,
isogonal) if every angle is transformed into another angle
of equal
size. Rigid motions are conformal transformations,
as are the
similarity transformations and the transformations of
(complex)
function theory defined by differentiable functions.
Congruent
Congruent figures are identical in shape and size. Two segments
are called congruent (symbol: ^0 if one segment is obtained
by
marking off the other.
Two angles are called congruent, if one can be obtained from
the other by marking oiF on an arbitrary line.
The following axiom links the congruence of segments with the
congruence of angles. If, for two triangle s A^Cand AA&C^
the congruences AB ^
A x Blt ACg* A X CX and ABAC ^ Z_BXA X CX
hold, then the congruence /_ABC g* /_A B CX is also satisfied.
X X
For other plane figures congruence can always be referred back
to the congruence of segments and angles.
136
CONIC SECTIONS
The notion of congruence is closely related to that of rigid

motion (see below). The rigid motions are transformations (see
below) in which the image of a figure is always a congruent
figure. Translation, rotation and mirror-reflection are examples
of rigid motions.
Conic sections
A plane figure which can be obtained as the intersection of a
plane with a right circular cone is called a conic section. The
following cases arise:
1. The plane passes through the vertex of the cone and cuts
the axis at an angle greater than the angle, a, of the cone. This
yields a single point of intersection.
2. The plane passes through the vertex of the cone and inter-
sects the cone in two straight lines which themselves pass through
the vertex of the cone (i.e. are generators).
3. The plane does not pass through the vertex of the cone but
intersects the axis in some other point and at an angle of 90.
The plane figure formed by the intersection is a circle (Fig. 106).
4. The plane intersects the axis of the cone in such a way that
the angle between the axis and the plane is less than 90 but
greater than the angle, a, of the cone. The resulting figure is an
ellipse (Fig. 107).
/
1
t
t
/
1
/
/
\
\
\
\
\
A
/Angle
/
of\
cone \
f
/
Â
90 \
Y
Fig. 106 Fig. 107
137
CONIC SECTIONS
the intersecting plane is parallel to a generator, the section

5. If
isa parabola (Fig. 108). But if it touches the cone along a gener-
ator the generator itself is the figure resulting from the intersection.
6. If the intersecting plane cuts the axis of the cone at an angle
which is less than the angle of the cone, the section is a hyperbola.
In this case the plane also intersects the cone formed by extending
the generators of the given cone beyond its vertex, and so the
complete hyperbola has two branches (Fig. 109).
Fig. 108 Fig. 109
To derive the characteristic properties of conic sections we

follow Pierre Dandelin (1794-1847) in constructing spheres which
touch all the generators and also the plane of intersection E
(Dandelin's spheres).
1. Properties of the ellipse

There are two Dandelin spheres (Fig. 110), which touch the
plane of intersection E in the two points Fx and F2 . Fx and F2
are called the foci of the ellipse. The spheres touch the cone in
138
conic SECTIONS
with diameters BX CX and B2 C2 If we construct the generator

circles .
of the cone which passes through an arbitrary, point P of the

ellipse and join P to Fx and F2 , then PFX = PDX and PF2 = P~D2
(being tangents to the sphere); therefore:
PFX + PF2 = PDX + PD2 = DX D2 = CX C2 = BXB2 .
Fig. 110 Fig. Ill
The distance between the circles of contact of the two Dandelin

spheres is, for a given plane of intersection, a constant quantity
CX C2 , so the points F x and F2 are fixed. Thus we have:
The ellipse is the locus of points for which the sum of the
distances from two fixed points Fx and F2 is constant (= QQ
From Fig. Ill we see that
A 2F2 + F2A X + A 2FX + FXA X = B2A 2 + A X C2 + A 2BX + A X CX

= B B + QC2 =
X 2 2C1C2
= 2BXB2 = 2A XA 2 .
A XA 2 is major axis of the

called the ellipse. The length of the
major axis denoted by 2a.
is
The mid-point O of the major axis is called the centre of the

ellipse. The distance OF = OF2 =
x e is called the linear eccen-
tricity of the ellipse. If the perpendicular BXBZ to the major axis
139
CONIC SECTIONS
at O is F B + #1^2 == 2a- Since B F = B F

constructed then X X X 2 X X
then we must have B F = B F = a (Fig. 112). From the right-

X X X 2
angled triangle OBxF we obtain the relation OB\ = a2 e2

x
.
BX B2 is called the minor axis and its length n is denoted by 2b.

We have: a2 = b 2 + e2 . The segments FXP and i^ are called
focal distances of the point P on the ellipse.
Construction of the ellipse. For the point by point construction

of an ellipse, the two foci Fx and F2 and the length of the major
axis, 2a, must be given.
(1) Construction according to the definition of the ellipse. The
segm ent 2a is divided into two arbitrary parts, e.g. A X D and
DA 2 We. describe about the foci Fx and F2 circles with radii
A X D and DA % respectively (Fig. 113). The points of intersection
of the circles are points Px P2 P3 P4
, , , of the ellipse.
Fig. 114
140
CONIC SECTIONS
The string construction. A loop of string of length 2a + 2e

(2)
is round two fixed points whose distance apart is 2e. The loop
laid
is stretched by a pencil. The pencil is moved in the stretched
position and then describes an ellipse (Fig. 114). For further

properties of the ellipse see Curves of the second order.
2. Properties of the parabola

The intersecting plane parallel to a generator will be perpen-
dicular to the plane containing the generator and the axis of the
cone. It yields only one Dandelin sphere; this touches the inter-
secting plane in the focus of the parabola, and the cone in a
circle (diameter BC) (Fig. 115).
Fig. 115
Let the generator SP through the point P of the parabola

touch the Dandelin sphere in R and let the plane of the circle of
contact of the Dandelin sphere cut the intersecting plane E2 in
a straight line 1. Consider the plane through P perpendicular to
the axis of the cone. This intersects the cone in a circle with the
diameter ED. Join P and F. Then we have:
PR = PF (tangents to the sphere),
PR = CE (generators between two parallel circles)
CE=AE + AC.
The triangles AEO and LqAC are isosceles, since their sides run
141
CONIC SECTIONS
parallel to the generators of the cone which lie in the plane

determined by D, S and E. It follows that
AE = AO and AC = AL .
Thus CE = AO + ALQ = OL .
OLqJs perpendicular t o the linej. Draw through P in the plane

E2 LP parallel to OL , so that LP =L O. Thus
PF=PR=CE = L^d = LP,PF^PL.

It follows that the parabola is the locus of points which are
equidistant from a fixed point P, the focus, and a fixed line, the
directrix. The line through F
perpendicular to the directrix is
called the axis of the parabola. The line segment F~LQ is referred
to as the parameter of the parabola (FL~ p). =
Construction of the parabola. For point by point construction,
the focus and directrix must be given.
(a) Through an arbitrary point D
of the axis of the parabola
(Fig. 116) the line parallel to the directrix is drawn. The circle
with radius DL is described about the focus F. The points of
intersection of the circle with the parallel line are then points of
the parabola, P1 and P2 .
(b) If a point Px of the para-

bola is joined to F and the
perpendicular PXL from Px onto
the directrix drawn, then the
triangle FLPX is isosceles. A point
of the parabola is therefore
obtained if we take the line parallel
to the axis of the parabola through
an arbitrary point L of the
directrix and let this line intersect
the perpendicular bisector of the
segment LF. For further pro-
perties of the parabola see Curves
Fig. 116 of the second order.
142
CONIC SECTIONS
3. Properties of the hyperbola (Fig. 117)
The plane of intersection cuts both the cone itself and its
extension on the other side of the vertex. Dandelin sphere canA
be inscribed in each part of cone. The spheres touch the plane of
intersection in the points F and F2
x and the cone in the circles
with the radii BX CX and B2 C2 .
A
point P of the hyp erbola is joined to Fx and F2 and the
generators, DXS and D2P, passing through it are drawn. We have

W x W
= P~DX 2 = P~W2 (tangents to the sphere).
.
Thus: PFX - PF2 = PDX - PD2 = DX D2 = CX C2 .
For a fixed plane of intersection CX C2 is a constant quantity which

we denote by 2a.
Fig. 117 Fig. 118
The hyperbola is thus the locus of points the difference of whose

distances from two fixed points, the foci, is constant and equal
to 2a. By Fig. 118 we have
2A XA 2 = A F2 F A 2 + A FX -F A X
X 2 2
-
X
= A XB 2 C 2 + A CX -BXA X
2 ./4
2
= A B -A BX + A CX A 2 2
X 2 X 2 (^
= BXB2 + CX C2 = 2BXB2 = 2CX C2

143
CONIC FRUSTRUM
A XA 2 is called the major axis of the hyperbola and is of length 2a.

If the perpendicular at the mid-point O of the major axis is
erect ed and its points of intersection with the circle, radii
Fx O = e, centres Ft and F2 , denoted by Bx and B2 then BX B2 is
,
called the minor axis of the hyperbola, and its length is denoted
by 2b. e is called the linear eccentricity of the hyperbola. In the
right-angled triangle OBxA 2 we have e2 = a2 + b % .
The segments P^ and PXF2 are called focal distances

of the
point Px of the hyperbola (Fig. 119).
Construction of the hyperbola. For point by point construction
of hyperbola the fixed points Fx and F2 and the segment 2a must
be given. A point D is chosen on the major axis A X A 2 (Fig. 119).
Circ les are then described about Fx and F2 with radii A 2 D and
A t D, and these intersect in four points of the hyperbola Px P2
, ,
Ps, P*.
Fig. 119 Fig. 120
Conical frustrum
If a circular cone is cut off by a plane parallel to the base of
the cone and at a height H
above it the result is a conical frustrum
(Fig. 120). Putting H=
height, r2 =
radius of base-circle,
rx radius of upper-circle, the volume of a frustrum is
F=7ry(/-? + /y2 + rD.
144
CONSTRUCTION, GEOMETRICAL
This holds for both right and oblique conical frustrums.
The lateral area of the surface of a right conical frustrum is:
S = tts^ + ra)
where s is the length of a generator.
Constant
A constant is an invariable quantity, as opposed to variable

(see below).
Example: In the functional equation y = ax + b, a and b are

constant numbers, x and y are variables.
Construction, geometrical
In a geometrical construction the required geometrical figure

is constructed from known elements (points, segments, angles,
straight lines, rays, planes, etc.), using only ruler and compass.
The following types of constructions are of special importance.
(1) Fundamental geometrical constructions. These are:

Measuring-ofF of a segment;
Construction of an angle on a line;
Bisection of a segment;
Erection of a perpendicular on a straight line;
Dropping of a perpendicular from a point onto a straight
line;
Drawing of a parallel to a straight line through a given
point;
Drawing of a parallel to a straight line at distance a;
Bisection of an angle.
These constructions are described under Fundamental construc-

tions.
(2) Triangle constructions (see Triangle).
(3) Quadrangle constructions (see Quadrangle).

(4) Conic section constructions (see Conic sections).
145
1 .
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
Continued fractions
a
Every rational number -r (a, b positive integers) can be de-
veloped as a continued fraction. This development is obtained by

means of the Euclidean algorithm (see below). If a b we put >
a =q . b + rx <r v + o.
These equations can be transformed as follows,
a ri 1 ri r 1
5 -ft + *-* +
, .
- = ft + -3 = ft + .
~;
r
r-ft
'1
+ ?-ft
'1
+ r; 7
r3
= ft + 7
r3
= ft + 7 ;
[1 ^3
rw-2

_
#-i t ,
:
^n
= qn-i + ,
:
1
'n-2 'ra-1 'rc-1
= w
' n
qn +, t\
o = qn .
Substituting these fractions step-wise back into the first formula,
146

CONVEX
a
we obtain the continued fraction for the rational number ,.
b
a l
_l_
ft + - 1
1
?2 +
?3 +
<-* +
k
693
Example: To develop 77= as a continued fraction.
We have 693 =4 . 147 + 105 693 1
=1 so
8 77= = 4 +
T
147 . 105 + 42 147 1
105 = 2 . 42 + 21
l + 1
42 = 2 . 21 + 2 + 2
Irrational numbers can be developed as infinite continued frac-

tions. Conversely every infinite continued fraction is an irrational
number; e.g.
a ~L 1

1S
i. j
the development of a
i *

= ^5- =,
1
2
1 H
1 which is a solution of the equation
1+ T+TT.
t
1
X
1+X
Continuous transformation
All transformations which can be represented by continuous
functions are called continuous transformations.
Convex (= curved from the outside)

A plane figure or solid is called convex if, given two points in
its interior, the segment joining these points lies wholly within it.
147
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinate systems
Coordinate systems in a plane
Two which intersect in a point O, the
straight lines in a plane,
origin, can be used to establish the relative positions of points of
the plane. These lines are then called coordinate axes. The first
coordinate axis is called the abscissa-axis (x-axis) and the second
the ordinate-axis (y-axis). The origin divides each coordinate axis
into two parts. On each coordinate axis a unit-point is fixed,
denoted by E and E
The direction OE fixes the positive direction
' .
of the x-axis and that of OE' the positive direction of the jy-axis;
by convention OE' is to the left as one moves from O to E. If
the coordinate axes intersect at right angles, the coordinate
system is called rectangular. If the coordinate axes do not inter-
sect at right angles the coordinate system is described as oblique
(Fig. 121).
yfl^y)
To establish the position of a point P we draw the lines through

P parallel to the axes, intersecting the axes in the points Px and Py
(Fig. 121). The ratio
OP
- is called the abscissa x of the point P
t
OE
the ratio
OP
- the ordinate y of P. The numbers x and Jy are called
OE'
the coordinates of P and we write P(x,y) or P(x; y). The abscissa
of P is always written first.
If OE and OE' are each of unit distance the coordinates are

simply the distances of the points Px and Py from the origin.
OE and OE' can however be different.
If the coordinate system rectangular and
is OE' 1, OE = =
we can also say that the distance of P from the j-axis is the
abscissa x of P and the distance of P from the x-axis is the
ordinate y of P.
148
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Polar coordinates in a plane (Fig. 122). If in a plane we fix a
point O (the origin, or pole), a line-segment OE with unit point
E proceeding from O, and a positive direction of rotation, then
the position of any point P in the plane can be identified by two
numbers. The first number is the distance p of P from O, measure*d
by means of the unit length OE. The second number is the angle
between the directions OE and OP. This establishes a so-called
<f>
system of polar coordinates. The segment OE is called the axis

of the system, p the radius vector and <f> the amplitude (or polar
angle) of the point P.
Relationship between rectangular and polar coordinates of a
point (Fig. 123). From the figure we obtain for the coordinates of
a point P:
x = rp cos 6 , x
. T p = Vx*+y\ - = tan^.,
*(QbV)
Fig. 122 Fig. 123
Coordinate systems in space (Fig. 124)

Rectangular coordinate system in space. We can use three
straight lines in space which intersect in a point O and are
mutually perpendicular to establish the relative positions of points
in space. If the perpendiculars are dropped from P onto the three
coordinate axes, we obtain the points Px , Pv and Pz . The distances
of these three points from the origin, measured according to the
unit lengths taken, are called the coordinates of the point P and
are denoted by x, y and z. We write P =
P(x, y, z). The order of
the three numbers is to be taken as fixed. To each point of space
there corresponds a set of three numbers in a definite order, and
with every set of three points in a fixed order is associated a
149
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
A
Fig. 124
point of space. This arrangement establishes a coordinate system.

The three intersecting lines are called coordinate axes, and the
intersection of the coordinate axes is called the origin. The three
planes determined by pairs of coordinate axes are called co-
ordinate planes. The three ordered numbers corresponding to a
point are called coordinates of the point.
Cylindrical coordinates (Fig. 125). Suppose we have in space a
plane E, and in the plane a system of polar coordinates; and
suppose further that we assign which part of space is to be
regarded as positive with respect to the plane. A point of space
can then be fixed by the polar coordinates /> and <f> of the point
P (the perpendicular projection of P onto the plane E) and the
distance z of P from the plane E, taken to be positive if P lies
on the positive side of E and negative if P lies on the negative
side of E.
Spherical polar coordinates (Fig. 126). It is often useful to
assign the position of a point in space in polar coordinates. For
this purpose we use the radius vector, i.e. the distance r of
the point from the origin, the 'longitude' A, i.e. the angle which the
150
COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
projection of the radius vector onto the xy-plane makes with the
.x-axis and the 'latitude' <f>,
i.e. the angle which the radius vector
makes with the xy-plane. We have then:
x = r cos cos A, j>
y = r cos sin A, <f>
z r sin 0.
Fio. 126
Coordinate transformations
If two coordinate systems are given in a plane or in space, then
a fixed point P has coordinates in respect of both systems. The
transition from the coordinates of the point in the first system
to the coordinates of the same point in the second system is
called a coordinate transformation. A
coordinate transformation
can be represented by a system of equations between the co-
ordinates of the point in the first and second systems.
Coordinate transformations representing the transition from
one rectangular coordinate system to another rectangular system
are of especial importance. These are referred to as orthogonal
transformations (orthogonal =
rectangular).
151
1. Orthogonal transformations in a plane

(1) Translationof the coordinate axes. Let the point P have
coordinates x and y in the first coordinate system and x' and
/
after the translation, and denote the origin of the first system by
O and that of the second by O'. Let O' have coordinates c and d
in the first coordinate system (Fig. 127).
Then the transformation
equations between the coordinates x and y of the point P and
the coordinates xf and/ of the same point are:
and x' and / can be calculated from x and y by means of these

equations, x and y can be calculated from xf and / by means of
the inverse equations:
X = Xf + Cy
y = / + d.
(2) Rotation of the coordinate axes (Fig. 128). Suppose the
origins of both coordinate systems are the same and that the
x-axis and the x'-axis make an angle d with one another, d being
measured in the anti-clockwise direction from the x-axis to the
x'-axis. Then the transformation between the coordinates x,
y
and x', y' of the same point is given by:
xf = x cos + y sin
<5 <5 x = xf cos y" sin
<5 <5
and
y' = x sin d + y cos <5 j; = xf sin + / cos d.
<5
(3) 7%e transformation

=x
xf
y = -y
changes the direction of the j-axis (in three dimensions this trans-
formation would signify a rotation of 180 about the x-axis); it
also is an orthogonal transformation.
2. Orthogonal transformations in space
(1) Translation of the coordinate axes. Suppose the origin O*

of the new system has coordinates (a, b, c) in the old system and
152
:
Fro. 129
let the point P have coordinates (x, y, z) in the old system and
(x*, /, z') in the new. Then
x* = x a and x = x
f
+a
/ =y-b y=y' + b
z! = z-c z^z? + c (Fig. 129).
153
:
COSECANT
(2) Rotation of the coordinate axes. A transition from one

rectangular coordinate system to another rectangular system
with the same origin, but different orientation of the axes, is
given by equations of the form:
x = 0]*' + b^y + c J x and x* a'xx + b[y + c[z

y = a2xf + &a/ + c^f / = afr + b'y + c2z 2
z = azxf + bzy' + c^ J = a'3 x + b'zy + c'zz.

Here the coefficients satisfy the conditions:
ax h Cl < K c[
a2 bz c% = 1 and a2 b2 4 = L
a3 h Cz as bs 4
Cosecant (cosec)
Cosec a is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the side opposite the
angle a in a right-angled triangle, and equals

,
metry).
\
-
sin
oc
(see Trigono-
Cosine (cos)
The cosine function cos a is the ratio of the side adjacent to
the angle a to the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle (see Trigo-
nometry).
Cosine theorem
There are three such theorems
1. A theorem of plane trigonometry;

2. The angle cosine theorem of spherical trigonometry;
3. The cosine theorem for sides, also a theorem of spherical
trigonometry.
1. The cosine theorem of plane trigonometry states that if a,

b and c are the sides and a, /3 and y the angles of a triangle then:
I a2 = b2 + c 2 2bc . cos a
II b = c 2 + a2 - lea
2
. cos /5
c2 = a2 + b - lab
2
III . cos y.
154
CUBE
The cosine theorem of plane trigonometry can be used to solve a
triangle if the three sides of the triangle are given or if two sides
and the included angle are given.
2. The angle cosine theorem of spherical trigonometry
states
that if a, b and c are the sides and a, /? and
y the angles of a
spherical triangle then:
I cos a = cos ft cos y + sin sin y cos a

ft
II cos =
ft cos y cos a + sin y sin a cos b
III cos y = cos a cos /? + sin a sin cos c.
/?
3. The cosine theorem for the sides of the same triangle runs:
I cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos a

II cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos ft
III cos c = cos a cos + sin a sin 6 cos y.

Z>
The angle cosine theorem can be used if three angles of a spherical

triangle are given, or if one side and the two adjacent
angles are
given. The cosine theorem for the sides of a spherical triangle
can
be used if three sides or two sides and the included angle are
given (see Spherical trigonometry).
Cotangent (cot)
Cot a is the ratio of the side adjacent to the angle a of a right-
angled triangle to the side opposite (see Trigonometry).
Cube
The cube is a solid bounded by six
congruent squares (Fig. 130). The six
squares meet one another in twelve
edges of equal length. Each face is
perpendicular to its neighbouring faces.
The twelve edges meet in eight vertices 'W
(corners), each vertex comprising the
intersection of three mutually perpen- Fig. 130
dicular edges. A
cube with edges of
length a has volume V =
a5 , surface area S= 6a2 ; the length
of the diagonal of a face is d = aVl and the space-diagonal
D = aV3.
155
CUBIC EQUATION
Cubic equation
Equations which contain the unknown raised to the third
power. Normal form: x3 + ax2 bx + c = (see Equations).
+
Cubic numbers
The third powers of the natural numbers, i.e. 1, 8, 27, 64 .
(see Number, types of).
Curvature
Deviation of a curve (surface) from a straight line (plane). The
curvature of a curve at a point is more marked the more rapidly
it departs from its tangent in the neighbourhood of the point.
In a plane only a circle has equal curvature at all points of its

length; the curvature of a circle increases as the radius decreases,
and the magnitude - is taken as the curvature of the circle. To

determine the curvature of a general curve at one of its points, we
take the curvature of the circle which fits most closely to the
curve at this point. This circle is called the circle of curvature
(or osculating circle) at the point concerned; the radius of this
circle is called the radius of curvature and its centre the centre of
curvature; the latter lies on the normal to the curve at the point
concerned. The Differential calculus (see Infinitesimal calculus) is
used to determine the curvature of a mathematically defined curve.
Curves
Curves are geometrical structures in space which for many
purposes can be regarded as derivable from a straight line by a
reversible transformation.
A curve segment arises from a reversible transformation of a
straight line segment.
A curve, or curve segment, is called continuous, if the trans-
formation through which it arises is continuous.
A curve is called closed, if a reversible transformation of the
curve into a straight line segment can be found such that a single
point on the curve corresponds to both end points of the line.
156
CURVES
Plane curves
A curve which lies wholly in a plane iscalled a plane curve,
e.g. straight line, parabola, circle, ellipse, hyperbola.
Skew curves
Curves which do not wholly lie in a plane are called skew
curves, e.g. helix.
Parametric representation of a curve

If the variable t ranges over all numbers corresponding to
points in a closed interval on a straight line, and if three functions
u(t), v(t), w(t) are given, then the point P with coordinates
Fig. 131
x =u{t), y =
v(t), z =
w(t) can be put into correspondence with
the point t of the straight b'ne. The equations * u(t), y v(t), = =
z =w(t) are called the parametric equations of the curve, t being
the parameter. Since the numbered straight line is an orientated
line (see Orientation) the curve with parametric equations
x = u(t), y = v(t), z = w(i) is also an orientated curve. Of two
points on the curve one is behind, or earlier than the other, if it
corresponds to the smaller value of the parameter. The other
point is the later of the two. If the curve is described continuously
from earlier to later points, the curve is said to be described in
the positive sense.
157
CURVES OF THE SECOND ORDER
Examples: 1. The circle. If / ranges over the interval

77 < t < + 77, a circle in the */-plane is represented by the
equations
x xm + r cos t, y = ym + r sin t.
The centre O of the circle has coordinates 0(xmi y TO); the radius
is r.
2. The helix. If t ranges over all numbers in the interval

oo < < + oo, t the functions x r cos t, y
r sin t, z = =
to
=- represent the helix of Fig. 131. The radius of the helix is r,
the pitch is h.
Curves of the second order

The totality of points in a plane whose coordinates satisfy a
functional equation of the form
F(x,y) = aux2 + a^y2 + 2a12xy + 2a13x + 2awy + a^ = 0,

where the coefficients an a22 a12 . ., a^ are any real numbers,
, , , .
is called a curve of the second order.
It is always possible by rotation of the coordinate system and

subsequent parallel translation to refer the curve to a coordinate
system in which the functional equation has the simplest possible
form. In particular, a coordinate system can always be found
such that the functional equation possesses no term in xy. The
curve is then referred to its principal axes, and in this form the
following cases arise:
1. The parabola
y
2 2px = 0, where p is a positive number.
2. The ellipse
x2 y2
~2 + 72 = 1, where a and b are two positive numbers.
In particular if a = b = r we have the circle xz + y* = r2 .
158
CURVES OF THE SECOND ORDER
3. The hyperbola
x2 y2
tf
~ 2 = J where a and b are two positive real numbers.
4. Degenerate curves of the second order

(a) x2 + y2 = 0. The curve comprises one point only, the
origin.
(b) x2 + y2 = I. No point with real coordinates is associ-
ated with this equation.
(c) (ax + + = 0. The curve comprises the straight line
by c) 2
ax + by + c = 0.
(d) (ax + by + c)(dx + ey
+f) = 0. The curve comprises
straight lines ax + by + c = and dx + ey +/= 0.
In other words, the curves of the second order are identical
with the conic sections.
For special properties of the conic sections see Circle, Ellipse,
Parabola, Hyperbola.
5. General properties of curves of the second order (conic sections)

1. Vertex equations. The equation of any non-degenerate conic
section can be brought to the form
y
2
2px (1 2)*2 =
(where p is positive). This is called the vertex equation of the
conic section. The x-axis is then the major axis of the conic
section and the j-axis a tangent. We have:
a circle, if p = r and e = 2
(r is the radius of the circle),
an ellipse, if e < 1,
a parabola, if e = 1,
a hyperbola, if e > 1.
p termed the parameter of the come section, e the numerical

is
eccentricity.The origin is a (or in the case of the parabola, the)

vertex of the curve (Fig. 132). In the figure:
/ = 2x - x 2
: Circle e2 = 0,
y
2
= 2x-^x2 : Ellipse e2 = i,
y
2
= 2x: Parabola e2 = 1,
2
= 2x + r x 1
2
Hyperbola
. .
e2l = -3
y :
159
CYCLOID
2. The directrix of a conic section (curve of second order). A

curve of the second order (ellipse, hyperbola, parabola) is deter-
mined by a straight line (directrix /), a fixed point (focus, F) and
the constant ratio e of the distances of its points from the focus
to their distances from the directrix. If e <
1 we have an ellipse,
if s = 1 we have a parabola and if e >

1, a hyperbola. The ratio
e is equal to the numerical eccentricity (Fig. 133).
3. Equation of a conic section in polar coordinates (/>, <f>). The
general equation of a conic section in polar coordinates is
" 1 e cos <j>
Here p is the parameter and s is the numerical eccentricity. The

focus F1 is the origin of the coordinate system. The direction
from F1 to the more distant vertex is the zero-direction for ^,

and <f>
is measured in the anti-clockwise sense.
Fio. 132 Fig. 133
Cycloid (Fig. 134)

If a along a straight line, the curve traced out
circle is rolled
by a point on circumference is called a cycloid. With the angle
its
t as parameter it is represented by
x = p(t sin i)
y = p(\ cos t), t in angular measure.
160
CYLINDER
If y expressed in terms of x, y is a periodic function whose

is
period equal to the radius lirp of the rolling circle.

is
An epicycloid is the curve obtained by rolling one circle on the

exterior of another circle instead of on a straight line. hypo- A
cycloid is obtained by rolling the first circle on the inner side of
the circumference of the other circle. All these curves are tran-
scendental.
Cylinder
^SL FiO. 134
Cylinder
If the end-points of parallel radii of twocircles of equal radius
lying in parallel planes are joined we obtain a circular cylinder
(Fig. 135). The line-segments joining the two circles are called
generators of the cylinder. If they are perpendicular to the parallel
planes we speak of a right cylinder, otherwise of an oblique
cylinder. The distance apart of the two parallel planes is called
the altitude H of the cylinder.
Cylinders are obtained by joining the points of any two con-
gruent figures in parallel planes by parallel segments, e.g. elliptical
cylinder; two congruent ellipses lying in parallel planes form the
base and upper surface.
The volume of the cylinder is
V = A .H
'
(A = area of base).
For the circular cylinder
V = irr%H (r = radius of circle).

161
DECIMAL FRACTIONS
For the elliptical cylinder
V = irabH (a, b = semi-axes of the ellipse).

Area of lateral surface of circular cylinder
L = 2nrH.
Area of complete surface
S= 2irr(r + H).
Sections of cylinder (right cylinder only). If a cylinder is inter-
sected by a plane, the following figures can arise:
1. If the plane is perpendicular to the base and contains the
axis of the cylinder the section is a rectangle with sides 2r and H.

2. If the plane is perpendicular to the base and does not
contain the axis the section is a rectangle, one side of which is H.
3. If the plane is neither perpendicular to nor parallel to the
bases the section is either a complete ellipse or an ellipse with
one or two segments cut off.
4. If the plane is parallel to the base the section is a circle,
congruent to the base circle.
Decimal fractions
Fractions with denominator 10, 100, 1000, ... are called
decimal fractions, e.g.
573 3578
1000' 1000*
These fractions can be briefly written as decimal numbers: we

divide the decimal fraction into a whole number and a 'proper'
decimal fraction; we write the whole number first, put a 'decimal
point' after it and set down to the right the tenths, hundredths,
thousandths, etc.; e.g.
573
1,000
=0-573; '
m-
1,000
3-578.
When we have a proper decimal fraction for clarity we set a

to the left of the point. 0-573 is read: 'nought (or zero)-point-five-
seven-three'.
162
DEGENERATE TRANSFORMATIONS
Decimal system
The decimal system originated in India and reached Europe
through the Arabs. In the decimal system the numbers are
written using 10 signs:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
These numbers have different values according to the position

they occupy in the written number. On the furthest right they
have unit value, immediately to the left tenfold value, to the left
of that one hundredfold, and so on, e.g.
20,349 = 9 units + 4 tens + 3 hundreds + thousands

+ 2 tenthousands.
The decimal method of writing numbers is possible because every
number can be written as a sum of the form
x = aQ x 10n +a + a2 x 10w~2 +
x x 10"-1 . . . + an x 10,
where 0<,a < 10, all {

/.
E.g. 3059 = 3 x 103 + x 102 + 5 x 101 + 9 x 10
= 3,000 + 50 + 9.
The exponent n, and the coefficients which appear, are uniquely
determined.
The decimal method of writing numbers can be extended to
all the real numbers, e.g.
3-01 = 3 units + tenths + 1 hundredth.
Degenerate transformation
A projective transformation of the points of a plane or of
space is called degenerate, if different points give rise to the same
image point.
Example: Suppose in a rectangular coordinate system in a
plane a point P with coordinates (x,y) has image point P\x 0).
y
In this transformation a single image point corresponds to all

points with the same ^-coordinate (the transformation being in
fact perpendicular projection of the plane onto the x-axis). An
equivalent definition is as follows: A
projective transformation
is degenerate if it is not one-to-one (= reversibly single-valued)
(see Single-valued transformation).
163
DEGREE
In the representation of the transformation by a system of

equations the determinant of a degenerate transformation has
value zero.
Degree (see also Angle, Angular measurement)

1 = 1 degree = ninetieth part of a right angle;
1 is divided into 60' (60 minutes);
T is divided into 60" (60 seconds).
Deltoid
A deltoid (kite-shaped figure) is a quadrilateral in which two
pairs of neighbouring sides are equal (see Quadrilateral).
De Moivre's formula
The powers and roots of complex numbers are obtained by
means of de Moivre's formula:
if z r (cos + sin
<f>
i (f>),
then zn r n (cos + sin

n<j> i n<f>)
and Vz*= f7fcos- + *sinH
(see Complex numbers).
Descriptive geometry
Descriptive geometry is the branch of mathematics concerned
with the representation of three-dimensional objects as plane
figures. For this purpose central projections, general parallel
projections and orthogonal parallel projections are used. Central
projection can be regarded as corresponding to the act of seeing.
The three-dimensional object is projected onto a projection plane
from a centre of projection lying at a finite distance. This sort of
projection gives a very good qualitative picture, but is less suitable
for the assessment of quantitative relations, so that if an actual
measurement has to be derived from measurement of the pro-
jected image a roundabout procedure must be employed.
164
DETERMINANTS
A general parallel projection is a projection in which all lines
of projection are parallel and intersect the projection plane at the

same angle. It is the general parallel projection which is used for
representation of objects in so-called oblique perspective (see
below). (The illustrations in this book are mostly done in this
fashion.)
Orthogonal parallel projection is usually used for the repre-
sentation of technical objects. This projection yields very un-
realistic-looking images, but the true measurements of the objects
represented can easily be taken from the mapping.
The representation of three-dimensional objects can be effected
by means of one, two or more projection planes.
In oblique and horizontal projections a single plane is used,
and in such cases we speak of one-plane projection.
In mapping by means of orthogonal parallel projection or by
means of central projection, two or more planes of projection
are often used; the planes are called the plan (top view) and the
elevation (vertical projection), and we talk of two-plane projection.
Determinants
An w-rowed determinant is a quantity depending upon w2
numbers arranged in the form of a square. The numbers them-
selves are called the elements of the determinant.
Two-rowed determinants
A two-rowed determinant is defined by:
12 aik is used to indicate the
au cfa a12 #21* element in the ith. row and
21
the kth. column.
(an , read: a one one.)
Example:
2 3
= 2.1-3.0 = 2, = 5 . 1 -6 . 2 = -7.
1
Two-row determinants can be used for the solution of a system

of equations with two unknowns. The system of equations
I. an x+ a12 y = bx
II. a^x + a&y = bz
165
DETERMINANTS
has the solution
h a12 *n *,
X=
h a2Z
= 21 b2
; y
"u <*12 011 12
aZL #22 #21 #22
Example:
I. jc = 21
+ 7j>
II. 4x-3j> = 22
21 7 1 21
22 -3 -217 4 22 62
x = ~ " j; = -
= 2.
1 7 -31 '
1 7 -31
4 -3 4 -3
Two-rowed determinants are also used for the calculation of the
'outer-product' (vector product) of two vectors (see Vector
product).
Three-rowed determinants
A three-rowed determinant is denned by:
#u #12 13
ctzi *22 #23 #11 #22 **33 i #12 #23 ^31
031 <*32 <*33 + #13 #21 aZ2 alS aZ% fl

31
a12 21 #33 #u #23 #;32*
A simple method of evaluating three-rowed determinants is as

follows: Extend the determinant, by repeating the first two
columns, and form the products of terms in the direction of the
principal diagonals and the secondary diagonals. Then subtract
the sum of the products in the direction of the secondary diagonals
from the sum of the products in the direction of the principal
diagonals.
an #12 #13
aU a12
x x 'n
X
"21a22 "23' #21 #22
Xa
'
Xfl x
#32
*31 32 33 #31 .
166
: :
DETERMINANTS
Principal diagonal Secondary diagonal
*ii #13
022
031
Minors (subdeterminants)
If one row and one column of a three-rowed determinant are
struck out, there remain four elements only, in the form of a
square. These remaining numbers, in the arrangement in which
they occur, form a minor. Since there are nine possibilities
corresponding to the number of ways in which one row and one
column can be eliminated, we obtain nine minors from a three-
rowed determinant. To every element there corresponds in a
natural way one minor: to the element in the rth row and the
fcth column there corresponds the minor A
ik arising from the
elimination of the ith row and the kih column.
Example: au a12 a
013
13 Strike out the first row and the
<*21 #22 023 second column, giving
31 032 033 A12 = a21 tf
23
fl 033
31
Expansion of a determinant about one row or column.

A determinant can be expanded as follows about one row:
(example, 1st row)
011 012 013

022 023 021 023 021 a22
a21 022 023 = #11 ."" "" a12
!
a31
+ a13 !
*32 "33 033 a31 032

031 032 033
011 012 013
021 022 023 =

011^11
"ll-^ll
"12-^12
012^12 T+ a"13^13'
lzA
. 031 032 03
n-rowed determinants
The value of an n-rowed determinant is likewise defined so that
it can be calculated by developing about one row or column and
then evaluating the (n l)-rowed minors. We have (developing
about the first row):
167
: :
DETERMINANTS
all a12 13 aln

a21 #22 23 a2n
OuA n a12A 12 + aÂ^
+ (-1)^^.
*nl M n2 u n3 .a
**nn
Here aik is the element in the ith row and the &th column, and
y4 ffc is the (
l)-rowed minor obtained by eliminating the ith
row and the fcth column.
Development about the ith row:
an a12 fl^ . aln . .
*21 *22 "23 .aft. - (- ly+^n + (- 0* V O 4it
+ . . . + (-l)***^,..
wl "n2 . a
Example: Calculation of a five-rowed determinant (developing
about the second row)
5 4 3 2 1
12 4
11110
1-2 -4 -2 -3
= (-l) 2+4 .l
5
1110
-2 -3 -2
3 1
10 111 10 11
5 4 3 2
+ (-l) 2+ 6 .2 1111
1_2 -3 -4
1 1 1
= 10 -2 . (-2) = 14.
In this the minors have been calculated as follows
5 4 3 1
1 1 1 4 3 1
1 -2 -3 2 ,2+1 -2 -3 -2
1 1 1 1 1
5 3 1 5 4 1
+ (-1)2+2 1 -3 -2 + (_ 1)2+3 1 -2 -2
1 1 1 1 1
(develop about the second row)

= 0-10 + 20= +10;
168
DETERMINANTS
5 4 3 2 4 3 2
1 1 1 1 = (-1)4+1 1 1 1
1 -2 -3 -4 -2 -3 -4
1 1 1
5 4 2 5 4 3
+ (_ 1)4+3 1 1 1 + (_ 1)4+4 1 1 1
1 -2 -4 1 -2 -3
(develop about the last row)
= -4+2= -2.
(Short cut: use for development a row or column with as many

zeros as possible.)
Theorems on n-rowed determinants

1. The value of a determinant is
unaltered if the rows are
written as columns and the columns as rows (reflection in
the
principal diagonal); for the expansion of the original
determinant
by its first row is identical with expansion of the reflected deter-
minant by its first column.
2. If two rows of a determinant are interchanged, the sign of
the determinant is altered; for expansions of the determinants by
one of the rows in its original and transposed position gives
corresponding terms equal but of opposite sign.
3. Similarly, if two columns of a determinant are interchanged,
the sign of the determinant is altered.
4. If corresponding elements of two rows (columns) of a
determinant are equal or proportional, the determinant is equal
to zero; for by (2) (or by (3)) the determinant is
equal or pro-
portional to its negative.
5. The value of a determinant is unaltered
if to the elements of
one row (or column) are added a fixed multiple of the corre-
sponding elements of another row (or column); for the modified
determinant is equal to the original determinant plus a determi-
nant which (by (4)) is zero.
169
DETERMINANTS
Applications of determinants
Cramer's Rule. The system of equations
#11*1 "4" #12*2 + + Q\n xn == "\

#21*1 "4" #22*2 "t" T #2n* == ^2
#1*1 "4* #2*2 + + Qnnxn = "n
with unknowns xlt x2 ,., xn . . ,

possesses exactly one set of
solutions xlt x2 , . . ., xn provided
#11 #12 #13 #ln

#21 #22 #23 #2
D= 7^0.
#1 #,w2 *3 .#
If Z) =
0, then the left-hand members of the equations are not
independent of each other.
The values of xlt x2 xs, . . ., xn , are quotients of w-rowed
,
determinants lt D D
2 , . . ., D
n and the coemcient-determinant D,
where
bl #12 #13 #1 #u h a13 . . . ax
^2 #22 #23 #2n #21 ^2 #23 #2
Di =
D9 =
O n a nx fl2 #n #nl n #3
#11 #12 #13 *1
#21 #22 #23

*2
A,=
M 2
*nl tfo a
"m3 . . .b.
In these determinants the coefficients of the unknown in question

are replaced in the coemcient-determinant by the constant terms
of the equations. The solution of the system of equations is then:
A, ^2
Xy x2 = Xst ^. *"*
D
D'
170
DETERMINANTS
Example:
*i+ Xn + *3 + x4 = 4
2xj + x% =3
=4
*3 T ^4 = 2
The determinant D is:
1111 1 1 1 1 1 1
2>= 2 10 = (-2)
( 2 1 + 1 1 = -1.
2 10 1 1 1 1
11
The determinants D lt Z>2 , Dz and JD4 are:
4 111 1 1 1 4 1 1
l = 3 10 = (-3) 2 1 + 1 4 1 = (-3) +2
4 2 10 01 1 2 1 1 = -1,
2 11
14 11 2 3 1 4 1
2 3 = (-1) 4 1 + 1 2 3 - (-4) +3
4 10 2 1 4 1 = -1,
2 11
114 1 2 13 1 1 4
D = 2 13 = (-1) 2 4 + 1 2 1 3 = -8 + 6
2 4 2 2 4 = -2,
2 1
1114 10 3 1 1
Z>4 = 2 1 3 =+ 1 214 -2 2 1 = 4-4

2 14 12 1 = 0.
12
The solution is therefore
*1_ - *2~ D ~ -1
D ~-l 1' ~~ *
_ D _ -2_
~
D ~ -1 2,
:
""
171
DIAMETER
Diameter
A diameter of a circle is a chord which passes through tne centre
of the circle. In length the diameter of a circle is double the radius
(see Circle).
Dilatation
If a segment undergoes a change of length the ratio of the
increase of length to the original length is called the dilatation.
Dimension
Dimension is a property of the basic geometrical elements (see
below) and the derived geometrical structures. Points have
dimension zero. The straight line has dimension 1. The plane has
dimension 2. Space has dimension 3. Derived geometrical struc-
tures have their dimension defined so as to conform to these
values. Thus a curve lying in a plane and denned by a single
algebraic equation has the same dimension as a straight line; a
surface in space defined by a single equation has the same dimen-
sion as a plane; a curve in space defined as the intersection of
two surfaces has the same dimension as a straight line. In physics
dimension often has a quite different meaning, being used to
denote physical measures. E.g. cm/sec is the dimension of a
velocity.
Diophantine equations
Equations of the form ax + by = c are called diophantine.
Here a, b and c are given integers, and integral number-pairs x
and y are required which satisfy the equation. We find solutions
by first solving the equation ax + by = 1. Thus if U, V is a pair
of values which satisfies the equation ax + by = 1, i.e.
aU + bV= 1, then x = cU + bp and v cV ap with p an
arbitrary integer is the general solution of the equation ax + by
= c (verify by substitution). In the same way we obtain from a
pair of values U, V satisfying aU bV 1 the general solution
of the equation ax by = C by putting x = cU + bp,
y = cV + ap, where p is an arbitrary integer. The solutions of the
172
DIAMETER
equation ax + by = 1 are obtained by developing r as a con-

tinued fraction. The penultimate convergent gives (apart from
sign) U as denominator and V as numerator.
Example: 31* 164/ = 7.

31
The development of as a continued fraction by the
j^ is,
Euclidean algorithm (see Continued fractions):
164 = 5 Remainder 9
+ 31
31+9 = 3 4
9+4 = 2 1
4+1 = 4 0.
This gives the continued fraction development
31 1 and the convergents are

"5 +
164 1
11 3 1 7,
3 + 1
5 5 + 1 16
J
5 + 1 ~~ 37
2+1 3 3 + 1
4
, 31 ^ = V
164'
e P enultimate convergent has numerator 7
and denominator 37 = U. If we choose =
U 37 and
V = 7 then we have
31* - 164y = 31( 37) - 164(-7) = -1147 + 1148 = +1.

From this we get the general solution:
x = cU + bp = 7(-37) + 164 .p
and y = cV + ap = 7(-7) + 31 ./?,
that is
* = 259 + 164/7 and y = 49 + 3lp.
173
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW
Distributive law
In its usual form, this establishes a relation between addition
and multiplication: a(b + c) = ab + ac.
Division
Division is the fourth fundamental operation of calculation.
Dividend divided by Divisor gives Quotient

12 -T- 4=3
Quotient
It isthe inverse of multiplication (as the inverse of the multipli-
cation 3 X 4 =
12 we have the division 12 -i- 4 3). The =
division of integers does not always lead to integral results, i.e.
in the domain of integers, division (without remainder) cannot
always be carried out. On the other hand, in the domain of
rational numbers all four basic operations are unrestrictedly
possible (with the exception of division by zero, see below); i.e.
if one of the basic operations is performed on any two rational
numbers, the result is another rational number. domain of A
numbers with this property is called a (number) field, e.g. the
field of rational numbers, the field of complex numbers. A
quotient can also be written as a fraction, e.g.
a-rb =a -r, 12 -r 4
12
= -=.
b 4
If weinterchange the dividend and the divisor, we obtain the
reciprocal of the quotient, e.g.
4 12
4 -T- 12 = jx is the reciprocal of -j-
Division of directed numbers

Directed numbers are divided according to the following rules
of signs:
1. If dividend and divisor have the same sign, the quotient is
positive:
-6 . Sa
-2=+ 3 -
=4 -
174
DIVISION
2. If dividend and divisor have different signs, the quotient is
negative:
6 _ 6a __
-2a ~
+2"~ 3 3*

Rules for fractional calculations with literal numbers

The rules for fractional calculations with literal numbers are
thesame as for fractions composed of ordinary numbers:
1. Fractions can be reduced (see Reduction of fractions), e.g.
3abc a ad
-T7- = ac (reduced by 3b). And, conversely, if d# 0, r = r-.'
2. Fractions can only be added directly if they have the same

numerator:
a b _a+b
c c~ c
Other fractions must first be reduced to a common denominator:
b
+ d ss bd + bd~~~bd
3. In multiplying fractions, numerators and denominators are
multiplied together:
a c ac
Yl~Fd
4. To divide two fractions the first fraction is multiplied by the
reciprocal of the second
a m
c ad ad
~~
b '
d~ b c be
Division of an algebraic sum by a number

An algebraic sum (polynomial) is divided by a number when
each of the terms are divided by the number and the resulting
quotients added.
Example: (54xz llyz 25) -r 9z = 6x By 25

Q
175
DIVISION
Division of algebraic sum by algebraic sums

We use the following procedure First we order the terms of the
:
dividend and of the divisor in the same way, the literal numbers
in alphabetical order and arranged according to decreasing or
increasing powers.
Example: (12ac lb 2 23ab + 3bc + 20a ) + (4a + b)

2
will be ordered as
(20a2 - 23aZ> + \2ac - lb2 + 3bc) -r (4a + b).

Then, as in the division of one multi-digit number by another,
we divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the
divisor, multiply the complete divisor by the partial quotient we
have obtained, and subtract the resulting product from the
dividend. If necessary we reorder the remainder of the dividend
and divide its first term by the first term of the divisor, multiply
the complete divisor by the second partial quotient, subtract the
product from the remainder, and continue until either no remain-
der is left or until the remainder is no longer divisible by the first
term of the divisor; in the first case the division is exact, in the
second case, not.
Example 1:
(20a 2 - 23ab + \2ac - lb2 + 3bc) + (4a + b) = 5a - lb + 3c

-(20a2 + 5ab)
-2%ab + 12ac - lb2 + 3bc
-(-2%ab -lb 2)
+ 12ac + 3bc
(+ \2ac + 3bc)
Example 2:
(2x2 + Ixy + 4y
2
) -r (x + 3y) = 2x + y + --
x+3
~(2x2 + 6xy) y
xy + 4y2
-(+ xy + 3y ) 2
f
176
DIVISION
Division ofpowers
(a) Equal bases. Here we subtract the exponent of the divisor
ap
from the exponent of the dividend : = dp~9
5
a5 fl
(b) Equal exponents. Here we retain the common exponent

_ / _\ n.
a a\
and divide the bases: j- = I rl
Division of roots
(a) Equal indexes. Here we retain the index and divide the
radicand; e.g.
rt-Nv n V
(b) Equal radicands. We must first make the orders of the
roots equal and then use rule (a) above : = = *&== va
v
'*' ^ ~ ^84
^8 ^8 V8
(c) Roots can be written as powers with fractional exponents,
powers;
and so can be divided by using the corresponding rules for
e.g.
,&a et (aV ^8 _ 8^ _ /8\*
b*
w v y
9
TO/
Va a"
8*
177
DIVISION RATIO
Division of complex numbers
To divide two complex numbers a ib and c id we write + +

the division as a fraction and by multiplication rearrange this
fraction so that the denominator becomes real. Then we gather
together real parts and imaginary parts in the numerator:
a + ib {a + ib)(c id)
\a -f io) -.
" ^+ ia) ~c+ id
~ (c + id)(c - id)
ac + bd + i(bc ad)
c* + d*
,. ..
- 1 + - / (1 + 0(5 - 6/)
E.g. (1 + -t p+ , r
bi)
5 +6
.
(5 + 6 )(5 _ 6/)
.
5 + 6-* 11-/ 11
~~
25 + 36 ~ 61 ~61 61
Division ratio
If A, B and C are three points on a straight line, the quotient

CA .

r=r is referred to as a division ratio.
CB
If C lies between A and B, C
is said to divide the segment
AB internally. If C lies outside
the segment AB, C is said to
divide AB externally. For
interior points C the segments
CA and CB have opposite
directions and the division ratio
is given a negative value (see
Vector calculus). For exterior
points C the segments CA and
CB have the same direction
Fig. 136 and the division ratio is positive.
178
DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE
If C
coincides with A the division ratio is 0. As approaches C
B, the division ratio tends to +00 or 00 according as C
approaches from the exterior or the interior of the segment
AB. In Fig. 136 the division ratio of a segment is taken as
ordinate and the distance of C from A as abscissa. The division
ratio remains unaltered under affine transformations (see Trans-
formation, affine).
Dodecahedron
Dodecahedra are solids bounded by twelve surfaces. In the
case of rhombic dodecahedra, these are twelve rhombuses, and
in the case of pentagon dodecahedra (pentadodecahedra) twelve
regular pentagons. The pentadodecahedron is one of the so-called
Platonic solids (see below).
Duplication of the cube

The duplication of the cube, or Delic problem, is the problem
of constructing with ruler and compass alone the edge of a cube
having twice the volume of a cube with given edge. It has been
studied since the fifth century B.C. In spite of its apparent sim-
plicity it cannot be solved by these elementary methods, but
attempts to solve it have led to important advances in mathe-
matics.
c = 2-718,281,828....
The number e is the limit of the sequence with general term
>.-(-r
The term e for this limiting value derives from Leonhard Euler
(1731).
Properties of the number e

1. The number e is also the limiting value of the sequence
a=[ l+ '
n)
179
ELLIPSE
2. For all natural numbers n we have:
H)"<<HP
e=
l( + Ti + ki + k + h + --- + $-
3 -
1
e can be quickly calculated to any desired degree of accuracy by

using this last series, the terms of which diminish rapidly; e.g.
for n =
12 we already have an approximation accurate to 9
places of decimals:
e = 2-718,281,828.
4. e is a transcendental number (proved by Charles Hermite,
1873).
5. e is the base of the exponential function y = e
x
(see below).
Ellipse
An ellipse may be defined as the locus of points, the sum of

whose distances from two fixed points Ft and F2 (the foci) is
constant and equal to 2a. The mid-point of the line segment

F
F 2 is the centre O
of the ellipse (see Conic sections). If we
construct on the straight line through F
x and F2 segments of
length a on either side of O, we obtain the end points A x and A 2
of the major axis of the ellipse. The perpendicular to the major
axis through O cuts the ellipse in points Bx and B2 , the end points
of the minor axis of the ellipse. The points Bx and B2 are distant
b from the centre of the ellipse and each is distant a from each
of the foci. If e2 = a2 b 2, e is called the eccentricity of the
ellipse (also, focal distance), and is equal to the distance from a
focus to the centre of the ellipse. The ellipse is symmetric with
respect to both its axes. It is a closed curve. For the construction
of the ellipse see below and Conic sections.
Particular equations of the ellipse
1. Central equation. If the coordinate system is chosen so that

the origin of the system is the centre of the ellipse and the co-
ordinate axes coincide with the axes of the ellipse (the abscissa
axis being the major axis), we can derive the central equation
180
ELLIPSE
from the definition of the ellipse (see above; expressed as a

formula, it is px + p2 = 2a):
a2
+ b2 ~ lm
2. Equation of the ellipse with arbitrary centre. If the centre of

the ellipse does not he at the origin of the coordinate system but
has coordinates 0(xm , y m), and if the axes are parallel to the
coordinate axes, the equation is:
(x - xj 2
(y - yJ _ 2
a2 + &2 - 1-
3. Vertex equation of the ellipse. If a vertex of the ellipse lies
at the origin of the coordinate system and the centre of the

ellipse lies on the abscissa axis then the ellipse has the equation:
(x - a? 2
_
a 2 + yb* ~
,
l-
This equation can be expanded to read:
Jy
2 = a x
2&2 62
o
a2
x\
b2
If we put = p, -e = e, p being termed the parameter and s the
numerical eccentricity of the ellipse, the vertex equation reads:
/ = 2px - (1 - eV-
(Cf. the general apse equation of a conic section in the article
Curves of second order.) p and e are positive numbers, and since
we are dealing with an ellipse e is less than 1.
Length of the focal distances (Fig. 137): If the point P{xx ,y^
x2 y
2
lies on the ellipse with equation -g + j = 1, the focal distances
PFX and PF2 are P^ = Pl = a xx =a exx and PF2 =

e
p2 = a + -x 1
=a+ e.xv
181
ELLIPSE
X^ V2
Affine relation between circle and ellipse: The ellipse - + jz = 1
can be obtained as an affine transformation of the circle

x2 + y2 = a2 (or as an affine transformation of the circle
x2 +y = b
2 2
).
The circle x2 + y2 = a2
the circle on the major axis of the
is
ellipse; it two vertices of the ellipse. The circle

passes through the
x2 + y2 = b2 is the circle on the minor axis. Let a radius OPK
of the circle on the major axis cut the circle on the minor axis
in the point R. Draw through R

the line parallel to the x-axis
and through PK
the line parallel to the /-axis. Let the two lines
intersect in the point PE , and let the foot of the perpendicular
from P on the x-axis be Q.
K
By the first theorem on rays PK 0:RO = PK Q:PE Q. Let the
coordinates of PK be (x,yK) and of PE be (x,yE). Then Q has
coordinates (x, 0). We have yK 'yE = PK O.RO = a:b, that is,
b
ys ~ yK- Since
PK lies on the circle x2 + y2 = a2 we have
,
t.% L2
y\â2 -x 2
and so y% = ^ y\ = -% {a - x2 2
), that is,
_l
+ y*i
6 ~
i
'
a2 2
We have therefore proved: If PK (x,yK) is a point on the

circle x2 + y2 = a2 and if we shorten the ordinate of this point
182
ELLIPSE
in the ratio b:a(b <a), the resulting point PE with coordinates
x ~ym )
> ues on the ellipse with axes a and b (Fig. 138).
\
Wesay that the ellipse is the affine image of the circle on its
major axis. Constructions for tangents to an ellipse and for
conjugate diameters of an ellipse can be derived from the pro-
perties of the affine transformation.
1.Point by point construction of the ellipse. We draw the
circles on the major and minor axes and construct points on the
ellipse (Fig. 138) as already described above.
Fig. 138 Fig. 139
2. To construct the tangent at a point PE of an ellipse (Fig.

139). Draw through PE the line parallel to the y-axis. This cuts
the circle on the major axis in the point PK Draw the tangent
.
to the circle at PK and let it intersect the x-axis in the point T.

Then the line TPE is the required tangent.
Conjugate diameters.
3. A
chord of an ellipse is called a
diameter if it passes through the centre of the ellipse.
Given the circles on the two axes
of an ellipse and two diameters
PkQk an d SKRK of the circle on
the major axis perpendicular to
one another. Construct the points
on the ellipse PE and SE corre-
sponding to the points PK and SK
(Fig. 140), and draw the straight
lines through these points and
the centre of the ellipse. These
are conjugate diameters of the Fig. 140
183
i
ELLIPSE
and they arise, by affine transformation, from two per-

ellipse,
pendicular diameters of the circle on the major axis.
Ellipse and straight line

1. Discriminant of the ellipse. The coordinates of the points of
intersection of a straight line y = mx + n and the ellipse
x2 y2
ZH + 72 = 1 are obtained as solutions of the system of equations:
I. y = mx + n,
X2 V2
a2 b2
The solutions are:
*i.2
== -"
T~,
2
b
a2mn
-
+arm22 bT9~,
2
m2 VcPmr
ab
+ aF~9
y
2
n + 2
b 2'.
Jl.2 ~ l2~lb n 2~~2 =t TT~,abm2~~2 V w2 2 + 62 ,

2
fl .
By means of the discriminant D = a2m2 + b2 n2 we can

now decide whether the line y = mx + n cuts the ellipse in two,
one, or no points. We have:
for D == a2m2 + b2 n2 > two points of intersection;

for D a m2 + b2 n2 =
2
one point of intersection, that is,
the line is a tangent;

for D = a m2 + %
b2 n2 < no point of intersection.
2. Tangents to an A line j> = mx + n
ellipse with given gradients.
2 2
with given gradient m is tangent to the ellipse
^ + 1^ = if the 1
discriminant is zero, if n 2 = a2m 2 + b 2 that

i.e. if , is,
k= Va2m2 + 62 .
A tangent to the ellipse with given gradient m must therefore

have equation
y = mx Va m + b2 2 2
.
3. Tangents to an ellipse at a given point Px(x y-^. The gradient

Xi
of the tangent at the point Px is given, by differentiation, as
184
: J
ELLIPSE
b 2X
2"^. From this gradient together with the coordinates of Pt
we obtain the equation of the tangent as:
ei2 j_ yii-iim
a
"*"
b2 ~
Where the centre is not at the origin but at the point (xm y), ,
the equation is
(*i-*J(*-*J + , Oi - 7JO - yJ _1 .....

,
-
a2 b2
4. Polar of a point P (xQ , j ) with respect to an ellipse. The

polar of P with respect to an ellipse is the straight line which
passes through both points of contact of the tangents from P
to the ellipse. The equation of the polar has the same form as
the tangent equation given under 3, that is:
a2
+ yy-
eo_l
b2 ~ 1
li
or more generally,
- xj(x - xj - yJO - y
(*o
a2 + Oq b2
~ 1'
5. Conjugate diameters of the ellipse. A straight line through

the centre of an ellipse is called a diameter of the ellipse. The
mid-points of all chords of the ellipse with given slope m lie on
-b 2
the straight line y = -j x, which passes through the centre
and so is a diameter of the ellipse. The lines y = mx and
-b 2
y = -jj x are conjugate diameters. The tangents at the end-
points of a diameter of an ellipse are parallel to the conjugate

diameter.
General theorems on the ellipse
1. The tangent and normal at a point P of the ellipse bisect

the angle which the focal lines through P make with one another.
2. The of the perpendiculars from a focus onto the tangents
feet
of the ellipse lie on the circle on the major axis. The mirror image
185
:
EQUALITY SIGN
of a focus with respect to a tangent lies on the circle with radius

2a described about the other focus.
3. The product of the distances of the foci from a tangent is
constant, and equal to b% .
4. The ellipse is the locus of points whose distance from a

fixed point (a focus) bears a constant ratio e to its distance from
a2 a
a fixed line (the directrix). The directrix has equation x = =
5. An ellipse and the hyperbola confocal with it intersect at
right angles (an ellipse and a hyperbola are confocal if they have
the same foci).
Construction of tangents to an ellipse
(a) At a point of the ellipse. We draw the two focal lines of the
point and bisect the angle between one of them and the extension
of the other.
(b) From a point outside the ellipse. Draw from the given point
P the straight line through one of the foci F2 of the ellipse, and
describe the Thales circle on the segment PF2 This . cuts the circle
on the major axis of the ellipse in the points H which
lie on the
required tangents (by theorem 3

above). The straight lines
through P and Hlt and P and
H 2 are the required tangents.
If we construct the perpen-
dicular to a tangent through H x
and extend it to meet the
circle with radius 2a and centre
Fx in G, then the straight line
through G and F cuts the
tangent in its point of contact
Fig. 141 B (Fig. 141).
Equality sign
If the equality sign *=' occurs between two mathematical
expressions it means on the right and left
that the expressions
hand sides of the equality sign are equal. The following laws hold
for the relation of equality
186
EQUATIONS
1. Every quantity is equal to itself:
a = a (Reflexivity).
2. Right and left hand sides in an equality may be inter-

changed:
a = b implies b a (Symmetry).
3. If two quantities are equal to a third, they are equal to one
another
a = b and b = c implies a = c (Transistivity).
Two quantities which are not equal to one another are called
unequal (sign: =#).
The equality sign does not signify that two quantities which
are equal are necessarily identical in form, e.g. 7 = jr
Equations
Anequation implies the judgement, or the establishing of the
fact that, two mathematical quantities are equal to one another.
We distinguish between identical equations (see below), con-
ditional equations (see below) and functional equations (see
functions).
1. Identical equations
An identical equation (identity) asserts that two given constant
mathematical expressions are equal, e.g.
2 + 2 = 4, a + b = b + a.
2. Conditional equations
any number in an equation is unknown we call such an
If
equation a conditional equation. The unknown is usually denoted
by one of the last letters of the alphabet, x, y or z. If such an
equation is given, the problem arises of determining the unknown
x so that the meaning of the equation is fulfilled, e.g.
x - 5 = 4.
187
EQUATIONS
x is to be determined so that 4 is the difference x 5. We must

take for x the number 9 in order that the equation be satisfied.
x =9 is called a solution or root of the equation. More than one
unknown can arise in an equation. We speak then of equations
with several unknowns (see Equations, linear systems of; Dio-
phantine equations).
Types of conditional equation. We distinguish between algebraic
equations (see below) and equations which are not algebraic (see
Transcendental equations). In an algebraic equation the known
and unknown quantities are associated together by means of
algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi-
sion and raising to a power, the last being merely a shortened
way of writing a multiplication) alone.
Example: x5 + 4x? + 4x + 1 = 0.
For the classification of algebraic equations, see below.
Transcendental (non-algebraic) equations contain transcen-
dental functions of the unknowns, thus, e.g.
1. Exponential equations, + x = 2X e.g. lO*
2. Logarithmic equations, e.g. log x + 5 = log x + x2

3. Trigonometric equations, e.g. sin x = cos x 0-5
See Transcendental equations, Exponential equations, Logarithmic

equations and Trigonometric equations.
Differential equations (see above) (ordinary and partial) are
conditional equations for unknown functions.
Algebraic equations
A. With one unknown. The standard form of these equations is
n-1 w~2 =
O*
M
tfi* + 2* + -i* o + 0. + +
Here x is the unknown, n a given fixed positive integer and
ax , fl j
2 > an-X> a n
are given fixed numbers, n is called the degree of the equation

and we speak of equations of the
1st degree {linear equations) 3x 5=
2nd degree (quadratic equations) 2x 3x + 5
2
188
EQUATIONS
3rd degree (cubic equations) 3x? 2x + 2x = 2

1
4th degree (biquadratic equations) 5x* x* + 2x* x + = 1
and in general of equations of the nth degree.

B. With several unknowns. In the general case such an equation
contains terms of the form
ak x n ym . . .z p .
Here ak is a fixed number, x, y, z, . . . are unknowns. The sum

of the exponents of a term, n +m+ . . . + p is called the degree
of the term, e.g.
x2y2z* + x3 + yx* + z6 + 5 = 0.
The first term is of degree 6, the second of degree 3, etc. The
equation itself is of degree 6.

Equations in which all terms are of the same degree are said
to be homogeneous, e.g.
xi + xzy+yi =
is homogeneous, of degree 4.
Of particular importance are equations of the first degree in
several variables, e.g.
5x + 6y-7z + 3u = 0.
There are called linear equations. They arise in number theory
as diophantine equations (see above) and above all in analytical
geometry (see above).
C. Systems of algebraic equations. If more than one equation
is given for the determination of the unknowns, we speak of a
system of equations.
The unknowns can be uniquely determined only if the number
of unknowns is equal to the number of equations. With more
equations than unknowns, we become involved in problems of
the Calculus of Observations (see above).
General theorems on algebraical equations of the nth degree

1. The general equation of the nth degree
V + A*"-1 + AF-*+ . . . + An =
189
EQUATIONS
is reduced by division throughout by A to the normal form
f(x) = x
n
a^ 11-1 a2x n~2 . . . a n 0,
+ + + + =
A-
where at is written for -j-
2. If the given equation /(*) has the root = xx ,f(x) can be

divided through by the linear factor (x x^),
fix) = (x- xjgfr),
say, where the degree of g(x) is 1 less than that off(x).
3. Every algebraic equation with rational coefficients
xn + a^"-1 + . . . + an =
has at least one (real or complex) root xx (Fundamental theorem
of algebra).
4. If f(x) is divisible by (x x^f but not by (x Xj)
r+1
, x is

called an r-fold root.
5. As a consequence of 2, 3 and 4 we have: Every equation of
the nth degree has exactly n roots, each root being counted
according to its multiplicity.
6. If xlt x2 x3 , , . . ., xn are the roots of the equation f(x) =*
then
fix) = (x Xj)(x XjX* Xg) . . . (x xj
(decomposition into linear factors).
7. The following relations hold between the coefficients and
the roots of the equation f(x) 0: =
i = (*i + *2 + *3 + + xn)
&2 ~ t(î^2 X^X^ + ' . . . + X^X^ + X _iXn)
. . . r
Q$ [XjXypCs + XyXejXi -f~ . + X^X^X^ T

. .
Viete's
relations.
T Xn_2^n_iXfJ
dn ( 1) XjX^X^ Xn
In words The coefficient of
:
1
x"- is equal to the negative sum of the roots.
x"-2 is equal to the positive sum of products of roots taken two
at a time.
190
EQUATIONS
x""3 is equal to the negative sum of products of roots taken

three at a time.
x"-4 is equal to the positive sum of products of roots taken four
at a time.
-
In general, x" * is equal to ( l)k times the sum of products of
roots taken k at a time.
The constant term is the product of all the roots, with sign
(-D w .
equation/fr) =
8. If an with real coefficients has the complex
root = a + ib, also
x1 it has the conjugate complex number
x2 a ib as a solution.
9. The general equation of the nth. degree, n > 4, is not soluble
by means of radicals, i.e. for such equations there is no solution-
formula by which the solutions can be calculated from the
coefficients by rational operations and the extraction of roots.
For equations of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th degrees, such general
methods of solution do exist.
However, special forms of the equation of the th degree can
be solved by radicals, e.g. binomial equations (see below) and
symmetrical equations of the 5th and 7th degrees.
Solution of equations with one unknown

An equation is said to be solved when all numbers have been
determined which, when substituted for x in the equation, satisfy
it. These numbers are called solutions, or roots, of the equation.
For special equations (algebraic equations of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd

and 4th degrees, symmetrical equations, binomial equations) there
are procedures for solution. All such methods of solution start
from the normal form of the equations, and so in such cases the
equation must first be brought into suitable normal form. For
this purpose the following rules are useful. Note that all equations
remain true if their left- and right-hand sides are subjected to
the same procedures of calculation. These general rules also
illustrate the rules for solution of particularly simple conditional
equations.
Addition of the same number to left and right:
x-2= 4
+2 +2
x = 6.
191
: :
EQUATIONS
Subtraction of the same number:

x + 5= 10
-5 -5
x = 5.
Multiplication by the same number:
j = 3, so, multiplying by 4, we have
x = 12.
Division by the same number (other than 0)
7x = 63, so, dividing by 7, we have

x= 9.
Raising to equal powers or taking roots of equal orders:
4x2 = 36, -Vx = 2,

so 2jc = 6. so x sss 8.
Taking the logarithm of both sides:
2 = 37.
X
so jc log 2 = log 37.
Interchange of the two sides:
a + x = 2b c and
2b c a + x are equivalent.
7%e following examples illustrate the application of these rules

in bringing an equation to normal form:
1. Equations in which the unknown occurs in the denominator
of a fraction:
Z l T
2 h - == 7. Least common denominator:
8*-24^ x-3 2* -6
8(x - 3).
We multiply numerator and denominator of all fractions so that

each possesses the denominator 8(x 3)
9x+\ 2 8(x - 3) 8(jc + 5)
. 4(9* - 7)
8*-24 + 8* -24 + 8*-24
*
8x - 24
192
EQUATIONS
Now we multiply the whole equation by the common denomina-

tor, obtaining an equation of the first degree:
9x +1+ 16(jc - 3) + 8(jc + 5) = 4(9* - 7).
We multiply out and add corresponding numbers:
gx +i+ 16* - 48 + 8* + 40 = 36* - 28,

that is, 33* - 7 = 36* - 28.
We add 7 to both sides of the equation and subtract from both

sides 36x:
-3* = -21.
Finally, we divide through by 3:

x = 7.
2. Equations in which the unknown enters under a root sign:

Only in special cases do these equations lead to equations of the
first degree. Here is an example in which we arrive at a quadratic
equation:
V5 + x - V5 - x = 2.
We square the equation:

5 + X + 5-X- 2V(5 + *)(5 - x) = 4.
We then rearrange the equation so that the root is isolated on
one side of it:
2V(5 + x)(5 - x) = 6
and square once more:

4(5 + x)(5 - jc) = 36.
We calculate the product and divide through by 4:

25 - x = 9.2
In this way we reach a quadratic equation
X2 _ 16 =
with solutions
xx = +4
and x2 4 -
193

EQUATIONS
In such 'root-equations' it is essential to test possible solutions

in the original equation. We substitute the calculated value
xx =4 for x in the original equation; if an identical equation
arises, x1 is a solution of the root-equation.
V5 + 4- V5-^4 = 2
is evidently true, so xx = 4 is a solution.
But if we = 4 for x we have,
substitute xx
VT-4 - V5 + 4 = 1 - 3 = -2,
so x2 = 4 is not a solution.
Methods of solution for algebraic equations
(1) Equations with one unknown
Equations of the first degree (linear equations with one
(a)
unknown) Equations of the first degree contain the quantity to
:
be determined raised at most to the first power. The normal form

of these equations is:
ax + b = 0.
We refer to ax as the linear term and to b as the constant term.
Example: Ax 8 = 0.
To solve this type of equation we subtract b from both sides,
obtaining ax = b. Finally we divide each side by a, which
gives x = -b
Example: If 4x 8 = 0,
then 4* = 8,
that is, x 2.
(b) Equations of the second degree (quadratic equations with
one unknown): Equations of the second degree contain the
unknown raised at most to the second power. The normal form
of these equations is
x2 + px + q = 0.
2
Here x is the square term, px the linear term and q the constant
term. If p =
0, no linear term is present, and we have a pure
quadratic equation; ifp #= 0, we have a mixed quadratic equation.
194
EQUATIONS
Example: x 2 9= is a pure quadratic equation;
x 2
+ 5jc 10 = is a mixed quadratic equation.
Solution of the pure quadratic equation.

In the equation xz +q == we can subtract q from both sides
to obtain: x2 q. = On extracting the root we have:
xx = +V~^q or x2 = Vq.
Examples:
x2 -9 = 0, *2 +4= 0,
or x2 = 9, or x2 = 4,
that jq =
is, 3 that x1 =
is, +2/
and x = 2
3. and x2 = 2/.
A pure quadratic equation has two solutions, jcx and x2 These

.
differonly in sign. If the constant term of the pure quadratic

equation is positive the equation has two so-called imaginary
solutions which also differ only in sign.
Solution of the mixed quadratic equation

x2 + px + q = 0.
In this equation we first subtract q from both sides, giving
x 2
+ px = q.
Now we 'complete the square', i.e. we add the number I I to

each side of the equation ^P'
2
**+/ + = -?+()*
(f)
The left hand side of this equation is identical with
(ff
and so the equation now reads
195
:
EQUATIONS
By taking the square root of both sides of the equation we get
x +P
Finally we now = from both sides

subtract ^ side of the equation. The
solutions of the mixed quadratic equation are therefore
P P
*1== -2 +
, IIP?
Vl2J-"-?'
_
*2= 2 J&-
The following solution formula is widely used: The quadratic
equation
ax2 + bx +c=
has solutions:
2 - - 2-
%\ -b + Vb <%
Aac
>
' Xa2 -b Vb Aac
2a 2a
Example 1: x2 x 30 = 0. Here p = 1, q = 30,
SO Xi
that is
_1 /121_, _1 /121
Example 2: 5x2 lOx 120 = 0. Here a = 5, 6 = 10,

c = 120, so
10 + VlOO -4.5 (-120) 10 + VlOO + 2400

*1_ ~
10 10
10 + 50
= 6,
10
10 - VlOO-
- 4. 5(- 120) = 10 - VlOO
- + 2400
and*2
10-50
10
196
EQUATIONS
Every quadratic equation has two solutions which can be either

differentreal numbers, the same real number, or conjugate
complex numbers, depending on the value of the discriminant
D= b2 - Aac.
If b2
Aac is positive we have two different real solutions; if
#2 ___ 4 ac
o we have a real double-solution; if b
2 Aac is
negative the equation has two conjugate complex solutions.
Example 1: \2x + 5 = 0. In this case

Ax2
#s _ 4ac = 122 - 4 4 5 = 144 - 80 = 64,
. .
that is, b2 Aac is positive, so there are 2 different real solutions,

viz.
_5
2 _1
Xi *2 ~" 2"
Example 2:
Ax2 - \2x + 9 = 0; b2 - Aac = 122 -4 . 4 . 9 = 0,
thus we have a real double-root, v/z.
Xi
_
x2 _32*

Example 3:
Ax2 - 12x+ 13 = 0; 62 - Aac = 122 -4 . 4 . 13 = 144-208
is negative, so we have 2 conjugate complex roots, viz.
3
3 .. _
Note that if atx and x2 are solutions of the quadratic equation

x2 +px + q = 0,
we have xx + x2 = /?; Xj^ = ^.
Equations of the third degree (cubic equations with one
(c)
unknown) Equations of the third degree contain the unknown
:
raised at most to the third power. The normal form of these

equations is
xz + ax2 + bx + c = 0.
197
EQUATIONS
By the substitution x=j-rwe obtain from the normal form

the reduced form
/ + Ipy + 2q = 0,
where
3p =" + b* and 2? = ~T+ c'

J 27
Solution of the reduced cubic equation
1. Cardan's formula (published 1545). If 2
q + p3 ^ 0, we first
calculate the (real) quantities:
u = W- q + Vq2 +p\ v = ^- ? - V^+p:

The solutions of the reduced equation are then:
yx = u + v
u + v i /- ,
2 ^2
= u + V -.L.V3.(u-v).
7s
2 2
2. Trigonometrical solutions (p # 0, q # 0):
(l)?2 +/> 3 ;>0.
(a) /> > 0. From the equations
*
tan jl
= +V?
and ,,
tan w = J7tan ?
q N 2
we evaluate the angles < and ip which Ue in the intervals
--<$<-
7T 7T
and
77
_- <v,<_. 77
The solutions of the reduced equation can then be expressed as:
yx = 2 V/Tcot 2\p
iV3
198
- ^
EQUATIONS
(b) p < 0. From the equations

y-r
p V 3 8
6
sin < = , tan ip = J/tan -r
we evaluate <f>
and tp, where
--<0<- 77" 77"
;
77"
-4 < ^ < 4*
77"
The solutions of the reduced equation are then
yx = -2 \f~p sin
2y>
^= Y^(ih^2^ +
VIco,2'') ''
(2) (f + />
3
<! (irreducible case).
We evaluate the angle j> from the equation
cos <j> = j , taking ^ in the II quadrant, if q is positive,

+ ^ "~P and < in the I quadrant, if q is negative.
The solutions of the equation can then be expressed as:
Ji = 2V-p / cos
<k
72 =-2a/^cos^ + 60)
j3 = -2V^cos(|-60).
The cubic equation therefore possesses
1. Three real and diiferent solutions if q2 + /j

3
< 0,
2. Three real solutions, of which at least two are equal, if
q*+p* = 0,
3. One real and two conjugate complex solutions ifq2 + pz > 0.
199
EQUATIONS
Example 1: x? + 6x* 60a: 416 = 0. We have a = 6 and

to obtain the reduced equation we put x = y 2.
Then (y - 2)
3
= f - 6/ + 12j - 8
6(>-2) 2 = + 6j -24y + 24 2
-60(y - 2) = - 60y + 120

-416= -416
The reduced equation therefore reads
f _ 72y - 280 =
with/? = - 24, f = -13,824, Therefore: 3p = - 72,
and ^ = -140, ?2 = -19,600. 2q = -280,
and q 2
+f = 5776.
We take
= "^140 +
u \Z5776 = \^140 + 76 = ^216 = 6
and y = ^140 - V5776 = -^140-76 = ^64 = 4,
and the solutions of the reduced equations are therefore:
yx = u +v=6+ 4 = 10,
J2 = 2~ + 2 (" - y) = -5 + /A/3,
J3 = j 2
^ (" - y) = -5 - iV3.
Putting x =7 2 we have as solutions of the original equation:
xx == 7 + iVJ; x3 + 7 - iVJ.
8; at
2
Example 2: x + 3x2 36* + 36 = 0. We have a =

3
3 and
so we put x = y 1. Then
- 1)3 = f _ 3y2 + 3y- 1
3(y-l) = + 3/- 6^+ 3 2
-360 - 1) = - 36_y + 36
+ 36 = +_36
200
EQUATIONS
and the reduced equation therefore reads
f _ 39y + 74 = Therefore: 3p = -39,
with p = - f = -2197,
13, 2? = 74,
= = ? +/ =
2 2 -828.
and q 37, ? 1369. and
(This is the irreducible case.)
37
We therefore put
r cos d> = r
V2197
log = 1-5682
37
= 3-3418
log 2197
0-5 log 2197 = 1-6709
so that log (- cos = 9-8973 -

<f>)
10
and therefore 142 8'

4*
(in the II quadrant, since q is positive).
The solutions of the

reduced equation original equation
are therefore are therefore
yx = 2VT3 cos 47 23' = 4-881 xx = 3-881

y2 = -2\Zl3 cos 107 23' = 2-154 x = 1-154
2
yz = -2Vl3 cos (-12 370 = -7-035 3 =

jc -8-035
(d) Equations of the fourth degree (biquadratic equations):

Equations of the fourth degree contain the unknown raised at
most to the fourth power. The normal form of these equations is
x* + ex3 + bx* + ex + d = 0.
By the substitution y = x j we obtain from the normal form

the reduced equation of the fourth degree, containing no cubic
term:
/ + pf + qy + r = 0.
We isolate j4 :
f = -/>/ - qy - r.
201
EQUATIONS
We add now to both sides of the equation the expression

2
2y z + z2 where z is an unknown. We get
,
/ + 2y z + z = 2 a
-pf ~qy- r + 2fz + z\
and so {f + z) = y\2z -/>) qy + za - r.
2
We now choose z so that the expression on the right hand side

of this equation becomes a perfect square. For this we must have
a
2
qy
equal to twice the product of y and
2?
j- r , and so the
equation for z is
q
2 = 4(z2 r)(2z p) t the cubic resolvent.
This cubic resolvent is an equation of the third degree in z, and

can therefore be solved. If zlt z2 and z3 are the solutions, then the
solutions of the reduced equation of the fourth degree are
y = V7t Vzz Vzg,
where the signs are so chosen that
Vz[ . V7 V7 = - |.
2 .
3
Binomial equations. An equation of the form xn a ** is
called a binomial equation. The equation
xn = 1 = cos Ikir + / sin Tkir (k any integer)

has n roots
2.0. IT 2.0.7T
*i1 = cos V
.
i
.
sin
n n
x4 cos
2tt
n
1- 1
.
sin n
2ir
2.2.7T . 2.2.7T
x8a = cos r- 1 sin
n
, . . .,
n
2(n 2>r 2(n 2>r

x w_x = cos + a
/
.
sin
2( - l>r . . 2( - l>r
^n = cos [ i sin
n

n
202
EQUATIONS
The equation
xn - -1 = cos (2k + \}rr + i sin (2fc + IV (A: any integer)
has n roots:
w .77 37T ... 3rr
x, = cos - + /I
/ sm -,
w
x2 cos T

+ ' sin "T

jr3 = cos
57T
n
1-
.
1
.
sm
57T
n
, . . .,
(In - 1)tt (2/i - 1)tt

xn = cos +
.
*
.
sm
Example 1: x* =+ 1 ; the roots are
xx = cos + i sin =+ 1, x2 = cos tt + / sin tt = 1.

Example 2: x* 1 ; the roots are
7T 7T 37T 3?T
= y=
.
Xj = cos x + z
.
sm r +*,
.
*2 = cos -r- + i
.
sm *
Example 3: x* = +1; the roots are ^= 1,
x2 - cosy + /sin y - cos 120 + / sin 120 = -j+ 5 VJ,
x8 = cos y + /sin y - cos 240 + i sin 240 = - i - ^ VJ.
Example 4: x? = 1 ; the roots are
7T 7T 1 I /""
*! =s cos r + i sin r = cos 60 + 1 sin 60 = = + x V 3,
*i- 1.
x3 = cos y + /sin y cos 300 + / sin 300 =*+-_- \/3.
Example 5: The equation xn a = 0, a positive, can now be
solved in the following way. We put
xn =s a =a . (cos 2for + / sin 2kir).
203
1
EQUATIONS
By tfa we denote the real positive th root of a. It follows by

de Moivre's theorem that
xx = tfa (cos + i sin 0)
- /
x2 = Va
n/
I cos
2tt
\- i
.
sin n
2tt\
)
\ J
- /
Xod = Va
n/
I cos
AlT
n
H i
.
sin n
47r\
)
\ J
xnB = va I cos
n
V i sin
n
}
\ J
The solutions of the equation xn + a 0, a positive, corre-

spondingly read
x* =b -â ( cos - + / sin -
t 7m
x2
n/
= va I cos H i
.
sin 7>tt\
I
-( (2 - 1)tt (2n - \)tt)

x = Vay -
cos h
.
i
.
sm j
Integral solutions of algebraic equations of the nth degree with

integral coefficients
We note first that the solutions of an algebraic equation of the
wth degree with integral coefficients, the coefficient of x n being
unity, e.g.
x3 - 6x2 + 11* - 6 = 0,
are either integral numbers, irrational numbers or complex
numbers, but never rational non-integral numbers. Now the
constant term in such an equation is, by Viete's relations, the
product of all the roots, and so if an integral equation possesses
an integral root, this root must be a factor of the constant term
in the equation. In such an equation, therefore, we can take all
the factors of the constant term and determine one by one
204
EQUATIONS
whether they are solutions of the equation. If in doing this we

find no solutions of the equation, then there are no
rational
solutions of the equation. We must then use methods of approxi-

mation to find the real irrational solutions of the equation.
Example: X* - Xs - 21jc
2
+ x + 20 = 0.
The factors of the constant term are:
+ 1,-1, +2, -2, +4, -4, +5, -5, +10, -10, +20, -20.
We insert these values in turn in the equation:
x = +1;1 - 1-21 + 1 +20 = 0.
For x= +1 an identity arises. x1 = l is a root

of the equation.
x = -1;1 + -21 -1 +20 = 0.

1
For x = the equation is 1 satisfied. x2 = 1 is the

second root.
x = - 8 - 84 + 2 + 20 = -54.
+2; 16
x = +2 is not a root of the equation.
x = -2; 16 + 8 - 84 - 2 + 20 = -42.
x = 2 not a root of the equation.
is
x = +4; 256 - 64 - 336 + 4 + 20 = -120.

x = 4 not a root of the equation.
is
x = -4; 256 + 64 - 336 - 4 + 20 = 0.

For x = 4 the equation is satisfied. *3 = 4 is the
third root of the equation.
x = +5; 625 - 125 - 525 +5+ 20 = 0.

x = 5 is the fourth root of the equation.
Hence the four roots of the equation have been found.

If the equation is not given in normal form, then we must first
express it in this form. If
Ofpc" + a^""1 + a^~% + . . . + an =

205
EQUATIONS
is the given equation, we must multiply through by ag-1

first
and then write z in place of a^. We then have the following
equation:
zn + axz^ + azatf n-* + a^^ + . . . + a^r1 = 0.

If we know a solution, zlt of this equation, we can obtain a
solution of the original equation by putting xx =

Example: lOx 3
+ 7x - Ax - = 0.
2
1
Multiply through by 100:
(10x)3 + 7 . (10*)
2
- 40 . 10* - 100 = 0.
We write lOx = z and obtain:
2? + 7Z2 _ 40z ~ 100 * 0.
The factors of 100 are:
+ 1,-1, +2, -2, +4, -4, +5, -5, +10, -10, +20, -20,
+25, -25, +50, -50, +100, -100.
We insert these values in the equation:
= +1; 1 + 7 - 40 - 100 ^ (no solution),
z
z = -1; -1 + 7 + 40 - 100 ^ (no solution),

z = +2; 8 + 28 - 80 - 100 # (no solution),
z = -2; -8 + 28 + 80 - 100 = 0;
zx 2 is a root of the equation.
Instead of continuing this procedure, we can divide the left

hand side of the equation by the linear factor z 2: +
+
(z3 7z2 - 40z - 100) -j- (z + 2) = z + 5z - 50,
2
-(z3 + 2z2)
5z2 - 40z
-(5z2
+ lOz)
-50z - 100
-(-50z - 100)
206
EQUATIONS
and find the remaining two solutions from the equation:
z2 + 5z - 50 = 0.
This has solutions
z2 = +5, z3 = 10.
Lastly, we obtain from zlf z2 and z3 :
_-2___l _i__l _n[?

Xl "~
10
~ 5'
*2 ~~ ~ 10 2'
*3 ~ 10 ~
Symmetrical equations
An equation is called reciprocal or symmetrical if the reciprocal
value of every root is also a root.
xjc+l=0isa
Example: x2 reciprocal equation since it
has solutions x 2 and x2 = .

t
Every reciprocal equation of odd degree has as one root either

*! =+ 1 or jcj = 1.
If we write - in place of x everywhere in a reciprocal equation,
the equation transforms into itself, and every reciprocal equation

is therefore symmetrical in its coefficients. Every reciprocal
equation of odd degree is divisible by x 1 or x 1 ; it then +
becomes a reciprocal equation of even degree. If we divide a
reciprocal equation of degree 2n (2n is always even if n is a natural
number) through by xn then the equation
A 2nXr + AznîX + . . . + A nX + A n_%X + . . .
+Ax+A = x
becomes:
^2nX + A 2n-\Xn~ + . . . + A n + A n_1 . - . . .
+ M^r + M9"=-
On account of the symmetry of the coefficients, we can associate
207
EQUATIONS
the first with the last term, the second with the next to the last,
and so on, and write
or
X +-= XX U, X2 + \2 = W2 - 2, X3 + 3
Xs
= W3 - 3w,' . . .,
'
x -i= u, x2 +|= 2
2 + 2, x3 - i = a3 + 3, . . ..
We obtain then an equation of degree n with unknown w. If we

can find the solutions ux , u2 , ., u n of this equation, we can
. .
calculate the roots of the original equation.
Example: 6x 5 + llx4 - 33X3 - 33x2 + 11* + 6 = 0.

By substitution we establish that x = is a solution. We
1
divide through by x + to obtain:

1
6jc* + 5X - 38x + + 6 = 0.
3 2
5x
Dividing through by x2 we get:
6x2 + 5x - 38 + X- + -s
X1
= 0.
We next collect together symmetrical terms:
Putting x +- =e u, we have
x2 + x- = 2
u2 - 2,
so that
6(u2 - 2) + 5w - 38 = 0.
The solutions of this equation are:
5 10
i = 2 "2 =- y
Then
x + - = x, giving x2 = 2, x3 =7
208
EQUATIONS, LINEAR SYSTEMS OF
and
1 10 1
x + - = - y, .
giving
.
x4 = ,
-3, *5 = -j
Equations, linear systems of

If we have to determine the values of unknowns occurring in a
number of equations which are simultaneously true, we speak of
a system of equations, e.g. a system comprising two equations
with two unknowns:
I. x + y 5,
II. x y 3.
Where more than two or three unknowns occur, it is usual to

denote the unknowns by xv x2 x3 (read: 'x-one, jc-two,
, , . . .
x-three'); e.g.
1* DX-^ *" **Xn "j" ^3 "^ 1
11* X-^ ^~ Xg == Uj
III. x2 +x = 3
1.
Two /wear equations with two unknowns

The following methods of solution are available:
A. Substitution method
B. Equating method
C. Addition method
D. Determinant method (see Determinants).
A. The Substitution method. Here we use one of the equations

to obtain the value of one of the unknowns in terms of the other,
and then substitute this value in the other equation. This provides
an equation in one unknown; e.g.
I. x + = 21, ly
II. Ax -
3y = 22.
From the first equation we obtain x = 21 ly. We substitute
this value of y in the second equation, getting
4(21 -ly)- 3y= 22,

that is, 3ly= 62,
or y = 2.
209
If we substitute back in the equation x = 21 7y, we have

x = 21 - 14 = 7,
and so the system of equations has the solution x = 7, j = 2.

B. 77ie Equating method. Here we calculate the same unknown
from each equation, e.g. x, and equate the results. In this way
we obtain an equation in one unknown, which we solve and then
obtain the value of the other unknown by substitution.
Example: I. x y = 3 giving: x = 3 +y
II. 2x + 2y = 14 giving: x = 7 y
Equating the results we have:
+ y = 7 y with the solution y = 2.

3
Substitute = 2 in equation I x 2 = 3, or x =
j> : 5. Solution
of the system is then: x = 5, y = 2.
C. Addition or Subtraction method. Here we obtain an equation
in only one of the unknowns by adding suitable multiples of the
original equations. The remaining unknown is calculated from
this equation and the result substituted in one of the original
equations so that the other unknown may be calculated.
Example: y = 3 (2) (numbers in brackets

I. x
+ 2y = 14 (+1) are the multiples taken)
II. 2x
2x + 2y = 6
2x + 2y = 14
Adding, we have Ay = 8,
or y = 2.

We put y 2 in equation and obtain x 2 = 3, that
I, is,
x = 5.
Three (or more) equations with three (or more) unknowns

The procedures used in systems of equations with two unknowns
can also be used for systems with more than two unknowns.
Example 1: I. 2x + 3y = 12,
II. 3x + 2z = 11,
III. 3y + Az = 10.
210
1
Using the substitution method we proceed as follows:

From equation I we obtain 3y = 12 2x. This is substituted
in equations II and III:
II. 3x + 2z = 11,
III. 12 - 2x + Az = 10.
These are two equations in two unknowns.

From equation II we obtain 2z = 11 3*. If we substitute
this in equation III:
2x + 22 -
12 6x = 10,
we get 24 = 8x, or x = 3 .
From this we can calculate z and y.

2z=ll-9 3j=12-6
z = 1 y=2
Example 2: I. x + y + z = 7,
II. 2x+y z= 14,
III. x-y =2.
Using the equating method we proceed as follows:
I. y = 7 x z,
II. j = 14 - 2x + z,
III. j = jc-2.
Equating the expressions on the right in pairs we obtain two
equations in two unknowns:
(A) x z = x 2; that 2x + z = 9
7 is,
(B) 14 2* + z = * - 2; that 3x - z = 16. is,
Equation (A) gives z = 9 2x,
equation (B) gives z = 3x 16;
equating, we have 3x 16 = 9 2*, giving
5x = 25 j = *-2 z = 9-10
*= 5 y= 5 2 z =
7=3
211
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
Example 3: I. 3x + + z= 8
2y (-2) 1
II. 2x 3y + 2z=U
+ 3
III. x- y + 2z = 6 (-3)
Using the addition method we add (2) times equation I to

3 times equation II, to give equation (A) below. We add equation
I to (3) times equation III to give equation (B).
(A) 5y + 4z= 17,
(B) 5v-5z= -10.
Subtracting equation (B) from equation (A) we have

9z = 27,
that is,
z = 3.
Substituting z = 3 in equation (A) we get
5y + 12 = 17,
that is, 5/ = 5,
y=l.
Lastly, substituting z = 3 = 1 in equation III we get
and y
jc + 6 = 6,
1
x= 1.
Equilateral triangle
of a triangle are equal it is called equilateral.
If all three sides
The three internal angles of an equilateral triangle are equal to
60. For further theorems, see Triangle.
Error
If a measurement is taken twice and the results differ, as
is likely if the measurements are read to many significant figures,

this difference is called the observation-difference d.
The so-called mean error (m*) of the observation-difference is
m * = J- = 0-707 d.
V2
212
ERROR
The error of one of a sequence of measurements can be defined
as the deviation of the single reading a n from the actual unique
true value a of the entity concerned. In the theory of error the
apparent error is the deviation from an estimate (usually the
arithmetic mean; see above) based on the totality of different
readings. An error is called systematic if it is constant and arises
from a cause which is usually recognisable {e.g. temperature
changes in the surroundings). Such an error is not considered in
the theory of error.
An accidental error is an error e, whose cause is frequently
unknown, such as to be legitimately regarded as outside our
control and unavoidable. This type of error alone is a subject
for the theory of error. Where many readings are available, its
character can be established by means of the frequency-diagram,
or histogram (see Error, theory of).
A true error is the deviation e n of a measurement a n from the
(usually unknown) true value, a, of the object measured:
en = a an .
v n (the apparent error) is the deviation of a n from the mean

value, fA lt of the differing readings: v n (jl =
1 an .
Suppose in the measurement of a quantity a the values

alt a2 ,. ., a n are observed. If a
. is the true value of the quantity
to be measured a ax = ex , a a% = e2 . ., a
,
an = e n
.
are called the true errors of the individual observations. But

usually the true value and the true error are unknown. However,
the occurrence of a large sequence of values for one and the same
measurement can serve to yield, not indeed the true value, but
the most probable estimate of it. If the frequency curve has been
demonstrated to be symmetric Gauss's method of least squares
can be used (see Method of least squares).
The probable error w is 0-674 times the standard error of the
mean (see below)
= - 674 m = - 674 JnS^T) - - 674

Jwrh-
There is the same probability that the true value lies inside or
outside the range am w.
The mean error 6 is the arithmetic mean of the individual
213
ERROR, THEORY OF
errors in a sequence of measurements taken without regard to

sign.
S =
St?
N = 0-7979m.
The standard error of the single observation an of a sequence of
measurements is for N observations
A*- VJV- 1
~ NN- 1
The standard error m of the arithmetic mean is, for N observa-

tions,
I St; 2 / [v v]
m ~ V N(N - ~~
V W(# -
1) 1)
Error, theory of
The theory of error enables one, given a large number of
observations (a n) on one and the same quantity, to calculate that
value which probably lies closest to the true and unknown value
(a). In addition it enables us to provide a measure of the accuracy
of a sequence of measurements. If the end result is given in the
form a Aa, or in numbers, e.g. as 345 3, it is important
to make clear whether (taking 3 as an example) we mean
(a) an absolute bound (tolerance); i.e. the true value certainly

lies in the range 345 3;
(b) a mean error (u) of the individual measurement;

a mean error (m) of the arithmetic mean;
a probable error (w) of the arithmetic mean,
where in the last case (w) the probabilities that the true value
lies within and outside the range 345 3, are both equal to ,
while the probability of the true value lying in double the range,
(345 6), is 95 per cent. The difference between the true value
and the observation is called the error. Since the true value is
usually unknown, the difference v between observation and arith-
metic mean is also called the error.
The theory of error deals only with accidental errors (see above).
Their nature can be investigated by means of the frequency curve.
214
EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
An example of a method in the theory of error is the Method of
least squares. For further information, see Error, Frequency
curves\ Mean value, Distribution, Method of least squares.
Escribed circle
Acircle which touches one side of a triangle externally and
touches the extensions of the other two sides is called an escribed
circle of the triangle. A
triangle has three escribed circles (see
Triangle).
Euclidean algorithm
The euclidean algorithm is a procedure for determining the
highest common factor of two numbers. If a and b are two positive
integers and a >b, then in carrying out the euclidean algorithm
we perform the following divisions:
a = q .b + r2 (0<r2 <b)
b = qi-r2 + rs (0 < r3 < rj
r2 = qa-r3 + h (0 < r4 < r
rn-2 - ?n-2 V-i + rn

(0 < r < rn_J
rn-i = qn-i -rn +
This procedure must eventually end since the remainders pro-

gressively decrease and are positive integers. The last remainder
rn is the highest common factor of the two numbers a and b.
Example: To determine the highest common factor of 693 and

147. Dividing, we have
693 = 4 147 + . 105
147 = 1 105 + . 42
105 = 2. 42+ 21
42 = 2 21 + .
The highest common factor of 693 and 147 is therefore 21.
215
EUCLID S THEOREM
Euclid's theorem
In every right-angled triangle the square on one of the shorter

sides (legs) is equal in area to the rectangle formed by the
hypotenuse and the projection of this leg on the hypotenuse;

b% cq or a 2 = cp (Fig. 142).
By means of this theorem a rectangle can be transformed into
a square of equal area. If c and q are the sides of the given rect-
angle we mark off the shorter side from one end point of the
longer (in Fig. 143 q < c). From the point thus obtained we erect
the perpendicular to the longer side ABand determine the point

of intersection, C, of this perpendicular with the Thales circle
on AB. The segment AC is the side of the required square.
In the same way Euclid's theorem can be used to transform a
square into a rectangle of equal area with one side given.
Fig. 142 Fig. 143
Euler's line
In a triangle the centre of the circumscribed circle, the ortho-

centre and the centroid (intersection of side-bisectors) all lie on a
straight line, known as Euler's line. The centroid divides the
segment between the other two points in the ratio 1 :2.
216
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
Euler's theorem on polyhedra

Euler's theorem on polyhedra is as follows: If a convex poly-
hedron has s surfaces, e edges and v vertices, then v + s = e + 2
(see Polyhedron).
Exponential equations
Exponential equations are equations in which the unknown
appears in the exponent of a power, e.g.
3
X
= 6561 ;
7*-*- 1 = 32
*-1
+ 3
2x+1
.
Simple exponential equations can be solved by taking the log-

arithm of both sides (possibly reforming the equation before
doing so, see example (ii)) e.g. ;
(i) 3
X
=
6561; take logarithms:
x . log 3 =s log 6561
0-47712.* = 3-81697
_ 3-81697
X ~
0-47712
x = 8-00002; that is, x *t 8.
(ii) 7*H = 3**H + 32*-! . take Qut the factof 32*

on the right
hand side.
Then T+1 = 3 2* L + 3 J; taking logarithms of both
sides we have
(x
( + l)log7 = 2*log3 + log (i + 3)1
that is
s
x(log7 - 21og3) - log (3 + 5)

- log 7,
or
7 10
x lo S 32 = lo g
"J
- log 7
that is,
7 10 lo g** -0-32222
*H-9 = ^Tv - n' 29524
AMil
1
1
0TXS= ==
l^J rîo9l4
-
217
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
There is no general method for the solution of exponential

equations. In difficult cases numerical or graphical methods must
be used (see False position, rule of, Newton's method of
approximation).
Exponential function
A function of the form y = ax where a
, is an arbitrary constant
greater than zero and x is variable between oo and +00, is
termed exponential.
An exponential function has the property:
If a = e we have
the important exponential function y
x
e . =
The inverse of this function y x
e is y
In x (see Fig. 144). It =
was proved by Leibniz that exponential functions are transcen-
dental (see also Infinitesimal calculus and Inverse functions).
Fig. 144
Exponential series
The exponential series
x3
1! 2! 3!
converges for all x. In particular we have
2-7182818. . . =e = +
1
1 y-j + j\ + 31 +
+ ^! +
218
FACTORISATION
With base a the exponential series reads (a a fixed positive

number)
n\
This series also converges for all values of x.
Exterior angles
The exterior angles of a polygon
lie outside the polygon and
between its sides or the extensions
of its sides; they are adjacent to
(and supplementary to) interior
angles. Since the extension can be
of either side there corresponds to
every interior angle two equal
exterior angles. The sum of either
set of exterior angles of a polygon
Fig. 145
(ax +&+ yx + bx + ex in Fig.
145) is always 360.
Factorial, n\ (read: 'n-factorial')

For positive integers n the product of the first n natural numbers
is and is written n = 1 2 3
called '^-factorial' (n 1) n.
! . . . . . .
For n = 0, 0! is defined as 1.
Examples: 1! =1 31 = 1x2x3 = 6
2! = 1x2 = 2
For large numbers the approximation n! = nn . e~n V2rin can

be used (Stirling's Formula).
Factorisation
The formation of a product from a sum is called factorisation;
e.g.
a2 + lab + b2 = (a + b)(a + b).
219
FACTORISATION
The following simple procedures can be used for finding factors

1. Factors common to several terms of a sum can be taken out.
35a 2x + - 28a3 - Uabx

15bx2
= 5Jf(7a + 3bx) - 4a(7a + 3bx)
2 2
= {la + 3bx)(5x - 4a).

2
2. Given the square of a binomial expression, the formula

a2 + lab -{-b 2 = (a + b) 2
can be compared with the given expression
9x* + 6x2 + = 1 (3jc

2
+ 1X3*
2
+ 1).
3. With the difference of two squares the following important

relation holds:
a2 -b = 2
(a + b)(a - b).
Similarly we have
a*-b3 = + ab + b )(a - b)
(a2
2
a*-b* = {a 2 - (b2) 2 = (a + b 2)(a2 - b )

2
)
2 2
= (a2 + b2)(a + b)(a - b)

= (a + ib)(a - ib)(a + b)(a - b).
If the difference of two squares is multiplied by a factor this must
first be taken out
108;cyc - 15a2c = 3c(36x2y2 - 25a 2
)
3c(6xy + 5a)(6xy 5a).
4. If we suspect we have the product of two linear factors, the

following formula can be tried
x2 + (a+ b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b),

e.g. x2 + 3jc - 10 = (x + 5)(x - 2).
5. In expressions of the form
-x -2 = f{x)
xn + axxn + a2 x n + . . . + an
a linear factor of the type x
b can often be found by taking
as b the factors of a n , and so testing each factor of a n in turn.
This should only be done when all the coefficients alt a%, . . ., a n
220
FALSE POSITION, RULE OF
are integers, e.g.
f(x) = x* - 6X3 + 3x2 + 11* - 5

= (x - 5)(x3 - x2 - 2x + 1).
False position, rule of
The rule of false position is an iterative method for the solution
of equations.
If the solutions of the conditional equation f(x) are re- =
quired, we consider the functional equation y =f(x). The zeros
of this functional equation (that is, those values of the abscissa x
in which the curve represented by the functional equation inter-
sects the x-axis) are then the solutions of the conditional equation.
If f(x) is continuous in the interval x1 < x<
x2 and y x f(x1)
! a
=
and y2 =f(x%) have opposite signs, then f(x) has at least one
zero, x in the interval xx <
x <, x2 The rule of false positions
.
yields an approximate value for this zero. But the function

y =f(x) should not have a point of inflexion in the neighbour-
hood of the point under investigation.
According to the rule, the curve
associated with the function is
replaced between the points P^x^ yx)
and P2 (x% ,y2) by the straight line
segment joining these points. Instead
of the point of intersection of the
function with the x-axis, the point
of intersection xz of the straight line
with the x-axis is taken as approxi-
mate value (see Fig. 146).
The equation of the chord through
the points Px (xx y) and P2 (x2 J2) * s
, ,
yv
_ y*~yi xY _ *i^2 - x2y x
Fig. 146
Xo ^~ X-t Xo ^ X-t
The point of intersection with the x-axis (y = 0) therefore has

the abscissa
x2 mmm X-t
*i-ji or
^172 -~ x2yi y% -yi
Xa
y*-yi X% -x 1
^2-^2
-yi
221
The representation of x3 is used for which the number subtracted

(the correction) is smaller.
Example: (Calculation of the j-value can be carried out

according to the Horner array method.) To solve the equation
x* + =
2x 5 0. We put y x? 2x =
5, and note that for +
*! = =2, v 1; for x2 2-l,y2 = 0-061. =
solution of the A
equation must therefore lie between xx 2 and x2 2-1. = =
Using the formula
X% ^1
we have
r î+ - 2094
2
*3=-2-i- -. i '
to which the corresponding value of y3 is 0-0061. The solution

must therefore lie between x3 2-094 and x2 = = 2-1. We put
again
-2-094 + 2-1 t>M4 .
Xi = -2-094 - 0-0061 = -2-0945,
Q 0061
.
+ .
061
from which j4 = +0-0006.

The solution therefore lies between x2 2-1 and x4 =
-2-0945. We put
-2-0945 + 2-094
*5 = -2-0945 - 0-0006 _
.
0006 .
006 i
= ~ 2-9455 >
from which 75 = +0-00002. We put

-2-09455 + 2-0945
*6 = -2-09455 - 0-00002 .0.00002 + 0-0006 = ~ 2 m552 '
-
x 5 and x6 do not differ in the fifth decimal place, and so to five
places the solution is x = 2-09455.
Extension of the rule offalse position

The method of the rule of false position can be improved so
that with the same number of steps a better approximation is
obtained. Instead of as above setting up a straight line segment
with two points Px {x^ Ji) and i>2 (x2 , y we now use three points.
The third point Pz(x3 , y^), is so chosen that x3 x2 x2 *,, =
222
= h (where it is assumed that x1 <; xa <; Xg). Corresponding to

x3 we must of course calculate yz =f{x^ (as above). With a new
variable t we then form the function x(f) = x + ht. This
z
function takes
for t = the value x == x2

for f =1 the value x = x2 + h = x2 + (x3 = x3 and x-j) ,
for t = 1 the value x = x2 + h( 1) = x2 (x2 Xj) = xx .
We further form the function

y(t) =^2 + 2<>3 "J +J
2 2 -7l)^ + 2 [J3 - 72 - (72 ~ 7l)]'2 -
The functions x(t) and j(') represent a parabola which passes

through the three points P^,
yj, P^x^y^ and P^x^y^. The
zero of the quadratic equation y(t) which belongs to the =
above parabola yields an approximation x(t) to the zero of the
function y = f(x).
Example: To solve the equation x3 2x + 5 = 0. We choose
x2 = 2, x2 = 2-05 and x3 = 2-1 giving
the values
= x + ht = -2-05 - 0-05/.
x(0 2
For x 2 we have ^ = x? 2xx + 5,

x y + i.e. x 1,
x2 = 2-05 we havej2 = +0-4849,

x3 = 2-1 we have yz = 0-061.
The following lay-out is convenient to use:
)y*~yi- -0-5151;
= i
-72 -0^2-7,) =
yU OW 7a -0-0308,
73
J =-0.061^-^ = ~- 5459 '
I 7s - 72 + (72 - 7i) = -1-0610.

Therefore
y(t) = 0-4849 + i (-1-0610)/ + i (-0-0308)*2 ,
that is,
y(t) = 0-4849 - 0-5305/ - 0-0154*2 .
223
feuerbach's circle
We now require those values of t for which y(t) = 0. It is sufficient

to determine an approximate value, e.g. the value of t for which
0-4849 =
0-5305/. This equation gives t 0-9140. = With this
value of t we get:
x = -2-05 - 0-05* = -2-0957,
the required approximation. Corresponding to this we have

y = -0-0154*2 = -0-013.
Feuerbach's Circle (1800-1834, Erlangen)

The circle of Feuerbach (the nine-point circle of a triangle) is
determined by the three mid-points of the sides of a triangle. In
addition, it passes through the feet of the three altitudes, and
through the three points midway between the orthocentre (the
intersection of altitudes) and the vertices. The Feuerbach circle
touches the three escribed circles and the incircle of the triangle.
The radius of the Feuerbach circle is equal to half the radius of
the circumscribed circle, its centre lies on Euler's line and forms,
together with the centre of the circumscribed circle, the ortho-
centre and the centroid, a harmonic range of points.
Folium of Descartes
The folium of Descartes belongs to the class of algebraic
curves. It can be represented by the equation
^3 + ys = Zaxy.
In polar coordinates the equation of this curve is
2>a sin <f>

cos (f>
~~
sin 3
<f>
+ cos3 <f>
(see Fig. 147).
Formula
A formula is a frequently-used calculating rule expressed
succinctly by means of literal numbers and mathematical signs,
6 '
8 '
(a + bf = a* + 2ab + 6a .
224
FREQUENCY CURVE
Fig. 147
Frequency curve (Fig. 148)

This a graphical presentation of the distribution of accidental
is
errors about an estimate (usually the arithmetic mean, see above)

of the unknown true value. The number of measurements within
a range (a n + Aa) is taken as ordinate, and the range of measure-
ments itself as abscissa. Clearly this sort of presentation is only
meaningful if a large number of measurements (at least 100) is
being dealt with.
Gauss discussed the frequently-occurring and so-called normal
distribution for accidental errors,and developed an analytical
expression for this bell-shaped curve. If the intervals taken for
ranges of measurements is made smaller and smaller (which is
possible only when there is an infinite number of observations)
we finally obtain a continuous function F(x) whose integral
f F(x) dx
represents the number of outcomes for which the observed value
lies between n and m.
225
FREQUENCY, RELATIVE
If the ordinates are divided by a value chosen so that the area

beneath the frequency curve =
1 we speak of the normalised
curve. The normalised curves of different sequences of measure-

ments can be compared. This allows us to discuss questions such
as the equality of distribution of either side of the mean value,
ffh
i N
{ s
\
Vo/ue of observed quantities
k_* o
Fig. 148
and thereby to decide whether, and in what measure, the error

calculus is applicable, i.e. whether the distribution which occurs
actually is a chance distribution. Gauss's distribution is repre-
sented by
Vtt
where h is a parameter which gives the form (peaked or flat) of
the curve.
The proportion of errors, according to a Gaussian distribution,
which lie between vx and +vx is
2h
,-AV do.
V;
Other expressions, given other assumptions, have been given
for frequency curves, notably by Poisson.
Frequency, relative
If an experiment is performed N times and a particular outcome
occurs g times the quotient & is called the relative frequency of
this outcome.
226
FUNCTION
If a sufficient number of trials is made, the relative frequency
of an outcome approaches the probability of occurrence of the
event.
Examples: 1. If a die is thrown N times and a six occurs g

p
times, the relative frequency of occurrence of 6 is
jy
an experiment which is repeated
2. If in N
times, one of several
outcomes can occur at each repetition, then a relative frequency
can be determined for each possible outcome. The sum of the
relative frequencies must then equal 1.
Of 30 children 5 have fair hair, 5 red, 10 brown and 10 black.
The relative frequencies are then:
fair-haired: -zx; red-haired: ~; brown-haired: =jr; and
black-haired:
Function
Numerical dependence of a quantity on one or more other
variable quantities. The area of a square is, e.g., a function of the
length of side, the frequency of a piano string a function of its
length, cross-section and tension, the weight of a litre of dry air
a function of pressure and of temperature. In the strict mathe-
matical interpretation y is called a function of x if, corresponding
to each permissible value of x, a value of y can be calculated or
observed. We write: y =f(x) and say: y is equal to /of x (or
simply fx); other letters and symbols can be used in place of f
(e.g. F, 0,/i,/\ etc.). x is called the argument; it is the independent
variable, y is the dependent variable, since its value depends on x.
If x can take all values in an interval, e.g. every value between
1 and +1, x is said to vary continuously. Further the function
y =f(x) is said to be continuous at a point jc in the given
interval if as x - x y tends to a finite value which is equal to
f(x ). It is often helpful to represent a continuous function of a
single independent variable by the coordinates of a curve (graphi-
cal representation, graph of a function); for at each point P of
the curve (Fig. 149) a value x on the horizontal axis is related to
a definite value y on the perpendicular axis.
227
FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS
An equation involving x and y can give y as an 'implicit'
function of x: e.g. 4x2 9y
2
+ =
36. Solution of this particular
equation gives two 'explicit' functions
=2,/rr
i.e. in this example y is many- valued. If y is a function of x, x is
usually also a function of y, called the inverse function. If we

have an equation linking three variables
y =f(x)
x,y and z then z (say) is determined as
Py a function of x and y: z =f(x,y). Such
T~ "A a function is represented graphically by a
'
/ \ surface.
I j
Graphical representation becomes im-
when we allow x to take complex
possible
V '
-* / A
; ,
values. The theory of functions, which

was founded by Riemann, Cauchy and
Weierstrass, deals with the general
properties of functions.
A function/fc) can also be determined by a series, a differential
or integral equation, or by functional equations. Some common
functions have special labels: examples are the exponential
function ex the trigonometrical functions sin x, cos x, tan x, cot jc,
,
the hyperbolic functions sinhx, coshx, tanhx, cothx, and the

-1
inverse trigonometric functions sin etc. (= arc sin x; i.e. the
,
angle, in radian measure, whose sine has the value x). The inverse
of the function v =
ax yields the function x loga v (logarithm). =
The gamma-function, T(x), first discussed by Euler, is an exten-
sion of the factorial function x\, for factorials are defined only
for positive integral x (y x\ 1 .2 .3 = =
x) (see p. 219). . . .
For much-used functions there are available function-tables

in which function-values y are calculated for sufficient numbers
of values of x for practical purposes: Tables of Logarithms,
Tables of Exponential Functions, etc. (see Mathematical Tables:
Table 4).
Fundamental constructions
The following geometrical constructions are in frequent use
and are referred to as fundamental constructions (see Construc-
tion, geometrical).
228
1. Measuring off a segment.

2. Construction of an angle on a line.
3. Bisection of a segment.
4. Erection of a perpendicular on a straight line.
5. Dropping of a perpendicular from a point onto a straight
line.
6. Construction of a parallel to a straight line, through a
given point.
7. Construction of a parallel to a straight line at distance a.
8. Bisection of an angle.
1. Measuring off a segment. If a given segment a is to be
measured off from a point P on a straight line / we describe a

circle about P with radius a. The circle intersects / in two points
A and B, giving i*4 or PB as the required segment. In other

words, we can measure segment from P on two different
off a
sides, and so the must be specified.
side required
2. Construction of an angle on a line (Fig. 150). If the angle a
has vertex S and arms h and k we describe about S a circle with
arbitrary radius r. This circle cuts the arms of a in the points H
Fig. 150
and K. Suppose now the angle a is to be constructed at the point

A on the straight line u. About the point A describe a circle of
radius r, and about the point U describe another circle with
radius HK. This intersects the fo rmer circle in two points V and
V. Either the line A V or the line A V
is the required second arm
of the angle; as in the marking off of a segment, the side of the

line on which the angle is to lie must be specified.
3. Bisection of a segment. We describe about the end-points A
and B two circles of equal size whose points of intersection C
229
and D we join. The join bisects the segment in M and is perpen-
dicular to it, and so is called the perpendicular bisector of AB
(Fig. 151).
of a perpendicular on the point P. We describe about
4. Erection
P a circle which intersects I in A and B, and about these points
we describe two circles of equal size whose intersections are C
and D, say. The line CD is the required perpendicular (Fig. 152).
X<
X'
Fig. 151 Fio. 152
5. Dropping of a perpendicular from P onto a straight line I.
We describe about P a circle which is chosen so as to intersect /

in A and B, and about these points we describe two circles of
equal size whose intersections C and D we join. The join passes
through P and is the perpendicular from P onto the straight line
(Fig. 153).
6. To draw through P
a parallel to a straight line I. Draw
through Pa straight line which intersects / in A, and construct
lx
at P on lx the angle a which / makes with lt ; the free arm m of
this angle is the required parallel (Fig. 154).
7. To draw a parallel to a straight line at distance a. Erect at
any point A of the straight line / the perpendicular h, mark oflF
on this the segment of length a and through the end point B
draw the perpendicular lx to h (Fig. 155).
230
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA
Fig. 153 Fig. 154
8. Bisection of an angle. Describe a circle of arbitrary radius r

about the vertex S, intersecting the arms in A and B, and then
describe about A and B two equal circles intersecting in C; the
line joining C to S bisects the angle (Fig. 156).
Fundamental theorem of algebra

The fundamental theorem of algebra is as follows: Every
algebraic equation of the nth. degree
tfo*
n
+ i^
n_1
+ . . . + an_ x + an =
x
whose coefficients are real numbers possesses at least one (real

or complex) root. An algebraic equation of the th degree with
one unknown, and real coefficients, possesses exactly n roots,
provided every solution (real and complex) is counted according
to its multiplicity.
> Cj> *
S
/
Fig. 156
Fig. 155
231
GALTON'S BOARD
Galton's board (1822-1911)

Nails are driven into a board in several rows, as shown in
Fig. 157. Balls are now allowed to fall through the rows of nails
by way of a funnel. If a ball strikes a nail it can continue on,
either to the right or to the left. All the balls which fall through
are collected in compartments at
the lower end of the apparatus.
^ C The probability that a ball arrives
below in compartment x is then:
**-C)"
As there are n rows of nails, (n + 1)
TTT1I compartments are required. Given

five rows of nails we would expect
to find the following proportions
Fig. 157
of balls in the six compartments,
reading from left to right:
1 1 19 19 1 1
32' 32' 32' 32' 32' 32*
Geometric mean
The geometric mean of two numbers, a, b is x Vab.
Example: The geometric mean of the numbers 4 and 9 is:
x = V4~9 = a/36= 6
(see also Geometric sequence).
Geometric sequence
A sequence of numbers at , a2 , a3 . . is called a geometric
, .
sequence if division of a term by its immediate predecessor

always results in the same quotient. If the first term of the sequence
is ax and the common quotient is q we have as the general
geometric sequence:
ax = a, a2 = aq, a3 = aq2 , a4 = aq3 , . . ., an = aqn-l

232
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
Thus a geometric sequence is uniquely determined by its initial

term and the quotient q. In a geometric sequence every term is
the geometric mean of its neighbouring terms:
* = Va_! a n+v
.
The following cases of geometric sequences can be distinguished:
1. q>\
The sequence increases, e.g. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ... .
2. q= 1
All terms of the sequence are equal, e.g. 2, 2, 2, ... .
3. 0<<1
The sequence is decreasing, e.g. a1 = 2,q=*l:2, 1, f, I, ,
Tfr, , ....
4. 0>?> -1
The terms of the sequence are alternately positive and
negative, â=l, 9r=- i Q:l,- I5 ,

I Q5
,-
I555
,
5. -\>q
The terms of the sequence have alternately positive and
negative signs and their absolute values increase, e.g.
a=\,q= 2:
1,-2, +4, -8, +16,
Sequences with q >

1 and with 1 >
q are divergent sequences
(see below).Sequences with q =
1 are oscillatory. Sequences
with 1 <q <; +
1 are convergent.
Geometric series
The sum of an (unevaluated) geometric sequence is called a
geometric series:
sn = a + aq + aq2 + . . . + aq""1 + . . . .
233
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
Sum of a finite geometric series. The sum of a geometric series

with a finite number of terms can be evaluated. It is
(1 qn)
sn = a + aq + aq + af + 2
aq* + . . . + aq^ = a 1
1 _

Example: a = 3, a = 2, n = 10.
- 1024)
s10 = 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + . . . +
3 .

29 = 3 .
(1
1-2
= 3 1023 = 3,069.
.
Infinite geometric series. An infinite geometric series is one

formed from an infinite geometric sequence.
The sum of an infinite geometric series

The sum
-1
sn = a + aq + aq2 + aq* + . . . + aq 11
is a partial sum of an infinite geometric sequence. The partial

sums for n 1, 2, 3, 4, can be determined, and so we have
. . .
a sequence of partial sums. This sequence has the terms
a{\ - q)
s. =a=
1
a(l-<72)
j2 =a+ aq = j _^
j3 = a + a? + a? = 2
1
_ ">
j4 = a + a# + a?2 + af = j _
_ a -jzi
s = a + a? + a?2 + atf + + ?,n_! = -J
If we consider the general term of the sequence of partial sums
_ a{\ - qn) = a _ cut .
s n- x _ q i-q l-q
234
GOLDEN SECTION
we find as its limit the value s = _

. , provided \q\ < 1.
a
s t is defined to be the sum of the infinite geometric series.
Example: a 2, q = j
Geometric series
The unevaluated sums of the terms of a geometric sequence (see
above) is referred to as a geometric series.
Geometrical elements
The fundamental element of linear geometry is the point.
The fundamental elements of plane geometry are the point and
the straight line.
The fundamental elements of solid geometry are the point, the
straight lineand the plane.
These geometrical elements are regarded as directly given.
Their properties are determined by the axioms of the geometry.
Golden section
A segment is said to be divided in golden section if the larger
segment is the mean proportional between the complete segment
and the smaller segment. This is equivalent to saying that the ratio
of the complete segment to the larger segment is equal to the
ratio of the larger segment to the smaller.
Construction: Draw a circle, with centre O, whose radius is
half the length of the complete segment a = AB which is to be
divided in golden section (Fig. 158). Let 2cbe a diameter of the
circle. Draw the tangent to the circle at A and mark off on it
from A a segment of length a, with end-point B. Draw the secant
235
GOLDEN SECTION
of the circle from B through O, cutting the circle in points D
and E. BD is the larger of the two segments required. This follows
from the Tangent theorem (see below) which tells us that
BD.BE= AB%
that is,
a2 = x(a + x), or a(a x) = x\

that is,
a:x = x:(a x).
Fig. 158
The actual ratios of the section can be calculated from the

relation a:x x:(a x), i.e.
x = (V5 - 1), a -x-

5
(3 - A/5).
If the original segment is of length 1 the lengths of the two

sections are 0-618 and 0-382 approximately.
The ratio of the two sections is irrational, since is, of V5
course, irrational. This ratio can be approximated to by rational
numbers. For example, we can take as approximations:
5 8^ 13 21
'
8' 13' 21' 34" ' *
Properties of the golden section: If the smaller segment is

marked off on the corresponding larger segment then the larger
segment is itself divided in golden section.
If the original segment is extended by the length of its larger
236
'
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
sub-segment then the original segment divides the extended

segment in golden section. With the help of these two theorems,
given a single golden section an arbitrary number of further
golden sections can be constructed.
Gradient of a straight line

The gradient of a straight line is tan a, where a is the angle
which the straight line makes in a rectangular coordinate system
with the positive x-axis (see Fig. 159).
My
Fro. 159
Graphical solution of equations

If an equation is to be solved graphically it must be put in the
form f(x) = 0. The conditional equation f{x) = yields the
functional equation =
y fix). This equation can be represented
in a coordinate system (see above) by a curve (see Function). The
points of intersection of this curve with the *-axis give the
required solutions.
Equations of thefirst degree.The functional equations associated
with equations of the first degree yield straight lines.
Example: 3x 4 = 0.
The associated functional equation is: y 3x =
4 (Fig. 160).
Equations of the second degree. Here the type of curve we get
is a parabola.
Example: 7 -r 0. The functional equation is: y = 7 ^
The solutions are: xx = 3-8 and xz = 3*8 (Fig. 161).

237
Fig. 160 Fig. 161
Algebraic equations of higher degree, transcendental equations.

Equations of thefirst and second degree are easily solved directly;
the application of the graphical method of solution is tedious

and inexact. Equations of the third and fourth degree with one
unknown can also be solved formally, but the calculations
required may be extensive. Algebraic equations of higher degree,
and transcendental equations, in general cannot be formally
solved, but their graphical representation provides the possibility
of discovering approximate solutions which can then be used,
following various known methods, to give solutions as accurately
as desired (see False position, rule of).
With transcendental equations a knowledge of the relations
between functions can facilitate graphical representation.
Equations of third and higher degrees. For ease of graphical
representationit is often convenient to split a function into two
functions and obtain the required solutions from their inter-

sections, e.g.
f(x) = x2 + - - 2 = 0, i.e. x2 -2= --
may be handled by means of y ^

= xv2 2 and y =-- (Fig.
162), i.e. two functions whose difference is f(x). The abscissae of
238
:
their points of intersection are solutions of the equation^*) = 0.

We conclude that the equation of the third degree
x* - 2x + 1 =
has three roots whose approximate values are: 1-6, +0-6, and
+ 1-0.
Graphical solution of equations with first degree with two unknowns
Example: x + 2y = 4 2x = (Fig. 163) J>

1
x
1st equation: y 2 2nd equation: y = 2*
-z\ 1
Fig. 162 Fig. 163
Each equation can be represented by a straight line. These lines

intersect in a point,whose coordinates are the only values which
satisfy both equations. They represent, therefore, the solution of
the equations
1 2
Graphical solution is particularly useful and instructive in the

case of so-called equations of motion.
Example: A passenger train leaves a station at 7.38 at a speed

of 40 m.p.h.; at 7.55 an express follows at 85 m.p.h. When will
239
this overtake the passenger train? According to the graphical

representation derived from the following table this happens
(after 21-2 miles) at 8.10 (Fig. 164).
Passenger train Express

7.38 miles 7.55 miles
7.53 10 miles 8.10 21-25 miles
8.08 20 miles 8.25 42-50 miles
Suppose, for example, after 19 miles the slow train must wait
on a siding at a station to let the express go by and can only
proceed when the express has passed through the station. visual A
Fig. 164 Fig. 165
is easily adapted from the graph (Fig. 164).

representation of this
Iftwo non-linear equations of condition occur for two un-
knowns, we can easily see from a graphical representation how
many solutions there are and whereabouts they lie.
Example (Fig. 165): The pair of equations
J -4--3 and y = V(3 + x)(3 - x)

three solutions:
xx= 2\/2 *2 = 2V2 *3 =

Ji=-1 J2 =-l J>3=-3.
The detailed treatment of this type of question is a matter for
Analytical geometry (see above).
240
HARMONIC SERIES
Half angle theorems

The half angle theorems are theorems of plane trigonometry.
If a, b and c are the sides, a, p, y the angles, p the radius of the
inscribed circle of a triangle and s half the length of the perimeter
Is = )'
then
2
=y^
a)(s b)(s c)
a _ _p (s - b)(s - c)
tan
2""j-a~V s(s-a) '
. P P l is - c)(s - a)
tan 2~-
S -b~^l s(s-b) '
<)(s - b)
2 s c V s(s c)
Harmonic division
A segment is said to be harmonically divided in a given ratio

m-.n if it is divided both internally and externally in the same
ratio m-.n (see Straight line segments, ratios of).
Harmonic mean
The expression , is called the harmonic mean of the
numbers a and b.
Example: The harmonic mean of the numbers 4 and 6 is:
x = 2.4.6 = 48
^ = 4-8
4 + 6 10
(see also Harmonic series).
Harmonic series
The harmonic series l+^2 + 3o+T+<

4'
5
+ ' '
--- is divergent.
241
heron's formula
The following series are also called harmonic:
nii n
~~ + 2
+ 3
+ 4a + 5a
+ ' ' *
*
These series converge for all exponents a which are greater

than 1 (in symbols, a 1). >
In the harmonic series l+2+7+7+<+ eacn term
is the Harmonic mean (see above) of its 2 neighbouring terms.
S inceJ I=l + i + (! + I) + g + I + I + !) + ...

i
+ (2
s -1 +1 + + 2s )
/l 1\1 /l 1\
>I+ 22+(4 + 4) + (8 + 8 + 8 + 8) + ---
1 1
+ ^p + + pj
,,111
=l+2 + 2+2+--- + 2
1
=1+
N ~*
-^ as iV-> 00, the series diverges.
Heron's formula (Heron of Alexandria, first century a.d.)
a ~\- b -4- c
If we denote by s = the semi-perimeter of a tri-
angle, then the area of a triangle with sides a, b and c is
A= Vs(s - a)(s - b)(s - c).
Highest common factor (greatest common divisor)

The highest common factor of two integers is the largest
integer which a factor of both numbers. E.g. the highest
is
common factor of 20 and 25 is 5. The evaluation of the highest
242
HORIZONTAL
common factor of two numbers can be effected by splitting each

number into its prime factors, or if these are not known by using
the Euclidean algorithm (see above).
Example: To determine the highest common factor of 84 and

105.
Division into prime factors gives:
84 = 22 . 3 . 7,
105 = 3.5.7;
the highest common factor is therefore 3 . 7 = 21.
Hippocrates (Hippocrates of Chios, 440 B.C.; one of the 'Pytha-

goreans')
The 'lunes (crescents) of Hippocrates' are named after
Hippocrates. The sum of the lunes on the legs of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the area of the triangle (Fig. 166; see also
Pythagoras, Theorem of).
For a square we have similarly: the sum of the lunes on the
side of a square is equal to the area of the square (Fig. 167).
Fig. 166 Fia. 167
Horizontal
A plane or line is said to be horizontal if it is at right angles
to the perpendicular (plumb line). In practical situations a
spirit level can be used to determine whether a plane is horizontal
or not. The opposite of horizontal is vertical or perpendicular.
243
horner's array
Horner's array
Homer's array may be used for calculating the values of
rational integral functions. By continued bracketing of x, the
rational integral function
y = a^Kn + a^"-1 + ... +

can be written
y = an + x(an_ + *(tfM_2 + x(.

x . . + x(ax + xaQ)) . . .)).
We write
A x OqX + ax A 2 = x(a x + aj +
, a2 = x .A + ax 2,
A 3 = x A 2 + az and so on.
. ,
With these quantities we then form the following array:
aQ ax a2 a3 a4 as . . .an_x an
T GqX A xX A 2X A 3X AqX ... A n_2X A n xX _^.
a Ax A 2 A 3 A A 5 A n_x y . . .
In place of x we can set any number we like, and then use the
array to calculate in turn A x , A 2 , . . ., A n_Xi and finally/.
Example: y = 0-9*4 + 0*7xa + jc 1*2. The coefficients a ,
., a
. .
4 are
0-9 0-71 1.2 and for x = 2 we calculate

the rest of the array:
1-8 3-6 8-6 15-2
0-9 1-8 4-3 7-6 16-4. This gives the result,

y = 16-4.
Hyperbola
The hyperbola is defined as the locus of points for which the
difference of their distances from two fixed points, the foci, is
constant, = 2a say.
If the foci are Fx and F 2> then the mid-point of the segment
FXF2 is called the centre, O, of the hyperbola. If segments of
length a are drawn on either side of O on the straight fine through
Fx an d F2 we obtain the vertices A x and A 2 of the hyperbola.
A XA 2 is the transverse axis of the hyperbola. If we erect the
244
:
HYPERBOLA
perpendicular to the segment FXF2 at O and describe about each

vertex a circle OF
of radiusx
= e we obtain as intersections of
these circles with the perpen dicula r to FXFZ the secondary vertices
Bx and B2 of the hyperbola. BXB2 is called the conjugate axis of

B
the hyperbola and the length of XB2 is denoted by lb. By the
theorem of Pythagoras, e2 =
a2 +
b% (Fig. 168). e is called the
linear eccentricity of the hyperbola. The hyperbola is not a closed
curve but comprises two branches; it lies symmetrically about
Fig. 168
both its transverse and its conjugate axes. The point by point
construction of the hyperbola derives from the definition given

above (see Fig. 168 and Conic sections).
Particular equations of the hyperbola

1. Central equation. If a coordinate system is used whose
*-axis coincides with the transverse axis of the hyperbola and

whose 7-axis coincides with the conjugate axis (and whose origin
is in consequence the centre of the hyperbola), the equation of
the curve is:
2. Equation of the hyperbola with arbitrary centre. If the centre

of the hyperbola has coordinates O(x y ) and its transverse axis
,
is parallel to the Jt-axis, its equation is
(*-*o)
2
,
(y-y f _ ,
245
HYPERBOLA
3. Vertex equation of the hyperbola. If one vertex of the hyper-
bola lies atthe origin of the coordinate system, and if the centre
lies on the x-axis, then the hyperbola has the equation:
(x + a) 2 y2
a2 b2 ~L
This equation can be rewritten as
b2 b2
y =2x+ ~ix2 (vertex equation).
If we put = p, -e = s, p being termed the parameter and e the
numerical eccentricity (eccentricity) of the hyperbola, the vertex

equation reads:
y
2
= 2px - (1 - s2)x2 s> 1.
(Cf. the general vertex equation of the conic section in art.

Curves of the second order.)
p and s are always positive, and since we are dealing with an
hyperbola e is greater than unity.
Rectangular hyperbola
If the axes of the hyperbola are equal in length, the hyperbola
is called rectangular. Its standard equation is x2
y
2
a2 . =
The focal lengths of a point Pix^y^ of the hyperbola
3-12 =
a
1 are (Fig. 168):

PFi = -x1 +
e
a = ext + a; PF^ = -e *, a = ex a.
a a
Hyperbola and straight line
Discriminant of the hyperbola.

1. The coordinates of the points
of intersection of a straight line y mx + n with the hyperbola
x2 2
^2
yp = 1 are
.
obtamed as solutions of the system of equations

I. y = mx + n
u a2
l'
-
b2
246
:
HYPERBOLA
The solutions are

a2mn , 2
TO ab -xz
= bU2 a2~2 m2 ^ + ^ am
.
m2 bH2 aT~2
"~
*i1,2 2 2
y-&-chn* &-c?m* yn +b am '
By means of the discriminant D = n2 + b a m we can now 2 2 2
decide whether the line y = mx + n intersects the hyperbola in

two, one or no points.
We have:
for D> two points of intersection;
for D= one point of intersection (tangent);
for D< no intersections.
2. Tangents to the hyperbola with given gradients. straight A

line y = +
mx n, with given gradient m, is tangent to the hyper-
bola if the discriminant D
is equal to 0, that is, if n
2
a 2m 2 b2 =
oxn Va m 2 2
b 2
. A tangent to the hyperbola which has the
given gradient m must therefore have equation
y = mx Va2m 2 b2 .
3. Tangents to the hyperbola at a given point Pjjix^ y^). The

gradient of the tangent at the point Px is given by differentiation
b 2x
as -j- 1 . From this gradient together with the coordinates of Px
we obtain the equation of the tangent as
a2 b2 ~
Where the centre of the hyperbola is not at the origin but at the
point (x , y ) the equation of the tangent reads
(x - x )(x1 - x ) (y - yQ)(y - y ) _
2
"~
2
x
- 1'
a b
4. Polar of a point P^x^ y^) with respect to a hyperbola.

line
The polar of Px with respect to a hyperbola is the straight
line
line which passes through both points of contact of the tangents
247
HYPERBOLA
from Pt to the ellipse. The equation of the polar has the same
form as the tangent equation (see above 3), that is:
xx^
_1
IF z>
2
or more generally
{x x ){x1 x) 0-Jo)(ji-Jo) = 1.
b2
5. Conjugate diameters of the hyperbola. A

straight line which
passes through the centre of a hyperbola is called a diameter of
the hyperbola. The mid-points of all chords of the hyperbola
with given slope m lie on a straight line which passes through the
Fig. 169
and which is called the conjugate diameter

centre of the hyperbola
with respect to the original diameter. The equation of the
diameter conjugate to the diameter y =
mx has equation
b*
y arm
6. Asymptotes of the hyperbola. The ordinate of a point of a
248
HYPERBOLA
hyperbola is given by the equation of the hyperbola as
v= -a Vx* - a
y
2
or y -*i'f>
h I sfi h
Now -xjl g x tends to zero as x tends to infinity,
and so the hyperbola and the lines y = -x approach indefi-
x increases. Such a straight line, which

nitely close together as
approaches a curve indefinitely closely but never meets it, is
called an asymptote. The equations of the asymptotes of the
hyperbola are therefore y - x (Fig. 169).
X* )r
Construction of the asymptotes of the hyperbola -$ = 1.
a* b2
Draw the perpendiculars to the transverse axis at the vertices of
the hyperbola and mark off segments of length b on each and
in the same direction. Join the end points Cx and C2 of the two
segments to the centre of the hyperbola. The line through O and
C2 (as drawn) is the asymptote y = - x and that through O and

Cx is the asymptote y = x (Fig. 169). The asymptotes of a
rectangular hyperbola are perpendicular to one another.
Construction of the tangent
to a hyperbola at the point
P. We draw the focal lines
from P and bisect the angle
between them. The angle
bisector is the required
tangent.
Construction of the tan-
gents from a point P to a hy-
perbola (Fig. 170). Describe
about P a circle with radius
Pnis, and about the other
focus F2 a circle with radius
2a. Let these circles intersect Fig. 170
249
HYPOTENUSE
in the points Gt and G2 Then
. drop the perpendiculars from P
onto i^Gj and FX G2 These are the required tangents tx and t2
. .
The points of contact Pt and P2 of these tangents are obtained

by joining F2 to Gt and G2 and extending these lines to meet tt
and t2 .
General theorems on the hyperbola

1. Given a line segment perpendicular to the transverse axis
of a hyperbola and with its end points on the two asymptotes;

then if one point of intersection with the hyperbola divides the
segment into two segments / and m, then Im b2 = .
2. The product of the two line segments drawn parallel to the

asymptotes from a point D of an hyperbola to the asymptotes is
a constant.
3. The two segments CD
and EF lying between the curve and
the asymptotes on a secant of a hyperbola, are equal.
4. The segment PA lying between the asymptotes on a tangent
to a hyperbola is divided into equal parts by the point of contact
of the tangent.
5. All triangles formed by a tangent and the asymptotes have
the same area, namely ab, where a and b are the axes of the
hyperbola.
6. The feet of perpendiculars from the foci on to tangents lie
on the circle with the transverse axis of the hyperbola as diameter.
7. The mirror images of a focus with respect to a tangent lie
on the circle with the other focus as centre and radius 2a.
Hypotenuse
The side opposite the right angle in a right-angled triangle is
called the hypotenuse of the triangle. The legs of the triangle are
the sides adjacent to the right angle.
i is the (so-called) imaginary unit.
i = + V 1 (see Complex numbers). We have

/
8
-l i
5
= i *
8
=+l
i
8 = i i
6 =
1 etc.
In electrical engineering V- 1 is sometimes denoted by/*.
250
INDIRECT PROOF
Icosahedron
The regular icosahedron is one of the so-called platonic solids.
It is bounded by twenty equilateral triangles (see Platonic solids).
Identical transformation
If, for a transformation in a plane or in space, all points
coincide with their image points, the transformation is said to be
identical.
Identically named numbers

For general numbers, as in
2a + 3a + 4b = 5a + 4b
2a and 3a are referred to as identically named and can be added

together here as 5c (see Addition) ; 5a and 4b are not identically
named and cannot be added together.
Imaginary numbers
The (so-called) imaginary numbers are among the complex
numbers (see above) : complex numbers whose real parts are zero
are called imaginary, e.g. i, 2i, --3*.
The imaginary numbers are multiples of the imaginary unit
i = V 1. In the representation of complex numbers on the
Gaussian number plane (Argand diagram), the imaginary numbers
lie on the j-axis (see Complex numbers, Number-plane).
Indicatrix (Dupin's conic section)

A
method, due to Charles Dupin, for recognising the nature
of the curvature of a surface at a particular point. We imagine
a plane E drawn a very small distance from and parallel to the
tangent plane E at the point P, and cutting the surface. The curve
in which E' cuts the surface is the indicatrix.
Indirect proof
If a proposition is proved true by demonstrating that its
negation is false, the proof is said to be indirect.
251
INEQUALITY
Example of an indirect proof: To prove that Vl is an irrational

number: We assume that the negation of the proposition is true,
and show that this leads to a contradiction. We therefore suppose
Vl to be a rational number, Vl = - (say), where p and q may

be taken to be integers with no common factors. We now take
D2
the square of both sides of this equation and obtain 2 = -^
Multiplying both sides by q z

, we obtain lq 2 =p %
. From this we
infer that 2
p and
, therefore p as well, must be even, say p = 2r.
Substituting in the equation we have: lq% = 4r 2 , so that q also
must be an even number. That is, from the assumption that Vl
is rational and so of the form - where p and q have no common
we can deduce that p and q are both even, and have the
factors
common factor 2. In other words we have a contradiction, and
so the original assumption that Vl is rational must be false.
Consequently Vl is irrational.
Inequality
If mathematical expressions are connected by one of the
ordering-symbols <, >, <, or ;>, the resulting proposition is
referred to as an inequality; e.g.
3 < 5 denotes 3 less than 5,
3x <, 6 denotes 3x less than or equal to 6.
In calculating with inequalities (as for example in approximation

problems) we have the following simple rules,
1. |+ *|<|| + M; \a-b\^\a\ + \b\.
2. a + b\^\a\-\b\;
\
\a - b\ > \a\ - \b\.
3. a > b implies a + c > b + c for all c.

4. a > b implies pa > pb ifp > 0.
5. a > b implies
r
- < r if a6 > 0.
a o
252
INFINITE SERIES
When expressing these symbols in words,
for a d read: c greater than d,
for e <f read: e less than or equal to/,
for g =h read: g equals h,

for k>m read: k greater than or equal to m.
Infinite series
The unevaluated sum of terms of an infinite sequence of

CO
numbers is called an infinite series. The abbreviation Ta fc

is
used for the infinite series ax + a2 + az + . . . . We say: 'Sigma

ak from one to infinity' (see Summation sign), e.g.
00
1 1111
1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + --"
t? 1 ifc=
The sequence with a finite number of terms

n
sn = 2 ak = ax + a2 + az + . . . + an
fc=i
is sum of the infinite series. A partial sum of an

called a partial
infinite seriescan be formed for every natural number n. If, for
a given infinite series, the sequence of partial sums, sn is con- ,
vergent (oscillatory, or divergent) the infinite series is also said

to be convergent (oscillatory, or divergent).
If the sequence of partial sums s n converges to the value s,
then s is referred to as the value or the sum of the infinite series,
00
Jfc=l
series, we similarly say that the series diverges to

Given a divergent
+ oo or oo according to the behaviour of the sequence of
partial sums.
Examples:
! 2 o&=i
= ^ (geometric series with ratio \ and initial term 1).
253
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
00
2. ^ kis divergent.
&=i
3. 2 (-1)* =1-1 + 1-1 + 1-. ..is oscillatory.

&=o
00
1 1 1 1 1
4.^2^=1+2 + 3 + 4 + .. -is divergent.
Particular infinite series

1. Geometric series (see Geometric sequence).
2. Binomial series (see art.).
3. Exponential series (see art.).
4. Trigonometrical series (see art.).
5. Power-series (see art.).
6. Taylor's series (see art.).
7. Maclaurin's series (see art.).
8. Harmonic series (see art.).
Infinitesimal calculus
The infinitesimal calculus is concerned with the treatment of
limits (originally with Elementary
'infinitely small' quantities).
infinitesimal calculus divided into two parts, the differential
is
calculus, and the domains are differential

integral calculus; higher
and integral equations, differential geometry and the calculus of
variations.
Differential calculus
An
(unrigorous but) intuitive idea of the differential calculus
is most
easily grasped by reference to the graph (Fig. 171) of a
function y =f(x), represented in rectangular coordinates by a
curve which has a tangent at every point. Join two points Px and
P% of the curve by the chord s iy2 > so th at the gradient of the
curve is fixed by the difference quotient (y2

yd -r- (x2 x^),
or Ay -r- Ax (delta y divided by delta x), i.e. the ratio of the
increment of y to the increment of x. Now let P% approach Px
along the curve so that the chord s rotates until it coincides with
the tangent t at Px To this geometrical limiting process there
.
254
corresponds an algebraic process in which the difference quotient

Ay -r Ax tends to a limit:
Um Ay = ^> '
= /'/*)
(read: limit as x tends to 0; differential coefficient, or first deriva-

tive,of y with respect to x). /
is the measure of the gradient of
the tangent to the curve (with angle c) at each point of the curve.
In Fig. 171 / \S2,

== =
dx
-j-. dy and dx are called differentials. If
the scales on the x- and_y-axes are equal, the differential coefficient
is the tangent of the angle c I

-f = tan c
J

Flo. 172
We may be able to differentiate f'(x) as well, i.e. if the curve

for f\x) has a tangent at every point in the range considered,
2
we obtain the second derivative y" =f\x) = d-fiy (read: d two y

by <c-squared). In this way we can form derivatives of higher
orders of which the wth, if it exists, is written
n
/> -/<>(*) = d-
v
In order to differentiate the elementary functions we usually

derive the appropriate limits. For example if y x2 we proceed =
as follows: we have
yx = xt and y2 = yx + Ay = (xx + Ax)2,

255
so that
y2 y = 1 Ay = fo + Ax) 2 x\ = IXi&X + (Ax) 2,
that is
Ay -r Ax = 2xx + Ajc.
Taking the limit we obtain as gradient of the tangents:
dfx2)
lim (2x + Ax) 2x, i.e., j = 2x.
1 1
Now 2x = x2 4- -zx = y -r xx an(* this says, in geometrical
terms, that the tangent to the parabola y = x2 at an arbitrary
point P(x , y ) can be obtained by joining P to the point x = ~ x

on the x-axis (Fig. 172). The condition that the function should
everywhere have a tangent implies that the function is everywhere
continuous. But there do exist continuous functions which are
not differentiable.
If z is a function of two variables x and y (represented geo-
metrically by a surface in space) there exist two partial differential
dz
coefficients which are denoted by the round d: is the derivative
dz
of z with y fixed and -r- the derivative with x fixed. The total
dz dz
differential of z is dz = -=- dx + r- dy.
Integral calculus
An intuitive idea of the integral calculus is likewise most easily
grasped geometrically (see Fig. 173). The curve y =f(x) between
P (x j ) to P(xn y n) forms with the ordinates y and y n and the
, ,
part of the x-axis of length xn

x lying between them an area
F(x) which is therefore a function of f{x). The finding of F(x) is
called the quadrature of the area, and this calculation of areas
is the basic problem of the integral calculus; as in the case of the
differential calculus, it is solved by a limiting process. We sub-
divide the area by means of a number of ordinates yv j2 . . , .
which are spaced at equal intervals Ax, so that we can form two
256
:
sums of rectangles one of which is greater and the other less than
the required area F; in Fig. 173
y Ax + ftAx + J2 A* + /3A* + /4A* < F

< ^ Ax + y2 Ax + yzAx + j>4Ax + yn kx.
The difference of the two sums is the shaded rectangle in Fig.
173, whose area decreases as we make Ax smaller, i.e. as we
increase the number of strips into which we divide the area we
are investigating. Now let Ax tend to 0, so that the two sums
x x, x l *j x 4 x X
Fig. 173
become equal to one another and to the required area. In order

to express this briefly, we need two symbols for summation:
S (Greek sigma) for sum and the old long s = J which is now
called integral. In this way we obtain, given the initial and final
values of the abscissa as x and x respectively, the equation
lim 2 y A* = \ f&tf* - *l*)-

If we displace the initial ordinate y to the left or to the right,
we alter the area F by a fixed
amount, namely by the area intro-
duced or cut off. There corresponds then to an 'integrand' f(x)
an infinite number of integrals, each of which can be derived
from any given one by the addition or subtracting of a constant,
the (arbitrary) constant of integration. Such an integral is there-
fore usually written without specification of the limits, and is
then called an indefinite integral. If, on the other hand, the
limits are given, e.g. x = a as the lower, x = b as the upper,
f(x)dx is referred to as a definite integral.

t
257
The length of the arc of a curve is also found by integration.
The volume V of a solid and the area of a curved surface are

determined by multiple integrals, e.g.
V=*SSff(x,y,z)dxdyds.
Now the problem of quadrature, i.e. of integration, is the in-

verse of the tangent problem, i.e. of differentiation:
if
^ =/(*) then $f(x)dx = F(x).
Using this fact, a large number of integrals can be solved. The
following table contains the first derivatives of the simplest
functions:
y / y /
xn HX"-1 ex ex
sin* cos* ax a* In a
cos* sin x
In*
1
1
X
tan*
cos 2 * 1
logaX
1
xlna
cot*
sin 2
x
Here e - Urn (l + -)", an irrational number whose value is

n-*oo \ ft]
approximately 2-71828. The function e is called the exponential x
function; logarithms to base e are called natural logarithms (In).

The following five rules help in calculation of the derivatives

when they exist of more complex functions:
1. (U + Vy = u
/
+ v'.
2. (uv)' = uv'+ vtv.

u*v uv'
3- -
;
258
du
/ = ^
df(u)
4. Chain-rule: If y =f(u) then
-p
5. Derivative of the inverse function: \iy =J{x) is differentiable

and has the inverse function x = <f>(y) then
dx
d<f>(y)
= j ^_ df(x)
QI =il _1 _^
dx
dy dx dy
The rationale of the integral calculus is based on the mean

value theorem, which, in geometrical terms, asserts: if a curve
y
f(x) possesses a tangent for all values of x between a and b,
then there exists at least one value x between a and b for=
which the tangent to the curve is parallel to the chord joining
A to B (Fig. 174). For proof we use the theorem of Rolle (1690)
with/(a) =f(b).
Applications of the differential calculus

1. Indeterminate forms, when a function y f(x) for x a
oo
gives rise to one of the indeterminate expressions , , X oo,
oooo, 0, oo. The function does not strictly speaking exist

for this value; but the limiting value Iim/(jc) may well exist and
x-*a
be used to fill gap in the function values. Thus for the
in the
function y = e~
(e
xx
)jx denominator and numerator are both
equal to zero for x =
0, so that y does not exist there. We can
invoke here the rule given by Joh. Bernoulli: If <f>(x) and tp(x)
are zero for x =
a and are differentiable in its neighbourhood
then
lim , -r = urn ~tp~\

x-+a y{x) x^y) (x)
(provided this limit exists). In the above example the derivative

of the numerator, e x +
e~x takes the value 2 for x 0; the =
e* e
-<* _
derivative of the denominator is 1 ; therefore lim 2. =
x-+0 x
2. Maxima and minima, occurring when the slope of the
tangent is horizontal, that is, when/'(x) 0. =
3. Sequences.
4. Differential equations, i.e. equations in which differential
259
coefficients of unknown functions occur; such equations are of

great importance in theoretical physics and astronomy.
5. Differential geometry deals with applications of the differ-
ential calculus to the geometry of curves and surfaces.
Graphical and numerical procedures

graph of y =f(x) is given, graphs of the derivative
If the
r
y =/'(*) and of an integral jf(x)dx can be found diagrammati-
cally without recourse to calculation. Moreover there exist
numerical and mechanical methods. Of numerical methods for
a
C
obtaining a definite integral J[x)dx, Simpson's Rule is note-
worthy: we divide the interval a,b into an even number 2m of
^.prtrf.*-^;*.-*-^ ,_
correspond to the points of division and ya and yb to x = a and
x b. Then:
6
h
f(x)dx tv t (ya + Ay + 2y2 + 4y8 + 2y4 +
x . . .
Ja
+ 472m-l+J 6 ).
Various instruments exist (planimeters, integrators) for use in

this connection.
Inflexion, point of inflexion of a carve

A
point of inflexion on a curve is a point in which the curve
changes from being concave to being convex (or vice versa).
Inscribed circle
The circle which touches all sides of a polygon on the inside
is called the inscribed circle of the polygon. Not all polygons
possess inscribed circles.
Integers
The set of integers comprises the positive whole numbers, the
negative whole numbers and zero. The positive integers are
identical with the natural numbers. In the domain of integers we
can add, subtract and multiply without restriction, i.e. every sum,
260
INTEREST
every difference and every product of two integers is also an

integer. On the other hand, the division of one integer by another
5
can take us outside the domain of integers, e.g. 5 -r 7 =
Interest
Simple interest
on loan. The
Interest is the increase accruing to capital put out
amount of interest from the principal (i.e. capital)
is calculated
P, the rate of interest p and time of duration of the loan /. In the
calculation of simple interest it is usual to regard a year as
containing 360 days. The rate of interest p specifies how much
interest is to be paid to the lender of a principal of 100 for one
. Pxp
year. Thus a year's interest on a principal Pisp%, that is, ~Tqq~'
In t years the interest yielded is / =Px t

r~~
x p
E.g. A principal P = 400 is loaned for 3 months at 4 %.

We have: P = 400, p = 4%, = 3 months = 0-25 t years,
and so
400 x 4 x 0-25 PA
r
I
m 4.
That is, the principal brings in 4 interest.

The rate of interest is usually given for a year. This can be
emphasised by adding the phrase per annum.

If we are concerned with the calculation of interest on different
principals at the same ratio of interest interest-numbers can be
used. If a principal P is lent for t days at (per annum) the p%
quantity
PX t
is referred to as the interest-number,
. ,360
and as
the interest-divisor. Thus the interest due is calculated as
PX t 360 Interest-number
100 *
p Interest-divisor
If several principals are to yield interest, we first calculate all the

interest-numbers, add them and divide the sum by the interest-
divisor; e.g. How much interest is obtained at the end of a year
261
INTEREST
if the following deposits are made into a savings account (p = 3 %,

one year taken as containing 360 days) ?
Date Deposit No. of days t Interest-number
Jan. 15 40 345 138

Feb. 10 20 320 64
May 10 17 10s. 230 40-25
242-25
360
Interest-divisor: -r- = ir>n
120.
Interest = Sum of interest-numbers 242-25

interest divisor 120
Interest obtained = 2-019 = 2 0s. 5d.
Compound interest
Interest is said to be compound if the interest is added to the
principal at the end of each conversion-period (such as a month
Capital
at
Time
Interest Capital at end of year elapsed
beginning
in years
of year
Po-P
^0
100
Pi = Po + A,.4 = Po(l+4)=Po? 1
Px .p
Pi
100
Ps = Pi+Pi-o-Pi{l+o)=P? 2
P*
Pz-P
100
iW +P .4=P (l+4)=P
2 2 2 *
8
3
...
Pn-l -P
Pn-l Pn = Pn-l + Pn-l
= P-l 2 + n
100 joo { 100/
= P q*-i.q=Pfl
262
INTEREST
or a year) and thereafter itself earns interest. The final capital

Pn is calculated from the original capital P , the number of years
and the rate of interest p; conversion period, 1 year. (We put
* "*"
Ton
= ^ ancl refer t0 th ' s *l y as
uail1:it ttie interest-factor.)
Interest-factors
n 3-5% 4% 4-5% 5% 5-5% 6% 7%

\
1 1-035 1-04 1-045 105 1055 106 107
2 1-07123 1-0816 1-09203 1-1025 1-11303 1-1236 1-1449
3 1-10872 1-12486 1-14117 1-15763 1-17424 1-19102 1-22504
4 1-14752 1-16986 1-19252 1-21551 1-23882 1-26248 1-31080
5 1-18769 1-21665 1-24618 1-27628 1-30696 1-33823 1-40255
6 1-22926 1-26532 1-30226 1-34010 1-37884 1-41852 1-50073

7 1-27228 1-31593 1-36086 1-40710 1-45468 1-50363 1-60578
8 1-31681 1-36857 1-42210 1-47746 1-53469 1-59385 1-71819
9 1-36290 1-42331 1-48610 1-55133 1-61909 1-68948 1-83846
10 1-41060 1-48024 1-55297 1-62889 1-70814 1-79085 1-96715
11 1-45997 1-53945 1-62285 1-71034 1-80209 1-89830 2-10485

12 1-51107 1-60103 1-69588 1-79586 1-90121 2-01220 2-25219
13 1-56396 1-66507 1-77220 1-88565 2-00577 2-13293 2-40985
14 1-61869 1-73168 1-85194 1-97993 2-11609 2-26090 2-57853
15 1-67535 1-80094 1-93528 2-07893 2-23248 2-39656 2-75903
16 1-73399 1-87298 2-02237 2-18287 2-35526 2-54035 2-95216

17 1-79468 1-94790 2-11338 2-29202 2-48480 2-69277 3-15882
18 1-85749 2-02582 2-20848 2-40662 2-62147 2-85434 3-37993
19 1-92250 2-10685 2-30786 2-52695 2-76565 3-02560 3-61653
20 1-98979 2-19112 2-41171 2-65330 2-91776 3-20714 3-86968
21 2-05943 2-27877 2-52024 2-78596 3-07823 3-39956 4-14056

22 2-13151 2-36992 2-63365 2-92526 3-24754 3-60354 4-43040
23 2-20611 2-46472 2-75217 3-07152 3-42615 3-81975 4-74053
24 2-28333 2-56330 2-87601 3-22510 3-61459 4-04893 5-07237
25 2-36324 2-66584 3-00543 3-38635 3-81339 2-29187 5-42743
26 2-44596 2-77247 3-14068 3-55567 4-02313 4-54938 5-80735

27 2-53157 2-88337 3-28201 3-73346 4-24440 4-82235 6-21387
28 2-62017 2-99870 3-42970 3-92013 4-47784 5-11169 6-64884
29 2-71188 3-11865 3-58404 4-11614 4-72412 5-41839 7-11426
30 2-80079 3-24340 3-74532 4-32194 5-98395 5-74349 7-61226
263
INTERIOR ANGLES
Result: We have
Pn = P x n
q for the final capital,
p = 100 (7-2 - 1 for the rate of interest,

J
Iogi> -logi
m number J
log#
Shorter conversion period

The formula Pn = P qn enables the final capital Pn to be
calculated provided interest added to capital yearly. If on the
is
other hand the interest is added more often, say m times a year,
the capital after one year with interest-rate p% per annum is
after n years
p =p( i+
ioy
Examples: To what sum does 20,000 increase after 4 years at
3-5% compound interest?
From the table, p. 263, we get: 1 increases in 4 years at
3-5% to 1-14752. Thus P4 = 20,000 X 1-14752 * 22,950.
Interior angles
An interior angle is one formed by neighbouring sides of a
figure and lying within the interior of the figure.
Interpolation
The determination of an intermediary value of a function by
means of a sequence of known values of the function is called
happens that the value of a function is
interpolation. It often
required which corresponds to an argument-value for which the
264
INTERSECTION, POINT OF
function-value not tabulated, and the required function-value

is
must then be obtained by interpolation. Interpolation can only

be carried out between values contained in the available table:
an extrapolation beyond the limits within which a function is
defined in a table is seldom possible except in relatively trivial
problems.
Linear interpolation
The simplest, and for most purposes sufficient, form of inter-
polation especially if the function concerned is closely tabulated
is linear interpolation. Here it is assumed that increments of
the functional value may be taken as proportional to correspond-
ing increments of the argument: for values x + th in the interval
/i(0<f<l),
*1 "~
-*o
Quadratic interpolation
The refinement of linear interpolation is quadratic inter-
first
polation, in which the function is replaced by the parabola

passing through three neighbouring points. Thus, in this type of
interpolation, we make use not only of the two values which lie
on either side of the intermediary value but of a third value as
well (see False position, Newton's method of approximation,
Interpolation formulae p. 511).
Intersection, point of
Two non-parallel straight lines lying in a plane intersect in a
unique point. If the straight lines are specified by their equations
relative to a coordinate-system in the plane, the coordinates of
the point of intersection P can be calculated by regarding the
equations of the straight lines as a system of two equations in
two unknowns and solving for these unknowns.
Example; line l y = 3x 1,
line /2 y = 3.x + 5.
265
INTERSECTION OF TWO CURVES
System of equations: 1. v
= 1,3x
2. y + 3* = 5.
Solution of the system of equations: x = lj2,

Point of intersection: P(l, 2) (Fig. 175).
FiO. 175
Intersection of two curves
The points of intersection of two curves (in a plane or in three

dimensions) are those points which the two curves have in
common. If the curves are specified by their equations (in a
rectangular coordinate system) the coordinates of the point of
intersection can be calculated by regarding the two equations
representing the curves as a system of equations in two unknowns.
Example: Points of intersection of a parabola and a circle.
+ y2 = 144.
Equation of circle, x2
Equation of parabola, y2 = 10*.
System of equations, 1. x2 + y =
2
144,
2. /- 10*.
266
INTERVAL
Solutions:
xi = 8, yx = +4VJ; point of intersection P (8, +4V5). :

x
xx = 8,y 2 = 4VT; point of intersection: P (8, 4\/5). 2
#2 = 18 gives no real solution for/ (Fig. 176).
Fig. 176
Interval
The totality of all numbers which lie between two fixed numbers
a and b is called an open interval, a and b are the limits of the
interval [Symbolically: (a, b)].

If the limits themselves are included in the totality of numbers
in the interval, this new
of numbers is called a closed interval
set
(Symbolically: [a, b]). If only one limit is included, we speak of
a one-sided closed (or half-open) interval. If the left limit belongs
to the interval and the right not, we have an interval closed on
the left and open on the right [Symbolically [a, b)]. :
Intervals can be represented by inequalities (see above):
I. Open interval: a < x < b; all numbers x which satisfy

these inequalities lie in the interval (a, b).
II. Closed interval a <, x <C b;
: all numbers x which satisfy
these inequalities lie in the closed interval [a, b],
III. Interval open to the left: a x <; b. <
IV. Interval open to the right: a<.x <b.
In the representation of numbers on a straight line, an interval

forms a segment where, in the case of an open interval, it is
267
INVERSE FUNCTION
agreed that neither end-point belongs to the interval, for a half-

open interval that one end-point (right or left) belongs, and for
a closed interval that both end-points belong.
Inverse function
Solution of a functional equa-
=f(x) for x gives x = g(y).
tion v
Ifwe interchange x and v in this
new equation, to give x and v
of inde-
their usual connotations
pendent and dependent variable,
we obtain the inverse function
v = g(x) of the original function
v=/(*)(Fig. 177).
Graphically, if the same scale
is used for x and v, v =
g(x) is
Fig. 177
the mirror-image of y =f(x) in
the straight line v = x.
Original function Inverse function
Square, = x2 v Root, = Vx = x*
y 1*
v = x y = tfx = x
1
Power, n '*
Exponential functions, y = a x
Logarithm, v = loga x
y = e* y = lnx
y= 10* y = logx
Sine, y = sin x Inverse sine, v = sin-1 x
Hyperbolic sine, v = sinh x Inverse sinh, v = sinh-1 x
Inverse trigonometric series

Of these the tan-1 series and the sin
-1
series are the most
important. We have, for all x in the range 1 < x ^ +1 (and
for these values only),
x? x6
tan-1 x = x ^"+"F~"* + (-l)*4-r-r+.
2k + 1
268
.
IRRATIONAL NUMBER
for all x in the range 1 < x <I +1,
1.x3 1.3.x5
sm-1 x = x + y-I +2 T 4 T 5- + ... ,
1.3.5 (2k - x2 **1

1) .
+ 2 4
. . 6 (2k).(2k+l)
+
In particular, j = tan-1 1 = 1^ + ^ + = + . . ..
Inversion
An inversion occurs in a. permutation (see below) if two elements
in the permutation are interchanged as compared with their

original order.
Example: Let the elements a, b, c, d, e be given in the permuta-

tion a, c, e, d, b. This permutation is obtained by carrying out 4
inversions, namely by interchanging successively c and b\ tfaad b;

e and b; e and d.
Even and odd permutations

A permutation is called even if it contains an even number of
inversions and odd if it contains an odd number of inversions.
If two different elements in a permutation are interchanged, a
new permutation arises, and the number of inversions is altered
by an odd number.
Irrational number
The realnumbers are sub-divided into the rational numbers
(see below) and the irrational numbers. The irrational numbers
are thus the non-rational real numbers, e.g. V2, e = 2-718. .
(see below).
(For the proof that V2 is irrational see Indirect Proof.)

As with all numbers, neither of these numbers can
irrational
be represented by the ratio of two integers.
Amongst the irrational numbers we distinguish those, e.g.
269
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
irrational square roots, which are the roots of algebraic equations

algebraic-irrational numbers (see Algebraic numbers) from
transcendental numbers (see below), e.g. -n =
3-141,592,6. ., for .
which this is not the case.
Isosceles triangle
A triangle with two sides equal is called isosceles. The equal

sides are called the lateral sides, and the third side the base. The
intersection of the lateral sides is called the apex (vertex) of the
triangle. The angles adjacent to the base are equal (see Triangle).
Jointed quadrilateral
If four rods are jointed together we get a jointed quadrilateral

ABCD (Fig. 178). A jointed quadrilateral does not have a definite
shape, as a jointed triangle would ; if, for example, one rod, AB,
is held fixed, the rods BC and AD can still rotate, within certain
limits, about A and B (see Quadrilateral).
/ Da
Fig. 178
Kepler's star polyhedra
If the edges of a pentadodecahedron or of an icosahedron are

extended there arises in either case a new solid called respectively
dodecahedron-star and the icosahedron-star (Figs. 179, 180).
270
LEAST COMMON MULTIPLB
Fig. 179 Fro. 180
Least common denominator

The least common denominator of a number of fractions is
the least common multiple (l.c.m. see ; below) of their denomin-
ators, e.g. -z and r have least common denominator 6.
Reduction to a common denominator makes possible the

addition of fractions of different type, e.g.
l,l_l 2_5
+ 3~6 + 6"~6*
2
Least common multiple (L.C.M.)
The least common multiple of two numbers is the smallest

number which contains both numbers as a factor. The least
common multiple of two or more numbers can be determined by
dividing each number into its prime factors, e.g. 8 and 12 have
the least common multiple 24. For we have 8 = 2 3 and
12 = 22 .3, and so the least common multiple must contain the
factors 23 and 3.
271
LEMNISCATB
Lemniscate
A lemniscate is an algebraic curve. It can be represented by
the equation
(jc
2
+ ff - 2aV - f) = 0,
where a is a constant (Fig. 181).
Fro. 181
The lemniscate and its generalizations, the Cassini ovals, are

obtained by taking points A and B symmetrically placed with
respect to the origin and distant 2a apart, and determining
points P such that PA X PB =
constant (= b 2). If a b, we =
have the lemniscate; if b >
a the Cassini oval lies outside and
encloses the lemniscate; if b <
a the curve lies wholly within the
two loops of the lemniscate.
The equation of the Cassini ovals is
(a2
+ ff - 2a (x - f) M - a*.
2 2
Length, measurement of
The unit of linear measurement in the metric system is the
metre. The length of the metre m
was established (1889) as the
distance between marks on a bar of platinum-iridium preserved
in Paris. In the comparable system of measurement used in the
United States and in countries of the British Commonwealth
(mainly for commercial purposes) the yard is the unit of linear
measurement. 1 yard is now uniformly defined as 0-9144 m. We
have:
1 Kilometre (km) = 103 m (= 0-6214 mile)
1 Hectometre (hm) = 102 m (= 328 feet 1 inch)
1 Decametre (Dm) = 10 m (= 393-7 inches)
1 Metre (m) = 10 m (= 39-37 inches)
272
LIMIT
1 Decimetre (dm) = 10-1m (= 3-937 inches)

1 Centimetre (cm) = 10-2m (= 0-3937 inches)
1 Millimetre (mm) = 1(H m (= 0-03937 inches)
1 Micron (ji) = 10-m
1 Millimicron (mfi) = 10-9 m
1 Angstrom (A) = 10-10 m
1 Micromicron (jj.fi) = 10 -12
m
yard feet inches lines metres
1 mile 1,760 5,280 63,360 760,320 1,609

1 yard 3 36 432 0-914
lfoot 12 144 0-305
1 inch 12 0025
1 line 0-0021
Other units of length

1 light year =
distance travelled by light in 1 year = 9-4608
1012 km 1013 km.
1 parsec = distance of a star at which the angle subtended by
the radius of the earth's orbit is T
(i.e. parallax of the star
amounts to 1") =
3-258 light years = 3-0826 X 1013 km.
1 nautical mile = 1-852 km = 6,080-3 feet = ^ meridian degree.
Length-preserving transformation
Atransformation is called length-preserving if in the trans-
formation every section of a curve corresponds to a section of a
curve with equal length. The congruent transformations (= rigid
motions) are length-preserving.
Limit
of an infinite sequence approach a definite value /
If the terms
in such a way that if we select some quantity, however small,
N
we can always find a number so that every term of the sequence
273
LIMIT
after the Nth differs from / by less than the selected small quantity,
then / is said to be the limit of the sequence.
If the terms of the sequence are denoted by ax , a2 , . . ., then
we write:
lim a n = I or a n -> / as n -* oo.
n-*oo
(See Sequence.)
Example: The sequence 0-3; 0-33; 0-333; 0-3333; ... has the
limits-
Evaluation of limits
1.The limit of a sum (or difference, or product) is equal to
the sum (or difference, or product) of the limit.
2. The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the limits,
provided the limit of the denominator differs from zero.
Formally:
lim (an + b n) = lim an + lim b n ; lim an .b n = (lim a n)Qim bj

n* n-*ao n-*oo n-*oo n n*-oo
lim (a n b n) = lim an lim n

n-*oo mao nao
limcM
a
lim t2 = "7, , where lim b n # 0.
_* b n Inn n _*,
--oo
Examples:
an = 2 + -;
w'
6n =3+ ^;
^ 2 lim aB 2; lim =3
Jis
^+ '->-?. ([2 +3 + [ 3
+s])
and lim a + lim bn =2+3= 5.

n*< n--oo
274
"
LINEAR EQUATION
Iim (b n aj = lim bn lira an 32= 1

n-ao n-oo nao
2+
*i([ + a]-[
Bd 3
3)
1-
-SLt'-s)-
lim a nfe n lim a n lim 6 W = 2 . 3 =6
tlao n-*ao
"^ (
2 +
9(
3 + s)
-Sl ( + ; + 5 + )
-6 -
hm
,. *
r- = ^>

t- T"
2 ,.
o and lim
(
2 + l\
r
2
7
n^* n lim 3 _,
I
I If I
3
\
3 + 2^/
These rules can be used for the evaluation of limits.
Example:
An
=1 4-1 Ihn(4-I)
n*< W 1
n fl L n-c
i-I ita(i-I)
1
~ I^To " 4 *
lim 1 lim -
n-*oo n-*oo
Linear equation
Equations of the first degree, i.e. containing the unknown
most the first power.
raised to at
The normal form is ax + b = (see Equation).
275
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
Linear transformation
Linear transformations are transformations of the complex
z-plane onto the complex w-plane, carried out by means of
complex linear functions. The theory of these linear transforma-
tions belongs to the foundations of the 'Theory of Functions'.
In what follows z denotes a complex variable: z x iy; = +
similarly, w is a complex variable: w u iv. The constants = +
a, b, c, d etc., denote complex numbers.
1. = az + b
Transformation by means of integral linearfunctions w
(1) a1, w = z + b; this is a translation along the vector b.
For b = we have w = z, the identical transformation.
(2) b = 0, w = az, where a ^ 0. These are similarity transfor-
mations in which rotation occurs about the origin O through an
angle a =
arga and stretching occurs in the ratio 1:|| (|a| is
the absolute value of a). If in particular \a\ = 1, i.e.
a = cos a + i sin a,
we have a pure rotation through the angle a. If a is a real number

we have to deal with a pure stretching in all directions with
similarity ratio 1:\a\ and origin O left unchanged.
The transformation w = az +b
0) (the (a # requirement
a ^ is essential since the transformation w = b maps all
points of the w-plane on to a single point of the z-plane and is
thus degenerate) therefore means that to obtain the image vv of
the point z we first rotate and stretch the position vector z, and
then translate the point along the vector b.
2. Transformation by means of the function w =-

If z = r (cos a + i sin a) then w = - cos (a) + / sin (a).
The image point of z thus has as absolute value the reciprocal

of the absolute value of z and as argument ( 1) times the argu-
ment of z. The transformation can best be carried out in two
steps.
(1) Transition to the negative argument, i.e. we determine the
point which has the same absolute value as z but negative argu-
ment, that is to say the point / which is the conjugate complex
with respect to z.
276
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
(2) We
seek the point which has the same argument as z but
1
reciprocal absolute value. This involves taking the mirror reflec-

tion in the unit circle, i.e. inversion with respect to the unit
circle or transformation by reciprocal radii (see Figs. 182 and

183).
Figs. 182 and 183 show how the mirror image of z with respect
to a circle found, z is joined to the centre O of the circle and, if
is
z outside the circle (Fig. 182), the tangents from z to the circle
lies
are drawn. The line joining the points of contact of the tangents
Fig. 182 Fig. 183
then intersects the line joining z to O in the required image-point

i'. Alternatively, if z lies within the circle (Fig. 183), the perpen-
dicular to the line joining z to O is constructed. This intersects
the circle in two points. The tangent is constructed at each of
these points, and these intersect in the required image-point /.
= az +b
3. The general linear transformation w
cz +d
A
non-degenerate transformation of the z-plane on to the
w-plane is defined by this function if the determinant
a b
= ad be t^= 0.
c d
A non-degenerate linear transformation of the above form can

be carried out in three steps by splitting the given transformation
into transformations of types 1 and 2.
277

LITERAL NUMBERS
(1) We first determine the point z = ex + d (as in 7

1).
(2) We then determine z" = (as in 2).

(3) Finally we carry out the transformation
(adbc\
-):' _ â ,
w + -(asml). .
Then
(ad bc\ Z _
+ ~c~\
a / ad bc\ 1 a
w
c~~ ) 7~)'7 + 'c
^ / ad-bc \ 1 a
+ d+?
that is,
ad + be a ad + be + flcz + /a az +b
~~ ~~
c(cz + d) c~~ c(cz + d) cz + d'
and so these three steps together yield the transformation
w = az + b
cz + d
Note that if ad be * we have -

a
c
b
-;
c?cz + d

= = az + b for:
-, all z, in
a
other words all points z have the same image pomt w = - and
so the transformation is degenerate.
Literal numbers
Literal numbers are represented by letters of an alphabet
(customarily the Latin and Greek alphabets). Any definite number
can replace such a letter in a calculation, provided of course that
the substitution is carried through consistently.
By convention the early letters of each alphabet are used as
known fixed quantities, and the last letters to signify unknown
fixed quantities, or variables. Frequently indices or other dis-
tinguishing marks are added to the letters of the alphabet, e.g.
ax b 7 ,
, A4 , otg, ft* Rtf.
278
LOCUS
The importance of literal numbers lies in their usefulness in
presenting mathematical laws and rules clearly, compactly and
comprehensively, by means of 'formulae'. E.g.
1. The commutative law of addition:

In words: In addition, summands can be interchanged.
As a formula: a + b = b + a.
2. In words: Powers of the same number are multiplied by
retaining the base and adding the exponents.
As a formula: a n .am = "+"*.
Locus
The set of points satisfying certain conditions is called a 'locus'.
Examples:
(i) The locus of points distant r from a fixed point O is the
circle with centre O
and radius r.
(ii) The locus of points equidistant from two fixed points A
and B is the perpendicular bisector of the segment AB.
(iii) The locus of points distant dftom a straight line /comprises
the pair of lines parallel to / and distant d from it on either
side.
(iv) The locus of points equidistant from two intersecting

and m
straight lines / is the pair of bisectors of the angle
formed by / and m.
(v) The locus of the centres of circles which pass through two
fixed points A and B is the perpendicular bisector of the
segment AB.
(vi) The locus of the centres of circles which touch a given
straight line / in a given point A is the line through A
perpendicular to /.
(vii) The locus of points the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points Fx and F2 is constant and equal to 2a is the
ellipse with foci F1 and F2 and major axis of length 2a.
(viii) The locus of points the difference of whose distances from
two fixed points Ft and F2 is constant is the hyperbola with
foci Fx and F2 .
279
:
LOGARITHM
(ix) The locus of points whose distances from a fixed point F
and a fixed straight fine / are equal is the parabola with
focus F and directrix /.
If a point of the plane satisfies two conditions, it lies on the

intersection of the two loci determined by these conditions.
Logarithm
A logarithmic function is the inverse of a power function.
The logarithm (of b to base a) is the exponent () to which the
base(a) must be raised in order to obtain the antilogarithm (b).
base
n a b
logarithm antilogarithm
The logarithm of 1 is for every base:
since o = 1 for all a, log a 1=0.

If the base and antilogarithm are equal, the logarithm is 1
since a1 = a for all a, loga a = 1.
Any positive number other than and 1 can be used as base.

In science and technology the base e (e 2-718. =
; see e) and .
.
the natural logarithms defined thereby (abbreviation: In) are

often used. The common or Briggsian logarithms widely employed
in computation have base 10. This base is usually omitted when
writing such logarithms: log10 a is abbreviated to loga. We
then have:
log 10 =1 log 0-1 =-1

log 100 =2 log 0-01 = -2
log 1,000 = 3 log 0-001 = -3 etc.
Since every positive number x can be written as the product of

a number x* which between 1 and 10, and a power of 10, it
lies
is sufficient, for common logarithms, to calculate and tabulate
the logarithms of numbers between 1 and 10 only. These logar-

ithms lie between log 1 = and log 10 = 1. Thus, in the table,
280
LOGARITHM
figures will only occur to the right of the decimal place: if
x = 10V (1< xf < 10),

we have
= n + log xf (0 < log xf < 1);
log x
e.g. 20 = 10 2, log 20 = + log 2 = + 0-30103
1
. 1 1
0-00002 = 10-6 2, log 0-00002 = -5 + 0-30103.

.
is called the characteristic of log x. The characteristic is:
zero if x lies between 1 and 10;

positive if a: is at least equal to 10;
negative if x is positive and less than 1.
log x' is called the mantissa of log x. E.g.
log 200,000 = log (10 5 X 2) = 5 + 0-30103

has characteristic 5 and mantissa 0-30103.
Where the characteristic is positive, the characteristic and
mantissa are to be added; e.g. log 200,000 5-30103. On the =
other hand, if the characteristic is negative we keep the charac-
teristic and mantissa separate; e.g.
log 0-003 = log 10"8 = -3 + log 3 = 0-47712 - 3.
Alternatively (and more commonly) we indicate a negative

characteristic by a bar above it and append this characteristic to
the mantissa, e.g.
log 0-003 = 3-47712.
Rules for calculating with logarithms
Example:
1. log a (x . y) = log a x + loga j> log (7x3) = log 7 + log 3
2. log a Fj = log a x - \o$ a y log ^ = log 7 - log 3
3. log a (x) = y log a x log (73) = 3 log 7
4. log a Vx = - log a x log VI = ^ log 7
281
LOGARITHM
These formulae are simple consequences of the rules for calcu-
lating with powers.
There are as many systems of logarithms as there are possible
base numbers a >
0. To obtain the relation between logarithms
in one system with base a and those with base b, the following
equation is used
log6 x = log
6 a X log x.
In particular for bases 10 and e = 2-71828. we have . .
log 10 x = log x = log10 exlnx.

Since log10 e = 0-43429 we have
log x 0-43429 In x or In x = Q4342Q log x.
Rules 1-4 explain why logarithms are of great practical use in
numerical calculations. In calculating using logarithms each type
of calculation is reduced to a simpler type: multiplication to
addition, division to subtraction, etc. The accuracy of the calcu-
lation is of course limited by the number of places in the table
of logarithms used.
Examples of numerical calculation using logarithms:
1. log (ab) = log a + log b 2. log LA = log a - log b

e.g. x = 17 0-23 . e.g. 17 0-23
x -T-
log 17 = 1.23045 log 17 = 1-23045
log 0-23 = 0-36173- 1 log 0-23 = 0-36173- 1
log x = 1-59218 1 log x = 1-86872
log x = 0-59218 x = 73-913

x = 3-910 See also example 5.
3. log an n log a log Va = - log a

.
e.g. x = 373 e.g. x = ^35

log 37 = 1-56820 log 35 = 1-54407
282
LOGARITHM
3 log 37 = 4-70460 | log 35 = 0-51469
log x = 4-70460 log x = 0-51469
x = 50652* x = 3-2711
See also example 6.
5. log ^ = log a log b t
17
^.log x=
1()17
log 17 = 1-23045
log 1017 = 3-00732
Here the subtraction cannot be carried out, since the subtrahend
is greater than the minuend; we proceed as follows:
log 17= 3-23045 - 2 Thus for log 17 = 1-23045, 2 is

log 1017 = 3-00732
added and then taken away again.
log * = 0-22313 -2
x = 0-016716
/- The characteristic 2 cannot be

va =
1
6. log - log a
divided by 3, hence we add and
subtract 1.
E.g. x = ^0-017 log 0-017= 1-23045-3

| log 0-017 = 0-41015- 1
log = 0-41015 -
jc 1
x = 0-25713
Logarithmic tables. A
table of logarithms (see Table 2) is a table
containing the mantissae of the logarithms. According to the
number of places given, we speak of 4-figure, 5-figure, etc.,
logarithm tables.
* Note that the result x =
50652 is short by 1. Errors like this occur in logar-
ithmic calculations, since values in the table of logarithms used have been rounded
off in the last decimal place.
283
LOGARITHM
Logarithmic functions (see Functions). The function y = log a x
is called a logarithmic function. For a 2, the graph = is shown
in Fig. 184.
Fig. 184
Logarithmic series (see Series). The following development in

series holds for the natural logarithms of numbers lying between
(-1) and (+1), i.e. for -1 <x< 1:
In (1 + x) = x "2 + 3" '
xu
'
2 8
, / 1 \ JC JC
+ n
+ . . .
(-i<:jt<+i).
,
/I + A =2n (
X
X*
+ 2k +
+ J + J + --.+
X* t
JC
2 ** 1
\
l
[x) [ 1 ' * '
7
(-!<*< +1).
Logarithms of the trigonometrical functions. Logarithms of the

trigonometrical functions are sometimes given in tables of
logarithms. Since the values of these functions are mostly less
than 1, the tables are listed so that 10 must usually be appended
to the given logarithm (exceptions are given in the tables).
Example: log sin 37 IT = 9-7815 - 10.
284
LOGARITHM
Interpolation in tables of logarithms. (For general remarks on
interpolation, see Interpolation.) In logarithmic calculation it is
sometimes necessary to achieve greater accuracy by interpolation.
Suppose we wish to determine log 101-34, given
log 101-3 = 2-0056,

and
log 101-4 = 2-0060.
The difference of the arguments contained in the table is 0-1,
and the difference of the associated logarithms is 0-0004. We
assume now that the logarithm increases proportionately with the
argument and accordingly take as approximating value
0-0004
log 101-34 = log 101-3 + -qTj- X 004
= 2-0056 + 0-00016 = 2-0058.

Suppose we wish to solve the equation log x = 3-0419, and the
latter value not in the table. We seek the next smallest and the
is
next largest logarithms in the table, viz.
log 1101 = 3-0418

log 1102 = 3-0422.
The of the logarithms is 0-0004. This corresponds to a

difference
difference inargument of 1. Thus a difference 0-0001 in the
logarithm corresponds to a difference in the argument of
0-0001
1 x
0Q0Q4
= 0-25; thus log 1101-25 = 3-0419 approximately.
In many tables of logarithms so-called Proportional Parts are

given to aid in interpolation. These are either printed at the
edges of individual pages or also at the beginning or end of the
book on opposite pages. The use of these tables is illustrated by
the following example.
To find
x = log 246-57.
285
:
LOGARITHM
In the 5-figure table we find
log 246-5 = 2-39182

and
log 246-6 = 2-39199.
The difference of these logarithms is 0-00017. At the edge of the
table we find the proportions table for the tabular difference 17;
it reads
17
1 1-7
2 3-4
5-1
Since we have to determine log 246-57 we look for
3
7 in the left column of the and find next to it
table
4 6-8
8-5
the number 11-9. 11-9 is added to the last two
5
6 10-2
figures of log 246-5 = 2-39182, i.e. to 82.*
7 11-9
8 13-6
9 15-3
Since we wish to calculate to 5 places, 11-9 is rounded off to

12, and we obtain: log 246-57 =
2-39194.
Logarithmic equation
Logarithmic equations are conditional equations in which the
logarithm of the unknown appears, e.g.
5 log x = x.
In general such equations must be solved by graphical or
numerical methods, though sometimes a simple method can be
found, e.g.
log V2jc- 1 + log Vx-9 1.
We use the product rule for logarithms to get:

log V(2x - l)(x - 9) = log 10.
* The addition of 11-9 to the last two figures 82 means in fact:
2-39182 +
00001 19 =
2-391939 2-39194 (to 5 places).
286
LOGARITHM
If the logarithms of both sides of an equation coincide so must
the antilogs. Thus:
V(2x - 1)(* - 9) = 10.
Whence it follows that:
2x* - 19* +9= 100 19 33
19 91 rt
xx = 13
_ 19
V
/361 728
~ 4 16
+ 16 *a 2
Test 1. log V2 x 13 -1+ log Vl3 - 9 = log VB + log V4

= log5 + log2
= log 5 X 2
= log 10 = 1.
2. x2 = \ is not a r oot since 2x2 = 7 = 8

1 1 is
negative and so V2x2 1 is imaginary.
Logarithmic series
The series
yZ y3 yi vn
m(l+*) = ;c-| + |-| + ...(-l)-i^ + ...
converges for all a: such that 1 < x^ 1 (and only these values).
In = natural logarithm.
For-l<:*<+l,
1 n
r ^ = ^+2+3 + 4
+ --- +
+ "--
For 1 <x< 1,
ln
r ^ = 2(, + I+T + ... + 2TTT + ...).
These series are referred to as logarithmic series.
287
LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL
Logarithmic spiral
The
logarithmic spiral has equation r me?, where= is m>
a constant number, e =
2-718. ., and r and <p are polar co-
.
ordinates (Fig. 185). The logarithmic spiral is a transcendental

curve.
Fiq. 185
Maclaurin's series
Maclaurin's series enables us to develop a given function /(*)

inpowers of x, i.e. to provide a power series in x which represents
the function^*). Maclaurin's series for the function f(x) runs
jM. M+ m x+ m* + qs> x* + .
Mathematical geography
To represent the position of a point on the earth's surface we
refer it to the earth's axis (i.e. the diameter of the earth about
which is executes in 24 hours its daily rotation). The two end-
points of the axis are called the geographical poles (North and
South). The great circle equidistant from both poles is called
the equator; the half-circles running from North to South pole
are called meridians and the circles running parallel to the
equator, parallels of latitude. The position of a point on the
earth's surface is denoted by its (geographical) latitude and
longitude (Fig. 186). The latitude <f> of a point is the angle between
the normal to the earth's surface at the point and the normal at
the equator. It ranges, to the North and to the South, from 0 to
90. The longitude of a point is the spherical angle at the pole
288
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY
between the meridian through Greenwich and the meridian of
the point in question, or alternatively the arc between the two
meridians at the equator. The longitude ranges from 0 to 180
to the east and to the west.
Mapping of the earth's surface

Cartography is concerned with the representation of the
surface of the earth on a plane. This can only be done for limited
areas without significant distortion. For larger areas the relative
value of different mappings depends upon the purpose for which
the map is being constructed. A mapping is essentially a trans-
formation, and in this application angle-preserving (conformal),
area-preserving, or length-preserving transformations are of
especial interest (although length-preservation is only possible to
a very restricted extent). We can recognise the relationship
between mapped and map most simply by considering the image
on the map of the latitude and longitude-circles.
Fig. 186 Fio. 187
Position of two points relative to one another
The relative position of two points on the earth's surface is

specified by the differencesbetween their latitudes and longitudes.
The angular length of the two points (the
shortest line joining the
section of the great circle which passes through them both)
represents the distance apart of the two points, and is denoted in
Fig. 187 by d. The angles between this line and the northerly
289
directions at Px and P2 are denoted by A and E. We have
cos d = cos (90 - 0j) cos (90 - &)
+ sin (90 - ^) sin (90 - &) cos (A2 A^,
= sin 0j cos (A2 + tan

Aj) <f> 2
cos X
cot .4
sin (Ag Aj)
sin <2 c s (Ai A ) + tan ^ cos
cotii = 2 (f> 2
sin (Ax Aa)

The last two formulae are important for navigation. They need
not be solved with great accuracy, since a course can only be
steered to an accuracy of about 1. Tables are available for the
computation.
Loxodrome
The great-circle path is not the only one between two points
on the earth's surface. In actual navigation it is often unsuitable,
since it may
lead into latitudes where ice is a danger. Usually the
preferred path will be that with constant direction, the so-called
loxodrome. Sea-maps are therefore usually maps in which such
paths appear as straight lines (Mercator's map). In the latitudes
most important in navigation the loxodrome is usually not much
longer than the great-circle path. For air navigation, on the other
hand, either great-circle routes are preferred, or routes with
meteorological advantages.
Example: At 12 hrs., shore-time (the position of the ship at

this time has to be registered in the ship's log), a ship is located at
3850'N, 12 17' W, and steers in the direction 245 East of
North at 14 knots. What will be its position at 19 hrs.?
The new position is calculated from the old by means of the
changes in latitude and longitude during the period under con-
sideration. The difference in latitude b follows from the direction
and distance d;b = dcos a (7 hours at 14 knots gives 98 nautical
miles), d sin a, however, does not give the required difference in
longitude / but the deviation a, related to the difference in longi-
tude by the formula / =
a cos <f> m , where <f>m is the mean of the
initial and final latitudes (Fig. 188).
290
Distance d 98 miles.
log d = 1-9912 log d= 1-9912
Direction a = 65
log cos a = 1-6259 log sin a = T-9573

log b = 1-6171 w log a = l-9485 n = l-9485 n
log a
b=-4h4' a = ~88-8m log cos W = 1-8936
log / = 2-0549
Initial latitude:
38 50' N / = 113-5'W
Final latitude:
38 08-6' N Initial longitude: 12 17' W
Mean latitude fa
38 29' N Final longitude: 14 10-5'
Vertex of the great circle

The point nearest the pole on a great circle path is calculated
from the formulae;
sin (90 - <f> 8 ) = sin (90 - <f>J sin A
cot A
The navigator possesses special tables for this type of calculation.
Initial latitude
Final latitude
Fig. 188 Fig. 189
291
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Mathematical induction
Mathematical induction is a method of proving a general
proposition involving an integer n which may be any positive
integer (or any integer greater than some fixed N). Such a proof
proceeds in the following way:
1. It is first proved that the proposition is true when n is equal
to 1 (or whatever is the least integer 1 to which the proposi- N+

tion applies).
2. It is next proved that if the proposition is true for some
arbitrary value of n, say k, greater than or equal to 1 (or N+ 1),
then it is also true for n = k + 1.
Now since by 1. the proposition is true for n 1 (or N+ 1),
by 2. it is also true for n = 2 (or N + 2). Then by 2. it is also

true for = 3 (or N + 3), and so on for all the relevant values
of n.
Example: Sn =1+2+3+ . . . + n = ^n(n + I).
1. sx = = 1 -z . 1 . 2, so the theorem is true for n = 1.
2. If Sk = ^k(k+ 1), then S M = \k{k + 1) +k+ - 1
t (k + \){k + 2); that is, if the theorem is true for n k it is
true for n =k+ 1.
The theorem is therefore true for all positive integral n.
Matrix
A
matrix may be regarded as the array of coefficients of a
system of linear equations; e.g.
3x + 5y 3z 11 has the matrix of coefficients

2x y + 4z =
2jc - 3y + z-\
The matrix /3 53 11\

12 -1 4 01
\2 -3 1 1/
is called the augmented matrix of the system of equations.
292
MEASURING OFF AN ANGLE
Amatrix can be either square or rectangular {see above

examples). If certain rows and columns of a matrix are eliminated
to leave a square matrix with (say) k rows and columns, the
determinant of this matrix can be formed. This determinant is
called a fc-rowed subdeterminant of the matrix. The rank of a
matrix is the highest order of non-zero subdeterminants.
Example: The matrix
/ 3 5 -3 11 \
I 2 1 4 I
\ 2 -3 1 1 /
has at most rank 3. But the sub-determinant of the third order

5 -3 11
-14 = 5.4- 11 + 132-3 = 138

-3 1 1
is non-zero. The rank of the matrix is thus 3.
Application: A system of linear equations is consistent if the

matrix of coefficients and the augmented matrixes of the system
have equal rank.
Mean proportional
The mean proportional with respect to two quantities a and
jc
b (segments or numbers) the number which satisfies the pro-

is
portional relationship a:x x:b. That is, x% =

ab and thus
x =
Vab. The mean proportional of two quantities a and b is
identical with the geometric mean.
Measuring off an angle

To construct a given angle, a, at a point A on a straight line/
(Figs. 190, 191).
f f
Fig. 190 Fig. 191
293
MEDIAN
Suppose the given angle has vertex S and legs h and k. Describe
about S and A equal circles with arbitrary radius r. Let the one
circle cut h and k in Hand K
respectively and the other cut /in
F. Now describe about F a circle with radius HK. This cuts the
first circle in G, and the straight line through A and G is the
second leg of the required angle. Note that the angle a can be
measured off on different sides of/.
Median
The median of a number of observations is that value which
has an equal number of observations greater and less than it.
In the case of the Gaussian normal distribution the median
coincides with the arithmetic mean.
Menelaos (1st century a.d., Alexandria)

Theorem of Menelaos. Every transversal cuts the sides of a
triangle in such a way that the product of the ratios of the
resulting segments, taken in the
same sense round the triangle,
is +1;
BZ CX AY
See Fig. 192.
Fig. 192
Method of least squares

A method of dealing with errors of observation (see Error,
theory of), developed by Gauss, and named after its most im-
portant principle ; i.e. that for a sequence of measurements the
sum of the squares of differences from a particular value is a
minimum if that value is taken to be the arithmetic mean of the
measurements.
294
:
MOLLWEIDE EQUATIONS
Consider a simple error-calculation made according to the

method of least squares.
Suppose we have a sequence of measurements
Obsv. A A2 The arithmetic mean of the observations

is 8-2, whence we get for the error:
7 1-2 1-44
8 0-2 0-04
9 0-8 0-64
10 1-8 3-24
6 2-2 4-84
7 1-2 1-44
m = y^=V0l733
8 0-2 004
9 0-8 0-64 w = 0-674 V0-1733
10 1-8 3-24 10-4 ,
8 0-2 0-04 d = = 1-04 = 0-7979 . V0-1733.

-Jq-
E82 10-4 15-60
Consequently, for the result, we have:
fi
= 8-2 0-674 V0- 1733,
the true value lying inside this range with probability 50 %.
Mixed number
Sum of an integer and a fractional number, e.g.
,2 , 2
13 =1+ 3
(see Numbers, types of).
Mollweide equations
Mollweide's equations belong to plane trigonometry and can

be used for the solution of a triangle (sides a, b, c; angles a, /?, y).
295
o
MONOTONIC
The formulae are
a a- 8
, Q + o
cos z
2__ a b ,
.
sm
2
a +
cos ^
' c .
sin
a + #
2~
P-y -y
A
o +i
c
C0S 2 u
o c
.
Sln 2
T"^
a ~~
+ y ~ . P + y
cos sin
2 2
y
a y a

c +
_i_
a
cos
2 t
ca
.
sin 2
^
cos +a
y
-z
6 .
sin
y +
- =
a

Monotonic
1. Monotonic sequence
A sequence x n is said to be monotonic increasing if x <, x
n n+1
for all n, and monotonic decreasing if xn xn+1 for all n. If >
xn < x n+i or x n > x n+1 for all n we speak of strictly monotonic
(increasing or decreasing) sequences.
2. Monotonic functions
all x n < x n+1 ,f(x n ) ^/(x
for n+1), the function/*)
If, is said
to bemonotonic increasing. Monotonic decreasing and strictly
monotonic functions are defined similarly.
3. Monotonic laws
(a) for addition. If a < b then a + c < b + c.
(b) for multiplication. If a < b then, if c positive, ac < be.
is
Most probable value

The most probable value of a quantity with frequency distri-
bution function F(x) is the value of x for which the distribution
function attains its maximum (see Frequency curve).
296
MULTIPLICATION
n~ x
The binomial distribution Pn(x) = I
J
%
pq has mean
value E = np. If the mean value is an integer, then it is also the
most probable value of the distribution. If it is not an integer, it
lies between two integers x w and x w+1 In this case, one other of .
these numbers is the most probable value, or both are regarded

as most probable value if they are equally probable.
3
Example: I. p = q -, n = 3; P3(x) = I U ; mean

J
value E = | i>3(0) = i i>3 (l) - |, P3(2) = | P3(3) = i

P3 (l) and P3 (2) are equal and are the most probable values.
= 4, p = q = i = = = 2;
2. For n i>4(x)
Q Qj and j
jc =2 is the most probable value. We verify that P4(0) = -r?
W) = \> *4<2) = | P4O) = \, PM - ^
Multiplication
Multiplication is the third of the four fundamental calculating
operations. It results from abbreviating the process of addition
of equal summands:
a + a + a + a + a = ax5; 3 + 3 + 3 = 3x3.
The numbers multiplied together are called factors; the result of
the multiplication is called the product. The first factor is some-
times called the multiplicand, the second factor the multiplier:
5 x 3 = 15
multiplicand X multiplier = product.
The commutative law holds for multiplication:
a x b =b x a; e.g. 5x3 = 3x5.

No distinction need therefore be made in calculation between
multiplicand and multiplier.
297
MULTIPLICATION
1. Multiplication of general {literal) numbers

By the product a x b of two general numbers we understand
a sum of b summands each equal to a.
axb = a + a + a + . . .(b times), b integral.
In particular b can be a definite number. We have then, for

example, ,
r '
ax5 = a-\-a + a + a + a. ,
In such a product 5 is called a coefficient. It is customary to omit

the multiplication sign between coefficient and letter; the coeffi-
cient is placed in front of the letters and the latter placed in
alphabetical order.
In multiplying general numbers together, the coefficients are
first multiplied together, and then the letters.
(3a) X (6b) = ISab.
If a product contains equal factors, these can be grouped together

as a power:
axaxaxaxbxbxc = a*b c 2
(see Power).
Ifone factor of a product is zero the value of the product is zero.

To multiply a product by a number, a factor may be multiplied
by the number:
Qy/a) x 5 = 15 x Vo".
2. Multiplicationof relative numbers

numbers are multiplied by reference to the following
Relative
sign rules The product of two numbers with the same sign is
:
positive; the product of two numbers with different signs is

.
negative. (In what follows, X is shortened to

'
''.)
'
(+2) (+3)
. = +6, (-2) (-3) . = +6.
(+2) . (-3) = -6, (-2) . (+3) = -6.
(+a) . (+b) = +ab, (-) . (-b) = +ab.
(-a) . (+b) = -ab, (+a) . (~b) = -ab.
3. Multiplication of algebraic sums

To multiply an algebraic sum by a number, each term of the
sum is multiplied by the number (distributive law):
x (a + b c) ax + bx ex.
.
298
MULTIPLICATION
To multiply algebraic sums together, every term of one sum is
multiplied by every term of the other:
(a + 3) . (2b - c) = lab + 6b - ac - 3c.
4. Multiplication ofpowers
(a) With the same base; multiply by adding the exponents and
leaving the base unaltered
a3 .a7 = a10 ; am ,a n = a"*".

(b) With the same exponent; multiply by leaving the exponent
unaltered and taking the product of the bases:
am .bm = (a. b)m ; 53 . 23 = (5 . 2)

3 = 103 .
5. Multiplication
of roots
With the same index; multiply by leaving the index un-
(a)
altered and taking the product of the radicands
tfi . Vb = Va~7b, -^.^2=^572=^10:

V2 . a/8 = a/16 = 4.
(b) With the same radicand; we make the roots similar and
proceed according to the rule for roots with the same index, e.g.
Va.Va= Va Ya = Va n+m ;
A/3 . A^3 = 5 7
-
A/3' . V = A^TT5 = a/P 5
.
(c) Roots can be expressed as powers with fractional exponents

and multiplication can then be carried out using the corresponding
rules for powers, e.g.
y~a.yi = c?.b = (abf = Vab\
A^5 . A^2 = 5* . 2* = (5 . 2)* = VfTl = AÎO;
~^ m
V~a .yTa = a~n .am = a~
n
= a
mn
= "a/^;
A^3 . A^3 = 3*. 3*= 3* + * = 3* - 3

H = A^T
299
NEGATIVE NUMBERS
6. Multiplication of complex numbers

Complex numbers are multiplied in the same way as algebraic
sums, with /
2
put equal to 1, e.g.
{a + ib) . (c + id) = ac bd + i(bc + ad);
(7 + 5/) . (1 + 3/) = 7 + 7 3/ +
. 5/ + 5/ 3/
1 . .
= 7 + 21/ + 5/ + 15/ = 7 + 2
26/ - 15
= -8 + 26/.
Negative numbers
The introduction of the negative numbers is due to the need
for subtraction to be performable without restriction. In the
domain of positive numbers the subtraction a b c can only =
be carried out if a >
b (a greater than b). If, on the other hand,
a < b (a smaller than b) we define c = (b a), e.g.
5 7 = ( 2). Here the ' sign' on the left hand side of the
.
equation represents an operation; on the right hand side it forms

part of the number itself. In the case of positive numbers the
associated sign (+) may be omitted, but not in the case of
negative numbers. Representation of the numbers on a straight
line clarifies the notion of a negative number.
Neil's Parabola
This is an algebraic curve

represented by the equation
ax? y = 0, or in explicit
%
form, v = Vox? (a a fixed

positive number, Fig. 193).
Newton's method of approxi-

mation
The improvement of an
approximate solution x = xt
of the equation f(x) by
means of the differential
Fig. 193 calculus makes use of the
NOMOGRAPHY
fact that the equation of the tangent at the point (xlt y^) on
the curve given by y = fix), is
If xxan approximate solution then/C^!) is not exactly zero.

is
Suppose equals yv A better approximation can be obtained by

it
calculating the point x t in which the tangent intersects the x-axis

(i.e. y = 0). This is (Fig. 194)
Xf = x '
Several applications of Newton's procedure rapidly lead to a

sufficiently accurate approximation.
Etc. 194
Nomography
Representation of a functional relationship by a so-called
nomogram is used when frequent graphical solution of the same
equation with different parameters is required. After choice of

scale (ratio of diagram lengths in cm. to actual quantities) a
relation y =J[x) can be represented as a nomogram scale in
which the y values are plotted on a straight line, the x values
being printed beside the relevant points (Fig. 195). Double-scales
are also used, i.e. scales with two quantities having a simple
relationship (e.g. frequency and wave-length, where the product
is constant). Particular scales in frequent use are the logarithmic
301
NOMOGRAPHY
scale (y = c log x), the quadratic scale (y = ex2) and the pro
jective scale
/
I y
ax + b\
t~jI- For three variables we speak of
function-nets.
Example: graphs for z = xy (Fig. 196).
yf(x
I 2 3 4 5
Fio. 196
By adjusting the scales in this case we can arrange for the

z-family of curves to become a family of straight lines taking :
logarithms we have logz log x = +

logy (see Fig. 197). These
two function nets, used for reading off the relation f(x,y, z) 0, =
are also called net charts. f(x, y, z) =
can be represented by
one arbitrary and two parallel families of straight lines if
f(x,y, z) = can be brought to the form
/i(*)/3oo +mm +/ 5 (*) = o.
Fio. 198
x
NOMOGRAPHY
Examples of net charts
\. z cx
n
Given scale-ratio
. /, we obtain:
/log z = /log c + In log
(the use of double logarithmic graph paper is advantageous here,

Fig. 198).
2. z = c^* + z . If we take logarithms, the equation becomes
log (z z = log c + x log A

)
(simple logarithmic paper is used here, Fig. 199).
Nomograms
The straight line joining two parameter values on two straight
or curved lines laid out with appropriate scales gives a point of
intersection on a third scale such that the required result is read
off directly.
Example: z = xy (particular case: z = 12 = 3 . 4, Fig. 200).
The code-equation of a nomogram (i.e. of the functional

relationship which the nomogram represents) and the scale of
1 L*
j
y
/
s
A
1 \
\
+
2 3 4 S
FiO. 199 Fig. 200
the z-axis are given by representing the nomogram in a |- t]-

coordinate system and applying the straight-line conditions (Fig.
201).
303
:
NOMOGRAPHY
For an arbitrary pair of values (x, y) the condition is that the
determinant
Application of this equation gives us the following code-equations

for some frequently occurring nomograms (in what follows
Fig. 201
mf m g mh = scale factors, A = m^x); B = m gg(y); C = mhh(z);

, ,
c c constants)
lf %
1. Three parallel straight line scales.
Code-equation: (cx + c2 ) C = cxA + c2B (Fig. 202).
= xy or log z = log x + log v.

Example: z
Code-equation: (q + c )mh log z = c mt log x + c m log v.

2 x 2
g
With (cj + c2)m h = c mf = c m g the required equation
x 2 is
identically satisfied. Thus there are 3 which can be
quantities
freely chosen, say mt = m g = 5 cm and cx = 2 cm, giving
c2 = 2 cm and mh = 2-5 cm.
2. Three straight line scales intersecting in a point.
,
Code-equation:
. sin (a
-=
+ = a ~B
/?)
+
sin sin ,
(Fig. 203).
3. Triangular nomogram (equilateral triangle with measuring-

lines parallel to edges).
Code-equation: A +B+ C= cx (Fig. 204).
304
NOMOGRAPHY
Fro. 202 Fig. 203
Nomograms for more than 3 variables

With more than 3 variables, unlabelled auxiliary lines are used
(as scales for intermediate results for 2 adjacent variables, Fig.
205).
Example: z = xyu. Taking logarithms,

log z = log x + log j + log u
(Fig. 206).
With cx c2 , and equating the scale factors mxi my , we have
for the scale factor mh of the auxiliary line
(cx + c2)m h = cz m x = c m y x , i.e. mh = -j >
and likewise with m u = mh and c3 = c4 ,
(c3 + cm z = c4m* = c3mu , i.e. mz - -y =
Fig. 204 Fig. 205
305
NONLINEAR SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWNS
Fig. 206
Nonlinear systems of equations with two unknowns

If we have, for example, two nonlinear equations, then in
order to eliminate one of the unknowns we make use of the
Resultant (see art.) of the two equations, proceeding as follows.
We order both equations according to the powers of one of the
unknowns and then form their resultant by interpreting the
unknown as a known quantity. Since the two equations
preferred
hold simultaneously the resultant must be 0. This gives us an
equation with one unknown.
Example: I. 2x2 - 3/ - 6 =
II. 3x2 - 2y2 - 19
The resultant is:
2 3/ -6
R=
2 -3/ -6
3 -2y 2 - 19
3 -2y2 - 19
that is,
R = 25/ - 200/ + 400.

The equation R = 25y4 - 200y2 + 400 = has the solutions
yx = 2,y2 = 2, y3 = -2, y4 = -2.

The associated values of x are: xx = 3, x2 = 3, x3 = 3,
*4 3.
306
NUMBER-PLANE
Null sequence
A number-sequence whose limit is is referred to as a null
sequence.
Examples:
i 1 1 1 1 I
' 2' 4' 8 \2/ '
"
j. i, , -r 3> , -r ,
.,(-l) n 1 .
2 4 5
Null vector
A vector whose length is zero is a null-vector (see Vector).
Number
Number is a fundamental concept of mathematics, and should
be strictly distinguished from the concept of numeral. The
numerals are merely the signs by means of which numbers are
represented (see Numerals, Number system).
Number-plane
The number plane (also
Gaussian plane, Argand
diagram) provides a visual
OzO+2*
representation of the com-
plex numbers (see above) in
the same way as the real
numbers are visualised as
forming a straight line.
A rectangular coordinate
system is constructed, the
horizontal axis usually being
referred to as the real axis,
Fio. 207
and the perpendicular as the
imaginary axis (Fig. 207).
307
. .
NUMBER, TYPES OF
The intersection of the two axes is denoted by O. On both axes unit

lengths are laid out in both directions, the numbers , 4, . . .
3, 2, 0, 2, 3,
1, 1, being laid out on the real axis
4, . . .
and . . . , 3/, 2/, /, 0, i, 2/, 3i, ... on the imaginary axis.
way
In this every point of the number plane is associated with a
complex number and vice versa.
Number system
A number system is a method of representing numbers by
means of symbols. Modern number systems are place-value
systems. The Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians used number
systems in which an individual number symbol had the same
value essentially regardless of the position in which it occurred.
(See Numerals, Place-value system, Roman number system,
Decimal system.)
Number, types of
1. Natural numbers cardinal numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
Even numbers: natural numbers divisible by two. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,

12, 14, 16, ...
Odd numbers: natural numbers not divisible by two. 1, 3, 5, 7,
9, 11, 13, 15, . . ..

Prime numbers: numbers with no factor other than unity or
the number itself. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, ...
Square numbers: squares (second powers) of natural numbers.
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, ....
Cubic numbers: third powers of natural numbers. 1, 8, 27, 64,
125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000, ....
2. Integers (integral numbers) all positive integers (natural

numbers), zero and all negative integers.
3. Rational numbers (fractions fractional numbers).

Proper fractions: the numerator of a proper fraction is less than
t
1 2 7
its denominator, for example, -z, ?, g-
308
NUMBER, TYPES OF
Unit fractions: unit fractions have numerator 1.
1111111 *
Ty 4' 5' 6' T 8' * * *
Improper fractions: the numerator of an improper fraction is

equal to or greater than its denominator, for example,
9 8 118H
T y 7 ' 20
Mixed numbers: sum of an integer and a proper fraction, for
example, 3^, 7r-
Decimal fractions: fractions with denominator 10, 100, 1000,

. . .; for example, 0-1987; 0-00876; 21-201.
4.
Decimal numbers numbers written according to the system
using 10 as base (integral, rational or irrational numbers)
Finite decimal numbers: decimal numbers in which a finite
number of digits come after the decimal point: for example,
7 = 0-25.
4
Infinite decimal numbers: decimal numbers in which an infinite
number of places come after the decimal point.
Periodic decimal numbers: infinite decimal numbers in which a

given sequence of figures constantly recurs: for example,
0-3333. . ; 0-173,173,173,. . ; 5-234,545,45. . ..
.
.
Pure periodic decimal numbers: periodic decimal numbers in

which the period commences with the first place after the
decimal point: for example, 0-333. ; 1-212121. . .
Mixed periodic decimal numbers: periodic decimal numbers in

which the period does not commence with the first place
after the decimal point: for example, 0-00033333...;
0-4563333 . . 0-465767676. .
. ; .
5. Irrational numbers (non-rational numbers), for example

VI, ^4, *,ln2,7r.
Algebraic irrational numbers: those irrational numbers which
satisfy an algebraic equation with rational coefficients; for
example, Vl, V21, if4.
309
,
NUMBERS, REPRESENTATION ON A STRAIGHT LINE
Transcendental irrational numbers: those (irrational) numbers

which do not satisfy any algebraic equation with rational
coefficients; for example, e, e 5, In 2.
6. Real numbers. (The real numbers comprise the rational and

the irrational numbers.)
Relative numbers are real numbers furnished with a sign.
Absolute numbers. If real numbers are considered without their
signs they are referred to as absolute numbers.
Denominate numbers. The real numbers may be provided with
a labelling; for example, 3, $14, 5 miles, 6 lb.
7. Complex numbers
Imaginary numbers. The square root of a negative number is
calledan imaginary number; for example, V^T = /, 2/, 3/.

A complex number is a sum of a real number and an imaginary
number: for example, 5 + 3/, 7 i'vT
8. Literal numbers. (Letters used for representing mathematical

formulae, such as a, b, c> . . ., a, /?, y, . . . .)
Numbers, representation on a straight line

The
straight line serves to provide visual representation of the
positive and negative numbers. It can be used to illustrate the
addition and subtraction of relative numbers. point, the origin, A
is fixed on a straight line. To the right and left a fixed segment,
e.g. 1 cm, is laid out and the process repeated arbitrarily often.
The points of division thus formed to the right of the origin are
labelled from left to right 1, 2, 3, 4, . . , and those formed
. to
the left of the origin, from right to left 1, 2, 3, . . .
I I I I I I I I I I I I l"
-.6-5-4-3-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 .
The positive numbers alone can be represented on a ray pro-

ceeding from an origin 0,
012345678
I I I I I
1
I I I,
310
ORDERING
Numerals
The numerals are the symbols which are used to name the
individual natural numbers (see Number-system, Decimal system,
Roman number system).
Oblique triangle
A triangle is referred to as oblique if one of its interior angles
is obtuse, i.e. greater than 90.
Octahedron
The octahedron is one of the so-called Platonic solids. It is
bounded by eight equilateral triangles (see Platonic solids).
Octant
If a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system is set up
then the space is divided by the coordinate planes into eight
octants. Each octant is bounded by three mutually perpendicular
coordinate planes (see Coordinate systems).
Opposite angles
Opposite angles or opposite-lying angles occur where parallel
by a transversal. Opposite angles lie on the same side
lines are cut
of the transversal and on different sides of the parallel lines.
Angles opposite to the intersecting parallels add up to 180 (see
Angle).
Ordering
We can always establish for two real numbers which unique
one of the three ordering-relations <, =, >
holds between them
(see Inequality), e.g.
r- 2 6
3<4, -l>-2, V2<2, =
5
(read: 3 less than 4; 1 greater than 2; root 2 less than 2).
311
ORIENTATION
In the symbols >

and <
the vertex of the angle is always
directed towards the smaller number.
Orientation (directional sense)

A line-segment, straight line or curve, is said to be oriented if
some rule is given, according to which, of any two different
points on the segment, one can be assigned as the earlier or
preceding point, the other as the later or succeeding point. In
these circumstances it is also said that the line segment, straight
line or curve has been given an orientation or directional sense.
The line is said to be described in the positive sense, if we proceed
at every stage from earlier points towards later. If the curve is
described in the opposite way, then it is said to be described in
the negative sense.
Orthocentre
The point of intersection of the three altitudes of a triangle
(see Triangle); it lies on the Euler line of the Triangle.
Pappus's theorem (3rd century a.d.)

On two sides of a triangle ABC construct arbitrary parallelo-
grams ACDE and BCFG; extend the sides ED and FG to meet
in the point H; draw lines
through A and B parallel to
HC meeting ~HD and HF in_K
and L respectively; join KL.
We now have a third parallelo-
gram ABLK whose area is equal
to the sum of the areas of the
two original parallelograms
(Fig. 208).
Fig. 208
312
PARABOLA
Parabola
A parabola is the locus of points equidistant from a fixed point,
the focus, and a fixed straight line, the directrix (see Conic
sections).
The distance of the focus F from the directrix I is denoted by
the parameter p. The standard equation of the parabola is
y
2
=
2px. This is the vertex equation of the parabola, the vertex
of the parabola (i.e. the point nearest the directrix) being taken
in this representation to be the origin of the coordinate system
(Fig. 209). The focus of the parabola then has coordinates
F I -z, 1 and the directrix has equation x y
Fio. 209
The line perpendicular to the axis of the parabola and passing

through the focus intersects the parabola in two points which are
distant 2p apart. The parabola is symmetric about its axis and
is an open curve. The further we proceed along the axis of the
parabola from the vertex to and beyond the focus the greater is
the distance of the points of the parabola from the axis. For
construction of parabola, see Conic sections.
Particular equations ofparabola

1. Vertex equations. According to the direction of the axis of
the parabola, we have the following equations (the vertex of the
parabola being taken each time as the origin):
313
PARABOLA
Ca) Axis of parabola = y-axis, focus Wo,|j (opening above)
x2 = 2py Directrix: y = p -x
(b) Axis of parabola = j-axis, focus Wo, 5) (opening

v '
below)
x2 = Ipy Directrix: y = +p -z
(c) Axis of parabola = x-axis, focus W~, 0] (opening to

X
right) '
y
2 = 2px Directrix: x = p -z
(d) Axis of parabola = x-axis, focus F Î 1 (opening to

V '
left)
y
2 = 2px Directrix: x = + p5
2. If the vertex of the parabola is not taken as the origin of the
coordinate system but has coordinates S(a, b), then the following
possibilities arise:
(a) Axis of parabola parallel to y-suds (opening above)
(x a)2 = 2p(y b), focus: F I a, b + 1 J, directrix: y = b

(b) Axis of parabola parallel to j-axis (opening below)
(x a) = 2p(y b), focus F

2
: I a, b^\ } directrix:^ =6+~
(c) Axis of parabola parallel to x-axis (opening to right)
(y b) = 2p(x a), focus: F

2
I a + ^, b J, directrix: x = a j
(d) Axis of parabola parallel to x-axis (opening to left)
(v b) 2 aa --2/?(x a), focus: .F (a x, 6 J, directrix: x = a + -'

314
PARABOLA
Equations of lines associated with the parabola
Tangents, normals, polars, diameters.
1. Intersections of the line y mx + n with the parabola
y
2
= 2px.
Regarding the equations (i) y = mx + n and

(ii)
f = 2px
as a system of equations specifying the points of intersection we
have
mn p 1 ,
J1.2
l, 2 -
= +^ ~ V/<p
Vfa ~ 2mii).
Special case: m = 0, the straight line is parallel to the x-axis.
The system of equations is then:
y
% =
2px, y =
n. In this case
there is only one point of intersection Px I =-, n

J,
and there is
no tangent line having this direction.

In the general case = p 2mn, the discriminant):
we have (D
2 points of intersection if D positive; is
1 point of intersection if D = (tangent);
no point of intersection if D is negative.

2. Tangents to the parabola. The line 7 = mx + n is tangent
to the parabola y2 = 2px if D = /> 2m = 0, if n = - /.e.
The equation of the tangent is then
This line touches the parabola in the point I ~? )
The equation of the tangent to the parabola at the point

(*!, yj is
m=p(x + xd-
315
PARABOLA
The equation of the normal at the same point is
3. Polar equations. If the tangents to the parabola from a

point P outside the parabola are to be constructed and their
equations obtained, the points of contact of the required tangents
are first calculated by means of the polar equation. This is
yy = p(x + x ).
4. Diameters. Straight lines with a fixed gradient have m

equations of the form y = +
mx n and form a family of parallel
chords of the parabola when n is varied. From the coordinates of
the point of intersection we can derive the mid-points of the
chords --A and their locus is defined to be a dia-

( )
m* \ mj
meter of the parabola. The mid-points of chords of a family
with common gradient m therefore lie on a line parallel to the
x-axis and at distance from it. This line is called the diameter
m
with reference to the direction m.
5. Tangents to the parabolas y
2 = 2px,x2 = 2py,x2 2py:
(a) The line ;>= mx + n is tangent to the parabola y 2
= 2px
if D = p + 2mn = 0.
(b) The line y = mx + n is tangent to the parabola x 2py 2
if D = pm + 2n = 0.
2
(c) The line y = mx + n is tangent to the parabola x2 = 2py

if D = pm 2n = 0.
2
Equations of tangent at given point of contact i>i(xi,.yi) to the

6.
parabolas (y b) 2
2^(x =
a) or (x
a) 2 2p(y b): =
The equations of the tangents are
(y b)(y b) =
x
a + x a)
p .(x x
for the parabola (y b) = 2/?(x a\

2
iy ~ )Oi - b = ~P (* ~ a + x - a
) i )
for the parabola (y b) = 2p(x a),

2
(x - a)(x -a)=x p.(y -b+y - b) x
for the parabola (x a) = 2p(y b),

2
316
PARABOLA
(x - a)(xx - a) = p - b + y b)
.
x
for the parabola (x a) 2 = 2p(y b).

7. Equations of polar for given pole P (x , y ) in respect of the
parabolas
(y - bf = 2p(x - a) and (x - af = 2p(y - b).

The equation of the polar line is identical with the equation of a
tangent (see above under 6) and is obtained by substituting the
coordinates (x , y ) for (xlt y^ in the equation. The polar equa-
tion can be used to calculate the point of contact of tangents
from P to the parabola, and from these to set up the equations
of the tangents.
General theorems on the parabola (Fig. 210).

1. Diameters of a parabola (with reference to families of
parallel chords) are parallel to the axis of the parabola.
1
^Tangent at vertex
Fia. 210
2. The feet of perpendiculars from the focus to tangents to

a parabola he on the tangent at the vertex.
3. The point of intersection of two mutually perpendicular
tangents lies on the directrix of the parabola.
317
PARABOLA
4. The
distance of the point of contact of a tangent from the
focus equal to the distance of the focus from the point of
is
intersection of the tangent with the axis of the parabola. (In Fig.
210, TF = FP^.)
5. The tangent at Px bisects the angle between PXF and the
perpendicular from Px onto the directrix.
6. The projection onto the axis of the parabola of the line-
segment between the point of contact of a tangent and the point
of intersection of the tangent with the axis, is bisected by the
vertex. The segment bisected is referred to as the subtangent.
7. The projection onto the axis of the parabola of the segment
lyingon the normal, between its points of intersection with the
parabola and with the axis, is called the subnormal. The sub-
normal has length p.
8. The mirror-image of the focus, with respect to a tangent,
lies on the directrix of the parabola.
9. If the tangents at points Plt P% of a parabola intersect in R,
then RFPX = RFP2 .
10. If the chord joining two points of a parabola passes through

the focus, the tangents at the two points are perpendicular to one
another and intersect on the directrix.
11. If the perpendicular from a point Px of a parabola with
focus F onto the directrix intersects the directrix in G then PX F
and PX G rhombus whose fourth vertex lies on the
are sides of a
axis of the parabola. The tangent at Pt is a diagonal of the
rhombus. The centre of the rhombus is the foot of the perpen-
dicular from the focus onto the tangent at Px and lies on the
tangent at the vertex.
Construction of tangents to a parabola
(a) At a point Px of the parabola. We draw through Px the line

perpendicular to the directrix and also the line joining Px to the
focus. The tangent is the bisector of the angle between these
two lines.
(b) From a point P to the parabola (Fig. 211). Join the point P
to the focus F and describe on the segment PF the Thales circle.
The point of intersection of this circle with the tangent at the
318
PARABOLA
vertex is the foot H
of the perpendicular from the focus onto the
required tangent. Join FH
and let it intersect the directrix in G.
G is the mirror-image of the focus with respect to the required
tangent. Through G draw the line parallel to the axis of the
parabola. This intersects the tangent in its point B of contact
with the parabola.
\
v s
JF x
c
*
/ bV.
4 k
Fio. 211 Fio. 212
Parallel
Two straight lines which lie in one and the same plane and do
not intersect are said to be parallel (Fig. 212).
Parallel axiom
If an arbitrary straight line and A a point which does not
a is
lie onthen in the plane determined by a and A, there is just

a,
one straight line which passes through A and does not intersect a.
Consequences of the parallel axiom

1. If two by a third, step angles
parallel lines are intersected
and and conversely if step-angles and
alternate angles are equal
alternate angles are equal the two lines intersected by the trans-
versal must be parallel.
2. The interior angles of a triangle add up to 180.
3. If / and m are two straight lines which are both parallel to
a third line n, then / and m themselves are parallel.
4. If / and m are two parallel lines, P a point on /, and if PF
319
PARALLEL PROJECTION
is the perpendicular from P onto m, then PF is defined as the
distance between the parallel lines. The distance defined in this
way is the same wherever P is chosen to he on /.
Parallel planes
Planes which do not intersect are said to be parallel.
Parallel planes are everywhere the same distance apart. A
straight line is said to be parallel to a plane if it lies wholly in a
plane which is parallel to the given plane.
Parallel projection
A projection (see art.) in which all rays of projection are
parallel is called a parallel projection. The direction of these rays
is called the projection-direction. The projection-direction is given
relative to the image-plane. We
speak of oblique parallel projec-
tion, if the rays of projection do not intersect the image plane at
right angles. If the rays of projection do intersect the image-plane
at right angles, the projection is orthogonal. The general parallel
projection used for representing solid objects by plane images,
is
e.g. in cavalier perspective (see art.). Orthogonal parallel projec-

tion is used for horizontal projection and for two-plane projection
(see art.).
Parallel translation (Fig. 213)

A parallel translation is a transformation in a plane or in space
(see Transformation). A parallel translation in a plane can be
specified by a translation-direction (measured by the angle a
Direction of
translation
A,
Null direction
Fig. 213
formed with an agreed null-direction) and by a displacement-

segment d. The image of a point A can be constructed by drawing
from A the ray in the direction of translation, and marking off
320
PARALLELS TO A STRAIGHT LINE, CONSTRUCTION OF
on it the displacement segment d. The end-point A 1 of the segment

laid off is theimage point of A. For representation by a system
of equations, see Rigid motions.
Parallelogram
A quadrilateral in which pairs of opposite sides are parallel is
called a parallelogram (see Quadrilateral).
Parallels to a straight line, construction of

1. To construct a straight line m through a given point, parallel
to a straight line /. Draw through an arbitrary
the given point P
straight linelx intersecting / form
in the point A. I and
together lx
the angle a (see Fig. 214). At P on lx lay out the angle a, on the
same side of llt and in the same sense, from AP. Then the free
arm of the new angle gives the direction of the required parallel m.
/j may conveniently be chosen to be perpendicular to m (a
= 90).
2. To construct a straight line m parallel to a given straight
line / and at a distance a from it (Fig. 215). Take a point P on /
m,
"
A
,
"1 t
P
B m,
Fig. 214 Fig. 215
and erect the perpendicular to / at this point. Describe a circle

with radius a about P. This intersects the perpendicular in two
points A and B, such that P lies between A and B. Draw the lines
parallel to / through A and B. There are two lines, mx and 2 m
with the required property.
321
PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A CURVE
Parametric representation of a curve

The representation of the points P(x, y, z) of a curve by three
functions x = u(t), y =
z w(t) dependent on a parameter
v(t),
t is described as a parametric representation of the curve (see
Curves).
Parametric representation of a surface

The points P(x, y, z) of a surface can be represented by three
functions
x = u(s, t), y = v(s, t), z = w(s, t),
dependent upon two parameters, s and t. This is referred to as a

parametric representation of the surface (see Surface).
Pascal's theorem (Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662)

The three points of intersection X, Y and Z of opposite sides
of a hexagon inscribed in a circle (or conic) lie on a straight line
(Pascal's line), opposite sides being sides separated from one
another by two sides (Fig. 216).
Opposite sides are,
AB and ~DE,
BC and EF,
CD and FA.
Fig. 216
322
pascal's triangle
Pascal's triangle
Pascal's triangle is the following array of numbers, in which
the individual numbers of the array are the binomial coefficients
(see also Binomial Theorem).

1
10 10
1 15 20 15 1
The array has the following properties

Each number is the sum of the two numbers standing above
1.
it and right; e.g. 10 = 4 + 6.

to the left
2. Each number is equal to the sum of all numbers in the left
or right diagonal, beginning with the number immediately above
to the left or right, and proceeding upwards; e.g. 15 = 5 + 4 +
3 + 2 + 1 and 15 = 10 + 4 + 1.
3. Each diagonal is an arithmetic sequence (see art.); e.g.
1st diagonal: 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . Arithmetic sequence of zero

order.
2nd diagonal: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . Arithmetic sequence of 1st

order.
3rd diagonal: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, Arithmetic sequence of 2nd

order.
4th diagonal: 1,4, 10,20, . Arithmetic sequence of 3rd

order.
And so on.
323
PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR
Perpendicular bisector
The perpendicular bisector of a given straight line segment AB
isthe straight line perpendicular to AB, and passing through its
mid-point.
The perpendicular bisector of a segment is the axis of symmetry
of the segment (see Fundamental constructions, Triangle).
The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of a triangle
intersect in the centre of the circumcircle.
Perpendicular, construction of
To drop a perpendicular onto a straight line (Fig. 217).
Construction: Given a straight line / and a point P outside the

line. Describe a circle (of arbitrary radius) about P so that it
intersects / in two points A and B. About A and B draw circles
'V ss
x
Fig. 217
largeenough to intersect and join their points of intersection,

C and D. The required perpendicular lies on the line through C
and D, and is the join of P to the point F where / and CD intersect.
Perspective
Two figures or solid bodies which arise from one another by
a perspective transformation (see art.) are said to be in perspective
with respect to one another. The perspective image of a circle
324
PERSPECTIVE TRANSFORMATION
can, for example, be a parabola, and the parabola and the circle
are then in perspective with respect to one another (see Perspective
transformation).
Perspective transformation (= perspectivity)
Plane perspective transformation

In a perspective transformation in a plane, the points of two
different straight lines are associated withone another in the
following way:
If / and m are given straight lines and Z is a point of the

plane which lies neither on / or m, then a point Lof / is associ-
ated with the point of intersection, M, of ZL with (M is the m
image-point of L). Z
is called the centre of the perspectivity
(Fig. 218). Thus in a perspectivity the image-points on arise m

out of the points of / by central projection.
Such a perspectivity of the points of two straight lines
possesses a fixed point (point whose image coincides with the
point itself), namely the point of intersection P of the two lines.
Example of a perspective transformation in space

If Ex and E2 are two different planes in space, and Z is a point
outside both Ex and E2i a perspectivity can be defined in the
following way:
If Px is a point of Ex the point of intersection P2 of the line

zT[ with the plane E2 is associated with Px as its image-point.
The points of the line of intersection / of Ex and E2 are fixed
points of this transformation (Fig. 219).
PLACE- VALUE SYSTEM
'Central perspective' is an important mapping-procedure of

Descriptive geometry (see art. under this title and also Central
perspective).
The perspective transformations belong to the projective
transformations (see art).
Place-value system
A place-value system is a number system in which the value of
a number-symbol depends not only on the symbol itself but also
on the position in the number at which the symbol occurs. The
sexagesimal system of the Babylonians, with base 60, our own
decimal system, with base 10, and the binary system (base 2) used
by many computing machines are examples. Each place-value
system has a positive integral base and as many different number-
symbols as this base allows.
A sexagesimal system must thus have 60 number-symbols; the
decimal system uses the symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9;
a binary system can use the symbols and 1. See Number system,
Numerals, Decimal system.
Plane
The plane is one of the basic geometric elements of space (the
others are the point (see below) and the straight line (see below)).
Properties of the plane

A plane is uniquely determined by three points which do not
lie on a straight line. If two points
of a straight line lie in a plane,
the whole line lies in the plane.
Two planes either intersect in a straight line (trace line or trace)
or have no point in common. Planes which have nopoints in
common are parallel. A plane and
a straight line either intersect
in a point (point of intersection, trace point, trace); or the whole
line lies in the plane; or the plane and the line have no point in
common, which case the line is parallel to the plane. Two
in
straight lineswhich lie in the same plane have either one or no
points in common. A unique plane is determined either by a
straight line and a point not lying on it, or by two different
326
PLATONIC SOLIDS
straight lines with acommon point. A plane is unbounded on all

sides and divides space into two parts. A plane is divided by every
straight line within it into two parts. In dealing with different
planes in space at the same time we sometimes denote the planes
by capital Greek letters: A, B, T, A, E, Z, . .
Planetary orbits
The path of a planet in its motion about the sun is described
as its orbit. The movement of the planets about the sun results
from the force of attraction (gravitational force) between the

planets and the sun. A planet moves in an orbit which obey the
following three laws (Kepler's laws)
I. The planet describes an ellipse with the sun at one focus.

II. The radius vector from the sun to the planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.
III. If the orbits of several planets are compared with one
another, the squares of times of revolution are proportional
to the cubes of the major axes of the orbital ellipses.
Planimetry
Planimetry, or 'plane geometry', comprises the study of figures
lying in a plane. Parallel with plane geometry we speak of 'linear
geometry', the study of geometrical structures lying in a straight
fine, and of stereometry or 'solid geometry' primarily concerned
with geometrical structures in space which do not lie in a straight
line or in a plane.
The term 'planimetry' is often confined to that part of plane
geometry concerned with the measurement of plane figures.
Platonic solids
Platonic solids or regular polyhedra are convex polyhedra
which are bounded by regular, mutually congruent, polygons.
There are five Platonic solids, viz.
Tetrahedron, Hexahedron (cube), Octahedron,
Pentadodecahedron, and Icosahedron.
327
PLATONIC SOLIDS
General properties
Notation: v = number of vertices

/= number of faces
e = number of edges
m = number of faces meeting at a vertex
n = number of edges and vertices associated with a
face
a = number of angles.
We have v +/= e + 2 (Euler's polyhedron theorem).
Solid m n / V e
Tetrahedron 3 3 4 4 6
Octahedron 4 3 8 6 12
Icosahedron 5 3 20 12 30
Hexahedron 3 4 6 8 12
Dodecahedron 3 5 12 20 30
Each of these solids possesses an inscribed and a circumscribed

sphere, which has the same centre O. Further, the mid-points of
all the edges of a platonic solid also lie on a sphere again with
centre O. If we construct the inscribed sphere of a Platonic solid

and join neighbouring points of contact of the sphere with the
faces of the polyhedron, there results within the sphere another
regular polyhedron, which has the same number of vertices as
the original solid has faces, and the same
number of edges as the
The cube yields an octahedron, the icosahedron a
original solid.
dodecahedron, and the tetrahedron another tetrahedron.
Measurements of the Platonic solids

Notation: lateral edge a, lateral surface G, total surface 5",
volume V, radius of circumscribed sphere r, radius of inscribed
sphere />, angle between edges a and angle between faces
<f>.
328
POINT-SEQUENCE
Tetra- Octa-
Cube Dodecahedron Icosahedron
hedron hedron
2 /- a2 r- j* a2
Lateral surface, G 4^3 a2
T V3 ^ V25 + IOV? h*
Total surface, S a2 V3 6a2 2a2 VT 3a*V25 + 10V5 5a2 VI
a" r-
Volume, V
12
z a3 jV5 j (15 + 7 VI) ^(3+VS)
a ,-
Radius, r -^ -
2
V3 fvl \ V3(l + A/5) 4V1O + 2VI
a a /50 + 22V5 ~V1(3 +

Radius, p
12
V6
2 5* 4 V 5
V1)
Angle between
edges, a 60 90 60 108 60
Angle between
faces, 70 33' 90 109 28' 116 34' 138 11'
<f>
Point
Points are basic elements of linear, plane and three-dimensional
geometry. Properties of points: two distinct points determine a
straight line (connecting line).
Two straight lines, which lie in a plane and are not parallel,
intersect in a point (point of intersection).
If three distinct points lie on a straight line we can say of just
one of these points that it lies between the other two. (Ordering
of points on a straight line.)
Three points of space which do not lie on a straight line
determine a single plane.
Point-sequence
If according to some prescribed rule a first point Px determines
a second P2 and P2 determines a third Pz> and so on, these points
,
are said to form a point-sequence:
P P2> P3 * 4
1>
329
,
POLE
The points dealt with can be either in a plane or in three-dimen-

sional space. Point-sequences are closely related to number-
sequences. Thus, if the points are specified by their coordinates,
three number sequences are formed from the coordinates
K(x n y w *)
,
of the general point
X\, ^2 ^3 * .,x
ji, y* j3 > ->y
Z\> z%, z3 , . . >,z t
Conversely, given an arbitrary number-sequence ax, a2 , a3 . . , .
a point-sequence can be derived in which the number a n is associ-

ated with the point A n (a n 0) of the plane (x, y). ,
point-sequence is said to co nverge to the point A (Pn -* A,

A
or lim Pn = A) if the distances PnA form a null sequence. A
n-*oo
point-sequence which is not convergent is said to be divergent.
E.g. suppose the following points are given in a plane:
Pi(2 + i 5),P
2 (2 + J,4 + i).
M 2+ s'
4+
*)'M
2+ ^ ,4+ s)'---'
>
n (2+1
1^ ~ n
2
' 4 + -U
i^y* '
"
The sequence converges to the point P(2, 4), since the sequence
of distances
= i - 2)" + + ji; -
pj-
J (2 + (4
*J
is a null sequence.
Pole
If, as jc - x ,f(x) -> 00, f{x) is said to have a pole at x . E.g.
fix) = -, pole at x = 0; /(*) = YZT& P ole at x = L

330
POLYGONS
Polygonal numbers
Polygonal numbers are numbers which form an arithmetic
sequence (see art.) of the second order. The general term of these
sequences is
Zn =1 [2 + (w
\)d], where d is one of the numbers 1,2, 3, . .
With d = 1 we obtain the triangular numbers: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, . .
With d = 2 we obtain the square numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . .
With d = 3 we obtain the pentagonal numbers: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, . .
The names of these numbers derive from a particular property

i.e. that the number of points (x) indicated by
the triangular
(square) number can be arranged in the form of a triangle (square)
13
XXX
Triangular numbers
6 10
X
XX XX XX
XXX XXX
X X X X
X
14XX
Square numbers
XXX
9
xxxx
16
XX XXX xxxx
XXX xxxx
xxxx
Pentagonal, hexagonal and other such numbers are not so
adequately represented in this way.
Polygons
The polygon defined by the points A lt A 2 , . . .,A n lying in a
plane is the figure bounded by the segments A XA 2 A 2A 3

, , . . .,
331
POLYGONS
A nA x (Fig. 220). When we define a polygon we usually assume

that the points (or vertices) A x A2
, , . and
. ., An , are all different,
that two segments have no point in common unless they are

adjacent segments, in which case they have a vertex in common.
Fig. 221 shows a polygon which does not satisfy these conditions.
Fig. 220
The sides of the polygon can also b e denoted by ax a2 a3 , , , . . .,
an wh ere ax =AA X 2, a2 = A 2A 3 , as = A 3A^, . . ., a n_ x = A n_ xA n ,
an = A nA v Every -sided polygon possesses n(n 3)/2 diagonals.

A diagonal is a segment joining two vertices which are not sides
of the polygon, so that from each vertex proceed two sides and
(n 3) diagonals (Fig. 222, hexagon, 9 diagonals). Every -sided
polygon can be divided into (n
2) triangles (Fig. 223, hexagon,
4 triangles); the sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon
is therefore equal to (n 2) x 180.
Fig. 222 Fig. 223
332
POSITION VECTOR
The most important polygons are the regular polygons, i.e.

polygons whose sides are of equal length and whose angles are
of equal size (see Regular polygons).
Polyhedron
A polyhedron is a closed portion of space bounded on all sides
by plane surfaces. The lines of intersection of these surfaces are
called edges. The edges meet in the vertices of the polyhedron.
In the case of convex polyhedra we have Eulefs theorem: If a
convex polyhedron has v vertices, e edges and / faces then
y +/=e + 2.
If a denotes the number of angles, then we also have:
2 2
a = 2e, a ^ 3/, v ^ ^ e>/^ 3 e>/^ 2v ~ 4 -
By means of Euler's theorem and the other relationships, it

can be proved that only five regular solids, i.e. solids bounded by
congruent regular polygons, can exist. These are referred to as
the Platonic solids (see art.).
The so-called crystal-structures are of great interest in science

(see textbooks of Mineralogy).
Polynomial
Expressions comprising one term, such as 2a, \bc, can be added
or subtracted from one another. Several literal numbers associated
in this manner form a polynomial expression, a 2b Ac d +
for example is a polynomial of four terms. A polynomial of two
terms is called binomial, e.g. a + b.
Position vector
A position vector a vector whose point of origin is the
is
origin of a coordinate system,and whose end-point is some other

point. Position vectors cannot, like other vectors, be freely
moved parallel to themselves; they are bound to the origin of the
coordinate system (see Vector).
333
POWERS
Powers
A power is a product of equal factors. E.g.:
43 = 4x4x4, a 5 = axaxaxaxa.
Evaluating the product, we obtain the value of the power; e.g.
43 = 64, 3
2 = 9, a1 = a.
Nomenclature, a n = c:
a = base; n exponent (or power); c = value of power (also

sometimes, power).
In particular we have: l
n =
= for all values of n. 1 and n
For integral values of the exponent n we have: A positive base

raised to a positive power always has a positive value.
A negative base raised to an even power has a positive value
and raised to an odd power has a negative value, e.g.
(-1) 2 =+1, (-1)5 =-1.
In general
(_0)2 = a 2n f (_fl)2 W+l = -a2n+\
e.g. (-l) 2n = +1, (-l)**
1
= -1.
Any power can be multiplied by a number; e.g.
2 x 32 = 2 x 9 = 18; if a n = c then b x an = b x c.
Addition and subtraction of powers. Powers can only be added

or subtracted directly if they have the same base and exponent;
e.g. a 2 +
a2 =
2a2 , but a3 can only be added to a2 if a determinate
number is assigned to a.
Powers of a sum (see Binomial Theorem).
Powers of a product. In taking the power of a product we take
the power of each factor and multiply these together.
{a x b)
n = an x bn ; (3 x 5)
2
= 32 x 52 .
Powers of a quotient (fraction). In taking the power of a quo-

tient (fraction), we take the power of the dividend (numerator),
and divide it by the power of divisor (denominator).
X = ^;
a
(a - bT = aw 4- b";
/12\ 2 12 2
(12-4)
(12 -7- 4)
a
2 =
=(y-j\ =12
I
-442a = -^
= 12*2 -r
334
POWERS
Multiplication ofpowers.
(i)with the same base: the result of multiplying powers with
the is an expression with the common base raised to
same base
exponent equal to the sum of the individual exponents.
a p x a9 = a, 32 x33 = 3^ = 35
(ii) with the same exponent: in multiplying powers with the
same exponent we take the product of the individual bases and

raise to the common exponent.
an x bn = (a x b)\ 33 X 53 = (3 x 5)
3
= 153
Powers of a power. To raise a power to a power, we raise the

base to the product of the two given powers.
(a*)* = a, (3 )
3 2
= 33 - 2
= 36.
Division ofpowers.
(i) with the same base: to divide powers with the same base
we raise the base to the differencebetween the exponent of the
dividend and the exponent of the divisor:
a71
= a1
E.g. CTfl8 = fl
8-2 = fl
3
; *4 -r X6 = X4-6 = X-2 = ^
(for x~2 = -g, see below).
(ii) with the same exponent: to divide powers with the same
exponent, we raise the quotient of the bases to the common

power.
an (a\ n
F= [b'
122 /12\ a _ ._ 49 _ /45\ 3
93 - ( 9 I
~ 33 -
Powers with negative exponents. In dividing two powers with

thesame base and the same exponent, we get:
xn -r xn = *"-" = JC.
335
POWERS
Xn
But since also equals 1, x is defined as 1.
a p
Similarly, so as to be able to extend the relation
a
= a*-* to
Q
all positive numbers p and q we define x~n = , e.g.
4-3
* = 1 = 1.
42 16
The rules given above hold unaltered for negative and zero
exponents.
Powers with fractional exponents. In order to extend the relation
i
(a p) 9 = ap - q
to fractional indices, we need to have (a*) 9 = 1, and
1 V
so we define a" to be the qth root of a. Then a power a" with
fractional exponent - represents the qth root of the power a p .
2
a = %a v ,
3
e.g. 4s = y/& = -^64 = 8.
In particular,
a" = Va, 2^ = V2, 3^ = ^3.
The rules given above hold also for fractional exponents, e.g.
12 12 9+14 23
oV = a1 5
= a = a = V^
3 _3 3 1 ifi
a1 a1
Powers of roots. To raise a root to a power we take the power

of the radicand, and then extract the root (see Roots, extraction of).
For powers of complex numbers, see De Moivre's formula.
336
POWER-SERIES
Power-series
A series of the form
00
2 akxk = a + a x + a x2 +
fc=0
x
x
2 azx* + . . . + anxn + . . .
is described as a power series in x. The numbers a

lt a2 a3 , . . . ,
are called the coefficients of the power-series, x is a variable.

Polynomials of the form
a + a^1 + a2x2 + . . . + avx v
are also power-series with finite numbers of terms.
Examples: The binomial series, the exponential series, the
logarithmic series, the trigonometrical series and the inverse
trigonometrical series are power-series in the variable x (see
individual articles).
Every power-series possesses an interval of convergence (see

below) and a radius of convergence. If r is the radius of con-
vergence of a power-series, the series converges for all values of x
for which |*| <
r, while the series diverges for all values of x
with |*| >

r. The interval r x < <
+r is referred to as the
of convergence. The radius of convergence can be 0, in
interval
which case the series only converges for the value * 0. The =
radius of convergence may be oo, in which case the series con-
verges for all values of x.
Examples: 1. The exponential series
" X* X X2 Xs
^=
Jn= + I
Tl
+ 2! + 3!
+ ---
converges for all values of x.
2. The logarithmic series
+ *)-*- T
ln(l
2
+ T3 - ... + (-l)"- 1 ^+
n!
. . .
converges for < x <; +

1 1.
3. The power-series
f>bc n = 1 +
+ 2!x2 + x 3IJC
3
+ 4!jc
4
+ 5!x6 + . . .
converges only for x = 0.
337
PRISM
Prism
A
prism is a solid having polygons lying in parallel planes as
base and upper surface, and bounded by parallelograms as lateral
surfaces.
If the lateral surfaces of the solid are perpendicular to the base,
said to be a right prism (Fig. 224), otherwise
it is it is called an
oblique prism (Fig. 225).
Three-sided
prism
Fig. 224 Fig. 225
If the base of a prism is a regular w-agon,it is said to be a
regular n-sided prism. The distance between the base and the
upper surface is called the altitude. The volume of a prism with
base-area B and altitude h is V = B h. .
A four-sided right prism is also called a right parallelepiped or

rectangular solid (seeart.). A
right parallelepiped whose altitude
isequal to the edges of the base is a cube. A
four-sided oblique
prism is also called a parallelepiped. Prisms with bases of equal
area and with equal altitudes have equal volumes.
Probability
If an event occurs n times, and if we may expect the event to
turn out in a particular way (a favourable event, a success) m
times out of the n trials, each of the events being equally probable,
then the probability P of a success is
n
338
PROBABILITY
Example 1: the probability of throwing a six with a cubical
die is 7, since the number of favourable cases is 1 and the number

of possible cases is 6.
Example 2: according to a life-table, out of 100,000 20-year-old

men 82,878 survive to the end of their 40th year. Thus the prob-
ability of a 20-year-old man completing his 40th year is
82,878
i,= = - 82878 -
i6aooo
Aprobability is always a number between an 1. If the

probability of occurrence of an event is 1 the event will certainly
take place. If, on the other hand, the probability of occurrence
of an event is 0, then the event will certainly not take place.
Addition law ofprobability theory. If an event can come about
in several independent ways, the overall probability that it will
occur is equal to the sum of the individual probabilities.
Example: What is the probability P of throwing either a 6 or
a 1 with a die? The probability of throwing a 6 is 7 and of
throwing a 1 is also 7. Therefore the probability of throwing
1 1 1
a6oralisP = + 76 = --
, .
either 7
6 3
Multiplication law {compound probability). If an event is
regarded as occurring if a number of sub-events independently
occur, then the (compound) probability of the occurrence of the
event is equal to the product of the probabilities of occurrence of
the sub-events.
Example: What is the probability P of throwing first a 6 and
then a 1 with a cubical die? Both individual probabilities are -=>
so the required probability P= -

1

1
- = 1
339
PROJECTION
Projection
Aprojection is a transformation in which the image-figure

is obtained from the original figure (plane or three-dimensional)
by drawing from the point of the original figure straight lines,
which are either parallel (parallel projection), or concurrent
(central projection), and which intersect the image-plane. The
points of intersection of the straight lines (rays of projection)
with the image-plane are the image-points, the totality of which
yields the image-figure. The figure is said to be projected onto
the image-plane.
Projection theorem for triangles
The rectangle formed from

one of a triangle and the
side
projection of a second side onto
it isequal to the rectangle formed
by the second side and the pro-
jection of the first on the second.
Area of the rectangle AFC HG =
area of the rectangle AF LK.
b
AC = AK, AB = AG. (Fig. 226)
Projective
Two plane figures or two solids which arise from one another
by a projective transformation (see art.) are said to be projective
with respect to one another; e.g. the projective image of a circle
is a conic section.
Projective transformation (Collineation, Projectivity)
Linear projective transformations are single-valued transforma-

tions of the points of space (or of a plane) for which the cross-
ratio (see art.) of four points lying on a straight line remains fixed.
340
PROJECTIVE TRANSFORMATION
Properties of the projective transformations

Fundamental theorem of projective geometry given 5 points :
of space, P Px P2 P3 PA of which no four lie in a plane, and 5

, , , , ,
further points Q Q x Q 2 Q3 g4 of which also no four lie in a

, , , , ,
plane, then there is exactly one projective transformation in which

the point P corresponds to the point Q , Px to Q x , P2 to Q ,
2
Pz to Q3 and P4 to g4 as image points.
That is, a projective transformation of the points of space is
uniquely determined by 5 points, no four of which lie in a plane,
and by the images of these 5 points. For the projective transforma-
tion of points of a plane we have similarly:
Aprojective transformation of the points of a plane n is a
one-valued transformation which is specified by four points
P , Px , P2 , P3 , of the plane tt, no three of which lie on a straight
line, and by the four image-points Q
Q x , Q2 , Q3 , of which again
,
no three are collinear. The points QQ , Q x Q 2 Q3

, , , can he in the
same plane it or in another plane itx .
Finally, for projective transformations of the points of a straight

line: Aprojective transformation of the points of a straight line /
is specified by three different points P Px P2 of / and the image- , , ,
points Q Qx Q2
, which must also be different and which can he
,
either on the same line / or on another straight line lx .
Examples ofprojective transformations

1. The perspective transformations (see art.).
2. Projective transformations on a straight fine.
Example: If A, B, C are three points of the straight line m

which are to possess the image-points A x A, Bv Cv the image-
point Dx corresponding to a further point D can be constructed
as follows (Fig. 227).
Fig. 227
341
PROPORTION
We draw through the fixed point A = A x an arbitrary straight

line / and choose a point Z which lies on neither / nor m. From Z
we draw lines through the points A, B, C and D. These rays
intersect the line / in the points A, B C D We join the p oints
, , .
B C to Bx and Cx respectively: let the lines B BX and CQ CX

,
intersect in the point Zx Now we join Zx to D

. and extend the ,
segment beyond D The point of intersection with m is the re-

.
quired image-point of D.
(The transformation D -*- Dx is a projective transformation in
which A - A lt B -> Bx and C - Cv By the fundamental theorem,
it isthe only such projective transformation.)
3.The three dimensional and plane affine transformations (see
art.) are projective transformations. The affine transformations
leave unchanged the division-ratio of three points on a straight
line, and so, a fortiori, leave unchanged a cross-ratio formed from
division-ratios. The affine transformations are those projective
transformations which send infinitely distant elements (points,
lines and planes at infinity) into other infinitely distant elements.
Proportion
If the ratioof the numbers a and b is equal to the ratio of the
numbers c d, i.e. if a:b
and =
c:d we speak of a ratio-equation
or proportion, a and d are referred to as the outer terms, and b
and c as the inner terms of the proportion. If the outer terms are
interchanged and the inner terms are unchanged, the proportion
remains valid. Inner terms can only be interchanged with outer
terms if this is simultaneously done on both sides. The sides of a
proportion may be interchanged. The product of the inner terms
is equal to the product of the outer terms. a:b
c:d implies =
a X d=
b X c.
4th proportional In the relation a:b =
cd, d is called the
fourth proportional. If a, b, and c are given, dean be calculated:
b X c
~ a
3rd proportional. Suppose in a proportion with equal inner
terms, a:b = b:c, c is to be calculated for given a and b. c is
called the third proportional with respect to a and b. We have
c =
b*
a
342
PROPORTIONALITY EQUATION
Mean proportional or geometric mean. In the proportion
a:m = m:d, m is called the_mean proportional or the geometric
mean of a and d;m = Vad.
a c
Derived proportions. If a:b = c:d, we have t = -,. We can add
b d
1 to each side of this equation. Thus
t
b
1 =d -, 1, so that br = d -
That is, if a:b = c:</, then a b:b = c J:rf.

Continued proportion. The pair of quantities
^ i/ 6? n
can also be written as a continued proportion in the form
a:c:m = b:d:n.
Proportional
Two variable quantities are said to be proportional to one
another if theirquotient has a fixed value m. is called the m
proportionality factor. For instance, the ratio of current intensity
to voltage is constant for a direct current (Ohm's law).
Two numbers are said to be directly proportional if they stand
in direct ratio to one another, e.g. time worked and money earned
(the longer the time worked the more money earned).
Two numbers are said to be inversely proportional if they stand
in reciprocal (indirect) ratio to one another, e.g. speed, and time
taken to travel a certain distance at that speed (the greater the
speed, the shorter the time taken).
Proportionality equation
We speak of a proportionality equation if the ratios of two
pairs of numbers are equal;
a:b = c:d.
See Proportion for further treatment.
343
PROTRACTOR
Protractor (see Angle)
A protractor is an instrument for measuring angles. It is made

of metal, plastic, cardboard or paper and has the shape of a
semicircle. The circumference of the semicircle is graduated into
180.
Ptolemy's theorem (Ptolemy, 2nd century A.D., Alexandria)

If ABCD is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle with diagonals
A = e and B~D =f and sides AB = a, BC = b, CD = c and
~DA = d, then the area of the rectangle formed by the diagonals
is equal to the sum of the areas of the rectangles formed by the
two pairs of opposite sides: ef=ac +
bd (Fig. 228).
Ptolemy's theorem can be regarded
as a generalisation of the theorem
of Pythagoras. For, if the given
quadrilateral is a rectangle, then
e a =f, =
c and b d, and the =
diagonal e = AC forms a right-
angled triangle with the sides AB

and BC. That is, e2 = a2 + b\
Fig. 228
Pyramid
An n-sided pyramid is a solid bounded by an n-sided polygon
as base and by n triangles as sides. The n triangles meet in a
point, the apex, which does not he in the plane of the base. The
n sides have each one edge in common with the base.
If the base-surface of a pyramid possesses a circumcircle, and
if the perpendicular from the apex passes through the centre of
this circle, then the pyramid is said to be a right pyramid; other-
wise said to be oblique. If the base-surface of a right pyramid
it is
is a regular n-agon the pyramid itself is said to be regular.

The sides of a pyramid meet in pairs in the lateral edges. The
edges of the base surface are referred to as the base edges. Only
in the case of 3-, 4- and 5-sided pyramids can the base- and
lateral-edges of a regular w-sided pyramid be of equal length.
344
PYRAMID
The regular three-sided pyramid whose base-edges and lateral-
edges are equal is referred to as a regular tetrahedron. If a
pyramid
is by a plane,
intersected parallel to, and distant x from, theH
base, the figureformed by the intersection is similar to the base-
surface; the area of the intersection-figure is to the area of the
base-surface as the square of the distance (H H x) of the inter-
secting plane from the vertex to the square of the altitude of H
the pyramid; GX .G = (H - H^-.H 2 (Fig. 229). If we remove
the part of the pyramid lying
above the intersecting plane
there remains a truncated
pyramid (frustrum). Pyra-
mids with equal altitudes
and bases of equal area, are
intersected by planes at equal
distances from the bases in
figures of equal area. From
this it follows, by the prin-
cipleof Cavalieri (see art.)
that pyramids with equal
base-surfaces and altitudes
have equal volumes. This
gives an elementary method
for calculating the volume
of a pyramid.
We imagine a three-sided Fig. 229
prism divided by two plane
sections into three pyramids.Of these, I and II have equal bases
C4J?Cand DEF) and the same altitude (as the prism), I and III have
equal base-surfaces (ABD and BDE) and the same altitude
(distance of the vertex C from ABED). In consequence they are
equal in volume. Whence we have a pyramid with base-area G
:
and altitude h has volume = Gh (Figs. 230 and 231). The volume
of an n-sided pyramid is likewise V -=-. Thus the -sided
pyramid can be transformed into a three-sided pyramid of the

same volume, if, leaving the altitude H
unchanged, the w-sided
base-surface is transformed into a triangle of equal area.
345
:
PYTHAGORAS, THEOREM OF
t
Fig. 230 Fig. 231
Pythagoras, theorem of
In a right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal
to the sum of the squares on the other two sides
fl
a
+ b2 = c 2 (Figi 233).
The proof can be effected by two applications of Euclid's theorem

(see art.).There are also other proofs. The proof according to
Fig. 234 is arrived at by comparison of areas.
The theorem of Pythagoras can be regarded as the special case
of Pappus's theorem (see art.) where the triangle is right-angled
and squares are constructed on its sides. Although this theorem
is named after Pythagoras (sixth century B.C.), it was known to
the Babylonians at least a thousand years earlier.
Fig. 232 Fig. 233
346
PYTHAGORAS, THEOREM OF
'"
c* \ /
Fig. 234 Fig. 235
Extension of the theorem of Pythagoras (Figs. 235 and 236). If

on the sides of a right-angled triangle,
semi-circles are constructed
and if we multiply the equation a2 + b2 = c2 through by , we

see that the area of the semi-circle on the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the areas of the semi-circles on the other two sides.
Fig. 236
For other figures the equation has to be multiplied through by

other numbers, so that we have the general result: the area of
any figure erected on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
equal to the sum of the areas of similar figures erected on the
other two sides.
347
QUADRANGLE, COMPLETE
Pythagoras's theorem holds for right-angled triangles only. Its
generalisation allowsits application to all triangles.
Generalisation of the theorem of Pythagoras (Fig. 237). The

square on one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares
on the other sides, diminished or augmented by twice the rectangle
formed by one of these sides and the projection of the other
upon it.
c2 = a2 + b2 2bq
The positive sign is taken if the two sides form an obtuse angle
with one another, the negative sign if they form an acute angle.
Fio. 237 Fig. 238
Quadrangle, complete
A 'complete quadrangle' formed by four points lying in a
is
plane, no three of which on a straight line, together with all

lie
the six straight lines joining them (Fig. 238). The four given
points A, B, C, D are called vertices of the complete quadrangle.
The vertices are joined by three pairs of opposite sides, viz.
AB and CD
AC and BD
AD and BC.
Each pair of opposite sides intersects in a 'diagonal point'. Thus
there are 3 diagonal points, E, F
and G, which together form the
'diagonal triangle'.
348
:
QUADRATURE
At a diagonal point a harmonic
pencil of lines is formed. At
the point G m
the figure the pencil is formed by ACand BD,
which are opposite sides of the quadrangle, and GE and GF,
sides of the diagonal triangle.The points A, B, H and F in which
four points of the pencil intersect the side AB of the quadrangle
form a harmonic range (see Harmonic division). The complete
quadrangle can be used to construct the fourth harmonic of three
given points. For example, in Fig. 238, we can construct the
fourth harmonic point H
of F with respect to A and B. To do
this we choose any pointE outside the line / on which A, B and
F lie. We join EB and EF, and through F draw an arbitrary
EA,
line Let /' intersect EA and EB in D and C respectively, and
/'.
let G be the point of intersection of AC and BD. Then GE inter-
sects AB in the required point H. (Note, the construction has

been done without a compass.) The complete quadrangle and the
complete quadrilateral are dual figures.
Quadrant
If a system of rectangular coordinates is set up in a plane, the
plane is divided by the coordinate axes into four quadrants, each
bounded by two mutually perpendicular coordinate axes.
Quadratic equation
Equations of the second degree, containing the unknown raised
atmost to the second power, are termed quadratic. The normal
form of this equation is x2 + px q =+ (see Equation).
Quadrature
The quadrature of a geometricalfigure is the determination of
its area. This may be done geometric or arithmetic terms
in
(1) Geometric quadrature. Here the task is to construct a
square figure of area equal to the given one, and traditionally by
ruler and compass only. The quadrature of the circle cannot be
carried out by ruler and compass (see Circle).
(2) Arithmetic quadrature. Here the area is to be calculated in
numerical terms.
349
QUADRILATERAL
Quadrilateral
Definition and nomenclature
If A, B, C, D are four distinct points in a plane, no thre e of
which are collinear, and if the four segments AB, BC, CD and
DA have no points in common other than A, B, C, D, these
segments form a quadrilateral, or quadrangle (Fig. 239). The points
A, B, C and D are called the vertices of the quadrilateral, and
AB = a,B~C = b, CD = c and DA d the sides of the quadri-
lateral. The order of labelling does not matter, but by convention
the vertices are labelled alphabetically in the anti-clockwise
sense and the side a begins at the vertex A, the side b at the vertex
B, and so on. If we think of the quadrilateral as being described,
according to this labelling, in the anti-clockwise sense, then the
interior of the quadrilateral lies to the left and the exterior to
Fig. 239 Fig. 240
the right (Fig. 240). Each pair of neighbouring sides of the quadri-
lateral forms an interior angle of the quadrilateral. These are
denoted by small Greek letters: a, 0, y, <5. The angle with vertex
A is denoted by a, the angle with vertex B by /?, and so on. If
the sides of the quadrilateral are extended, each in the direction
in which the quadrilateral has been described, four angles are
produced in the exterior of the quadrilateral, which we denote
by al5 lt yt and d v They are referred to as exterior angles (Fig. 241).
If the requirements that the segments AB, BC, CD and DA
should have no points in common other than A, B, C, D is
dropped, then we have a larger group of figures, in which sides
may cut each other (Fig. 242). The theorems and properties which
follow usually hold only for quadrilaterals as originally defined.
350
QUADRILATERAL
Fig. 241
Diagonals of a quadrilateral
The segments AC and BD are called the diagonals of the
quadrilateral. Each of these diagonals divides the quadrilateral
into two parts.
Relations between angles of quadrilateral

Since any quadrilateralis divided by a diagonal into two
triangles, ineach of which the sum of the angles is 180, the sum
of the interior angles of a quadrilateral must amount to 360.
The sum of the exterior angles is
4 x 180 - 360 = 720 - 360 = 360.
Classification of quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals are classified by such properties of symmetry as
they have.
Note to Fig. 243. The dotted lines are axes of affine symmetry;
the full lines represent the usual (orthogonal) axes of symmetry;
the centres of symmetry of central symmetries are denoted by
small circles.
1. A general quadrilateral has no symmetrical properties.

2. An oblique kite-shaped quadrilateral (in which one diagonal
is bisected by the other) is aflfine-symmetrical with respect to one
of its diagonals.
3. A
trapezium with non-parallel sides unequal is afline-sym-
metrical with respect to the line joining the mid-points of the
parallel sides.
351
QUADRILATERAL
4. A
parallelogram is affine-symmetrical with respect to its
diagonals and with respect to the lines joining the mid-points of
opposite sides. It also possesses central symmetry in respect of
the point of intersection of its diagonals.
5. An isosceles kite-shaped quadrilateral {deltoid) is symmetrical
with respect to one of its diagonals.
6. A
trapezium with non-parallel sides equal is symmetrical with
respect to the line-joining the mid-points of the parallel sides.
7. A
rhombus is symmetrical with respect to each of its
diagonals and centrally symmetrical in respect of their point of
intersection.
8. A rectangle is symmetrical with respect to each of the lines
joining the mid-points of opposite sides, and centrally symmetrical

with respect to their point of intersection.
352
QUADRILATERAL
9. A square is symmetrical with respect to each of its diagonals

and to each of the lines joining the mid-points of opposite sides;
it is centrally symmetrical in respect of the point of intersection
of its diagonals.
Construction of a quadrilateral (Fig. 244)

Since a quadrilateraldivided by a diagonal into two triangles,
is
and a by three independent elements, (a)

triangle is determined
three sides, (b) two sides and one angle or (c) one side and two
angles (see Triangle), a quadrilateral can be constructed if 5
independent elements are known. Three elements are necessary
to construct the first sub-triangle; and only two more for the
second, since it has one side in common with the first. There can
be given: 4 sides and one angle, 3 sides and two angles, or 2 sides
and three angles; diagonals, altitudes and similar elements may
also be given in the specification. Quadrangles which possess
symmetrical properties can be constructed, if less than five
elements are known. Four sides are sufficient to specify 2. and 3.
in Fig. 243. Three sides are sufficient to specify 4., 5., and 6.,
two sides to specify 7. and 8., one side to specify 9.
Fio. 244 Fig. 245
Properties of special quadrilaterals

The oblique kite-shaped quadrilateral. If the diagonals of a
quadrilateral intersect in such a way that one diagonal (AC) is
bisected by the other (DB) but not the second by the first, the
quadrilateral is said to be an oblique kite-shaped quadrilateral
(Fig. 245). It is aflfine-symmetrical with respect to the diagonal BD.

353
QUADRILATERAL
The oblique trapezium. A quadrilateral with two parallel sides
is called a trapezium {AB parallel to CD, Fig. 246). If the non-
parallel sides AD and BC are unequal the trapezium is said to be
oblique, if equal, isosceles (see below). The trapezium is affine-
symmetrical with respect to the line M M joining the mid-points

X 2
of the parallel sides.
The distance between the two parallel sides is called the altitude
(Fig. 247). The two interior angles adjacent to a non-parallel
side add up to 180.
c
n M,
y V
/ 5
Fig. 246 Fig. 247
The line m mid-way between the two parallel sides bisects both
and both diagonals (Fig. 248). It also bisects
non-parallel sides
any segment whose end-points lie each on one of the parallel
sides of the trapezium. Its length is equal to half the sum of the
a +
m
c
lengths of the two parallel sides,
(proof by Fig. 249).
The diagonals in the trapezium divide each other in the ratio of

the two parallel sides (Fig. 248):
AG BG AB
GC GD C~D
AE*EC , BF=FO
Fig. 248 Fig. 249
354
QUADRILATERAL
The isosceles kite-shaped quadrilateral or deltoid. This is a
quadrilateral in which sides are equal in adjacent pairs. It
possesses an axis of symmetry, namely, one of its diagonals (Fig.
250). The diagonals intersect at right angles. The diagonal AC
bisects the diagonal BD and the angles a and y. The other angles
of the quadrangle are equal ( = d). It possesses an inscribed
circle (Fig. 250). The centre, O, of this circle is the point of
intersection of the axis of symmetry and the bisector of the angle
y (or <5). The radius of the inscribed circle is the perpendicular
from O onto a side of the quadrilateral.
t>^"' l^c
** *^ .
' m
06"
Fig. 251
The isosceles trapezium. If two of a quadrilateral are

sides
parallel, and the non-parallel sides are equal, we have an isosceles
trapezium. An isosceles trapezium pos sesse s an axis of symmetry,
the common perpendicular bisector MN
of the parallel sides
(Fig. 251). Its diagonals are of equal length. The angles adjacent
to its base are equal. Opposite angles add up to 180. It possesses
a circumscribed circle whose centre is obtained as the point of
intersection, O, of the perpendicular bisectors of two sides. OA
isthe radius of the circumscribed circle (Fig. 251).
The parallelogram (Fig. 252). A
quadrilateral in which both
pairs of opposite sides are parallel is called a parallelogram. A
parallelogram is centrally symmetrical about the point of inter-
The diagonals bisect each other. Opposite
section of its diagonals.
sides areof equal length, opposite angles are equal, and any two
neighbouring angles add up to 180.
355
QUADRILATERAL
The rhombus (Fig. 253). A rhombus (diamond, lozenge, rhomb)
is a parallelogram in which all sides are of equal length. Its
diagonals are the perpendicular bisectors of one another. It is
axially symmetrical with respect to each diagonal. Opposite
angles are equal. It possesses an inscribed circle, whose centre, O,
is the point of intersection of the diagonals and whose radius is
the length of the perpendicular from O on to a side.
Fig. 252
The rectangle (Fig. 254). A parallelogram with all angles equal

is Each angle is equal to 90. The diagonals are
called a rectangle.
of equal length, and bisect each other. A rectangle possesses a
circumscribed circle whose centre, O, is the point of intersection
of the diagonals and whose radius is equal to half the length of
the diagonal. It possesses two axes of symmetry, namely, the
common perpendicular bisectors MM1 3 and MM
2 4 of the two
pairs of opposite sides. It is centrally symmetrical about the point
of intersection O of its diagonals.
Fig. 254
356
QUADRILATERAL
The square (Fig. 255). The square is a rectangle with four equal
sides (or equivalently, a rhombus with four equal angles). Its
diagonals are equal, are the perpendicular bisectors of each other,
and bisect its interior angles. It possesses four axes of symmetry,
namely, the two diagonals and the lines joining the mid-points
of opposite sides. It is centrally symmetric about the point O of
intersection of the diagonals. It possesses a circumscribed and
an inscribed circle whose The radius of the
centres coincide in O.
circumscribed circle is equal to half the length of the diagonal.
The radius of the inscribed circle is equal to half the length of the
side of the square.
Quadrilaterals with circumcircles

The sides of such a quadrilateral being chords of the circum-
circle,a necessary and sufficient condition for a quadrilateral to
be of this type is that the sum of opposite angles should be 180
{e.g. rectangle).
Quadrilaterals with incircles

The sides of such a quadrilateral being tangents of the incircle,
a necessary and sufficient condition for a quadrilateral to be of
this type is that the sum of two opposite sides should equal the
sum of the other two sides {e.g. rhombus).
Linked quadrilateral
If four rods are jointed together we have a linked quadrilateral.
Such a construction has no fixed shape, unlike a triangle formed
in similar fashion. If one rod,
e.g. AB, is held stationary, the
rods AD and BC can be rotated
about the vertices A and B
respectively.Such a linked
quadrilateral is shown in Fig.
256. ABCD, ABCx DXi ABC2 D 2 ,
ABC3 D3 are four different

positions of the rods. 1 1 ABC D
and ABC D
Z Z are so-called
limiting cases. Fio. 256
357
QUADRILATERAL, COMPLETE
Quadrilateral, complete
A 'complete quadrilateral' is formed by four straight lines lying
in a plane, no three of which pass through a point, together with
their six points of intersection (Fig. 257). The four given lines
Fig. 257
a, b, c and d are called the sides of the complete quadrilateral.

The sides intersect in three pairs of opposite vertices, namely
K and L,
P and Q,
M and N.
A line joining one of these pairs of opposite vertices is termed a
'diagonal'. The three diagonals, e, / and g, form the 'diagonal
triangle' (or, strictly speaking, 'trilateral'). On each diagonal lie
four harmonic points, viz. two opposite vertices and the point of
intersection of the two other diagonals. In the figure, for the
diagonal/, these points are M, N, R and S. The complete quadri-
lateral and the complete quadrangle (see Quadrangle) are dual
figures.
Quadrilateral inscribed in circle

The sides of such a quadrilateral are chords of the circum-
scribed circle. A quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle if, and
358
RATIONAL INTEGRAL
only two opposite angles add up to

if,
180. The isosceles trapezium, the

rectangle and the square satisfy this
condition; the parallelogram and the
rhombus in general do not (Fig. 258).
a+y= 180,
P+ d = 180,
(circumference angles on opposite arcs

add up to 180).
Radical axis
The radical axis of two circles is the locus of points from which
tangents to the two circles have equal lengths. If the circles have
one or two points in common the radical axis is the common
tangent or the line including the common chord (see Circle).
Radius
The radius or semi-diameter of a circle is a line joining any
point of the circle to the centre of the circle. The length of the
radius is half the length of the diameter (see Circle).
Ratio
The ratio of two quantities a and b is their quotient a:b -r
V = m
We read 'a to or 'a over b\ If a:b m, is referred to as the
value of the ratio. Two quantities, in order to possess a ratio,
must be either pure numbers or measures of the same type, e.g.
20
20:5 = -j =4; 151b:31b = 5.
The value of the ratio (proportionality factor) is always a pure

number (see Proportion).
Rational integral
The rational integral numbers are the integers (see Integers),
e.g. +2, 3. The rational integral functions are those rational
functions (see Function) whose denominators do not contain the
variable x; e.g. y = aQxn + axx"^x + ... + .
359
RATIONAL NUMBERS
Rational numbers
All numbers which can be written in the form of a fraction >
n
where m and n are integral (positive or negative), are referred to
as rational numbers; e.g.
3-5 4 -4
T' ~1 = T'
4'
The rational numbers can also be written as decimal numbers

(see art.). The decimal expression of a rational number is obtained
by dividing the numerator of the fraction by its denominator; e.g.
4 = 3 -f- 4 = 0-75; ^= (-5) -j- 6 = -0-833.. . .
Any fraction whose denominator contains only the prime

factors 2 or 5 yields a finite decimal fraction. Conversely common
fractions can be derived again from finite and infinite-periodic
decimal fractions ; e.g.
84 21
L n
,
' 84
= = 25-
100
2. 2-067,676,7... =x
1000jc = 2067-67...
10x= 20-67...
990* = 2047
2047
x =
990
Infinite non-periodic decimal fractions cannot be written as

fractions. These are referred to as irrational numbers (see art.).
Ray
The totality of points, lying on one and the same side of a point
O on a straight line, is called the ray extending from O. O is
called the origin of the ray.
360
RAY THEOREMS
Ray theorems
Two rays extending from a single point 5" comprise a double-
ray;S is called the vertex of the double-ray.
1. 1st theorem on rays. If a double-ray is cut by parallel lines
the ratios of corresponding segments on the rays are equal. In

Fig. 259 SAiSA 7 = SB:SF.
Proof: We use the auxiliary lines
AB' and B~A'. The triangles AB'B
and AA'B are equal in area since they
have the same base AB and equal
altitudes (AB to AB').
parallel
Further, triangles ABS
and ABA'
have the same altitudes, as also have
triangles ABS and AB'B. But tri-
angles with equal altitudes enclose
areas proportional to their bases.
Fio. 259
(We denote by A (ABS) the area of
the triangle ABS and by A (AA'B)
the area of AA'B t etc.)
Whence
A (ABS) SA A (ABS) SB
A (AA'B) ~AA' A (AB'B) IF
and A (AA'B) = A (AB'B).
From these three equations we get
SA SB
1
AA FF'
Similarly
SA' _ SB'
AA' BBf
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2) we get
SA 7 sF
SA SB
361
REAL NUMBERS
2. Converse of 1st ray-theorem. If a double-ray is cut by two
and if the ratios of corresponding segments on the
straight lines,
two rays are equal, then the transversals are parallel.
3. 2nd theorem on rays. If a double-ray is cut by parallels, the
ratio of the segments cut off on the transversals equals_the ratio
, AB = SA
of the segments
5 cut off on either ray.
J In the
figure
A'V SA'
There is no converse to this theorem.
Real numbers
The real numbers are those numbers which can be represented
by decimal numbers with finite or infinite number of places
(periodic or non-periodic).
Real Numbers
(positive and negative real numbers)
Rational numbers Irrational numbers

(decimal numbers with (non-periodic decimal numbers
finite no. of places and with infinitely many places)
periodic decimals)
Integers Fractions Algebraic Transcendental
3, -5 3 -7 irrational nos. irrational nos.
4'T V2, ^9 e, it, log 3, e^
(see Numbers, types of).
Reciprocal equations
An equation is referred to as reciprocal if the reciprocals of its
roots are also roots; e.g. x2 x* + 1 = has the solutions
xx = 2 and jc
2
= \ (see Equations).
362
RECTANGULAR SOLID
Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right-angles (see
Quadrilateral).
Rectangular solid
A rectangular solid, or right parallelepiped, is a four-sided
right prism. A rectangular solid is bounded by six rectangles,
comprising three parallel and congruent pairs. The six surfaces
meet in pairs in twelve edges which
fall into three groups of four edges
of equal length. A
rectangular solid
possesses eight vertices. At each
vertex three edges meet forming right
angles with one another in pairs.
Let three such edges of a rect-
angular solid be denoted by a, b and
c (Fig. 260). The diagonals of the
faces are called plane-diagonals, and
are denoted by dx , Ind% and a\.
addition to these there is a space
diagonal, D. The volume of the
rectangular solid is V abc. The =
surface-area of the rectangular Fig. 260
solid is
S 2(ab + bc + ca).
The plane-diagonals are calculated from the lengths of the edges

as
4 = Va2 + b2
d2 = Vb + c 2 2
and a\ = Vc2 + a2 .
The space-diagonal is D= +
Va2 b 2 c 2 (by Pythagoras's +
theorem). A
rectangular solid whose base is a square (e.g. a b) =
is called a square prism. If all the edges of a rectangular solid are
equal we have a cube (see Prism).
363
REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS
Reduction of fractions
A fraction is reduced, or cancelled, by dividing numerator and
denominator by the same number, e.g.
TT =r (5 cancelled).
The value of afraction is unaltered by reduction. In the case of

general numbers not only can coefficients be cancelled, e.g.
5a2b a2b
" '
3
15a "3a3
but also literal components:
5a2b \.b
"=
3
15a 3.a
A fraction cannot be reduced if numerator and denominator are
mutually prime, that is, if they have no common factors.
Reflection, affine
Affine reflection in a straight line is a particular case of an
affine transformation. The image of a given point can be con-
structed if the axis of reflection is given together with the angle
y> in which the reflection-rays cut the axis.
Construction of the affine reflec-
tion P' of a point P (Fig. 261):
The straight line through P inter-
secting the axis of reflection in
the given angle y> is drawn. The
segment a = PQ is marked out
on the line from Q in the other
direction to give QP' (Q lies
between P and P*). P' is the affine
reflection of P.
Fig. 261
Reflection in a plane
Reflection in a plane E
is a three-dimensional affine trans-
formation. The original point A and the image point A x arising
out of it by the reflection are connected by a straight line which
364
REFLECTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
isperpendicular to the plane E. The distances of A and A x from

E are equal (Fig. 262).
For representation of the reflection by a system of equations,
see Transformation, affine.
Fig. 262 Fio. 263
Reflection in a point
Reflection in a point P is a three-dimensional affine transforma-
tion. The image A x of a point A is obtained by constructing the
line through A and the fixed point P, and from P marking off
on the line thesegment A XP, with end-point A x such that P lies
between A and A x For the representation of reflection by a
.
system of equations, see Transformation, affine. Example

reflection of a triangle ABC in a point P (Fig. 263).
Reflection in a straight line

Reflection in a straight line / is a plane affine transformation.
The original point A and the point arising from it by reflection
are connected by a straight line which is perpendicular to /. The
distances A and A x from / are equal.
Properties of the reflection

1. Points on the axis of reflection remain unchanged under the
reflection.
365
REGULAR POLYGONS
A and B lie on a straight line c, then the straight
2. If two points
line through the image points A x and B1 is the image-line cx of c.
3. If two straight lines a and b intersect in a point C the image-
lines ax and &j intersect in the image-point Cx of C.
4. A straight line which is perpendicular to the axis of reflec-
tion, is identical with its image-line. The rays on opposite sides
of the axis are interchanged.
5. A segment and its image are of equal length.
6. If an angle is transformed by reflection, its image-angle is
of equal size.
For the representation of the reflection by a system of equa-
tions, see Transformations, affine.
Regular polygons
Regular polygons are polygons whose sides are all of equal
length and whose angles are all equal. All regular polygons with
the same number of vertices are similar to one another. A regular

polygon possesses an inscribed and a circumscribed circle, which
have common centre. If the centre of the circumscribed circle of
a regular polygon is joined to the n vertices there arise n isosceles
triangles whose lateral sides are equal to the radius of the circum-
circle and whose bases are equal to the side of the regular polygon.
360
The angle at the apex of such a triangle is (Fig. 264). The
two base angles together make up the interior angle of the
polygon, namely,
i8o - * _ i 8o x Z=2.
n n
The altitude is equal to the radius of the inscribed circle of the

polygon.
Every regular polygon is n-fold symmetric about the centre of
its circumcircle (i.e. it coincides with itself on rotation through

360 \
Regular polygons with an even number of vertices are also

centrally-symmetric with respect to the centre of the circumcircle.
366
REGULAR POLYGONS
Fig. 264 Fig. 265
Regular polygons with an even number of vertices possess n

n
axes of symmetry. of these axes are the joins of opposite vertices
n
and x the joins of the mid-points of opposite sides (Fig. 265).
Regular polygons with an odd number of vertices likewise

possess n axes of symmetry.Each axis of symmetry passes through
a vertex and the mid-point of the opposite side (Fig. 266).
Fig. 266
Relations between radii of circumscribed and inscribed circles, sides,

circumference and area
If a n is the length of a side, r the radius of the circumcircle and
p n the radius of the incircle (Fig. 267) then

i2
=(f + pl
367
REGULAR POLYGONS
that is,
an = 2Vr^Tpi or Pn = V4r* - a\.

The area of the isosceles triangle discussed above is therefore
A = \a nPn\ the area of the w-sided regular polygon, being n
times as big, is therefore
a
n l
r \
l
where u n is the length of the perimeter of the n-agon. The sides
a'n of the circumscribed n-agon are calculated from the relation-
ship an :a'n = p n :r, whence a'n =

Pn
Fig. 267
It follows that for the area of the circumscribed regular n-agon

we have
**
==
5 a*r
= 5 Un *
where u'n is the perimeter of the circumscribed n-agon. The sides

of the 2-agon inscribed in the same circle can, by Fig. 267, be
easily calculated. We have
al=(^J+(r- Pn)\
so that
aln = r* - pi + r* - 2rp n + pi = 2r2 - 2rPn = 2r(r - Pn\
that is,
2 = V2r(r - pj.
368
REGULAR POLYGONS
Construction of the regular polygons
Gauss proved that a regular n-agon can be constructed using

ruler and compass alone if, in the separation of n into prime
factors, there appear only powers of two and
prime numbers of
the form p = 2 + 1 raised
2* to the first power, where k can be
any integer. For k = we obtain p = 3; for k = 1, p = 5; for
k = 2, p = 17; for k = 3, p = 257, for k = 4, p = 65,537. For

A: = 5, however, p = 2^ + 1, but it is not a prime number
since it possesses the factor 641. Thus the following regular
polygons can be constructed, using ruler and compass:
triangle square pentagon 15-agon 17-agon
hexagon octagon decagon 30-agon 34-agon
dodecagon 16-agon 20-agon 60-agon 68-agon
etc., etc., etc., etc., etc.
The next sequences of -agons which can be constructed using

ruler and compass begin with the 51-agon, the 85-agon, the 255-
agon, and the 257-agon.
Approximate constructions
Approximate constructions are obviously possible for every
n-agon. For n > 5 we have:
Example: (Fig. 268). The diameter BG of a circle of radius r
is divided into n equal parts (in the figure n = 7). The perpen-
dicular OA to B~G is drawn. OA and OB_are each extended to E
and D respectively. The straight line ED intersects the circle in
two points F and H, F lying closest to D. F is nowjoined to C,
the third point of division starting from B. Then CF is approxi-
mately equal to the side of the required n-agon.
Construction ofparticular regular polygons
Since regular polygons with the same number of sides are

all
similar, it is only necessary to construct one of a type to be able
to construct all of that type. Further, a regular polygon can be
drawn if the isosceles triangle associated with it can be constructed.
369
REGULAR POLYGONS
1. Regular polygons with n =
4 X 2* vertices. The first polygon
of this sequence is the square. If two mutually perpendicular
diameters are drawn within a circle of radius r and their end-
points are joined, a square is obtained inscribed in the circle.
Bisecting the angles which the diagonals make with one another
and joining the points of intersection of the bisectors with the
circle a regular octagon is obtained. The procedure can be
continued to obtain successive members of the series.
2. Regular polygons with n =
k
3 X 2 vertices. If chords of
length r are successively laid out on the circumference of a circle
of radius r the six vertices of a regular hexagon are obtained.
Omit alternate vertices, and the three vertices of a regular triangle
inscribed in the same circle are obtained. By bisection of the
central angles of the associated isosceles triangles of the hexagon
the regular dodecahedron is obtained, and this procedure can be
repeated to give later members of the series.
3. Regular polygons with n 5 X 2 =

k
vertices. The second
polygon of this series is the regular decagon. The associated

isosceles triangle has angle 36 at the apex and angles of 72 at
the base (Fig. 269). If one base angle is bisected, the angle ABC
is obtained, which also has angles
36 (at A) and 72 (at B and
C). The triangle ABC is thus similar to the triangle AOB. From
this similarity is obtained the ratio_ of the
sides OA:AB = AB:BC, since AB = AC
= OC, ~OB:OC= OC.CB. Thus the side
of the regular decagon is equal to the larger
segment of radius of the circumcircle when
divided in continuous proportion. The regular
pentagon is obtained from the regular
decagon by omitting alternate vertices. The
regular 20-agon, regular 40-agon, etc., are
obtained by successive bisections of the
central angles.
4. Regular polygons with n = k
15 X 2 vertices. The central
angle of the 15-agon is 24. This angle can be constructed as
the difference of the angles 60 (equilateral triangle) and 36
(central angle of regular decagon). The construction of the regular
k
15-agon and of regular polygons with 15 X 2 vertices follows
immediately.
370
REGULAR POLYGONS
l"n IW-l
lo
> > ts *-* <? >
ts
ts ts
+ + +
+
1
1
im
o o io r>
o o
> > o > >
en
fc. its > eits >
QltN
.
^''* 0|Tf II
,
11 II
X II
II ii
? <c 8 S k S s
a.
Its its its

Its
> > > >ts 11
+
+
Its
> +
1
+ its
>
1
Its
o ts
S ts >
00
3 > k its II
00
3 ItS
sits a
II II II ^ II ii
a
&H a. ^ Q.
^
len
Icn >
k. vfe
len
> > <3 >
vo
it a'* 1 mi"ts
v
% II II
II
II cr II
<*. <2
^
l<n
|o ln in l>0
lo
>
Its
> > >o >O
>ts o
*-" r-t t*
+ + + + +
1
1
o
1
lr> o
o o > Y-l n wo
</>
*-*
> > v>

>
o
>
ts ts
>
kw ItS d M<N II vn loo |2 a|2 '8 K
II II
II II II
II
# C ? ^
its its its
"? > >
ca
t^ > aits 1j
* O v. * its
||
"tl-
|tS II II
0\ II II

II II Q. ^5
<?
c <2
^
J
len itn
len > >
est
"en > > >
-cltS v.
|v *
en J len
en s f n |<* cn
II II
II
II
II II II
CL CO
a
ft,
^ to
c
ex ^
4)
C CO
CO
rf a a>
4> 3 i
t-i
aT CtJ
15
e >
8
4 s
15 1.1
d 3 '4
SIU
55 1 1
33 1 1 2 5
371
RELATIVE NUMBERS
Relative numbers
Positive and negative numbers form together the relative
numbers. Regarded apart from their signs, numbers are referred
to as absolute numbers (see Negative numbers, Numbers, repre-
sentation on a straight line, Absolute value).
Relative primes
Two numbers are said to be relative primes, or prime to one
another, they possess no common factor other than 1 ; e.g.
if
3 and 5 are relative primes.
To determine whether two numbers are prime to one another
the Euclidean algorithm (see art.) can be used, or if their factors
are known the numbers can be expressed as powers of primes
and compared; e.g. 35 and 39 are prime to one another, for
35 = 5 X 7 and 39 = 3 X 13, and since no common prime
factor occurs, the highest common factor must be 1.
Resultant
The
resultant of two algebraic equations is a determinant (see
formed from the coefficients of the equations. The resultant
art.)
can be used to ascertain whether the two equations possess a
common root. Let the two equations be
f(x) = aQx + a^"-1 +
n
. . + an = 0.
g(x) = V m+
h*' +
1
+ K = o.
Their resultant is
aQ ax a n-l an . . .0
an a n-2 a n-\ an 0. . .0
m rows
R= .0
bx . . b n-i bn
b n-\ bn .0
n rows
. . .0 6
372
)
RESULTANT
If the two equations have a common root the resultant R is equal

to zero.
Example: f(x) = x2 3x +2
and g(x) = Xs jc
2 x+ I
have the resultant

1-3200
1-320
R= 1-32 0.
1-1-1 1
1-1-1 1
f(x) and g(x) have a common root which can be found by means
of the Euclidean algorithm (see art.) as follows:
(Xs - x2 - x + 1) -r (x2 - 3x + 2) = x + 2
x3 - 3x2 + 2x
+ 2x 2 - 3* + 1 (x2 - 3x + 2) -r (3x - 3) = U-3
2jc
2 - 6x + 4 X2 X
+ 3* -3 -2.x+ 2
-2x + 2
t is,
x2 - + =
3jc 2 3(jc
-><h)
and
x?-x2 -x+l=*(x + 2)(x2 - 3x + 2) + 3(x - 1),
or
x? - x2 - x + = 1 (x - 1) T(jc + 2)
(|
- ?) . 3 + 3~|.
The common factor is (x 1), and the common root, x 1.
373
RHOMBUS
Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with four sides of equal length
(see Quadrilateral).
Right angle
A right angle is an angle which is equal to its adjacent supple-
mentary angle. Its measure in degrees is 90 and in circular
measure is -z radians.
Construction of the right angle (Fig. 270)

To construct a straight line m cutting a given straight line / at
right angles in a given point P.
Procedure. We describe about P a circle with arbitrary radius.
This intersects / in the points A and B. We now describe about
A and B circles of equal radius, which must be larger than the
segment AP. The two circles intersect in the points C and D.
The required line m is determined by C and D (see Perpendicular,
construction of). A set-square (see Figs. 271 and 272) serves to
construct a right angle.
/V
H 8 i
Fig. 270 Fig. 271
The circle ofThales (Fig. 273) can be used to construct a right

angle whose arms pass through the end-points of a given segment
AB c. It is the circle with radius -z and centre, O, the mid-point
of the given segment c = AB. The vertices of all right angles

whose arms pass through A and B lie on this circle.
374
RIGID MOTIONS
Fig. 272 Fig. 273
Right-angled
A
geometrical figure is said to be right-angled if a right angle
occurs in it, e.g. a right-angled triangle.
Right-angled triangle
A
triangle is said to be right-angled if one of its interior angles
isa right angle. The side opposite the right angle is referred to as
the hypotenuse. For theorems on the right-angled triangle see
Triangle.
Rigid motions
The motions (congruent transformations) are transforma-
rigid
tions (see Transformation) in space or in a plane, in which the
original figure and its image are congruent. In particular a line-
:
segment and its image haye equal length; an angle and its image
are equal; a plane figure and its image are congruent and thus
have equal area; a solid and its image are congruent and have
equal volume. On account of these properties, the rigid motions
are also called congruent transformations.
Rigid motions in a plane

1. Parallel displacement or translation.
2. Rotation about a point.
3. Transformations obtained by successive translations and
rotations.
375
:
RIGID MOTIONS
Rigid motions in space

1. Parallel displacement or translation.
Rotation about a straight line.
2.
Transformations obtained by successive applications of
3.
transformations of types 1, 2.
Representation of rigid motions in a plane by means of systems of

equations
If in the same coordinate system the point P(x, y) is trans-
y
formed into Q(x', ) by means of a rigid motion, then (jc, y) and
(x',y') are related by a system of linear equations of the form:
=
x' axx + a^y + a3 ,
y= b xx + b%y + b3 .
This system of equations represents a rigid motion only if its

determinant has absolute value 1
ata 2
D= ~ A"~ 02^1=
fl i
Parallel displacement (Fig. 274)
x'=x+ 3 fl ,
y =y + b3 .
Fig. 274
The direction of the parallel displacement is given by the angle <5
which the line-segment PQ makes with the positive x-axis, that
is, by tan d = . The displacement distance dis: d = V a\

' + b\.
376
:
RIGID MOTIONS
Rotation about a point in the plane

(a) Rotation about the origin of the coordinate system (Fig.
275):
= x cos + y sin
xf <$>
<f>,
/ = x sin + y cos <f> <f>.
(b) Rotation about the point P (x y ) , (Fig. 276):
xf XQ = (X X ) COS ^ + (y Jo) S n & i
/ - Jo = (* - *o) sin + (y - y ) cos < <.
Qfr'.y)
T*,r; T*,y;
pofo. y )
Fig. 275 Fig. 276
Representation of rigid motions in space by means of systems of

equations
A system of equations,
xf = axx + a^y + a3z + a it
y = b x + b$ + bzz + 64
x ,
z = cxx + c^y + c3z + c4

7
,
which x , /, / and x, j, z are the coordinates of two points

7
in
P(x, y, z) /
and Q(xf, , z') in the same coordinate system, repre-
sents a rigid motion in space if the determinant D of the system
of equations has absolute value 1
ax a2 <h
D= i h h -1.
Cl % 4$
377
RIGID MOTIONS
Parallel displacement
xf = x + a4 ,
/ =y + K
2? = Z + C4 .
The displacement distance is d = Vaf &I + +

cf- The direction
of the parallel displacement is in the direction of the point

P(a4 b4 c4) from the origin.
, ,
Rotation about a straight line

Rotation about the x-axis
y = y cos + z sin cf> <,
/ = 7 sin $ + z cos <f>.
Rotation about the j-axis:
x? = x cos <f>
+ z sin <,
/ = x sin <f>
+ z cos <.
Rotation about the z-axis:
x?= x cos ^ + y sin <,
y = x sm<f> + y cos <,
z = z.
,
Rotation about a line parallel to the x-axis The line cuts the :
jz-plane in the point P (0, y , z ), say, and has the parametric

representation x =
at, y =
y , z z then = :
/ - Jo = (y-yo) cos( + (z - z ) sin<,
z
/
z = (y yQ ) sin <f> + (z z ) cos <.
Rotation about a line parallel to the 7-axis: The line has the
parametric representation x x ,y bt, z= z , say, and cuts =
378
ROMAN NUMBER-SYSTEM
the xz-plane in the point P (x , 0, z ): then
x' x = (x * ) cos + <f>
(z Zo) sin ^,
z' z = (x x^ sin + (z z ) cos 0. <f>
Rotation about a line parallel to the z-axis. The line has para-
metric representation x x , y =
y, z =
ct, say, and cuts the =
*y-plane in the points P (xQ,yQ , 0):
* *o = (* *o) cos + (y j sin ^, <j> )
/ - 7o = -(* - *o) sin ^ + - j cos ) <f>,
z = z.
,
Roman number-system
The Roman numerals were in general use in central Europe
for upwards of 1,200 years. Today they are occasionally used for
inscriptions and other special purposes. The Roman number-
symbols have a fixed value, irrespective of its position in the
number, in contrast with the place-value system of the Arabic
numerals. The symbols are:
I = 1, V= 5, X= 10, L = 50, C= 100, D= 500, M= 1000.
The symbols I, C may be repeated, but in general not more

than three times a fourfold repetition is avoided by reversing the
;
natural order of the symbols:
IV = 4, XL = 40, CD = 400; IX = 9, XC = 90, CM = 900.

In compound numbers, numerical values follow each other in
order. This regular system involves addition of the corresponding
values; e.g.
MMCMXLII = 2000 + 900 + 40 + 2 = 2942
1=1 XI = 11 XXI - 21 XXXI = 31 = 41

XLI
II = 2 XII = 12 XXII = 22 XXXII = 32 XLII= 42
HI = 3 XIII = 13 XXIII = 23 XXXIH = 33 XLIII = 43
IV = 4 XIV = 14 XXIV - 24 XXXIV = 34 XLIV = 44
379
ROOTS, EXTRACTION OF
V= 5 XV = 15 XXV = 25 XXXV = 35 XLV = 45

VI = 6 XVI = 16 XXVI = 26 XXXVI = 36 XLVI = 46
VII = 7 XVII = 17 XXVII = 27 XXXVII = 37 XLVII = 47
VIII = 8 XVIII = 18 XXVIII = 28 XXXVIII = 38 XLV1II = 48
IX = 9 XIX = 19 XXIX = 29 XXXIX = 39 XLIX = 49
X= 10 XX = 20 XXX = 30 XL = 40 L= 50
Roots, extraction of
The calculation or extraction of a root is one of the operations
inverse to that of raising to a power (the other being that of taking
the logarithm, see In raising a number to a power, the
art.)-
number is multiplied
itself a number of times, e.g.
by
53= 5x5x5= 125. In extracting a root the problem is, e.g.
given the number 125, to transform it into a product of a given
number of equal factors. Since 125 5 x 5 x 5 =
5 3 , 5 is said =
to be the third, or cube, root of 125: ^125 = 5. The root-sign
can be regarded as a stylised r, the initial letter of the Latin word
radix = root. The number 125
in our example is the number
from which the root obtained; it is called the radicand. The
is
number 3, the number of equal factors into which the radicand

is divided is called the index (or order) of the root.
General definitions
By the nth root of a number a is meant the number b whose
th power is equal to b. We write: Va =
b and read: Vzth root
of a equals b\ Here a is called the radicand, n the index of the
root, and b the value of the root.
In particular, the second root of a number is referred to as the
square-root: the square root of a number a is the (positive)
number, which multiplied by itself gives a. For square roots, it
is customary to omit the index, 2, of the root, e.g.
\/9 = V9 = 3, since 3x3 = 9.

The third root of a number is referred to as the cube-root, e.g.
"^27 = 3.
The calculation of square- and cube-roots is facilitated by the
use of tables (see explanation attached to tables of square and
cubic numbers, p. 709).
380
Calculation of square-roots by means of the formula:
(a + b + c+ d+ . .
.f =
+ (2a + b)b
a2
+ [2(a + b) + c]c + [2(a + b + c) + d\d + . . .
To explain our method we first of all apply this formula to the

development of a decimal number in powers of 10. E.g.
342 = 3 x 100 + 4 X 10 + 2 x 1.
Denoting 300 by a, 40 by b, and 2 by c we have:

342 2 = (a + b + cf = a2 + (2a + b)b + (2a + 2b + c)c
where
a2 = 90,000
2ab= 24,000
b2 = 1,600
3422 = 116,964.
2ac = 1,200
2bc = 160
c2 = 4 J
Suppose now that our task is to find the square root of 1 16,964.
We first of all establish how many digits the root has. The square
of a:
number has one or two digits

one-digit
number has three or four digits
two-digit
three-digit number has five or six digits
four-digit number has seven or eight digits, etc.
Conversely it follows that the square root of a:
one- or two-digit number has one digit

three- or four-digit number has two digits
five- or six-digit number has three digits, etc.
Thus, if we divide the radicand into groups of two digits,

commencing with the units, we can count off how many digits
where we have placed
there are in the square root; e.g.: H'69'64,
a dash over the space between appropriate digits. (If a number
has an odd number of digits, the group on the extreme left will
contain only one digit.) In our example the root will have three
381
digits. Thus it will lie between 100 and 1,000. We can also tell
how many hundreds it contains, since we have
1002 = 10 000 and so V 10 000= 100
200 = 2
40 000 V40 000 = 200
3002 = 90 000 V90 000 = 300
10002 = 1000 000 V 1000 000 = 1000.
Now our number, 116,964, lies between 90,000 and 160,000

and so square root lies between 300 and 400; the first digit is
its
therefore a 3. That is, a 300 and a2 =

90,000. We now sub- =
tract 90,000 from 116,964. The remainder 26,964, must contain
the terms lab, b 2 , lac, Ibc and c 2 We write: .
V 116,964 = Vll'69'64.
We subtract a 2
: Vll'69'64
9 00 00
2 69 64.
In order to find b next we write la = 600 after 26964:
Vll'69'64
900 00
2 69 64 600
"la
Then we by 600, taking note only of the tens

divide 26,964
(26,964 -J- and obtain b 40. We can now subtract
600 en 40)
lab + b 2 = 24,000 + 1,600 = 25,600 from 26,964 to give 1,364.
lac, Ibc and c 2 must still be contained in this remainder. Thus
1,364 = {la + lb + c)c.
To find c we by la + lb = 680
divide 1364 (approximately)
and obtain c = 2. We write 680 and 2 beside 1364. After multi-
plication of 682 = la + lb + c by c no remainder is left on
subtraction, and so our number 116,964 was a square number.
We can shorten the procedure by omitting the zeros occurring
in the individual steps. E.g.
382
in full: abbreviated:
+ b +c
a
Vll'69'64 = 300 + 40 + 2 V1169 64 = 342

900 00 a2 9
2 69 64 (2a + 6) = (600 + 40) . 40 T69 + 64

2 56 00 2 56
13 64 (2a + lb + c) c = .
~~13
64 + 682
13 64 (600 + 80 + 2) 2 . 13 64
If the radicand does not prove to be a square number the

calculation can be continued by writing
pairs of zeros after the
decimal point. Radicands with terms to the right of the decimal
place can be treated in a similar fashion. The decimal point is
then inserted in the root when the two final digits of the radicand
enter the calculation.
Example: V23167 =4-8132

16
7 16 80 . 8 = 640
8 2 = 64
7 04
1270 960 . 1 = 960

1
2 = 1
961
30900 9620 . 3 = 28860

3 2 = 9
28869
203100 96260 2 . = 192520
2 2 = 4
192524
1057600 962640 .
383
As in division, the calculation is broken off when the required

degree of accuracy has been achieved.
In evaluating square roots with a calculating machine, an
'iterative' procedure is adopted, i.e. step-by-step approximation
by repeated application of the same procedure of calculation.
For example, suppose that with a slide rule we have obtained the
approximate value x for x = Va. Now if x differs from x by
r e we nave
(x %e ) = Va,
and squaring both sides we get:
eQ however is small compared with x and we can neglect the
term ^ eg, so that e & x I \-
Accordingly we form the quotient a = xv If x were equal to

_ -ô
Va then x would equal ji^. However, with the approximate
value x , we will have xx x = +
e . e arises essentially out of
the decimal places of xx lying beyond those of x , and these
places can easily be read off in dividing on the machine. The
arithmetic mean of x and xx yields an improved value
x2 x = e +
The procedure is repeated till the required
.
accuracy is reached; in practice this occurs very quickly.
Example: V3 fm 1-73.
y = 1-73
3 -r 1-73 = 1-73410 s = 0-00410 ^ e = 0-00205

jc, = 1-73205
3 -f- 1-73205 = 1-73205161 e2 = 0-00000161 r e2 = 0-00000080
x3 = 1-73205080.
Calculation of nth roots, nth roots are calculated in practice by

means of logarithms (see art.), or by iterative methods.
384
Multiplicity of roots. In taking the square root of a number b,

two results are always obtained, namely Vb = +a and
Vb = a. The results are distinguished only by their sign. We
write Vb = a. For nth roots there are n (real or complex) values.
Roots of negative numbers. The nth root of a negative number
can be another real number only if the index of the root is odd.
If a is a positive number, Vâ = V~[ V+a. Thus, if the
index n is odd we have
On the other hand, if the index is even, Vâ = V^T V~+a

which is complex.
Example:
'-1
V=i-u t'ZT.J +5 + 5V3
2 2
Addition and subtraction of roots. Roots with the same index

and the same radicand can be collected into a single term:
Va + 3Va = 4Va.
Roots of products. To extract the root of a product, take the

root of each factor and multiply them together. To multiply
roots with the same index, take the root of the product of the
radicands; Ya Vb =
Vab. Factors in front of the root can be
assimilated within the root-sign by raising them to the power
equal to the index of the root; aVb = Va%.
Roots of quotients {fractions). To extract the root of a fraction,
take the roots of the numerator and denominator separately, and
385
divide. Conversely, to divide roots with the same index, take the
root of the quotient of the radicands:
Roots ofpowers. To extract the root of a power, take the root

of the base and then raise to the given exponent:
a" = iva
If the exponent of the power and the index of the root are each
multiplied or divided by the same number, the value of the root
isunaltered: Vat* =
Va*. If the exponent of the power and the
index of the root are each divided by the latter, a fractional
exponent is obtained: Vam = an .
m
Raising a number to a fractional power, , implies that the
number is to be raised to the mth power and then that the th

_ ~ 1
root is to be extracted; VcT = a n
. In particular, Va = a
n
.
Roots of roots. To take the root of a root-expression, multiply

the indexes of the roots and retain the original radicand
Conversely, if the index of the root is a product, we can succes-

sively extract the roots whose indexes are the factors of the
product:
^8l= VVto = V9 = 3
In taking roots of roots the indexes of the roots can be inter-

changed, i.e. the sequence in which the roots are extracted is
arbitrary:
^64 = ^VH = ^8 = 2
"^64 - V^PH = V4 = 2
386
.
ROTATION
Roots ofpolynomials. The roots of polynomials can be extracted
according to the same scheme used for numbers, employing the
formula
(a + b +c+ . .
2
= a2 + (2a + b)b + (2a + 2b + c)c + . . .
For roots of complex numbers, see De Moivre's formula.
Rotation
The rotations about a point in a plane and about a straight
line in space belong to the rigid motions (see above).
Rotations in a plane
The rotations in a plane are determined by the point P in the
plane which is unaltered by the rotation (centre of rotation), and
by the angle of rotation <j>.
The image point A x of a given point A can be constructed as
follows. A circle with radius PA is described about P and the
angle constructed on PA with vertex P. The intersection of the
<f>
free arm of and the circle is the required image point A 1 (Fig.
<j>
277).
Example: Rotation of a triangle ABC about its vertex A

through angle = 30. The image of the triangle is ABX CX
<f>
(Fig. 278).
Centre of
rotation
Fig. 277
Rotations in space
A rotation in space is determined when an axis of rotation and
an angle of rotation are given. For representation of rotations in
a plane, see Rigid motions. Examples are also given there of rigid
motions in space.
387
:
ROUNDING OFF
Rounding off
The correct rounding off of decimal fractions which do not
terminate is often of importance. For example, the decimal
fraction Vl =
1-414213562. does not terminate. It is there-
. .
fore inevitable when evaluating such a number as a decimal

fraction that the procedure be broken off after a definite number
of places. Thus Vl, calculated to three places, is 1-414. The most
appropriate number of places can only be decided after examina-
tion of the problem in which the number occurs.
Naturally, if we calculate a number to n places only, when the
exact expression of the number as a decimal fraction requires
more than n places (whether finitely- or infinitely-many more),
our calculationdiffers from the exact expression by what is
(somewhat misleadingly) known as an 'error'. Our problem is to
make with the n decimal places at
this error as small as possible
our disposal. To do this we
number correct to n
require the 1 +
decimal places, or sometimes to a higher number of places if the
digit in the (n +
l)th place is a 5. Knowing this we can decide
whether we do better by leaving the digit in the th place un-
altered or by increasing it by 1. The rules we require are then as
follows
1. If the digit in the (n + l)th place is less than 5, leave the
digit in the nth place unaltered.
2. If the digit in the (n + l)th place is more than 5, increase
the digit in the th place by 1.
Examples: To calculate Vl correct to 3 places: The fourth

place has the digit 2, so we leave the 4 in the third place unaltered
and write Vl 1-414.
To calculate Vl correct to 7 places: The eighth place has digit
6, jo we increase the 5 in the seventh place by unity and write
Vl = 1-4142136.
3. If the digit in the ( + l)th place is 5, then we normally do

better by increasing the digit in the th by unity. Two exceptions
occur, (i) If the decimal fraction is finite and the 5 in the
(n + l)th place is the last non-zero figure in its exact expression,
then it makes no difference whether we round 'up' or 'down'.
By convention we round 'up' and increase the digit in the th

place by unity, (ii) If the expression we are given ends with the 5
388

SECANT
in the (n +
l)th place, and if this is not exact but the result of a
previous rounding-off process, then we must calculate more
decimal places until we know whether the digit in the ( l)th +
place was originally a 4, in which case we leave the digit in the
nth place unaltered, or a 5, in which case we increase the digit in
the nth place by unity.
Examples:
(i) To three decimal places, 3-14156. . . = 3-142.
(ii) By convention, to three decimal places 3-1415 = 3-142.
(iii) If we V2-2 = 1-5 to one decimal place, then
are given
before we can round off V2-2 to the nearest whole number
we must calculate V2-2 to more decimal places, namely
V2-2 = 1-48...; and we then know we should round
*down' and put V2-2 = 1 to the nearest whole number.
is not possible, then as a matter
If this further calculation
of convention we normally round 'up'.
Scalar
By a scalar is meant a pure numerical quantity, the term being
used in particular to distinguish such quantities from 'vectors'
which have directions associated with them.
Scalar product
The scalar product of two vectors a = (ax ay a
, ,
z) and
b = (b x , bv , bg) is the scalar a b = ajb x
. + avbv + a b g g (see
Vector).
Secant
A secant is a straight line which intersects a circle in two points.

Extension to other curves a secant of a curve is a straight line
which intersects the curve in at least two points (see Circle).
Secant (sec)
Sec a the ratio of the hypotenuse to the adjacent side in a
is
right-angled triangle.The function sec a is the reciprocal of cos a

(see Trigonometry),
sec a = ?
hypotenuse
tt-
adjacent side
= 1
cos a
389
:
SECANT THEOREM
Secant theorem
If two lines passing through a point P (outside the circle)
intersect a circle in the points A, B, and C, D we have
PA'JC = PD:PB (Fig. 279).
Semicircle
A circle is divided by any diameter
into two congruent parts, symmetrical
with respect to the diameter. The parts
are called semicircles.
Sequence of numbers
A sequence of numbers is of the form
*i> *2> x3> > where the x's are
numbers following one another in
some defined manner. The numbers x n
are referred to as terms of the sequence.
We can consider finite sequences or
infinite sequences, according as the
Fig. 279
sequences do or do not possess a
finite number of terms.
The rule according to which the members of the sequence are
formed may be an explicit rule for calculation in which, apart
from given constants, only the letter n the number of the term
to be calculated
occurs e.g. the formula ;
xn = ~ in = 1, 2, .) yields the sequence
,1111
'2' 3' 4' 5'
1
xn = j^(n = 1,2, . . .) yields the sequence
i i I 1 1 *'
1 '
2' 4' 8' 16' 32' 2W
' '
xn = 1 + In (n = 1, 2, 3, .) yields the sequence
3,5,7,9, 11,. . .,1 +2n,

390
. .
SEQUENCE OF NUMBERS
Properties of number sequences

1. A sequence is said to be bounded if a fixed positive number
can be found greater than the absolute values of each of its

terms, that is, if K
can be found such that
|*| ^ K or -K<, x n <, +K for n = 1, 2, 3, ...

2. A sequence is said to be bounded from below (or above) if a
number K x (or K2) can be found such that
xn > Kx (or xn < 3) for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
A bounded sequence is bounded from both above and below.

3. A sequence is said to be monotonic increasing if
x n <, x n+1 for n = 1, 2, 3, . .
The sequence is said to be monotonic decreasing if
xn > xn+1 for n = 1, 2, 3, . .
Both types are referred to as monotonic sequences. E.g.

(i) The sequence x n = 2 n is monotonic increasing and bounded
from below.
(ii) The sequence x n = - is monotonic decreasing and bounded.
4. A sequence a n is said to be a convergent sequence, with

limiting value a, if the terms of the sequence approach the value
a in such a way that if we select any positive quantity e, however
small, then sooner or later all the terms of the sequence differ
from a by less than e. We say: 'The sequence tends (or converges)
to a*. We write:
an >a as n-> oo, or, lim an = a.

n-*oo
a is also called the limit of the sequence.

For an ->a we say: *a n tends to a\ For lim an =a we say:
nt-co
The limit of a n as tends to infinity equals a\ E.g. the sequence
1
an = + =- converges to
1 1.
5. A sequence with limit zero is called a null sequence; e.g.
n ~ In
391
: , ,;
SERIES
6. Sequences which do not converge to a finite limit are said

to be divergent', e.g.
(i) The sequence of the natural numbers a n = n is divergent.

(ii) The geometric sequence (see art.) 2, 6, 18, 54, with . . .
initial term 2 and quotient 3 and general term a =

n
2 x 3*-1 is divergent.
(iii) The alternating geometric sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, . . .
an = (-I)"-1 2 n~\ ... is divergent.

7. If for sufficiently large n, an and all later terms exceed any
given number however large, the sequence is said to diverge to
+ oo. We write
a n -> + oo as n -*> oo, or lim an = oo.
Similarly we speak of sequences which diverge or tend to oo

e.g. the arithmetic sequence (see art.) 2, 1, 4, 7, . . .
diverges to oo.
Example: the sequence of natural numbers diverges to + oo.
8. Sequences which neither converge nor diverge to +oo or
oo are said to be oscillatory. E.g.
the sequences 1, 2, +4, 8, +16, . . .,
+2, -2, +2, -2, +2, . . .
are oscillatory.
Series
A series is the unevaluated sum of terms of a (finite or infinite)
sequence. E.g.
from the sequence alt a2 a3 , , ff
4, . . . we form the series
i + a2 + az + a + . .
The series can be abbreviated by means of the summation sign

^
(see art.),
00
0i + a2 + az + . . . + an + . . . = 2 ak ;
or, if the series has only n terms,
ax + a% + az + . . . + an = J ak .
t=i
392
SHEAR
Set-theory
A theory founded and widely developed by Georg Cantor
(1845-1918) which forms the foundation of the theory of point-
sets, of real functions and of topology. A
set is a collection of
definite and distinguishable objects, either concrete or conceptual,
e.g. the whole numbers. Sets are finite or infinite. The infinite set
of the natural numbers is said to be enumerable, and other sets
are said to be enumerable if their elements can be put into one-
to-one correspondence with elements of this set. There exist sets
which are neither finite nor enumerable, e.g. the set of real
numbers between and 1.
Shear
Shearing consists in a transformation in a plane or in space in
which the area of a plane figure or the volume of a solid is un-
altered. Since angles are (in general) changed, the original and
transformed figure are neither congruent nor similar.
Examples:
1. ABCD is a given parallelogram (Fig. 280). In a shearing
motion parallel to the direction of AB, the point D on the straight
line DC passes to the final position D' which depends on the
distance apart of the parallel straight lines AB and DC.
2. In a plane rectangular coordinate system a shearing motion

in the direction of the x-axis can be described by the following
equations:
x* = x + ay,
/ =y>
where x, y denote the coordinates of the original point P and
x', y' the coordinates of the image-point P' t while a is a constant
number ^ 0.
393
SICKLE OF ARCHIMEDES
3. If ABCDEFGH is a given rectangular solid, a shearing

motion in any direction in the plane EFGH parallel to ABCD
produces a parallelepiped ABCDE'F'G'H' (Fig. 281).
4. In a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system, a
shearing-motion in any direction parallel to the jc, j-plane can
be represented by the following system of equations :
x' = x + az,
y' = y + bzt
zf = z,
where x, y, z denote the coordinates of an arbitrary point,
x\ y', z' the coordinates of the corresponding image-point and
a, b two constants specifying the direction and magnitude of the
shear.
Sickle of Archimedes (Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.)

If the diameter of a semi-circle 2r = 2r + 2r2 is divided into
any two parts of length 2rx and 2r2 and if further semicircles are
constructed on these segments as diameters, the resulting sickle
of Archimedes has the same area as the circle with diameter
FC = h (Fig. 282).
Fig. 281 Fig. 282
Sign
The two signs used before numbers are '+' (read: plus) and
*' (read: minus), positive numbers being indicated by the
former, negative numbers by the latter. This use of + and
394
SINE
must be carefully distinguished from their use as operations, when

they serve to indicate which of two calculating-operations is to
be carried out.
Similarity
Two geometrical figures are similar if they agree in respect of
the main attributes of shape, viz. angles and the ratios of different
linear measurements.
1. Similarity of triangles
Two
triangles are called similar, if the angles and ratios of
corresponding sides of one are equal to those of the other,
symbol : ~ (see Triangle).
2. Similarity ofpolygons
Polygons are called similar, if they agree in respect of all angles
and ratios of pairs of sides. The areas of similar polygons vary
as the squares of corresponding sides (see Triangle, Polygon).
3. Similarity transformations
A any plane figure into a
similarity transformation transforms
two similar figures, a similarity
similar figure. Conversely, given
transformation can always be found which will send one figure
into the other (see Similarity transformation).
Similarity transformation
The similarity transformations belong to the affine transforma-
tions (see above). They comprise those affine transformations in
which a figure (plane or solid) is transformed into a similar figure.
Sine (sin)
The sine function sin a is a trigonometric function, the ratio
of the opposite side to the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle
(see Trigonometry),
sin a = -t
1
opposite side
:
hypotenuse

395
SINE THEOREM
Sine theorem
1. The sine theorem ofplane trigonometry
b and c are the sides, and a, /? and y the angles of a triangle,
If a,
then a:b:c = sin a sin /S: sin y. The theorem can be used to
:
solve a triangle if one side, the opposite angle and a further side
or a further angle are given (see Trigonometry). For examples see
Solution of triangle.
2. The sine theorem

of spherical trigonometry
If a, band c are the sides,
and a,/? and y the angles of a spherical
triangle, then sin a sin b sin c = sin a sin /? sin y. The sine
: : : :
theorem of spherical trigonometry can be used to solve a spherical

triangle if one side, the opposite angle and afurther side or a further
angle are given (see Spherical trigonometry).
Single-valued transformation
A transformation of points of one space into points of another
is called single-valued if there corresponds to each point one
image-point and one only. The transformation is called one-to-
one, or reversibly single-valued, if there corresponds to each
image-point one inverse-image point and one only.
Skew
Two lines in space are said to be skew (with respect to one
another) if they neither intersect nor are parallel.
Solid
A solid is a bounded part of space. The boundaries are surfaces.
The bounding surfaces can be either plane or curved. If all are
plane the solid is a polyhedron (see above).
Solid angle
The measure of a solid angle is specified in a way analogous to
the radian- (or arc-) measure of an angle in a plane. An auxiliary
unit sphere is used and every cone has a measure, the solid angle
O associated with it.
396
SOLID OF REVOLUTION
We consider the intersection of the given cone with the sphere

of unit radius which has the vertex of the cone as centre. The area
on the sphere cut out by the cone is taken as the measure of solid
angle of the cone.
An octant of a sphere has solid angle -z. The complete space-
angle is 4n. A cone of revolution formed by rotating a straight
line about an axis inclined to it at an angle a has solid angle
O= 4tt sin2 -z-
Solid of revolution
A
solid of revolution can be regarded as a curve y =f(x)
rotated about the jc-axis. The cross-section of such a solid for
abscissa x is a circle with area 7ry
2 =
tt(/(x))
2
Thus the volume
.
of the solid of revolution between x and x Ax is+

dx.
Example: Ellipsoid of revolution; y - VcP x2 is the
equation of the ellipse referred to its principal axes. The volume

of the solid of revolution is obtained by integrating from a
to +a:
r+ a h2 b* I x*\ +a Aabhr
(Fig. 283)
Flo. 283 Fio. 284
397
SOLUTION OF THE TRIANGLE
The surface of a solid of revolution is obtained by the integration
2tt\ yVl + y'*dx.

Ja
Example: Paraboloid of revolution; equation of parabola,
/ = 2px,
surface-area = 2n Vlpx J\ + j- dx
2-nVp
[(p + 2xf'
2 - pM]
(Fig. 284).
Solution of the triangle

Elementary solution of the triangle
Sides of a triangle can be calculated by means of Euclid's
theorem (theorem on altitudes), the theorem of Pythagoras, the
projection theorems for triangles, the various extensions and
generalisations of the Pythagorean theorem, and the proportion-
ality relations obtained from the theory of similar triangles (e.g.
theorem of Apollonius). But it is not possible by these means to
calculate the angles of a triangle from a knowledge of its sides.
Trigonometrical solution of the triangle

A solution of the triangle with the help of the trigonometrical
functions relies on the following theorems: sine theorem, cosine
theorem, Mollweide equations, tangent theorem, half-angle
theorem, and the relations between angles of a triangle. See
references to individual words and Trigonometry, and below.
Solution of triangle, trigonometrical

The general triangle can be solved by means of the trigono-
metrical functions, the relations holding between these functions,
and the relations between the angles and sides of the triangle,
provided that three independent elements of the triangle are given.
Tables of the trigonometrical functions and their logarithms are
needed for the solution of triangles by trigonometrical functions
and for other calculations with these functions (see Trigono-
metrical Tables).
398
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLE, TRIGONOMETRICAL
Formulae for the general triangle (sides a, b, c, angles a, /?, y,
radius of inscribed circle p, radius of circumscribed circle r,

altitude h, area A)
Relations between angles:
a + + y = 180, therefore:
p
sin (p + y) = sin (180 a) = sin a,
cos + y) cos (180 a) = cos a,

(/5
sm P
. + y sm /90 xa\ = cos -&
a
.
I I
P +
K ^ y / a\ a
= 90 - =
r
cos cos sm
1
2J j
^4 Ititude formulae:
ha b sin y = c sin P,
A6 = a sin y = c sin a,
hc = 6 sin a = a sin /?. (Fig. 285)
Sine theorem:
a:b'c = sin a:sin p:sin y.
Chord formulae:
a:2r sin a; b = 2r sin /?;
Fig. 285
c:2rsiny (Fig. 285).
Tangent theorem:
6 + c

tan
+ y
c +a
tan
y +
2
a
a + 6
tan
a + /9
Z>-c P y* c a y a' a b a P
tan tan tan
Mollweide equations:
P-y a /5
COS r cos cos
,
o +
.
c 2 c + a a + 6
sin sin
.
P
sin
^ j
399
Cosine theorem:
a2 =x b2 + c2 2bc cos a,
b2 = c 2 + a2 lea cos /?,
c 2 = a2 + b 2 lab cos y.
Radius of inscribed circle:
a P y
p = a
4r sin

-z
.
sin -=

sin
y
Perimeter:
<* P y
L= 8r cos x cos -~ cos
y
Area:
A= -r- sin y = 2r 2 sin a sin /? sin y = zabc

'
j^4r
Fig. 286
Examples: (i) The angle of elevation of a tower of known

height (60 metres) is measured as 5 20' (Fig. 286). How far is the
point at which the measurement is taken from the top of the
tower ?
h
We have c- sin a, or c =
sin a
log 60= 11-77815- 10
log 5 20' = 8-96825 - 10
logc= 2-80990.
That is, c = 645-5 metres (Fig. 286).
400
(ii) Given a = 15, = 77 and y = 35.
Required : a, b and c.
First we have: a = 180 y\ that fi

is,
a = 180 - 77 - 35 = 68.
By the sine theorem we have:
b
a
= .
sin

sin
a
ft ,
-, that
.
is,
,
b = 15sin77
sin68
c
c
15-763,
15 sin 35
c = asiny -, that is, c = . ^ c = 9-2792.
sin a sin 68
Computation:
log 15= 1-17609 log 15= 1-17609
log sin 77 = 9-98872 - 10 log sin 35 = -

9-75859 10
11-16481 - 10 10-93468 - 10
log sin 68 = 9-96717 - 10 log sin 68 = 9-96717 - 10
log b= 1-19764 logc= 0-96751
b = 15-763 c= 9-2792
(iii) The distance between two points A and B on the bank of

a river is measured and the directions at A and B of a tower on
the other side of the river with respect to the base-line AB are
determined. How far is the tower from A? (Fig. 287).
We have
y = 180 -a-
and
AT shift
AB~ sin V
so that
siny Fig. 287
401
SPHERE
Sphere
Definition : a sphere is the locus of points in space having a
given fixed distance from a given point O. O is called the centre
of the sphere, the fixed distance its radius (r). If a sphere is inter-
sected by a plane they meet in a circle (Fig. 288).
The greater the distance a of
the plane from the centre of the
sphere the smaller is the radius p
of the circle of intersection; we
have p = r sin <f>.
If the plane passes through the

centre of thesphere (a =0,
=
(j> 90), it intersects the sphere
in a great circle. If the distance a
of the plane from the centre is
r (<f>= 0) the plane touches the
Fig. 288 sphere, and is then called a tan-
gent plane. If a >
r the plane
does not intersect the sphere.
A
segment is cut off by the sphere on a straight line which
passes through the centre of the sphere. The segment is called a
diameter of the sphere and its length is twice the radius.
Volume of the sphere

The volume of the sphere may be determined if we regard
volumes of the cylinder and the cone as already known. We use
a cylinder whose height and radius of base are each equal to the
radius of the sphere. Within the cylinder is placed a cone, whose
vertex is at the centre of the base-circle of the cylinder and whose
base is the upper surface of the cylinder. If this cone is bored out
of the cylinder, there remains a solid (of known volume) which
we show to have the same volume as the upper half of the sphere,
as follows. If both solids are cut through at height h the area laid
open on the half-sphere is a circular area and on the other solid
it is an annulus (circular ring). The inner radius of the annulus
is h (isosceles right-angled triangle) and the outer, r. The area of
the annulus is therefore A x n{r 2 h 2).

The area of the section of the half-sphere is A 2 =
np2 , where
p
2 = r2 h2 ; that is, A % also equals -n{r 2
h 2). Since the two
402
SPHERE
surfaces are at equal height and are equal in area,it follows by
Cavalieri's principle that the half-sphere and the bored-out

cylinder have the same volume. That is, the volume of the half-
sphere is
w 2
. r - irr 2 . r = -z irr*.
4
The volume of the whole sphere is therefore V= -z 7rr
3
.
Corollary: the volumes of a circular cylinder of height r and

radius r, of a half-sphere of radius r, and of a circular cone with
height r and radius r, are in the ratio 3:2:1.
Calculation of the surface area of the sphere

Imagine the interior of the sphere to be filled by a large
number of congruent pyramids, whose vertices lie at the centre of
the sphere and whose base-curves lie on the inner surface of the
sphere, the pyramids touching one another. Then the sum of the
volumes of these pyramids is W = r Bn, where B = area of base of

a pyramid and h =height. The larger n becomes, the nearer does
nB come to the surface of the sphere (nB -*- S), the nearer does
h come to the radius r of the sphere (h ->- r), and the nearer
does Wcome to the volume of the sphere (

W -* V = T77/- 3 )'
Suppose the process is carried out to the limit; then
4 r
I "
7
=3 X *
That is, the area S of the surface of the sphere is S = 4rrr2 .
Parts of the sphere

(1) Spherical segment. If is cut by a plane, we have on
a sphere
either of the plane segments of the sphere. The one segment has
height h = r
a (Fig. 289), the other has height h x = r + a.
If p is the radius of the bounding circle, then:
= r 2 a% = (r + a) (r a),
p
2
or, if we put r a = h, p2 = (2r h)h.
403
:
SPHERE
By adapting our method for determining the volume of the

sphere we can easily show that the volume of the segment of
h2
the sphere with height h is V n -r- (3r
h), or, in terms of the
h
radius p, V= 77-7 (3p
2
+ h 2).
(2) Spherical sector. If a spherical segment is extended by

including in the volume the cone whose vertex is the centre of
the circle and whose base is the base of the segments, we obtain
2nh
a spherical sector. The volume of the sector is V -5 r 2, where
h is the height of the segment.
Fig. 289 Fig. 290
(3) Spherical segment with two bases (Fig. 290). If a sphere is

cut by two parallel planes, distance h apart, between the planes
there is a spherical segment of height h with two bases. Let the
radii of the bounding circles be p x and p 2 The volume of the .
figure is the difference of the volumes of two spherical segments

of the type discussed above
V= 7r^(3p 2 + 3pi + h2 ).
(4) Spherical cap. A

spherical cap is that part of the surface
of a sphere bounded by a circle lying on the sphere. The curved
404
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
part of the surface of a single spherical segment is a spherical

cap. The area is
S = 2nrh.
(5) Spherical zone. The curved part of the surface of a spherical

segment with two bases (of height h) is called a spherical zone.
Its area is
S = 2<rrrh.
two planes intersect at an angle
(6) If
a in adiameter of a sphere of radius r
they divide the sphere into 4 'spherical
wedges', two of which have internal angle
a. The volume of such a wedge (Fig. 29 1) is
V= -r=r- (a measured in degrees).
Fig. 291
Spherical trigonometry
The branch of mathematics concerned with geometry on the
sphere is of special interest for problems of mathematical geo-
graphy, of navigation and of astronomy. Mathematically
speaking, the geometry of a curved surface is a non-euclidean
geometry. Practical calculations are carried out with the trigono-
metrical functions, using logarithmic and numerical tables.
Great a plane contains the centre of a sphere, it
circles. If
intersects the sphere in a great circle; if not, it intersects the
sphere in a small circle (or not at all). Great circles on a sphere
afford the shortest distance between two points, and correspond
to straight lines in plane geometry. Each point on a sphere may
be associated with a great circle (e.g. the North or South pole on
the earth may be associated with the equator). This makes possible
'polar formulae', i.e. formulae in which the 'sides' and 'angles'
of a triangle on the surface of the sphere (spherical triangle)
changes places. A great circle is the line of intersection of a plane
through the centre of the sphere; the diameter of the sphere
perpendicular to this plane cuts the sphere in two points, which
are the poles of the great circle and lie at 'opposite positions' on
the sphere.
405
Spherical triangle (Fig. 292). Consider a sphere of unit radius.

Three planes each passing through the centre of the sphere cut
the sphere in three great circles. Two great circles intersect in
Fig. 292 Fig. 293
two opposite points of the sphere; the planes determined by the

great circles form the angle between the great circles, equal to
the angle of inclination of the planes.
The figure bounded by the two great circles is referred to as a
spherical lune. However, three further spherical lunes are deter-
mined by the two namely two each of which when taken
planes,
together with the forms a hemisphere, and one which lies
first
opposite to, and is congruent to, the first.

The third great circle divides each of these four spherical lunes
into two spherical triangles, those belonging to opposite lunes
being centrally symmetric in pairs. Notation
for spherical triangles is as in the plane:
vertices A, B, C; sides a, b, c; and angles
a, /?, y. In what follows we shall only consider
triangles which lie wholly on a hemisphere.
The derivation of the formulae of spherical
trigonometry follow from consideration of the
Fig. 294 trihedral angle concerned (Figs. 293 and 294).
Sine theorem of spherical trigonometry (Fig. 295)

We drop the perpendicular from the vertex A of the triangle
onto the plane determined by the two other vertices, B and C.
406
This perpendicular, AD, is the line of intersection of the planes

through A perpendicular to OAC and OCB on the one side and
to OAB and OCB on the other side. The first of these two planes
cuts the plane OAC in the line AF. The segment AF is the opposite
side of the angle AOF in the right-angled triangle OAF with
Fig. 295
hypotenuse l^nd thus is of length sin b. Similarly, the line of

intersection AE
has length sin c. The triangles ADF and ADE
are right-angledand the angles at Fand E'm them are respectively
the angles y and /?. AD can be calculated from both of these two
triangles: AD sin /? sin c and AD = sin y sin b. Equating
these two expressions we have the sine theorem:
sin /# sin c = sin y sin b,

which can be written alternatively as:
sin/? sin y sin a

sin b sm c sin a
The last term is obtained by cyclic permutation.
Cosine theorem of spherical trigonometry (Fig. 295)

To derive the cosine theorem of spherical trigonometry we drop
the perpendicular from F onto the edge OB; the distance OG of
the foot of this perpendicular from O is cos b cos a. We have
OE = cos c, since OE is adjacent to the angle at O in the right-
angled triangle OAE (hypotenuse 1). But the segment GE must
407
have length sin b cos y sin a, since L OFD = 90 and /. OFG

= 90 a; consequently /_ GFD = a, and ED = sin b cos y as
adjacent side in the right-angled triangle AFD whose hypotenuse
AF is the length sin b, as has already been shown in the proof of
the sine theorem. OE = OG + GE gives then:
cos c = cos b cos a + sin b sin a cos y.
By cyclic permutation we obtain analogous formulae for cos a

and cos b. The polar formulae
cos y = cos /? cos a + sin ft sin a cos c
and corresponding formulae for cos a and cos (3 follow from the
correspondence of pole and great circle mentioned above.
Combining the known theorems, we can obtain further for-
mulae, of which only the cotangent theorem,
cos c cos a = cot b sin c cot sin a,
and the sine-cosine-theorem
sin a cos ft
= cos b sin c sin b cos c cos a
are specially named. From these further formulae can be obtained
by cyclic permutation (Fig. 296). For a complete collection of
these formulae, see p. 532.
Flo. 296 Fig. 297
Right-angled spherical triangles. The general formulae for

spherical triangles take a simple form if one of the angles or one
of the sides is 90. If a =
90, formulae obtain which can be
derived mechanically by Napier's rule. The cosine of any element
in Fig. 297 is equal to the product of the sines of the elements
408
STANDARD DEVIATION
separated from it, and to the product of the cotangents of the

adjacent elements, as follows
= cos b cos c
cos a
and cos a = cot cot y /? ;
cos $ = cos b sin y, etc.
where of course we use the relations sin (90 x) = cos x,

cot (90 x) = tan x.
Square
A square is a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right
angles (see Quadrilateral).
Square numbers
Square numbers are the squares of the natural numbers:
1, 4, 9, 16, (see also Polygonal numbers).
. . .
Standard deviation
Expression for the average measure of a number of errors or
deviations. We understand by the standard deviation, 2a, the
square root of the mean of the squares of deviations. If y is the
sum of the squares of deviation from the arithmetic mean, then
ff
"V~
Example: Given observations ax = 8, a2 = 9, a3 = 13, a4 = 8,
a5 = 12, a6 10, then the arithmetic mean is:

8 + 9 + 1 3 + 8+12+10 _ 60
1 6
" 1U '
whence
22 + 12 + 32 + 22 + 22 + 2
22
ff2 = J
and so a = J-~ = 1*91
(see also Error).
409
STATISTICS
Statistics
In statistics we study a set or population of objects, persons,

events, etc.,and a basic problem is to determine a population's
essential attributes (variates), and to describe its Distribution
according to one or more of these attributes. The distribution
relative to a single attribute can be specified by dividing the
population into a sequence of classes according to the size and
character of the attribute as it occurs in the individuals in the
population. Where there exists only a limited sequence of possi-
bilities {e.g. children in a marriage, pips on a die) the distribution
is said to be discontinuous; if an unlimited number of possibilities
exists, it is said to be continuous {e.g. physical measurements,

height, weight). We may
represent continuous distributions by
means of a continuous curve ; but in the case of discontinuous
distributions such a curve is, strictly speaking, not permissible
(see Frequency curve).
The notion of relative frequency helps us in describing statistical
populations. A relative frequency is the ratio of the number of
objects with a particular attribute to the total number of objects
under consideration.
Example: In a cross between two varieties of garden pea (1st
variety: yellow seeds; 2nd variety: green seeds), the second
generation yielded 8,023 plants, 6,022 with yellow seeds and 2,001
with green seeds (Mendel, 1865).
J . 6022 J
The relative frequency of plants with yellow seeds is -^p: and
6UZJ
. 2001
that of plants with green seeds is Sq^*
Step-angles
Step-angles arise at parallel lines which are intersected by a
transversal.They lie on corresponding sides of the parallel lines
and on the same side of the transversal, and are equal (see Angle).
Stereometry
Stereometry or solid geometry is the study of geometrical
objects in three-dimensional space. The term stereometry is
frequently confined to that part of solid geometry considered
with the measurement of solid figures.
410
STRAIGHT LINE SEGMENT
For some simple cases the volume can be calculated from a

knowledge of the lengths of the edges of the solid, or of the radii
and altitudes. But in general the Integral calculus (see Infinitesimal
calculus) is required for the determination of the volume of a
solid.
(For particular solids, see: Cube, Rectangular solid, Prism,
Pyramid, Cone, Conical frustrum, Sphere, Polyhedra, Platonic
solids.)
Stirling's formula
Stirling's formula provides the means for approximate evalu-
ation of n ! for large n :
n n
n\ f* n e- V27rn.
Straight line
The straight line is one of the basic elements of plane and of
solid geometry. Properties of the straight line: a straight line is
uniquely determined by two points. If three points lie on a straight
linethen we can say of one of the three points that it lies between
the other two. A
straight line is divided by any one of its points
into two parts. A straight line is unbounded in two directions.
Two straight lines which lie in one and the same plane have
either one point (point of intersection) in common, or none; in
the latter case they are said to be parallel. A
straight line divides
a plane into two parts. A
straight line which does not lie wholly
in a plane either has exactly one point in common with the plane
(point of intersection, trace) or none at all; in the latter case the
line is parallel to the plane.
Two straight lines which are not coplanar have no point in
common. Such lines are either parallel or 'skew' with respect to

each other.
Straight line segment

The totality of points which lie between two fixed points A and
J? on a straight line, together with the points A and B, form a
straight line segment. A and B are called the end-points of the
segment (Fig. 298).
Fig. 298
411
STRAIGHT LINE SEGMENTS, RATIOS OF
Straight line segments, ratios of
The ratio of two straight line segments a and b (which need not
lie on the same line) is written a:b or

If two such ratios a:b
-r-
b
and c-.darQ equal to one another we have a relation of proportion-
ality, a:b = cd.
1 First theorem on rays {first proportionality theorem).
Given two rays deriving from a single point and cut by two
parallel straight lines, the ratio of segments on the one ray is
equal to the ratio of corresponding segments on the other (Fig.
a c\
299, t =
2 ) Conversely, if two rays deriving from a single point
are cut by two straight lines in such a way that segments cut off
on one line bear the same ratio to one another as do corresponding
segments on the other line, then the lines are parallel.
2. Second theorem on rays {second proportionality theorem).
Given two rays deriving from a single point and cut by two
parallel straight lines, the ratio of segments cut off on the two
parallels is the same as the ratio of segments cut off on either of
the two rays, reckoned from the origin of the rays.
p a 4- b
(Fig.300)| =
f-
Fig. 299 Fig. 300
412
Given two parallel lines cutting three rays which proceed from
thesame point, the ratio of segments cut off on the one parallel is
equal to the corresponding ratio on the other.
(Fig .301)| = g.
BC A 1 C1
Constructions
To divide a segment AB in the ratio mm.
Fig. 301 Fig. 302
(a) Inner division. First solution (Fig. 302). Through A draw an

arbitrary line; mark off on this, m equal segments,
from A to E,
and from E to F, n equal segments. If through E is drawn the line
parallel to the join FB of F and B then
C~A:CB = m:n.
Second solution (Fig. 303). Draw parallel lines through A and
B and mark off on them from A and B respectively, in opposite
directions, m and n segments of equal length. Then the join of
E and F, the resulting end-points, divides the segment AB at the
point C in the ratio mm.
Fig. 303 Fig. 304
413
(b) Outer division. First solution (Fig. 304). Draw a ray with A
and on this mark off, first m equal segments reaching to
as origin,
F, and then, from F, n equal segments in the opposite direction
(towards A). Draw the line through F parallel to EB. This cuts
the extension of A~B in the point D. We then have
A~D.B~D = mm.
Second solution (Fig. 305). Draw parallel lines through A and B,
and on them mark off respectively m and n equal segments, on
the same side of AB. The intersection, D, of the join of the end-
points E and F thus formed with the extension of AB, is the outer
point of division. have AD'.BD = m:n.
We
Harmonic segment is divided internally and extern-
division. If a
ally in equal ratios m:we say that the segment is harmonically
divided in the ratio m:n (Fig. 306). Draw through the end-points
Fig. 306
A and B two parallel lines, and mark off from A on the line
through A m equal segments reaching to E. On the other line,
mark off from B on each side n equal segments reaching to F and
G. The line EG intersects the segment AB in the inner point of
division, C. EF intersects the extension of AB in the outer point
of division, D.
Division of a segment into n equal parts (Fig. 307)

Draw a ray, with the end-point A as origin, and on this mark
off consecutively n equal segments, of arbitrary length, with end-
points E E2
lt , . . ., En = JF. Then draw through E1} Ez E3 , , . . .,
414
SUBTRACTION
lines parallel to the join FB. The segment AB is divided by these
lines into n equal parts.
Construction of the fourth proportional (Fig. 308)

The fourth proportional of
three given segments a, b and c is
that which satisfies the proportionality relation
segment, d,
a:b = c:d. Take a double ray with origin S. Mark off on one
ray, each measured from S, the segments a and b, and on the
* 1 2 E2 3 E$ 4 E+ 5 E, 6
Fro. 307 Fig. 308
other ray, again from S, c. Join the end-point A of the segment a

to the end-point C of the segment c, and draw through B the
line parallel to AC. This line cuts the other ray in the point D.
D js the end-point of the required fourth proportional SD of
a, b and c.
Subtraction
Subtraction is the second fundamental operation of arithmetic,
the inverse of addition. The following terminology is used:
17 9 8
Minuend Subtrahend = Difference
Subtraction can be carried out within the domain of the natural
numbers only if the minuend is greater than the subtrahend. To
415
SUMMATION SIGN =2
make subtraction universally possible, negative numbers must be
introduced. In this way we arrive at the domain of Integral
numbers (see art.).
Subtraction of relative numbers

The rules for the subtraction of positive numbers are the same
as those for the subtraction of absolute numbers.
5 _ (+2) = 5-2 = 3, 3 -7= -4.
The rules for the subtraction of negative numbers are as follows
(+) - (-*) = a + b, (+5) - (-3) = 5 + 3 = 8,
(-a) - (_Z>) = (-a) + (+b) = b-a,

(-5) - (-3) = (-5) + (+3) = 3 - 5 = -2.
For the subtraction of powers and roots and for the subtraction
of complex numbers, see Addition.
Summation sign =2
The summation sign (capital sigma in the Greek alphabet) is
used for the abbreviated representation of sums containing terms
which are all of the same type; e.g. for the sum
5=1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + . ..+ 100,
we can write
100
s = 2&.
i=i
Thus the sign S here means that all numbers must be added
which can be derived from the expression k by replacing k
successively by all values lying within, and including, the sum-
mation limits 1 and 100.
Example: 5
12
=2 + 3 + 4 +
3
#
* *
n
+ JT+1 Can abbreviated
as
5
-JU+l'
416
SURFACES
n
Here 2 means that values of k between 1 and n inclusive are to
be successively substituted in the expression to be summed,

k
T7j-, and the resulting fractions added.
The summation sign can also be used to represent the sum of

so-called infinite series (see Infinite series). In such cases, the
upper summation limit will be oo.
Example: The geometric series (see art.)
5=1+ 2 + 4 + 8+---
can be written
00 1
jfc-O^
Supplementary angles
Two angles which add up to 180 (two right angles) are said
to be supplementary angles, e.g. neighbouring angles in a parallelo-
gram are supplementary. See Fig. 309.
a + fi
= 180, p +y= 180, y +d= 180, d + a = 180.
Fig. 309
Surfaces
A surface is a geometrical construct in space which can be
regarded as derivable from a plane by a reversible transformation.
If s and t are two variables which independently range over the
intervals a t < <
b, c s < <
d and u(s, t), v(s, t) and w(s, t) are
three functions of s and t which are defined (and continuous) in
the intervals given for s and /, we can make a point of space
correspond to each pair of values (s, t) by means of the equations
417
SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER
x = u(s, t), y = v(s, t), z = w(s, t). The totality of all these
points is called a (continuous) surface, and the three equations
x =u(s, t), y
v(s, t), z =
w(s, t) are called a parametric repre-
sentation of the surface. If in the above definition the intervals
are bounded, the totality of points is called a surface-segment.
Example: If ax a2 a3 blt b2 , bz clt c2 cz are any

, , , , , real numbers
and s and t are two variables the functions
ax + a2s + az y = bx + b2s + bz z = cx + c^s + cz

x t, t, t
for oo < s < + oo and oo < < + o represent a plane. t
A sphere is a closed surface. Every set of points in space which

can be obtained as the uniquely reversible and continuous image
of a sphere is a closed surface.
The sphere with centre 0(x m> y m , zj and radius r has para-
metric representation
x xm + r cos X cos <f>, y ym + r sin X cos <f>,
z == z m + r sin <f>;
where O^ X < In and ~ <. ? < 3"
Surfaces of the second order

A surface of the second order is represented by a functional
equation of the form
F(x,y, z) = anx2 + a22y2 + a^z* + 2a12xy + 2alzxz

+ 2awyz + 2aux + la^y + 2aMz + 0^=0.
The set of all surfaces of the second order can be divided into the
following groups, with a characteristic form of equation for each.
1. Ellipsoid (Fig. 310)

v2 v2 z2
d*
+&+ C2
'
Special cases:
(a) If a2 = b% = cz = R\ the equation becomes

x*+y* + z* = R\
i.e. the ellipsoid is a sphere.
418

(b) If a2 = b 2 , the equation becomes -5 +r

^+ -5 = 1. This
ellipsoid arises by rotation of the ellipse -5 + -g = 1 about the

z-axis, and is called, therefore, an ellipsoid of revolution.
T"'"y .'
*
/ '
V

/
1
/
>
Fig. 310 Fig. 311
2. Hyperboloid of two sheets (Fig. 311).
x2 y2 z2
a 6 2
= 1.
b
Special case: if b2 = c2 we have a hyperboloid of revolution in

two sheets,
r A
2 2
= 1.
a b b2
This arises from the rotation of the hyperbola ^ r^ 1 about

the x-axis.
3. Hyperboloid of one sheet (Fig. 312).
2
y*
2 + b2
= 1.
I
c2
Special case: if a2 = b2 we have a hyperboloid of revolution in
one sheet; it arises by rotation of the hyperbola

jg g = 1
about the z-axis.
419
A*
Fig. 312 Fig. 313
4. Elliptical Double Cone (Fig. 313).
a2
+ b2 C2
~u -
The vertex of the cone is the origin, and the cone intersects the
2 2
jc y
plane z = c in the ellipse - + 75= 1.
Special case: the right circular cone has the equation
5. Elliptical Paraboloid (Fig. 314).

v2 y2
a2
o2
Special case: If a = b, we have a paraboloid of revolution which

arises by rotation of the parabola j2 = 2b 2z about the z-axis.
6. Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Fig. 315).

2 2
jc v
^-12-^
a o2 = 2
(often referred to as a saddle-surface).
420
Fig. 314 Fig. 315
7. Elliptical Cylinder (Fig. 316).
+^-1=0.
cr b 2
Given an ellipse in the *y-plane, an elliptical cylinder is formed

by the straight lines perpendicular to the xj-plane and passing
through the ellipse. These lines are called generators or rulings of
the cylinder.
Special case: the right circular cylinder whose generators run
parallel to the z-axis, has the equation
x2 y2
-2+^-1=0.
a2
a 2
8. Hyperbolic Cylinder (Fig. 317).
X2 V
2
T-Js-
2 2 1 =0.
a b
The generators of thiscylinder are parallel to the z-axis and pass

x2 y2
through the hyperbola -% rg =
1 lying in the ;cy-plane.
421
SYMMETRY
Fig. 316 Fro. 317
9. Parabolic Cylinder (Fig. 318).
x* 2py = 0.
The generators of this cylinder pass through the parabola
x2 2py = lying in the xy-plane, and are parallel to the z-axis.
Fig. 318
Symmetry
The concept of symmetry includes various properties which
can belong to plane or solid geometrical figures. We distinguish
between (see individual articles)
422
SYMMETRY, W-FOLD
A. In the plane:
1. Axial symmetry
2. n-fold symmetry
3. Central symmetry (Point-symmetry)
B. In space:
1. Symmetry with respect to a plane
2. Symmetry with respect to a point (Central symmetry).
Symmetry, n-fold
n-fold symmetries are properties of special plane figures. A
figure which is n-fold symmetric coincides with itself when
* .36 ,
rotated through an angle of about a point, its centre of
symmetry, n must be an integer.
Fig. 319 Fig. 320
Example: 1. An equilateral triangle is 3-fold symmetric with

respect to its Thus if the triangle is rotated through
centroid, O.
120, 240 or 360 about O it becomes superposed on its original
position (Fig. 319).
2. A parallelogram is 2-fold symmetric about the point of inter-
section of its diagonals (Fig. 320). Rotations through 180 and
through 360 produce superposition.

3. A regular n-agon is n-fold symmetric with respect to the
centre of its circumcircle O. Rotations through the angles
360 2.360 3.360 (n - 1) . 360 , n

360
and
produce superposition.
423
:
SYMMETRY WITH RESPECT TO A PLANE

n is the largest integer with the property that the figure is
superposed on itself by rotation through . In such cases,
+
. . , . 2 . 360 3 . 360 ( - 1)360
rotations through angles > > -
and
n n n
- . 360 also produce superposition.
2-fold symmetric figures are also said to be centrally symmetric

(see Central symmetry).
Symmetry with respect to a plane

Symmetry with respect to a plane E (the plane of symmetry)
is a property which a solid geometrical figure may possess. The
plane of symmetry E divides the figure into
two halves such that the one part is
obtained from the other by reflection in E.
A
Example: square pyramid is symmetric
with respect to each of the planes which
pass through the vertex S and the
line of intersection of the mid-points of
two opposite sides of the base (Fig. 321).
Fig. 321
Tangent
A tangent is a straight line which has a point in common
(point of contact) with a given curve (of arbitrary form) and at
this point has the same slope as the curve (see Gradient, Circle).
Tangent (tan)
The tangent functionis a trigonometrical function, tan a is the
ratio of the side opposite to the angle a to the side adjacent to a

in a right-angled triangle (see Trigonometry)
opposite side
tan a = ,. . . , .
adjacent side
424
TANGENT THEOREM
Tangent hexagon
A tangent hexagon is a hexagon which circumscribes a circle
or conic, its sides being tangents to the circle or conic (see
BrianchorCs theorem).
Tangent quadrilateral
A quadrilateral which possesses an inscribed circle is called a
tangent quadrilateral. The four sides of the quadrilateral are
tangents to the incircle. A
quadrilateral is a tangent quadrilateral
if and only if the sum of two opposite sides is
equal to the sum
of the other pair of opposite sides (Fig. 322). The isosceles kite-
shaped quadrilateral, the rhombus and the square possess this
property; in general isosceles trapeziums, parallelograms and
rectangles do not.
a+c=b+d
(h =h ax + a + cx + c2 ^ + bx + b + d
2 % x
b2 = cx '
"
'
'
^2 = ^1 a + c = b +d
d2 = ax
Tangent theorem (geometry)

If a secant and a tangent of a circle intersect in a point P then
the length of the tangent PB is the mean proportional (geometric
mean) of the segments from P cut off by the circle on the secant.
PC.PB = PB.PD or (PBf = PC.PD (Fig. 323).

* '
l HD * c
rf
rf
1 ^k* > -
Fro. 322 Fro. 323
425
TANGENT THEOREM
Tangent theorem (trigonometry)
The tangent theorem is a theorem of plane trigonometry. If
a, b and c are the sides, and a, and y the angles of a triangle,
then
, , tan . , . tan j
tan tan
2 2
* y + a
=
,
tan
m. a"
c
tan -j-
y
Taylor's series
The Taylor series can be used to determine the development in
power series of given functions. The Taylor series can be obtained
from Taylor's theorem. By Taylor's theorem we can put
m =m + f -rr<.*
- ) + f
-w(* - #
+

the larger
Taylor's formula gives fix) with increasing accuracy,
the n chosen, provided the remainder term n of the Taylor R
theorem for^*) at a fixed point x =
a tends to as n -> co (or,
in symbols, Urn n R =
0). The given function /(*) can
then be
n-*
represented by the power-series
yw -m + îr /'() +"Qr (* - ) +

2

This power-series converges for all values of x if lim Rn = 0.
The Taylor series can be used to 'develop a given function^)

in powers of (x a)'.
426
TAYLOR'S THEOREM
Putting a =
in the Taylor series we obtain as a special case
the Maclaurin series
Example: To develop f(x) = ex in powers of x (that is, with

a = 0):
/(*) = **, /(0) = 1;
f(x)~er, /(0) = i;
f\x) = e*, /"(0) = 1 ; and so on,
so that
Taylor's theorem
Taylor's theorem concerns the error which appears if a function

is approximated by an integral function of the th degree.
Ax) =M + f-^(x - a) + f~^(x -) + ...
+f
^-r+m-^
where b = a + 6(x - a) (0 ^
6 <, 1) is a number between a
and x, /(x) the given function, and /'(a), f"(a), ., /
(n)
(), . .
(n+1)
/ (a) the 1st, 2nd, ...,(+ l)th derivatives of the given
function at a. The term
is the remainder term.
All
TEN, POWERS OF
Ten, powers of
Very large and very small numbers can be conveniently repre-
sented with the help of powers of ten. We have
10 1 = 10
102 = 100
3 =
10 1,000
104 = 10,000
10 5 = 100,000, and so on.
The number 36,000,000,000 can be written briefly in the form
36,000,000,000 = 36 X 10 9 = 3-6 X 1010 = 0-36 X 1011 .
In general the factor in front of the power of ten is taken to lie

between 1 and 10. Powers of ten with negative exponents can be
used to represent very small numbers. We have
10- = 0-1 =1,
10
-2 = .oi = ,
10-3 = 0-001 = -j-QQQ, and so on.
Example of a small number:

Mass of the hydrogen atom: 1-67 x 10~24 gm.
Without using powers of ten this would have to be written:

0-000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001,67 gm.
Tetrahedron
A four-sided polyhedron. A
regular tetrahedron is a regular
three-sided pyramid in which the base-edges and side-edges are of
equal length (see Pyramid and Platonic solids).
Thales, circle of (Thales of Miletus, probably 624-546 B.C.)

Theorem of Thales. If the vertex of an angle moves on a semi-
and the end-points of its arms remain at the end-points of
circle,
428
TRANSCENDENTAL CURVES
the diameter, then the angle remains unaltered as a right angle.
The semicircle or also the complete circle is referred to as the
circle of Thales. The circumference angles on the diameter of a
circle are right angles (see Triangle).
Third proportional
The solution of the proportional relation b:a a:x is referred =
to as the third proportional between the line-segments a and b.
a*
The third proportional is x = -r and can be constructed with the
help of the first theorem on rays. By Fig. 324 we have:
SB b _SC a
B~A a ~CD x
Fig. 324
Trace (trace-point, piercing point)

The point of intersection of a straight line and a plane is
referred to as the trace of the line on the plane.
Trace-line
The line of intersection of two planes is referred to as a trace-
line.
Transcendental curves
A curve is said to be transcendental if it is not an algebraic
curve, i.e. if no algebraic equation can be found which represents
the curve.
429
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS
Transcendental curves are represented by transcendental
functions.
Examples: Cycloid, Archimedes^ spiral, logarithmic spiral,

catenary, logarithmic curves, exponential curves, trigonometrical
curves.
Transcendental equations
All non-algebraic equations are called transcendental. The
simple transcendental equations either contain the unknown as
an exponent (exponential equations) or the logarithm of the un-
known (logarithmic equations) or a trigonometrical function of
the unknown(goniometric equations).
No general procedure can be given for the solution of tran-
scendental equations. Either the special properties of the tran-
scendental functions concerned must be used, or one must fall
back on numerical and graphical methods.
Transcendental functions
All functions which are not algebraic are said to be transcen-
dental. Transcendental functions are represented by transcendental
curves.
The transcendental functions used in elementary mathematics
are
1. The exponential functions. The variable x occurs in the

exponent, e.g. y = = 2
x
ax y,
e , y == e* .
2. The logarithmic functions (inverse functions of the ex-

ponential functions), e.g. y log x, y =
In x, y log (x2 1). = =
3. The circular or trigonometric functions:
y = sin x, y = cos x, = tan x, y =

y cot x, y = sec x,
y = cosec x.
4. The inverse trigonometric functions:
y = sin
-1
x, y = cos-1 x, y = tan-1 x, y = cot-1 x,
y = sec-1 x, y = cosec-1 x.
430
TRANSFORMATION
5. The hyperbolic functions:
y = sinh x, y = cosh x, y = tanh x, y = coth *,

j = sech x, y cosech x.
6. The inverse hyperbolic functions:
y sinh-1 x, y = cosh-1 x,
y = tanh-1 x, y = coth-1 x,
y = sech-1 *, y cosech-1 jt.
Transcendental numbers
All non-algebraic real numbers (see Algebraic numbers) are called
transcendental numbers, e.g. e =2-718,281,828,459,045 . . .,
7T= 3-141,592,654 .... The existence of transcendental numbers
was first proved by Joseph Liouville (1851). Georg Cantor showed
(1874) that there are more transcendental than algebraic numbers;
the set of all algebraic numbers is enumerable (like the integers),
the set of transcendental numbers is not (see Number).
Transformation
A which associates with each point
rule P
of a space one or
more points P* of the same space is said to be a transformation
or mapping. The points P' are image points of P, and P is an
inverse image point of P'.
See Affine transformation Central perspective

Area-preserving transformation Central projection
Conformal transformation Parallel translation
Continuous transformation Parallel projection
Length-preserving transformation Reflection, affine
Linear transformation Reflection in a line
Perspective transformation Reflection in a plane
Projective transformation Reflection in a point
Similarity transformation Rigid motion
Single-valued transformation Rotation
Shear
431
TRANSVERSAL
Transversal
A straight line which intersects the sides of a triangle or then-
extensions is called a transversal of the triangle. If it passes
through a vertex of the triangle it is called a vertex-transversal.
Trapezium
A quadrilateral with two sides parallel is called a trapezium.
If the two non-parallel sides of the trapezium are equal, it is
said to be isosceles (for further properties, see Quadrilateral).
Triangle
Nomenclature, numerical relations between sides and angles.
Definition and nomenclature

If three points in a plane which are not collinear are joined in
pairs by we obtain a triangle (Fig. 325).
straight-line segments,
The three given points are called vertices (corners) of the triangle.
The vertices of a triangle are usually denoted by capital letters of
the Roman alphabet: A, B, C. The order of labelling is arbitrary,
but the vertices are usually labelled alphabetically in anti-clock-
wise order (Fig. 326). The three-line-segments joining vertices are
called the sides of the triangle. The sides of the triangle are
denoted by small letters of the Roman alphabet a, b, c in such
a way that the side labelled a lies opposite the vertex A, the side
b opposite the vertex B, and the side c opposite the vertex C.
Fig. 325
432
TRIANGLE
Eachpair of neighbouring sides of a triangle form the arms of

an of the triangle. The interior angles of the triangle
interior angle
are usually denoted by the small Greek letters a, /?, y, the angle
a being at the vertex A, the angle fi at the vertex B
and the angle
y at the vertex C. If the sides of the triangle are extended beyond
the vertices there are formed at each vertex three further angles.
One of these three new angles is vertically opposite to the interior
angle at the vertex. Both of the other angles are angles adjacent
to the interior angle of the triangle, and are called exterior angles
of the triangle. Each vertex has two exterior angles, equal to and
vertically opposite each other. The exterior angles at the vertex A
can be denoted by a and o^, at the vertex
x
B
by &
and /?2 , and at
the vertex C by yx and y2 Thus the same
. used as for
letters are
the interior angles, but with suffixes, although obviously other

labellings are possible. If we proceed round the triangle in the
anti-clockwise sense then the interior of the triangle lies to our
left and the exterior to our right (Fig. 326).
Numerical relations between the sides of a triangle

Two sides of a triangle are together always longer than the
third:
a + b > c, (*>* means greater than)
b + c> a,
c + a> b.
Numerical relations between the angles of a triangle

1. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is
180
a ++y= 180 (Fig. 327).

TRIANGLE
2. (Consequences of 1.) Two angles of a triangle determine
the third:
y = 180 - (a + iff).
A triangle can possess at most one right angle (right-angled

A triangle can possess at most one obtuse angle (obtuse-
triangle).
angled triangle). A triangle always has two acute angles.
3. Every exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
two interior angles not adjacent to it (Fig. 327).
4. The sum of the exterior angles of a triangle is 360:
a + h + y2 - 360 (Fig. 328).
For a + + 2 + y + yz = 3x 180,
o^ +
that is, a + + y + a2 + & + y2 = 540,
or 180 + a + & + y = 540,2
2
so that og +&+ y% = 360.
Numerical relations between the sides of a triangle and its angles

1. The larger of two sides lies opposite the larger angle.
If a > b then a > 0.
2. Conversely, the larger of two angles lies opposite the larger
side.
If a > then a > b.
3. (Following from 1. and 2.)
(a) The largest side of a triangle lies opposite the largest angle.
(b) The largest angle of a triangle lies opposite the largest side.
(c) A triangle with three equal angles has three equal sides;
conversely a triangle with three equal sides has three equal
angles (of 60).
(d) A triangle with two equal angles also has two equal sides.
(Such a triangle is called isosceles; the unequal side is
called its base and the angles lying at the base are called
base-angles.) Conversely, a triangle with two equal sides
has two equal angles (the base-angles).
434
TRIANGLE
(e) In obtuse-angled triangles the largest side b'es opposite the

obtuse angle.
(f) In a right-angled triangle the side opposite the right angle
is called the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is the largest side.
(g) The angles adjacent to the largest side of a triangle must

be acute.
Classification of triangles
(a) Classification according to size of angles
Acute-angled triangles Triangles with three acute angles

are called acute-angled (Fig. 329).
Right-angled triangles Triangles with a right angle are

Both the other
called right-angled.
angles must be acute (Fig. 330).
Fig. 329 Fig. 330 Fig. 331
Obtuse-angled triangles Triangles with an obtuse angle are

called obtuse-angled. Both the
other angles must be acute (Fig.
331).
(b) Classification according to size of sides

Equilateral triangles Triangles with three equal sides are
called equilateral (Fig. 332).
Isosceles triangles Triangles with two equal sides are

called isosceles (Fig. 333).
Scalene triangles Triangles with three unequal sides

are called scalene (Fig. 334).
435
TRIANGLE
Fig. 332 Fig. 334
(c) Classification according to number of axes of symmetry

No axis of symmetry Triangles with no axis of sym-
metry are scalene (Fig. 335).
One axis of symmetry Triangles with one axis of sym-

metry are isosceles (Fig. 336).
More than one axis of Triangles with two axes of sym-
symmetry metry also have a third; such
triangles are equilateral (Fig. 337).
Fig. 335 Fig. 336 Fig. 337
Construction given sides and angles; congruence theorems

(a) Three sides given (abbreviation: SSS). If one side c is
given, the two vertices A and B are determined. We know C is
at distance b from A and a from B. Consequently the vertex C
lies on the circle with radius b and centre A, and also on the circle
with radius a and centre B. Since a b + >
c and b + c a >
these circles have two points of intersection, C and C and
1 2 ,
either will serve as the third vertex C of the triangle in question.

The triangles ABCX and ABCZ are the mirror-images of one
436
TRIANGLB
another in the line AB (Fig. 338). If the vertices of the triangle

are described in alphabetical order then the triangle ABCX is
described in the anti-clockwise sense and the triangle % in ABC
the clockwise sense.The two triangles are differently 'orientated'.
b -
/a ^
A c
Fig. 338 Fig. 339
b*
<
Fig. 340 Fig. 341
(b) Two and an angle given

sides
(i) Two and their included angle given (abbreviation:
sides
SAS). If the sides given are b and c, the included angle is a. The
side c determines the positions of the vertices A and B. The angle
437
TRIANGLE
a is now brought up to the side AB and given vertex A. The side

b is drawn on the free arm of a. In this way the vertex C is also
fixed (Fig. 339). In the drawing of the angle a there are two
possibilities, since it can be drawn on either side of AB (Fig. 340).
Both possibilities yield triangles. The triangles are axially sym-
metric with respect to the axis AB and are distinguished by their
orientations.
(ii) Two and opposite angle of one given (abbreviation:
sides
SSA, and c and the given angle
Fig. 341). If the given sides are b
is /?, then the positions of the vertices A and B are determined by
the side c. The angle /? can be constructed on the side c with

vertex B. The vertex C must lie on the free arm of /5; further,
the vertex C must be distant b from the point A, and must thus
lie on the circle with radius b and centre A. Under certain con-
ditions this circle and the free arm of /? have common points
which will serve for the vertex C in question.
Fig. 342 Fig. 343
(a)The radius b is smaller than the perpendicular from A on

the free arm of /?. In this case there is no point of intersection of
the circle with the arm of /?, and so there is no triangle with the
given properties.
(/?) The radius b is exactly the same size as the perpendicular
from A on the free arm of B. In this case, E
(see Fig. 342) is the
third vertex of the triangle. The triangle has a right angle at E.
(y) The radius b is longer than the perpendicular from A on
to the free arm of jS, but smaller than c. The circle cuts the free
arm of /S in two points Cx and C2, and so in this case there are
438
t
TRIANGLE
two different triangles ABCX and ABC2 distinguished by the size

of a (Fig. 343).
((5) The radius b is longer than c. In this case again, the circle
has two intersections with the straight line which has the direction
of the free arm of/?. These two points of intersection are separated
by B. Only one point of intersection C2 =
C comes into question,
since the triangle must have the angle /?. In this case there is
exactly one triangle of the required type (Fig. 342).
(e) b =
c. The point of intersection differing from B gives a
unique point C.
(c) One side and two angles given

(i) One side and the two angles adjacent to it given (abbrevia-
tion: ASA). If the side c with vertices A and B is given, then an
Fig. 344
angle which lies on this side yields a geometrical locus on which

the third vertex must he. The other adjacent angle yields a further
locus for the vertex C. Thus the intersection of the two free arms
of the angles is the third vertex. Provided the sum of the two
given angles is less than 180, there is always a point of inter-
section C (Fig. 344).
(ii) One one adjacent angle and the opposite angle given
side,
(abbreviation: Fig. 345). The third angle of the triangle can
SAA,
be calculated from the fact that the sum of the interior angles of
the triangle must be 180 (Fig. 346). The sum of the two given
439
TRIANGLE
angles must be less than 180. When this is the case the triangle
can be constructed as in (a) above (Fig. 347).
But the construction can also follow Fig. 345. The side c with
end-points A and B is fixed, and the angle a is drawn adjacent
to c and with vertex A. An arbitrary point C is chosen on the
x
free arm of a, and the angle y is constructed with vertex C
x
Fig. 345 Fig. 346
adjacent to the line ACX Now

. the free arm of the angle y does
not pass through B, and so a line parallel to the free arm of y is
constructed so as to pass through B. This line cuts ACX in the

third vertex of the triangle, C.
Fig. 347 Fig. 348
(d) Three angles given (abbreviation: AAA). If two angles of

the triangle are given, say a and /S, the third is determined by
equation y = 180
(a +
/?) What we know of the three
440
TRIANGLE
angles is therefore equivalent to a knowledge of only two inde-
pendent elements. If a and P are given, let <x be first laid out. An
arbitrary point B can now be taken on one arm of a, and the
angle P be constructed adjacent to this arm and with B as vertex.
In this way arbitrarily many triangles can be constructed (Fig.
348). All such triangles possess the three given angles. As we see,
the three angles are not sufficient to determine completely the
construction of a triangle; for this at least one side must be
given.
Summary: Three independent elements must be given for the
construction of a triangle from sides and angles. The four
principal cases which lead to unique solutions are set out below
Given Conditions
1. SSS 3 sides, a, b, c a + b> c, b + c> a
2. SAS 2 sides and the in- a < 180

cluded angle, e.g.
b, c, a.
3. SSA 2 sides and an oppo- P < 180

site angle, e.g. b > c 1 triangle
b, c, 0. b c 1 triangle
(b < c, b > I, 2 triangles (/
the perpendicular from A
Ion the arm of p)
b < c, b = I 1 triangle
b < b<c, I no triangle
4(a) ASA 1 side and 2 angles a + P < 180

(adjacent angles),
e.g. c, a, p.
(b) SAA 1 side, 1 adjacent a + y < 180

and 1 opposite angle,
e.g. c, a, y.
441
TRIANGLE
Congruence of triangles
A triangle ABC is said to be congruent to a triangle A X B1 C1
if corresponding sides and angles can be made to coincide; if
this is so we have
AB = A XBX AC = A X CX BC = Bx CXt
, ,
a = L CAB = x = Z. CXA X BX u. ,
0= ABC = px = A XBX CX ,
y = L BCA = yx = L BX CXA X .
Symbolically: A
ABC** AA
X BX CX ; read: 'triangle ABC con-
gruent to triangle A X BX CX ?
(Congruent triangles coincide in shape and size.)
We have the following congruence theorems for triangles:
First congruence theorem for triangles

The triangle ABC is congruent to the triangle A XBX CX if two
corresponding sides and their included angle coincide:
A ABC Q A A BX C X X if AB = A X BX AC- A X CX
, , and a = ax .
Second congruence theorem for triangles
The triangle ABC is congruent to the triangle A XBX CX if one

side and its two adjacent angles coincide:
A ABC ^ A A B C X X X if AB = A XBX , a = ax and = V

The same is true if one side, one adjacent and one opposite angle
coincide:
A ABC** AA B C X X X if AB = A XBX , a = ax and y = yx .
Third congruence theorem for triangles

If for two triangles j42?C and A XBX CX all three pairs of corre-
sponding sides coincide, then the triangles are congruent.
A ABC** A A B C if AB = A B AC = A C
X X X X X, X X and C = BX CX .
442
TRIANGLE
Fourth congruence theorem for triangles
If for two triangles ABC and A XBX CX
two corresponding sides
and the angle which opposite the larger of the two sides
lies
coincide, then the triangles are congruent.
hABC e* A A B CX X X if AB == A XBX AC = A X CX
, and (if AC >
=p
AB)P x.
Transversals of a triangle
A straight line which cuts the sides of a triangle or their exten-
sions is called a transversal. If the transversal passes through a
vertex it is called a vertex-transversal.
Theorem of Menelaos (1st century A.D., Alexandria). Every
Fig. 350
transversal cuts the sides of a triangle in such a way that the

product of the three resulting division-ratios (see above) taken

in the same sense is 1 (Figs. 349 and 350):
AZ BX CY_
BZ CX AY
The proof is by means of ray-theorems.
Theorem of Ceva (1647-1736). Three concurrent vertex-
transversals of a triangle cut the sides of the triangle in such a way
443
TRIANGLE
that the product of three non-adjacent directed segments of sides

equals the product of the three other segments (Figs. 351, 352):
AY BZ CX = AZ BX. CY.
. . .
The proof is by means of the sine-theorem.
Theorem on the joins of the mid-points of sides of a triangle

If a line is drawn through the mid-point of one side of a triangle,
parallel to a second, then it passes through the mid-point of the
Fig. 354
third side, and is half the length of the second side. If the mid-
points of two sides of a triangle are joined by a straight line, then
this line is parallel to the third side of the triangle and is half its
length (Fig. 353). (Proof is by means of congruent triangles.)
Euler's line
In any triangle the orthocentre H
(the point of intersection of
S (the point of intersection of lines joining
altitudes), the centroid
444
TRIANGLE
vertices to mid-points of opposite sides), and the circumcentre O
lie on a straight line, Euler's line, and we have HS.SO = 2:1
(Fig. 354).
Mid-perpendiculars of a triangle
A
mid-perpendicular of a triangle is a straight line which is
perpendicular to one side of the triangle and passes through the
mid-point of that side. A
triangle has three mid-perpendiculars
ma m , h and m c, (Fig. 355). The mid-perpen-
one for each side
diculars of a triangle are concurrent in the centre of the circum-
scribed circle of the triangle (see below).
Bisectors of the sides of a triangle

The bisector of a side of a triangle is the line joining the mid-
point of a side to the opposite vertex. A
triangle possesses three
side-bisectors, sa , sb , se (Fig. 356).
Fig. 355 Fig. 356
The three side-bisectors of a triangle are concurrent in a point

S, the centroid of the triangle; the side-bisectors are therefore
also called centroid-lines. The centroid divides the side-bisectors
in the ratio 2:1.
Altitudes of a triangle
An altitude of a triangle is perpendicular to a side of the triangle
and passes through the vertex of the triangle opposite to that
445
TRIANGLE
side. An altitude need not necessarily lie inside the triangle.

Every triangle has three altitudes, which are concurrent (see Figs.
357-9). In an acute-angled triangle the altitudes and their
point of intersection lie inside the triangle (Fig. 357). In obtuse-
Fio. 357
OH
*>/>/ x^hfc
he
A
/ r c fl
Fig. 358 Fig. 359
angled triangles, two altitudes lie outside the triangle, and accord-
ingly the point of intersection of altitudes also lies outside (Fig.
358). In right-angled triangles the altitudes belonging to the
shorter sides coincide with those sides, and only the altitude h c ,
belonging to the hypotenuse, lies within the triangle. In a right-
angled triangle the point of intersection of altitudes is the vertex
C of the right angle (Fig. 359).
446
:
TRIANGLB
Angle-bisectors of a triangle
The angle-bisectors of a triangle are the lines joining vertices
to the opposite sides and bisecting the angles at the vertices. A
triangle possesses three angle-bisectors, wx , w , w , one for each
p y
angle. The angle-bisectors of a triangle are concurrent in a point
O which is the centre of the inscribed circle (see below) of the
Fig. 360
triangle (Fig. 360).An angle-bisector divides the opposite side in

the ratio of the sides adjacent to the angle bisected (Fig. 361):
DA
DB
The bisector of an exterior angle of a triangle divides the opposite
side externally in the ratio of adjacent sides (see Circle of Apol-
lonius) Fig. 361
EA_b
EB a
The bisectors of an angle of a triangle and its exterior angle

divide the opposite side harmonically (see Harmonic ratio).
Isosceles triangles, equilateral triangles, right-angled triangles

The isosceles triangle. A triangle with two sides of equal length
is called isosceles. The unequal side is called the base of the
447
TRIANGLE
triangle. The vertex opposite it is called the apex of the triangle.

The angles adjacent to the base are called base-angles. The
perpendicular from the apex onto the base is called the axis of
the triangle (Fig. 362). The base-angles are equal.
Fig. 362
The external angle at the apex of an isosceles triangle is double

the base-angle.
The point at which the perpendicular from the apex of an
isosceles triangle cuts the base is the mid-point of the base. The
perpendicular itself is the axis of symmetry of the triangle, it
y-90
a+j3-90
Fia. 364
bisects the angle at the apex, is the altitude associated with the
base, the mid-perpendicular of the base, and its side-bisector.
The perpendicular from the apex of an isosceles triangle onto the
base divides the triangle into two congruent right-angled triangles.
The equilateral triangle. A
triangle with three equal sides is
called equilateral (Fig. 363). The interior angles of an equilateral
triangle are all 60, the exterior angles all 120. The foot of the
perpendicular from one vertex of an equilateral triangle onto the
448
TRIANGLE
opposite side is the mid-point of that side. The perpendicular is
an axis of symmetry of the triangle and divides the triangle into

two right-angled triangles. The perpendicular from one vertex
onto the opposite side bisects the angle at the vertex and is side-
bisector, altitude and mid-perpendicular of the opposite side.
An equilateral triangle possesses three axes of symmetry, viz. the

angle-bisectors of the three interior angles of the triangle. An
equilateral triangle is centrally-symmetrical with respect to the
point of intersection S of the three axes of symmetry (= angle-
bisectors) with angle of rotation 120 (i.e. a rotation of the triangle
about S through an angle of 120 brings it into coincidence with
itself).
The right-angled triangle. A triangle with one right angle is
called a right-angled triangle (Fig. 364). The side of the triangle
which lies opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. The
y-90
a.p = 4S
AM,-M.BM,C
Fig. 366
hypotenuse is always the largest side of a right-angled triangle.

Since one angle of a right-angled triangle is 90 the remaining
angles must add up to 90^ i.e. are complementary angles (Fig.
364). The perpendicular CF from the vertex C of the right angle
449
TRIANGLE
divides the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle into two parts

p and q which are called the projections of the two shorter sides
on the hypotenuse (Fig. 365).
The right-angled isosceles triangle. A
triangle with one right
angle and two equal sides is called right-angled isosceles. The
angle at the vertex must be the right angle (Fig. 366). The foot,
M e of the perpendicular from the apex onto the hypotenuse of
,
the triangle bisects the hypotenuse. The perpendicular is half the

length of the hypotenuse; it divides the triangle into two further
right-angled isosceles triangles (Fig. 366).
Triangle and circle

1. The circumcircle. A circle which passes through the three
vertices of a triangle is called the circumscribed circle or circum-
circle of the triangle. The mid-point of the circumcircle is the
point of intersection of the three mid-perpendiculars of the triangle.
The lines joining each vertex to the centre are radii of the circum-
circle. The radius of the circumcircle is usually represented by r
and its centre by O. All triangles possess a circumcircle (Fig. 367).
O
Fig. 367 Fig. 368
The circumcircle of a right-angled triangle has

Circle ofThales.
as centre the mid-point of the hypotenuse, and as radius half
its
the length of the hypotenuse. It is called the circle of Thales

(Thales of Miletus, c. 600 B.C.). The circle of Thales (half-circle
of Thales) is the locus of points which are the vertices of right-
angled triangles with the same hypotenuse c (Fig. 368).
450
TRIANGLE
All points C, Cx C2, , etc., on the circle, taken together with the
base, form right-angled triangles with a right angle at C, Cx C2, ,
etc.
Proof: Since D is AD DB =
the centre of the circumcircle,
DCX since ADCX BDCX are isosceles triangles, a = y and
\ , , x
y2 since d is an external angle of triangle BDC, d = y +

/?; x x 2 /?,
and similarly 2 = a + y That

<5 d = 2y2 and d2 = 2)^.
2. is, x
Therefore, fy + ^j) = /i + y2 But
t + 2 equals two right
. <5
X <5
angles, and so y x + y2 equals one right angle, as required (Fig.

369).
Fig. 369 Fio. 370
Fig. 371
451
:
TRIANGLE
2. The incircle. A
circle is said to be inscribed in a triangle, or
to be in the incircle of a triangle, if it touches all three sides of
the triangle. The centre O' of the incircle' is the intersection of
the three angle-bisectors of the triangle. Each perpendicular from
Fig. 372
the centre O' onto a side of the triangle yields a radius of the
incircle, which is generally denoted by p (Fig. 370).
3. The escribed circles (Fig. 371). A circle which touches one
side of a triangle and the extensions of the two other sides is
called an ecircle or escribed circle of the triangle. Every triangle
has three escribed circles. Their designation is as follows:
Centre Radius
Circle touches on the
a oa Pa
outside of the side:
b ob Pb
oc Pc
of Apollonius (Apollonius of Perga, c. 200 B.C.). The

Circle
circle of Apollonius
is a circle which serves to construct a triangle
if one side and the ratio of the other two sides is given (see
Harmonic ratio). Fig. 372.
Nine-point circle (Feuerbach's circle (Fig. 373)). The nine-point
circle is a circle on whose perimeter lie the following nine points
1. The three feet of the altitudes of the triangle H H H

a, b, e;
2. The three mid-points of the sides of the triangle M M M
a, b, e;
3. The three mid-points of the line-segments be-
tween the vertices of the triangle and the inter-
section of the altitudes (orthocentre) A t Bx Cx
, , .
The radius is equal to half the radius of the circumscribed circle.
The centre is the mid-point of the line OH (O = centre of the
452
TRIANGLE
circumscribed circle; H= orthocentre of the triangle; S =

cen-
troid) and forms with H, S and O four harmonic points. The
nine-point circle touches the incircle and the three escribed circles.
Fio. 373 Fig. 374
Construction of a triangle from given information

For the construction of a triangle from given information
about sides and angles, see above (Fig. 374).
Individual problems
1. Altitudes given. An altitude divides a triangle into two right-
angled triangles, and these triangles can be used to construct the

required triangle.
2. Bisectors of sides given. The given bisectors form with the
Fio. 376
453
TRIANGLE
halves of the associated sides sub-triangles which can serve for

the construction of the complete triangle (Fig. 375). The sub-
triangle which has as one vertex the centroid of the triangle can
also be used (Fig. 376). A parallelogram can often be used as an

auxiliary figure (Fig. 377).
3. Angle-bisectors are given. The sub-triangles created by the
Fig. 379 Fig. 380
angle-bisectors can be used (Fig. 378), and so in many cases can

the circle of Apollonius (see Triangle and Circle).
4. Sum or difference of two sides given. An auxiliary triangle
can be used with one side equal to the given sum or difference
(Figs. 379 and 380). In the one case an isosceles triangle is to be
454
TRIANGLE
cut off from this triangle; in the other case an isosceles triangle
is to be added.
5. Sum of two angles given. Note here that an exterior angle
of a triangle is always equal to the sum of the non-adjacent
interior angles (Fig. 381).
6. Side and opposite angle given. In these cases the opposite
Fig. 381 Fig. 382
angle can be treated as circumference angle in a circle which has

the side as chord. The sub-triangle AOB
can be constructed by
using the centre-angle (= double the circumference angle) and
the given side (Fig. 382).
7. Ratio of sides and an angle given. Construction of a triangle
by similarity-method. The shape of
a triangle is determined by two
ratios of pairs of sides, by two
angles, or by one ratio of sides and
an angle. If one of the above con-
ditions is given for the construction
of a triangle a triangle can first be
constructed which is similar to the
required triangle. For the construc-
Fig. 383
tion of the triangle itself another
linear measurement is then needed (Fig. 383).
Similarity of triangles
Two triangles A X BX CX and A 2B2 C2 with sides a-J)^ and a2 b 2 c2
are called similar if their angles and ratios of corresponding sides
455
TRIANGLE
coincide.That is, the statement 'two triangles are similar' implies

the following six relations:
ax :bx =a 2 :b 2 , b x :c x = b2 .c2 and cx .ax = c2 .a2 .
Symbolically: A X BX CX ~A B C 2 2 2 . Read: triangle A X BX CX similar

to triangle A 2 B2 C2 .
The congruence of triangles is a special case of similarity, in

which the ratio of corresponding sides is 1:1, i.e. the triangles
are equally large. In the case of similarity they need only be of
the same shape, having equal angles.
Theorems concerning the simi-
larity of triangles. If a line is drawn
parallel to one side of a triangle
within that triangle, the smaller tri-
angle thus cut off is similar to the
complete triangle.
Proof: Fig. 384. Since D~E is
parallel to AB the angles at A and

D are step angles and so are equal,
Fig. 384 as are the angles atB and E. The
triangles ABC and DEC therefore
have equal angles. Again, since DE is parallel to AB, by the
firstand second ray theorems (see below) applied to the double
ray with vertex C:
CA:CD=* CB.CE,
so that CA:CB=CD:CE;
similarly CA:CD = AB:DE,
and also CB:CE=AB:DE,
so that CA:AB=CD:DE i
and CD:AB=CE:DK
The triangles ABC and DEC therefore coincide in respect of
angles and ratios of sides and so are similar.
First Similarity Theorem. Two triangles A X BX C X
and A 2 B2 C2 are
similar if they coincide in respect of two angles. That is,
A A B C ~ A A B2 C
X X X 2 2 , if cc
x
= aa and X = p2 .
456
TRIANGLE
Proof: Fig. 385. Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180
the angles y x and y 2 must also coincide.
Mark off now the segments C2 D and C2 E on C2 A 2 and C2 B2

such that CjD = CXA X and C^ = CX BX The triangles A X BX CX .
and Z) C2 are congruent, and to establish the similarity of the

,
triangles A X BX CX and A 2 B2 C2 we need only verify that the triangles

A 2B2 C2 and DEC2 are similar. This follows immediately from the
last result, since DE is parallel to A 2 B2 .
Second Similarity Theorem. Two triangles A XBX CX and A 2B2 C2

are similar if they coincide in respect of the ratio of two sides and
the angle included by these sides. That is,
AABC ~AABC
X X X 2 2 2 'if A X CX '.A X BX = A 2 C2 :A 2 B2 and 04 = o^.
Proof: Fig. 386. Given: 04 = 1X2, A 1 CX '.A 1 B1 = A 2 C2 :A 2 B2 .
Fig. 386
457
TRIANGLE
Mark off on the side A X E A 2 B2 and on the

A X BX the segment
side A X CX the segment A X D = A 2 C2 The triangle A X ED is con-
.
gruent to the triangle A 2 B2 C2 (2 sides and included angle coinci-

dence), and we need only verify the similarity of the triangles
A X BX CX and A XED. We are given
A X G X 'A X BX A 2 L< 2 'A 2 B2

so that A X CX .A Z C2 = A XBX :A 2B2 ,
and so by construction
A X CX 'A X D = A X BX :A X E.
Therefore, by the converse of the first theorem on rays, DE is
parallel to CX BX , and so, as in the first similarity theorem, triangle

A XED is similar to triangle A XBX CX .
Third Similarity Theorem. Two triangles A XBX CX and A 2 B2 C2 are

similar if they coincide in respect of the ratios of their three sides.
That is,
AA X BX CX ~ AA BC 2 2 2
if A X BX :A X CX = A 2 B2 :A 2 C2 ,
BX C- X 'A X (^ X i> 2 Ls 2 'A 2 Ls 2
and A XBX :BX CX = A 2 B2 :B2 C2 .
Fourth Similarity Theorem. Two triangles A XBX CX and A 2B2 C2 are

similar if they coincide in respect of the ratio of two sides, and
the angle opposite to the larger of these sides. If
A X BX >AC X X, yx y2 and A XBX :A X CX = A 2B2 :A 2 C2

then
AABC X X X
~AABC 2 2 2.
Similarity of triangles withequal sides. All triangles with equal

sides are similar, since they coincide in respect of their three
angles.
Similarity of isosceles triangles. Isosceles triangles are similar
ifthey coincide in respect of (a) the angle at the apex; or (b) the
base-angles; or (c) the ratio of lateral side to base.
Similarity of right-angled triangles. Right-angled triangles are
458
:
TRIANGLE
similar, if they coincide in respect of (a) one angle adjacent to

the hypotenuse; or (b) the ratio of any two sides. All right-angled
isosceles triangles are similar, since they coincide in respect of
three angles.
Similarity within right-angled triangles. The altitude of a right-
angled triangle divides the triangle into two sub-triangles which
are similar to one another and to the original triangle (Fig. 387).
Because of the similarity of these triangles we have the following
proportionalities
(i) In a right-angled triangle the altitude is the geometric mean
of the intercepts it makes on the hypotenuse (i.e. of the projec-

tions of the smaller sides on the hypotenuse): q:h h:p, =
h = Vpq (Fig. 387). This relation is a consequence of the simi-
larity of the triangles AFC and CFB.
Fig. 387
(ii) In a right-angled triangle each of the smaller sides is the
geometric mean of the hypotenuse and the projection of the side

onto the hypotenuse, a = Vpc, b = Vqc. These relations result
from the similarity of the triangles ABC and ACF (or CBF) (Fig.
387).
Transversals in similar triangles. In similar triangles the ratios
of any two corresponding lengths (such as altitudes, side-bisectors,
angle-bisectors, radii of in- and excircles, mid-perpendiculars) are
equal to the ratio of two corresponding sides.
Perimeter- and area-ratios in similar triangles. In the same way
the perimeters of similar triangles are to each other as corre-
sponding sides: Z.i Z.2 : =
a x :a2 =
b x \b % =
cx '.cv
The areas of similar triangles are to each other as the squares
of corresponding sides: Ai A2 : =
<&}<&
b\:b\
c\'.c\.
459
: :
TRIANGLE
Ratios ofsegments in the triangle. Each side-bisector of a triangle

is divided by the centroid in the ratio 1 2 {i.e. the segment
adjacent to the vertex is twice as large as the segment on the
opposite side). (See above, side-bisectors of a triangle.) The three
altitudes of a triangle intersect in a single point, the orthocentre;
they are to each other inversely as the sides on which they fall
(see above, altitudes of a triangle)
h-.h,, = b:a: hb :hc = c.b.
The segment of an altitude adjacent to the vertex is double the

length of the perpendicular from the centre of the circumcircle
onto the corresponding side (Fig. 388).
The bisector of an angle of a triangle and the bisector of the
associated external angle divide the opposite side of the triangle
externally and internally in the ratio of the adjacent sides (see
Harmonic division).
Fig. 389 Fig. 390
Area of a triangle, theorem of Pythagoras, etc.
The area of a triangle is calculated from the base g and the

altitude h of the triangle as A = \gh. Here the base can be taken
as any of the three sides of the triangle; the altitude is the altitude
projecting onto the chosen base. Thus we have
A = \ch = \*>K = \aha (Fig. 389).
From these formulae we at once get the theorem triangles with :
equal base and equal altitude are equal in area (Fig. 390). See
Area, calculation of.
Heron's Formula (Alexandria, 1st century a.d.). If
s = Ka + + c)
460
:
TRIANGLE
then the area of the triangle is
A = V* . (s a) . (s b) . (s c).
Further formulae for calculating the area of a triangle:
1. Given the radius /> of the inscribed circle and the sides:
A =p s.
2. Given the radius r of the circumscribed circle and the sides:
abc
A --47.
3. Given two sides and their included angle
ab . sin y
= be . sin a _ ca . sin ft
A== 2 2 " 2 *
4. Given the three angles and the radius of the circumscribed

circle
A = 2r 2
sin a sin j8 sin y.
Euclid's Theorem (Alexandria, 300 B.C.). In every right-angled

triangle the square on one of the lesser sides is equal to the
rectangle formed from the hypotenuse and the projection of the
same side on the hypotenuse: b2 = cq, or a = cp.
2
Proof (Fig. 391): Triangle ABH is congruent (and so equal in

area) to triangle A CD since:
1. AH = AC
2.AB = AD
3. L HAB = 90 + a = L CAD.
The triangle AHC has the same base, AH, and the same altitude,
AC, as the triangle AHB. These triangles are therefore equal in
area. The triangles ACD and AFD have the same base AD and
the same altitude AF. These triangles too are therefore equal in
area. We therefore have
A HAC = A HAB = A CAD = A FAD.
Now the area of the square HACG
is twice that of the triangle
HAC, and the area of the rectangle is twice that of the AFED
461
eg ep.c 1
Fig. 392
But these two triangles are equal in area, and so

triangle îTZ).
the square and the rectangle are also equal in area.
The theorem of Pythagoras (Pythagoras of Samos, 6th century
B.C.).In every right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse
equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides; a2 b2 +
c2 = .
1st proof: by Euclid's theorem a

2 =
cp, b
2
=
cq (see Fig. 392),
and so a 2 + b 2 = cp + cq = c(p + q) = c 2 as required.
,
2nd proof: In the left-hand half of Fig. 393 the large square
has area (a + b) 2 that is a2 + b2 + lab. The four triangles on
,
Fig. 393
462
:
TRIANGLE
the perimeter have together the area lab, and so the inner square
(of area c 2) has area a2 +
b2 That is, a2 b2 . c2 + = .
Altitude Theorem {Euclid). In a right-angled triangle the square

on the altitude is equal to the rectangle formed by the segments
of the hypotenuse cut off by the altitude: h 2 = pq (Fig. 394).
Proof: By Pythagoras's theorem,
b2 = h2 + q2 ;
by Euclid's theorem,
b2 = = (p + q)q = pq + q2
cq .
Therefore, h2 + q = pq + q2 2
,
that is, h2 = pq,

as required.
Fig. 394 Fig. 395
Applications of the theorem of Pythagoras. By means of the

theorem of Pythagoras, a square can be constructed whose area
is the sum of the areas of two other squares. In particular a
square can be constructed whose area is double that of a given

square. The theorem can be also used to construct line-segments
whose lengths are Vl, V$, etc. (Fig. 395).
Calculations
(a) Diagonal of square with side a:
a2 + = d2 by Pythagoras's
a2 , theorem,
that is, 2a2 = d2 ,
or aV2 = d (Fig. 396).

463
TRIANGLE
(b) Altitude and area of equilateral triangle with side a (Fig.

397) : By Pythagoras's theorem,
"--fir-i-.
that is h = 7 ^'
Therefore & = -h = ^ ^3 = j V3.
Fro. 396 Fig. 397
Generalised theorem of Pythagoras. The square on a side of

(any) triangleis equal to the sum of the squares on the other two
sides plus or minus twice the rectangle formed by one of these

sides and the projection of the other on it; the plus or minus
sign is taken according as the first side lies opposite an acute or
an obtuse angle.
Proof:
(i) for acute-angled triangles (Fig. 398).
By the theorem of Pythagoras applied to the triangles AFB and
BFC:
c% = h2 + p2 and a2 h2 + q2 ,
therefore
c2 = a2 - q + p2 = a2 + p2 + q2 + 2pq - 2f
2
2/*7,
that is,
c* =
+ q)2 -2q(q + p).
a2 + (p
But q + p = b, so that c 2 = a2 + b2 2bq, as required.

464
TRIANGLE
(ii) for obtuse-angled triangles (Fig. 399).
In the triangle AFB we have by the theorem of Pythagoras
c2 = h* + qf = h* + b2 + q2 + 2bq.
+ (b
But in the triangle BFC we have a% = h% + q% so that,
ca = #2 + a% + 2bq.
Fig. 398 Fio. 399
Projection theorem, theorem of Pappus, extension of theorem of

Pythagoras
Projection theorem for triangles. The rectangle formed by one
side of a triangle and the projection on it of a second side is
equal to the rectangle formed by the second side and the pro-
jection of the first on the second.
Proof: (Fig. 400). The rectangle ADEF has the same base AD
and the same height AF as the parallelogram ADMB. These two
figures therefore have equal areas. The parallelograms ADMB
and ACNG are congruent (since they coincide in respect of two
neighbouring sides and their included angle) and s o have equal
areas.The parallelogram ACNG has the same base, AC, and the
same height, AK, as the rectangle AKHG. The rectangle thus has
the same area as the parallelogram ACNG. We therefore have
465
TRIANGLE
area ADEF = ADMB = area ACNG - area AKHG, that

area
is, the rectangle ADEF is equal in area to the rectangle AKHG.
Theorem of Pappus (Pappus of Alexandria, c 300 a.d.). Con-
on two sides of a triangle ABC arbitrary parallelograms,
struct
ACDE on the one and BCFG on the other; continue the sides
DE and FG until they intersect in the point H; draw the lines
through A and B parallel to HC, and join the points K to L in
which DE and FG are cut by these parallels, so forming a third
parallelogram ABLK. The area of this parallelogram is equal to
the sum of the areas of two original parallelograms.
Fig. 400
Proof: We have AK = CH = BL; and these three segments

are parallel (Fig. 401). Therefore ABLK is a parallelogram. The
area of the parallelogram ACDE is equal to the area of the
parallelogram ACHK
(base AC
in common and height equal).
Similarly, the area of the parallelogram BCFG is equal to the
area of the parallelogram BCHL; the area of the parallelogram
ACHK is equal to the area of the parallelogram AJMK; and the
area of the parallelogram BCHL is equal to the area of the
parallelogram BLMJ. That is, area ACDE
area AJMK, and
area BCFG =
area BLMJ, and so the parallelograms ACDE
and
BCFG are together equal in area to the parallelogram ABLK.
Extension of the theorem of Pythagoras. If similar figures are
constructed on the three sides of a right-angled triangle the area
466
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
of the figure on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of

the figures on the other two sides (Figs. 402 and 403). The proof
of this extension follows from the original theorem together with
the similarity theorems, according to which the areas of similar
figures vary as the squares of corresponding sides.
In particular we can take as similar figures the semicircles on
the sides of the right-angled triangle. In this case the two smaller
semicircles together are equal to the semicircle on the hypotenuse.
It follows from this theorem that the two shaded crescents
(crescents of Hippocrates) together have the same area as the
triangle itself.
Fig. 402 Fio. 403
Trigonometric equations
Trigonometrical (conditional) equations contain the unknown
as the argument of one or more trigonometrical functions. E.g.
1 3
cos x = x, sm^ x +
.
, .
sin x = j-
A trigonometrical equation may have infinitely many solutions:
1 7T
cos x = ;r has solutions x = = + 2kir
and X = T + 2&7T,7T
where k = 0, 1, 2,
467
There are also trigonometrical equations which have no real

solutions, e.g. sin x = 2.
In general only numerical or graphical methods can be used
for the solution of such equations.
Examples:
1. sin (x + 30) = 0-81. From the tables of the sine function,
we obtain:
*! + 30 = 54 6' + k 360
. (k = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
Further, since sin a = sin (180 a), we have

+ 30 = 125 54' + k 360.
x% .
2. sin
2
x + sin x = 0-75. Putting sin x = z, we obtain
z2 + z - 0-75 = 0;
this quadratic equation has solution
z12 = -0-5 VO-25 + 0-75.

For = 0-5 Zj For z = 1-5 2
we have sin x = 0-5, we have sin * = 1-5,

that is Xj = 30 + k 360 which has no solutions,
.
and x, = 150 + k 360. .
3. x = sin x. We solve this equation graphically by

;r
determining the point of intersection of the curve y = sin x and

2
the straight line y = x t. We read off xx 2-6 (Fig. 404).
i*
ji 2n
180\ .
, , x (360l
Fig. 404
468
, ,
4. If different trigonometrical functions are contained in the

equation, then with the help of the fundamental trigonometrical
identities we attempt to modify the equation so that only one
angular function occurs in it. It may still happen that the same
angular function with different arguments occurs; we then use
the addition theorems to make all arguments equal.
Example 1:
tan 2x = 3 tan x. Since tan 2x = 2_tan*

g
^
, we have
1
2 tan x
_ = 3 tan x. The equation is certainly satisfied when
tan x = 0, i.e. forx = + k. 180; k = 0, 1, 2, . .
If tan x 76 0, we may divide the equation through by tan x to

obtain:
2 = (-3)(1 - tan 2
x),
which gives after reordering:
tan 2 x
5
y i.e. tan x = r Vr-
15 =
1
1*291.
From the tables we have

*! = 52 14' +k . 180, k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
and x2 = 127 46' +k . 180.
Example 2:
sin 2x + sin x = 0. We use the identity sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
to transform the equation to 2 sin cos jc x + sin x = 0. The left
hand side can be written as a product:
sin x (2 cos x + 1) = 0.
The equation is satisfied if either the first or the second factor is
zero.
I. sin x = gives the solutions xt = kit.
II. 2 cos x +1= or cos x--t gives the solutions
x2 = 2 1 + 2for, fc = 0, 1, 2, . . .
and xz = 4 + 2A:7r.
^r
469
TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES
Trigonometrical series
The developments of the trigonometrical functions in power-
series are known as trigonometrical series. E.g.
r 2fe+l
x3
sinx = x- ^ + 1-,-- + . . + (-l) fc
(2 +1)!
+ - -
,2k
x4
cosx=1 ~2! + 4!-6! + - * + (_1) *(2)i +
Both series converge for all values of x. The argument x is
here in angular measure.
Trigonometrical tables
Trigonometrical tables contain the function values of the
trigonometrical functions sin x, cos x, tan x and cot x. The values
of the argument are given either in degrees or radians, and
additional tables are often provided for transforming from
degrees to radians.
Tables of the logarithms of the trigonometrical functions are
of use when frequent calculations are necessary. These contain
the logarithms of sin x, cos x, tan x and cot x. For technical
reasons the tables have the peculiarity that the characteristic is
increased by 10 with the exception of values of log tan from 45
to 89 59' 59" and of log cot from 0 to 44 59' 59". For actual
tables, see Table 3.
Trigonometry (Greek, measurement of triangles)

Trigonometry is the part of mathematics which has to do with
the calculation of elements of the triangle using the angular
functions. At the basis of all such calculations is the right-angled
triangle. All other triangles can be divided into two right-angled
triangles by dropping an altitude from one vertex. Now if two
right-angled triangles coincide in respect of one acute angle they
are similar in shape; more precisely, the ratio of two correspond-
ing sides in such triangles is the same. The ratio of two sides in
a right-angled triangle is thus dependent only on the size of the
acute angle and not on the lengths of the sides, i.e. it is a function
470
;
TRIGONOMETRY
of the angle (angular function). The various possible ratios of
sides have individual names: sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent
(tan), secant (sec), cosecant (cosec), and cotangent (cot).
Explanation:
1. In a right-angled triangle ABC with angles a, /, y 90, =
AC is called the side adjacent to a, BC is called the side opposite
to a, AB is the hypotenuse (Fig. 405).
opposite side
2. We define: sin a =
hypotenuse
adjacent side
cos a =
hypotenuse
opposite side
tan a =
adjacent side'
adjacent side
cot a =
opposite side
3. These are the most common angular functions. But the

following are also frequently used:
sec a ass hypotenuse

fr rj- cosec a ==
hypotenuse
. rr
adjacent side opposite side
Fig. 405
Sine function and cosine function

The best insight into the manner in which the numerical value
of a trigonometrical function varies with the angle a is obtained
by means of the unit circle. An arbitrary radius of the unit circle
is chosen as direction from which angles are measured, conven-
tionally in the anti-clockwise sense. A second radius of the unit

circle is drawn making the angle a with the initial direction.
From the end-point of the second radius the perpendicular is
dropped onto the first radius. This is to be taken as the side of
471
TRIGONOMETRY
the right-angled triangle opposite to the angle a, and the projection
of the second radius on the first is to be its adjacent side. Since
the hypotenuse is of unit length, in this figure the length of the
perpendicular is equal to sin a and of the projection of the radius
is cos a (Figs. 406 and 407).
90*
Fig. 406
Graphical representation of sine and cosine functions. Taking

an arbitrary unit distance we mark off" values of the angle a on
the abscissa axis of a coordinate system in degrees or (better) in
angular measure (see art.) and, taking as ordinate successive
values for sin a, we obtain the curve for the function sin a (Fig.
408). Similarly we obtain the curve representing cos a (Fig. 408).
+i -^
9CT\ I8(f
-/-
(f) v<*>
Fig. 408
The values of the sine function run from to 1 as the size of the
angle advances from 0 to 90. In particular, sin 0 = and
sin 90 = 1. The values of the cosine function run from 1 to
as the size of the angle proceeds from 0 to 90. In particular,
cos 0 = 1 and cos 90 0.=
Tangent and cotangent functions
The values of the tangent and cotangent functions can also be
represented by means of the unit circle.
472
TRIGONOMETRY
We draw the unit circle, choose the initial direction, lay out the
radius which makes the angle a with the initial direction (measur-
ing in the anti-clockwise sense) and draw the tangent at the
end-point of the radius specified by the initial direction. On this
tangent the extension of the second radius cuts off a segment
which can be taken as the opposite side corresponding to the
angle a (Fig. 409). Since in this case the adjacent side is of
unit length, the segment of the tangent is equal to tan a.
9(f Cot a
Fig. 409
In order to represent the cotangent, we draw the tangent to the

circle at the end-point of the radius which is perpendicular to the
initial direction, thus obtaining a right-angled triangle in which
the opposite side of the angle a is of unit length. The segment
cut off on the tangent is cot a (Fig. 410).
+i--
-/--
473
.
TRIGONOMETRY
Graphical representation of tangent and cotangent functions.
The graphical representation of the tangent and cotangent
functions is obtained as in the case of the sine function. As the
angle a runs from 0 to 90, the value of tan a passes from to
oo, and of cot a from oo to 0. Here when we write tan 90 co =
we mean that larger and larger function values are obtained for
tan a the nearer a approaches 90, and similarly for cot a as a
approaches 0.
Relations between trigonometric functions of the same angle (Fig.

412)
In a right-angled triangle whose hypotenuse is of unit length,
the side opposite the angle a is equal to sin a, and the side
adjacent to it is equal to cos a. It follows from the theorem of
Pythagoras that
(sin a)
2
+ (cos a) 2 = 1.
In the case of powers of trigonometrical functions, so as to

avoid ambiguity, it is customary to put the exponent next to and
above the function symbol. Thus we write
sin2 a + cos2 a = 1
sin a
cos (90"- a)
Hypotenuse = /
Fig. 412
Likewise from Fig. 412 the following relations can be obtained:
tan a = sin a
, cot a a
= cos , tan a = 1
cos a sin a cot a
The signs of the roots in the following table are given by the table
of signs for trigonometrical functions (see p. 478).
474
TRIGONOMETRY
sin cos tan cot
tana 1
sin a Vl cos2 a
Vl + tan 2 a Vl + cot2 a
1 cot a
--in
Vl sin 2 a
Vl + tan 2
a Vl + cot2 a
tana =
sin a Vl cos2 a 1
Vl sin 2 a cos a cot a
cot a = V 1 sin 2 a cos a

1
sin a Vl cos 2
a tana
} l+cot'q;
sina
y / -sin* rf
Fig. 413
Relations between functions of the angles a af/ 90 a

The angles a and 90
a are said to be complementary with
respect to one another. From Fig. .412 we get
sin (90 a) = cos a,

cos (90 a) = sin a,
tan (90 a) = cot a,
cot (90 - a) = tan a.
Thus, in passing from an angle a to its complementary angle
90
a, we pass from a trigonometrical function toitscofunction.
Cosine is an abbreviation for 'complementary sine', i.e. sine of
the complementary angle, and cotangent an abbreviation for
'complementary tangent', i.e. tangent of the complementary
angle.
475
TRIGONOMETRY
Easily calculated function values
From the isosceles and right-angled triangle of Fig. 414 we
obtain
sin 45 = -^= = \ VX tan 45 = - = 1,

aVl 2 a
cos 45 = -4= = \ ^2, cot 45 =-= 1.
3fl\
/Q2!
V V
/n r "1 / 60 \
F 2
Fig. 414 Fig. 415
From the equilateral triangle of Fig. 415 we get
VI
sin 30 = = x>
- sin 60 = = iV5,
2
a
?V3
cos 30 = - = \ VI, COS 60 = -a = r>
L
a l
tan 30 = V3
= -7= -s VI, tan 60 - =
?VI
- VI,
2 2
2"^
cot 30 = = V3, cot 60 = = -UiV3.
V3J VI 3
2
476
TRIGONOMETRY
These results are summarised in the following table:
0 30 45 60 90
1
sin Iva v* 1
2 2
l 1
cos 1 -V3
2
\Vi 2
tan iV3
VJ 1 V3 00
3
cot oo VI 1 iV3
3
Trigonometrical functions for arbitrary angles

In order to extend the definition of the trigonometrical functions
to angles of any size we again use the unit circle, as in the case
of the definition for acute angles. We again fix an initial direction,
and then lay out the angle from this in the anti-clockwise sense
(Figs. 416 and 417). We now drop the perpendicular from the
end of the second radius we have obtained onto the diameter
containing the initial direction. The length of this perpendicular
477
TRIGONOMETRY
(positive or negative) is then sin a, and the length of the pro-
jection, cos a (Fig. 416). The length of the intercept of the second
radius on the tangent at the end-point of the initial direction is
tan a; the length of the intercept on the tangent parallel to the
initial direction is cot a (Fig. 417).
cot B cats
.
*\s
\f*
~
/
T
tan/3
tasicc
V*\ \a \
v lmmm
,
L
I
7
'
V 6
tani
tony i
/ T
/I 4 cot
y est i
,
FlQ. 417
The following are the signs of the trigonometrical functions

corresponding to angles in the 4 quadrants:
Quadrant
I II Ill IV
sin + +
Function cos + +
tan + +
cot + +
^_^_ _
From the definition, we obtain a function value for each of the
trigonometrical functions corresponding to every angle. Angles
can be given in either degrees or radians, the latter being best
478
TRIGONOMETRY
suited for graphical representation. The angle is plotted on the
abscissa axis in radians and corresponding function values appear
as ordinates (Figs. 418, 419, 420).
cos a
3Cf 6cr 8CP 9<f

Jl JL Ail ft
6 3 9 2
Fig. 419
Periodicity of the trigonometrical functions

The trigonometrical functions can be defined in the same way
for angles greater than 2tt
360. We
then have
sin (a + n . 360) = sin a,
cos (a + n . 360) = cos a,
tan (a + n . 180) = tan a,
cot (a + n . 180) = cot a.

The sine and cosine functions have the period 360 (= 2tt).
The tangent and cotangent functions have the period 180 (= v).
479
TRIGONOMETRY
Relations between trigonometrical functions of the angles a,

90
a, 180 a and 270 a
90- a 90+ a 180 a
sin (90 = cos a

a) sin (90 + a) = cos a sin (180 - a) = sin a
cos (90 a) = sin a cos (90 + a) = sin a cos (180 a) = cos a

tan (90 a) = cot a tan (90 + a) = cot a tan (180- a) = tana
cot (90 a) = tan a cot (90 + a) = tan a cot (180 - a) = cot a
+a
180 270 a 270 + a
sin (180 + a) = sin a sin (270 a) = cos a sin (270 + a) = cos a

cos (180 + a) = cos a cos (270 a) = sin a cos (270 + a) = sin a
tan (180 + a) = tan a tan (270 a) = cot a tan (270 + a) = cot a

cot (180 + a) = cot a cot (270 a) = tan a cot (270 + a) = tana
Functions of compound angles
(1) Addition theorems. It follows by elementary geometry that
sin (a + ft)
= sin a cos ft + cos a sin ft,
sin (a ft)
= sin a cos ft
cos a sin ft,
cos (a + ft)
= cos a cos ft
sin a sin ft,
cos (a ft)
= cos a cos + ft
sin a sin ft,
tan a + tan tan a - tan

~ ^ = + tan a tan
, -. ft
ft x
^fr + fl- l-tanottanf
tan (a
1 ft'
cot a cot - 1
w(a- ~ cot a cot ft + 1
cot(a
nx
+ ft)=
ft
> cot ft) = ^_ cota
'
cotig + cota cot
(2) Consequences of the addition theorems
sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a, cos 2a = cos2 a sin2 a = 2 cos 2 a 1
1 2 sin a,2
480
' .
TRIGONOMETRY
2 tan a , cot2 a - 1
COt 2 "
tan 2a = l-tan*a l^T*
71 /l +
cos 2a cos 2a
sm
'
- ;
"
cosa=^-
cos 2a sin 2a
tan a= vr + cos 2a 1 + cos 2a
Similarly,
sin 3a = 3 sin a 4 sin3 a; cos 3a = 4 cos3 a 3 cos a;
tan3 a
3 tan a cot3 a 3 cot a
tan 3a = _; COt3a==
3cot2 a-l
;
~T^3laâ
and
sin na = I " cos*"1 a sin a - f " I

3
cos""3 a sin a
J
+ I _
]
cos"
-5
a sin 5 a . . .,
cos a = cos n a ( 2 )
cos n_2 a sin2 a
n
+ I
J
1-4
cos* a sin4 a ...
Sums and differences of the trigonometrical functions:
sui z
sin a +
.
sm p

= 2.<* +
cos
a-p*
z
sm a .
sin
n
p = 2^ cos +zP OL
. sin
.

OL-P
z
a +
a-0
z
cos a + cos p
n
=
2 cos ~
. cos
481
16

TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE
a 8
cos a cos p
o
= 2 sm a+~_ . /?
.
.
sin r
cos a + sin = 2 sin ^45 - *-j\ sin ^45 + ^y^)'
cos a - sin p = 2 sin (45 - ) sin (45 + ^),
cot a tan 8 = cos (a

v
.
T /?)
i *
sin a cos p
cos a + sin a = V2 sin (45 + a),
cos a sin a = Vl cos (45 + a),
2
cot a + tan a = -r-, cot a tan a = 2 cot 2a,
sin 2a
1+tana ,, . , cota+1
= tan (45 + a),
1 = cot (45 -
-.
a).
1 tan a cot, a , v '
Trisection of an angle
The trisection of an angle of arbitrary size is not possible by
use of ruler and compass only, although special angles can of
course be trisected in this way (e.g. the angles 45, 90 and 180
can be so trisected, since the angles 15, 30 and 60 can be
constructed by means of ruler and compass). Approximate con-
structions for the trisection of an arbitrary angle are however
possible.
Truncated pyramid
The volume of a truncated pyramid is V \H(G + GGX + G ) x
where Gthe area of the base-surface
is and Gx is the area of the
upper-surface (Fig. 232).
482
UNIT VECTOR
Fig. 421
Two-plane projection (Biorthogonal projection)

Two-plane projection is a mapping procedure of descriptive
geometry. A
given solid figure is projected by orthogonal parallel
projection onto two mutually perpendicular image-planes, the
top-view or horizontal projection plane, and the front-view or
vertical projection plane. The line of intersection of the two
image planes iscalled the ground line. Every figure thus has two
image-figures. That in the horizontal plane is called the plan, and
that in the vertical plane is called the elevation.
If we wish two images in a
to carry out the construction of the
single plane, we must one of the planes about the ground
rotate
line through 90. This is generally done so that the part of the
vertical projection plane lying above the ground fine coincides
with the part of the horizontal projection plane lying behind the
ground line. The image of a point P in the plan is denoted by P'
and the image in the elevation by P". P'P" is perpendicular to
the ground line and is called the line of correspondence of the two
images (Fig. 421).
Unit fractions .
j j
Fractions with numerator 1, e.g. j = 1, y
Unit vector
A vector whose length is 1 is called a unit vector. For any
vector a, a unit vector can be found which has the same direction
as a, viz. the vector j-r (|a| is the absolute value of a (see Vector)).
483
VARIABLE
Variable
A variable is a quantity whose value can change, in contrast to

a constant (see art.). In the functional equation y = Ix 1, x
and y are variables. We often speak of 'independent variables'
and of 'dependent variables'. This usage implies that the value
of one variable (e.g. x) is regarded as arbitrary, that is, x is an
independent variable, and that the values of another variable
(e.g. y) can be calculated from that of x by means of a functional
equation, that is, y is dependent on x. E.g. y = 7x 1.
For x = 1, y = 7 X 1
1 = 6 (see Function).
Vector
Avector is a line-segment, in a plane or in three-dimensional
space, which has a definite direction-sense and which can be
arbitrarily displaced parallel to itself. Vectors are denoted either
by letters of the alphabet in bold type or by placing an arrow
over the line-segment concerned. If P1 is the point of origin, and
P2 the end-point of the vector R, the length of the segment P P X 2
is called the absolute value, or magnitude, of the vector and is
written R= |R|. If the point of origin and the end-point of a
vector are the same, the vector is the null-vector. The null-vector
has length zero and is regarded as having no definite direction;
lf yx , zj and (x2 , y2 , z^) are the rectangular
it is written as 0. If (x
coordinates of the given points Px and P2 , the vector PXP2R=

is uniquely specified by the coordinate-differences
x2 x i> y* 7i z - z
2 i
These differences are the components of the vector, and we write
R= (x2 x lt y2 y x, z2 z^.
The
null vector has components (0, 0, 0) 0. =
Vectors regarded as in a plane have only two components.
Vectors in space have three components.
The length of a vector is calculated from its components by
Pythagoras's theorem as follows:
*= |R| - V(*2 - Xj* + 3

- 7l)2 + (z2 - Z^ 2 .
484
VECTOR
Multiplication of a vector by a real number

To multiply a vector R (x2 xlt y2= yx , z2 Zj) by a
real number c, we multiply its length by c, leaving its direction
unchanged if c is positive, and reversing it if c is negative. If the
components of the vector are given, then
cR = [c(x2 Xj), c(y y 2 x ), c(z2 z^].
Thus multiplying a vector by c merely involves multiplying each
component. The vector R in particular, has the coordinates
-R = [-(x2 - Xj), -Oa .Vi).
""(z2 -z i)]-
If a vector is divided by its length we obtain a vector of length 1.
Any vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. The vector j-jrj has
length 1, and is the unit vector associated with the vector R. It
has the same direction as R.

A vector whose point of origin is fixed at a definite point is
called a bound vector. In particular, so-called 'position vectors'
are bound vectors, their initial positions being bound to the point
of origin of the coordinate system. A
position vector has as its
components the coordinates of its end-point. The vectors whose
points of origin are at the origin of the coordinate system and
whose end-points are at the unit-points on the axes are called
the unit coordinate vectors. In a plane these vectors are
i = (l,0),j = (0,l).
In three dimensions they are
i = (l,0,0),j = (0, l,0),k = (0,0, 1).
Addition of vectors (Fig. 422)

If A= (ax , av as) and
, B = (bxt bv b ) , z are two vectors, the
vector with components (ax + bx ay + b y
, , az +b) z is called the
sum, A+ B, of and B.A
To construct the sum A+B of two vectors, we move each
vector parallel to itself till its point of origin coincides with the
origin, O, of the coordinate system. A
and B then form two sides
of a parallelogram. The diagonal of this parallelogram which
passes through the origin represents the vector A+ B, O being
taken as its point of origin.
485
VECTOR
Addition of vectors is commutative and associative. The
difference
A B of the vectors A and B is obtained by adding
( B) to A. It can be constructed by means of the same parallelo-
gram used in constructing the sum, the difference being repre-
sented by the diagonal which does not pass through O (Fig. 423).
Fig. 422 Fig. 423
Representation of vectors by means of the vectors i, j, k

Any vector in three dimensional space can be represented by
the sum of multiples of the unit vectors, i, j, k. The procedure in
a plane is illustrated in Fig. 424. We have A = a J + ay\. The
corresponding procedure in three dimensions is given in Fig. 425,
A = a J + a y\ + a zk; a x av and a e are the components of the
,
vector A in the directions i, j and k.
Fig. 424
Scalar and vector products in two dimensions (Fig. 426)

Let A= (ax> av) and B = (bx , by) be two plane non-null
vectors forming angles <f> a and <f> b
with the positive x-direction.
Then the components of these vectors are
ax = |
A| cos <f> a
|B|cos<6 ;
ay = |A|sinâi |B| sin &.

486
VECTOR
The angle between the two vectors is <f>
= <f>
a <f> b
. Then
cos <f>
= cos (<f> a
< 6) = cos <f> a cos cf) b + sin <f> a sin <6
sin < = sin ((f> a

- < 6) = sin <f> a cos h
cos t
a,
or, in terms of the components of the vectors,
COS<f> = axK + ay by
|A| . |B|
a xb v a y ba
sin< =
IAI . |B|
The expression ajb x ayb v + =

A| |B| cos <f> is called the scalar,
\
or inner, product of the two vectors. It is written (A B), AB or .
A B. The scalar product of two vectors is a numerical quantity

.
(a scalar, or scalar quantity), and has no direction. The expression

aJ> y A = |A| Bj sin ^ is called the vector, or outer, pro-
duct It is written A, B] =
[A B], A a B or A x B. As we are
considering vectors in a single plane this product also is a scalar.
Fig. 426 Fig. 427
Geometrical interpretation of the scalar product. From the

definition AB = |A| |B| cos< = |A| . (|B| cos<) it follows that
the scalar product of two vectors is equal to the product of their
magnitudes and the cosine of the enclosed angle, or (equivalently)
to the magnitude of one of the vectors multiplied by the length
of the projection of the second vector on the first (or on the
extension of the first).
Geometrical interpretation of the vector product. The vector
product of two vectors A and B is equal to the area of the paral-
lelogram associated with them. The result is positive if the vectors
A and B follow one another in the anti-clockwise sense (Fig. 427).
487
VECTOR
Properties of the scalar product
1. Commutative law, A B = B A. . .
2. Linearity, (ctA) (c2 B) = cx c2 {k B).

. .
3. Distributive law, (A + B) D = A D .

+ B D. .
4. Product of unit coordinate vectors, i.i = =j.j=j 2 =

i
2
1
i.j = 0.
5. The scalar product of two vectors is zero if the vectors are
perpendicular to one another or if one vector is the null vector.

6. The scalar product of a vector with itself is equal to the
square of its length,
A A = A2 =
. |Aj 2 .
Properties of the vector product

1. Alternating law, A a B = (B a A).
2. Linearity, (cxA) a (c2B) = cx c2 (A a B).
3. Distributive law, (A + B)aD = AaD + BaD.
4. Product of unit coordinate vectors, i a i = 0, i a j = 1
JAi=-l.
5. The vector product of two vectors is zero if the vectors are
parallel or if one vector is the null vector,
cx A a c2 A = 0.
Products in three dimensions

Scalar product of two three-dimensional vectors. If A (ax ay , a z) = ,
and B =
(b x , b v , b z) are two vectors in space then the numerical
quantity a xb x +
a vb v +
ajb, =
A| |B| cos j> is defined as the
|
scalar product of the vectors and B. Here A

is the angle <j>
between the two vectors. The scalar product of two vectors in

space has the same properties as the scalar product of vectors
in a plane.
For the unit coordinate vectors we have
i.i = j.j = k.k=l, j.k = k.i = i.j = 0.
Vector product of two three-dimensional vectors. The vector

product of two three-dimensional vectors, A = (ax a a ) and , ,
v e
=
B (b x b y b g), is the vector with components
, ,
(A - A A
- A. A - aybx),
fl
A a B = (aj), - a gbv> a zbx - aj> ajbv avbj.

488
VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES
Geometrical interpretation. The vector product of two three-

dimensional vectors A and B is a vector which is perpendicular
to the plane formed by the two vectors and whose magnitude is
equal to the area of the parallelogram specified by A and B.
Difference between plane and three-dimensional vector product

As long as only plane vectors (vectors with two components)
are considered, the vector product of two vectors is taken to be
a scalar. With three-dimensional vectors (vectors with three
components) the vector product is a vector.
The properties of the vector product in the plane set out above
hold also for the vector-product in space, and in addition we
have for products of unit coordinate vectors in space the equa-
tions :
Iaj = k, ai= k; Ak = kAi = j; Ak =

j i j, j i, k aj = i.
Vector calculus
Vector calculus is the branch of mathematics comprising the
mathematical theorems relating to calculation with vectors (see
Vector).
Vertical
The a point on the earth's surface is the
vertical direction at
direction passing through the earth's centre.It may be determined
by means of a plumb-line. In geometry two lines are said to be

vertical or perpendicular with respect to one another if they form
a right angle (see Angle).
Vertically opposite angles

Two angles which have a common vertex and whose arms
together form in pairs two straight lines are said to be vertically
opposite. In Fig. 428 a, y and /?, d
are pairs of vertically opposite angles.
Vertically opposite angles are equal. "y
Thus in Fig. 428 a = y, /? = 6

(see Angle).
Ro. 428
489
:
VOLUME, MEASUREMENT OF
Volume, measurement of
In the metric system the theoretical unit of volume is the stere
(one cubic metre =
1 kilolitre), the unit in common use being
the litre which, for all practical purposes is one cubic decimetre.
In English measure the unit of volume is the (Imperial) gallon
which equals 277-42 cubic inches =
4-546 litres. The U.S.A.
gallon equals 231-00 cubic inches =
3-785 litres. Other English
measures are related as follows
4 = pint
gills 1
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = gallon
1
8 gallons = bushel.
1
Weight, measurement of
The unit of weight in the metric system is the kilogramme, the
standard kilogramme, established in 1889, being a solid cylinder
of platinum-iridium preserved in Paris. The British and American
pounds, though differing very slightly in their exact definition,
can each be taken equal to 0-4536 kg. The definitions of some
subsidiary units differ in British and American usage. We have
1 ton = 20 hundredweight
1 cwt. = 4 quarters
1 qr. = 28 lb (British), 25 lb (American)
1 lb. =16 ounces
1 oz. = 16 drams.
Thus 1 cwt. (British) = 112 lb. 1 cwt. (American) = 100 lb.
1 ton (British) = 2240 lb. 1 ton (American) = 2000 lb.
Zero
Zero is the number which can be added to (or subtracted from)
another number a without a being altered thereby: a + = a.
490
ZERO
If a number is multiplied by zero, the result is zero a x
: = 0.
Division of a number by zero must be excluded if contradictions
in the operation of the basic rules of arithmetic are to be avoided.
A zero symbol is used in all place-value systems. Number
systems without place-values, e.g. the Roman, need have no zero
symbol. See Axioms of arithmetic, Division, Differential coefficient.
491
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
I ARITHMETIC
1. Types of number
We distinguish the following types of number:
(1) Natural or positive integral numbers, e.g. 2, 6, 11.
(2) Integral numbers and negative), e.g. 3, 1, 3, 8.
(positive
(3) Rational numbers, i.e. numbers which can be represented
as the ratios of integral numbers.
(4) Algebraic numbers, i.e. numbers which are solutions of
algebraic equations with integral coefficients (see p. 498 ff.).
(5) Transcendental numbers, i.e. numbers which are not solu-
tions of algebraic equations with integral coefficients.
(6) Real numbers, which comprise all the above types of
number. Every real number can be represented by an infinite
decimal fraction. Non-rational real numbers are referred to as
irrational.
The absolute value (modulus) of a number x, written |jc|, is
x x is positive and x if x is negative.

if
For imaginary and complex numbers, see p. 497.
2. Addition and subtraction
(1) a + b =b+a
(+a) + (+b) =a+b
(-a) + (+b) =-a + b = b-a
(+a) + = a -b=-b +
(-b) a
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a + (b c) = (a + b) c
(2) a- b = -(b - a)
(+a) - (+b) = a-b
(+a) - {-b) = a + b
492
FORMULAE
(-a) - (+b) =-a-b=-(a + b)

(-a) - (-*>) = -a + b = b-a
a (b + c) = a b c
a (b c) = a b + c
(3) |
\a\ -\b\\<Z\a + b\<. \a\ + \b\
\\a\-\b\\<,\a-b\<L\a\ + \b\
2. Multiplication and division
(1) = b.a a.b

(+a) (+b) = a.b
.
(+a).(-b) = -a.b
(-a).(+b)=-a.b
(-a) (-b) = +a.b
.
(2) + b) c = a c + b c
(a . . .
(a b).c = a.c b.c

(a + b)(c + d) = ac + bc + ad + bd
(a + b)(c d) = ac + be ad bd
(a b)(c + d) = ac be + ad bd
(a b){c d) = ac be ad + bd
(a + b)(a + b) = {a + bf = a + lab + b*
2
(3)
(a - b){a -b) = (a- bf = a* - lab + b*
(a + b)(a -b) = a*-b*
(4) \a.b\ = \a\.\b\
(5) (a + b)-rc = a-7-c + b + c

(a b)-7-c=*=a + c b + c
(+ab) -7-(+a) = +b
(+ab) -r (-a) = -b
493
FORMULAE
(-Oft) -r (+) = -6
(-&) H- (-a) - +b
(6) \a\ + \b\ = \a + b\
4. Ratios and fractions

The equation a:b = c:d is a proportion.
If arf = be
then
(1) arc = bid
d:b = ca
b'.a = d'.c
(2) c:d
am'.bm
am'.b = cm:</
(a:m):(b:m) = c:d
(a:m):b = (cm):d
(3) + 6) = c:(c +
a:(a rf)
:(a + b) = d:(c + </)
a:(a 6) = c:(c d)
6:(a-6) = rf:(c-<0
(4) (/wa + nb):(mc + nd) (pa + qb):(pc + qd)

The following are special cases of proportionality:
Continued proportion: a'b = b:c

Harmonic proportion: (a b):(c d) = a:d
Continued harmonic proportion: (a b):(b d) = a:d
a
We may write a:b as a fraction r; thus, for example,
(a + b)ic = (a + b)-rc = a-\-b

-y-
494
FORMULAE
The following rules apply to calculation with fractions:
a a X m a a -f- m
(1)
b b X m' b b -r m
(2) If the fractions
nk
, have different denominators,
, , . . .,
i "2
a common denominator h may be found, namely, the (least)
common multiple of n x ., n k . , . .
(3) Addition and subtraction:
+ j = j-j
a c ad + cb
r (bd is the common denominator)
ace
+ = adf + bcf bde
b d~f bd/
(4) Multiplication and division
a ac
VC=T
a c ac
b"d~bd
a
2rC
_ a
b' ~b'c
a c ad
=
b^"d Tc
5. Powers and roots

(1) If m is a positive integer then we define
am = axax...xa(m factors),
-
a = , a = 1. (a is the base, m the exponent, am 'a to
the power m\)
(2) For any integers m, r, it follows that:
am a r= a (m+r)
am -r a = a
r w-r
495
FORMULAE
(a x b)
m
= am x bm
(a -r b)
m
= am + b m
m r
(a ) = a
mr
(3) Fractional exponents are defined so as to preserve relations
(2) : if m, n are integers, an = Va, the th root of a. Then
a- = var" = ivay".
If m, n, r, s are positive or negative integers, roots are related as

follows:
Va~b=fa.Vb;
VaTB =<Ta+</b;
w
Va~ = (fay _ v^;
r
ifTa = Va = Vfa;
~Var = tfF"; a fa = faFb.
m r
2+ r
(4) Further: a
n
.a* = an .

m r m~ r
an -r a* = an "i.
*
m m 2
(a . by =
m m m
(a -5- 6)" = a
n
mr
(^ ^2 a n *.
6. Binomial coefficients
(1) By ! (^-factorial), we mean the product
n\ = 1 . 2 . 3 . . . ( 1) . n, n a positive integer,
and define 0! = 1.
496
FORMULAE
(2) By the binomial coefficient | I in over r) we understand

^ '
the fraction
in\ _ - (n -r+ n\
~ n(n 1) . . . 1)
=
(n - r)lr\
\r) r\
(r and n integers, 1 <; r < ),
and define I") = 1, r = J

if r > .
(3) Then:
\rj \n r) (n ry.rl
("r)-C)0 + U.)0 + - + (T)(r"l)
(4) The binomial theorem for positive integral is as follows:
(a 6)- - (j|)
a" (i)
fl*^ + + (D* (jj) *n
7. Imaginary and complex numbers

The imaginary unit / is defined by
(1) the relation i
2
= 1. If
a and 6 are real numbers we refer to
y =s& as an imaginary number,

z = a + & as a complex number,
and z =a ib as the associated conjugate complex number.
497
FORMULAE
a is called the real part (a = R(z)), b the imaginary part
(6 = I(z))ofz.
(2) Then i
8 = -/ /= +14
/ =
5
/
j4n+2 __ jin+3 _. j'4+4 _|_ _

J J f4+5 J
(3) If zx = a + #>i, z2 = a2 + ^2 tnen

x
Zi z2 = (ax 02) + i(bx b^
zx .z% = (axa bjb^ + i(a b + 2 î)

2 x z fl
1 _ gx^ + A
+ î + 6!A
g ~a ,
. 2
z2 ~ ai + 61
'
fl|
(4) Further,
z . z = (a + ft)(a - ib) = a2 + b2 = \z\\
t.
Also, if r = +Va2 + b % and tan <j> = -, then

z =a+ ib = r (cos < + / sin <),
z = a ib = r (cos < 1 sin $).
r = \z\ is called the absolute value of z, < = arg z the argument

of z.
(5) De Moivre's Theorem: if m and n are integers ( ^ 0) then:

m
tn
(2&7r +
(cos ) i sin <),
& = 0, 1, 2,. . ..
In particular
(cos / sin
m = cos m<f> * sin m<j>,
<)
I 6
and (cos <j> 1 sin ^)" = cos - <f>
1 sin
498
H. ALGEBRA
An equation of the th degree (n ;> 1) in the unknown x is an
~x
0o*
n
+ alX n + a2*"-2 + . . . + an_ xx + an = 0.
a , ax , . . ., a n are called coefficients of the equation; the n solu-
tions x = xlt . . ., xn are called roots.
If the equation is brought into the form
fix) = xn + bxx*-i + . . . + bn = 0,
where K = a
then f(x) = (x- xj(x - xj . . .(x- x n).
The coefficients b k and the roots of the equation f(x) = are
related as follows:
*i = (*x + * + + *)> 2 . . .
"2 = ^1^2 T ^1*3 T "T ^2-^3 T T Xn_\Xnt
#3 (XjXjXj + XiXyXi + + XyX^X^ + . . . . . .
On ( 1) xxx2 x3 . . . xn .
Each of these expressions is a symmetric function of the roots,
each remains unaltered under permutation of xlt x2

i.e. ., x n , . . .
An algebraic equation with m unknowns, ylt )'*, ., y m > * s an
f(yi>y' ->ym) = o>

where F(ylt . . ., y^ is the sum of terms of the form
a*to...>yiyi- -ym
the coefficients aapv p
being arbitrary, and a,. , .
/?, . . ., p positive
integers. The largest value taken by a /? + + . . . +p is the
degree of the equation.
499
FORMULAE
1. Equations with one unknown
(1) Linear equations. An equation of the first degree in one
unknown is of the form
ax + b = 0, aÔ,
and has solution x =
-b
a
Quadratic equations. An equation of the second degree in
(2)
one unknown is of the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a # 0.
It has two solutions xx and x2 :
2 -
*i.2
- -b Vb Aac
2a
The solutions xx and x2 are
real and Aac > 0,

different if b2
real and equal if b Aac = 0,
2
conjugate complex if b Aac < 0. 2
(3) Cubic equations. A cubic equation an equation is of the

form
ax3 + bx2 + ex + d == 0, a ^ 0,
which, by the transformation
b
*=y-Ta'
can be brought to the standard form
/ + Ipy + 2q = 0,
where
1 (b\ 2 a 2 (b\ 3 1 be ,
d
The cubic equation has

three real and different roots if q
9
+ ]F < 0,
three real solutions, of which at least two are equal, if
one real and two conjugate complex solutions if q

2
+ p3 > 0.
500
FORMULAE
Then if
(a) q
2
+ p* > (Cardan's formula), putting
w =^_2 + ,V? a
+/?3 ,
where the real roots are taken, we have as the solutions of the
standard equation
yx = u + v,
u + v i /-, .
y2 = y~ + 2 v
^" ~~ '*
y3 = - V3( - v).
() q
2
+f > and q ^ 0, p > 0, putting
, Vf
=
7
= J tan t
tan <j> , tany
77 . TT 77 IT
where ~"
2
<^< 2'
""4 < ^ < 4'
we have the solutions
yt = iVp cot 2y>,

rV3
(y) q
2
+/ ^ and q # 0, < 0, putting
/>
sin <f>
= , tan y> = J tan x
77 . 77 77 77
where x < r < ^ 4 < y < t
501
FORMULAE
'x r sin
2y>
73= ^( ^- sl
'VI cot 2^).
(<5) q
2
+ /j3 <. (irreducible case), putting
cos r
< = ,L-
V-/>3
yx
/
= 2 V p cos > <f>
72 =~2v ^cos/| + 60j,

/
j3 -2V^p cos (
| - 60 V
(4) Biquadratic equations. A biquadratic or quartic equation is
an equation of the form

x4 + ax? + bx2 + ex + d = 0.
By the transformation
this can be reduced to the standard form

4
+/>
2
+ ? + r = 0.
If we form the cubic resolvent
r *2 y ^ 16 y 64
and determine its solutions ylt yt y3 , (see p. 500), we may obtain
502
FORMULAE
the four solutions of the reduced equation from
= VJ VJ2 V^,1
where the signs are chosen so that
2. Equations with more than one unknown

(1) Determinants
(a) A matrix with m rows and n columns is a system of n X m
numbers aik written in the rectangular array
au ayz . . . aln
'21 *23 . . .a2
A= = (a).
'ml **n2 a*
The aik are called the elements of the matrix. If n m, the =

matrix is said to be square. In what follows we confine ourselves
to square matrices.
Product: If A =
(aik) and B =
(b ik) are matrices with n rows
and columns, the product matrix A . B (in that order) is the
matrix C =
(cik) such that
n
=2a b cik is k-
i
Sum: If A = (aik) and B = (b ik) are matrices with n rows and

columns, the matrix D is called the sum of the matrices A and B,
D = A + B, if
do* ^k + b ik .
(P) The determinant A of the matrix A = (aik written ),
aU a12 a13 .aln

#21 #22 ^23 .a 2n
A= = |A|.
l nl
*n2 *n3 . . .aK
503
FORMULAE
is the sum of all the products
fl
la fl! 2/J fl 3y a np
which arise when a, /?, y, ., p are allowed to range through

. .
all permutations of the numbers 1, ., n. The positive or . .
negative sign is taken according as a, /?, y, ., p is an even or . .
odd permutation of 1, 2, . ., n. In particular:.
a11 a12
fl
ll fl 22
~~ fl12^21
and
a11 "12 'IS
"21
^11^22^33 T 021^3213 ~T" %L a12^2S
^31^22^13 alla32a23 fif
21 <212 fl33 -
32 '33
(y) We have the following theorems for determinants:

(i) If A' = (aki) is the matrix obtained from A= (aik) by
interchanging rows and columns (the transposed matrix) and A| |
denotes the determinant of A, then:
|A| = |A'|
Thus au a12 au Q21

an 22 al2 22
(ii) If two rows or two columns of a determinant are inter-
changed, odd permutations of a, /?, y, ., p, become even and . .
vice versa, and so the sign of the determinant is altered.
E.g. 'u '12
'22
If all the elements of one row or of one column are multi-

(iii)
plied by the same number, each term of the determinant and

hence the determinant itself is multiplied by that number. Thus
for example
can ca12 an
22 *21 '22
(iv) If two rows or two columns are equal, interchange of these

rows or columns leaves the value A of the determinant unaltered.
504
FORMULAE
That is, by (ii), A = A, and hence A= 0. By (iii), the same

applies when two rows or columns are proportional.
*u =
*21 ca
*-"21
(v) If every element of one row or column is the sum of two

numbers, the determinant can be written as the sum of two
determinants, e.g.
flu + a 12 _ an al2
+
a ll 12
a21 + a. fl
22 21 22 |
a 21 22
(vi) By (iv) and (v), the value of a determinant is unaltered if

to each element of a row (or column) is added a constant multiple
of the corresponding element of another row (or column).
E.g. an a12 + cau 11 12
21 ^22 "r" c#21 fl

21 fl
22
(vii) Product theorem. It follows from the way A B is defined

.
that
|A.B| = |A|X|B|.
By the cofactor A ik of the element a ik of a determinant
(viii)
ismeant the determinant, prefixed by the sign ( \) i+k obtained ,
by deleting the fth row and the Ath column of |A|. We then have:
n n
a = 2 anAik = 2 aaAik'
t=i *=i
elements of a determinant of the (n
(ix) If all r)th degree +
common to n columns and r rows vanish, the determinant can
be separated into the product of two determinants of degrees
n and r:
an . .aln An.. .blr
<*nl- &nn *! ' b nr au . . . aln Cfi . . . C-i
... cu . . .clr a nl . . . a nn crl . . . c
... ....0 crl . . .c
505
FORMULAE
(2) Systems of linear equations

(a) The system of linear equations of the nth order
au xt + a12 x2+ . . . + aln x n = o^
021*1 + 22*2 + + a2n X n = a2
anl xt + an2x2 + . . . + a nnx n = an
with unknowns xx x2, , . . ., xn ,

possesses exactly one set of
solutions if
*12
a2n
A=
. [
*o,
a nl a 2
namely
2 Am
t=l
*-
^=
Xlm (^ =1,2,. . ., ).
A
(/?) If the system of equations is homogeneous, i.e. if
ai h
== = aw = 0,
then a necessary and sufficient condition that the only solution is
Xl = x2 = . . . ss *n = is A ^ 0.
(y) The system of m equations in n unknowns:
a n xt + a x2 + 12 . . . + alnx n = t cc
^21*1 + 022*2 + + ^2nXn

=^
fl ml*l + fl m2*2 + H~ flmA a i
is soluble if and only if the two matrices
Ki - - am ai 'n *ln
and
Wml- *ml . . .a*
have the same ranfc. A matrix A has rank r if all determinants of

the (r + l)th order, but not all determinants of the rth order,
formed by elimination of rows and columns of A, vanish.
506
m. APPLICATIONS
1. Compound interest
(1) The ratio of two numbers a and b can be expressed as the
a
percentage p = 100 t. We say that a is p per cent (or p %) of b;
91 is 26% of 350.
(2) The proportional increase of an initial capital sum a during
an interest period is referred to as the interest-rate
p (expressed
as a percentage). The
factor q by which the initial capital must
be multiplied to obtain the final capital is therefore
The capital sum resulting after n interest periods is
(3) If the capital is increased or diminished at the end of each

interest period by the amount r, we have
n
= aqn Aq 1
b
q- r
-
(4) If the amount contributed by r is paid at the end of each

interest period, the sum arising at the end of the nth period is
r(q" - 1)
*"- q-1 '
If r is paid at the beginning of the interest-period
q- n
1
Rn = rq
q-1
(5) The initial capital required for an annuity r paid at the
end of each of n interest-periods is
_ g"-l _/, _!\

A *- T
<a-l)f-q-lV n
q J
507
FORMULAE
For a perpetual annuity
" ^=
00
q-\
(6) A capital sum a is to be amortised in n interest periods by
payment of a fixed instalment at the end of each interest period.
If pis the rate of interest (as a percentage) and/?! is the amortisa-
tion rate (as a percentage), then the condition for the capital to
be extinguished after n interest-periods is
hU-k* 1-
2. Probability and Statistics

The notion of probability. If A, B are definite events and
(1)
A A B (both A and B), A V B (at least one of A and B) and A
(not A) are associated events, the probability P(A) of the event
A may be introduced through the following axioms
(i) P(A) is a real function with
0<P(^)^1;
(ii) If E is an event which invariably occurs, then:
P(E)=V,
(iii) If the events A and B are exclusive then
P(A V B) = P(A) + P(B);
(iv) If A lt A 2 , . . ., ^4 oo are events which are pairwise exclusive
then:
P(A, V^ 2 V. . .) = i*w
(2) Elementary theorems

(i) P(A AB) + P(A VB) = P(A) + P(B\
(ii) P(I)=1-P(A),
(iii) P(A Afi) = P(A)P(B),
If A and 5 are independent events.
508
FORMULAE
(iv) Let A and B be events such that if B occurs, A always
occurs; then ifP(A) and P(B) are the probabilities of the indi-
vidual events, the probability of the occurrence of B given that
A has already occurred is:
P(B\A) -
p(A y
(3) Statistics. Suppose an individual event can occur in k
different ways as A lt .,A h with probabilities P(A{),
. . ., P(A k ), . .
and that N independent trials take place. The probability that of

the N resulting events, x are of type A lt n 2 of type A2 , etc., is:
P(n v n 2 , ...,*) = *"

,
PWM^ . . .
iWS
k
where N=2 >
In particular, the probability that of the N events are of type

Ax is
P(n) = I I /?
n ^-n (Newton's formula),
where P(Aj) = p, and q = \ p.

If iVis large compared with 1 (written N^> 1), this gives
P(n) = . e *tf (Laplace's formula),

V27rJV/7^
and if p <^ 1 and jz <^ 1,
P(n) = Ti
- (Poisson's formula).
!
(4) Deviations. The quantities
n h
s =n n and (5 =
n
N
where = ]T ^() = -Np>
n=l
are called the absolute and relative deviations.
509
FORMULAE
(i) Average absolute deviation:
|*| - 2P(v) , . I
[n - vn\
^j.
where v = [] is the largest integer less than or equal to n.
(ii) Average relative deviation:
\d\=2P(v)(i-^y
(iii) Mean absolute deviation:
s2 n2 n2 = Npq = nq.
(iv) Mean relative deviation:
;p = ?.
n
In particular, ifp < 1 and JV> 1, and since pN = n,
^(") = (Poisson's Law),
and we have
s2 =n and <5
2 = -
n
If Jv* and are so large that d is effectively continuous, and

without p < 1, then the probability that d lies between 6 and
(5 + */<5 is given by
P(<5)</(5 = J- e 2a
d (Gauss's Law),
and we have
|j| ft. 9 -I-
3. Combinatory analysis
(1) Permutations
(i) The number of permutations of n different elements is
pin) = n\
510
FORMULAE
(ii) If of the n elements groups of alf a2 , . . ., a elements are
fc
indistinguishable amongst themselves,
p{n; a1} . . ., a*) =

axiag!
(iii) The number of permutations of n elements taken k at a

time without repetition is
*" *>=6) : k\
(iv) The number of permutations of n elements taken A: at a

time with repetition is
p(n;k) nk .
(2) Combinations
(i) The number of A>fold combinations of n elements taken
without repetition is
fcD-Q.
(ii) The number of &-fold combinations of n elements, with
repetition allowed is
~< m h + k- 1\
4. Interpolation formulae
(1) 77ie problem. Suppose different values xx x2 ., x n of , , . .
a variable * are given and associated with them are the numbers
y\> y* >

y n (Q ot necessarily all different). We require a
polynomial G(x) such that for each x xk y G(x) takes the = ,
corresponding value yh By the general theorems (see p. 499 ff.)

.
there is exactly one rational integral function which is of at most

the (n l)th degree, and which, for the given values of x, takes
the corresponding values of y. To determine this function for a
given concrete problem either the interpolation formula of
Lagrange or that of Newton can be used.
(2) Lagrange's Interpolation Formula. The function
^ (x - x^(x -x3). . .(x-xj

(xi ~~ "*aK*i "~
*a) (*i ~~ xn)
511
FORMULAE
takes the values 1, 0, . . ., for xv x2 , . . ., xn , the given values
of x. By cyclic permutation of the indices we can construct the
functions g2 (x), g3 (x), . . ., gn(x) which for the given values of x
take the values
0, 1, 0, . . . ,
0, 0, 1, . . . ,
0, 0, 0, . . . , 1
The function
<%x) = yigi(x) + y&ix) + . . . + yngn(x)
then has the property that it takes the values ylt y2 , . ., .
yn at
the given values of x, and it is a polynomial of the ( l)th
degree.
(3) Newton's Interpolation Formula. Let clt c2, . c-i De
constants. Then the function
G(x) y1 + ct (x x) x
+ c2 (x Xj)(x xj
+ C3 (X - XJ(X - X^(X - Xjj)
+ XM_!)
Cn-l(x Jfi) .(X
isat most of the (n l)th degree, and for x = x has the value
yv We can now determine c so that y = Gix^, independently

x 2
of the values of c2, . . ., c_3 , viz.
cx =
X2 "~" X-y
The constant c2 is determined so that yz = G(x^), and so on.

Finally we determine cn_ x by the requirement y n = G(x n). If the
constants determined by this method are substituted in the
function G(x), this function has all the required properties.
The Newton procedure has the advantage that we can solve
the problem step by step. If, for example, it is shown that in
determining three constants clt c2 , c3 , the function G(x) approxi-
mates, with a sufficient degree of accuracy, to the values y k for
the remaining n
3 values of x, then we can cut short the
procedure and put the remaining constants equal to zero, so
using a polynomial of the 3rd degree.
512
IV. GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
A. Plane Geometry
1. General theorems
(1) The Triangle
(i) a + + y = 180 (Fig. 429).
(ii) The angle bisector wy divides the side c in the ratio
p:q = a: b (Fig. 429).
(hi) The altitudes h a , h b , hc and the sides a, b, c (Fig. 429) are
related as follows
h a 'h b* :h ce = -:r:- = bc:ac:ab.

a 6 c
Fig. 429 Fig. 430
(iv) In a right-angled triangle (Fig. 430) we have

a2 = pc t
b = qc,
2
hi = pq*
and a* + b 2 = c\
(the so-called Theorem of Pythagoras).
(v) More generally, if similar figures with areas A(a), A(b),

A(c), are constructed on the three sides of a right-angled triangle,
then A(a) + A(b) = A(c).
513
17
:
FORMULAE
(2) The Circle

Notation: O =
centre of the circle; t =
tangent; a', /?', a" =
angles at circumference; ft =
angle at centre; a, /S angles =
between chord and tangent (Fig. 431).
We have the following theorems
(i) All angles at the circumference on the same arc are equal:
= a" = a'\
a' . .;
(ii) = 2a' = 2a";

ft
(iii) a = a', = '.

(iv) If j is a diameter, a' = 90 (Theorem of Thales).
(v) The sums of opposite pairs of angles in a quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle are equal.
(vi) The sums of opposite pairs of sides of a quadrilateral
whose sides are tangents to a circle, are equal.
Fig. 431 Fig. 432
(vii) Secant-tangent theorem (Fig. 432):
2. Properties ofpolygons
(2) Irregular polygons
(i) Triangle:
Notation: a, b, c
sides; a, /5, y =
angles; h a h b , hc alti-
,
tudes; r =radius of circumscribed circle; p =
radius of inscribed
circle ;p a,pb,p =
radii of escribed circles; a, b, m m m =
c medians;
514
FORMULAE
wa ,
= bisectors of interior angles; w, w'p wY = bisectors
Wp, wy ,
of exterior angles; a
= intercepts formed on sides by points
t , tb , t
c
a + b + c
of contact of the inscribed circle; A = area; s = -z

Right -angled triangle (y - 90)
ab
a2 + b2 = c\ A=T
ab c
*
a +c b
Pa
_b + c a _a+ b + c a +b c
Pb 2 ' ^c ~~ 2 ' ^ ~~
2
Fig. 433 Fig. 434
Isosceles triangle (a = b)
A = 4 V4a - c\ 2
K=h= ->
a
he = ^1 V4a2 - c2 = /> a =p 6,
c(2a + c)
/>
= c(2a c)
4h '
r =
2hn
515
FORMULAE
General triangle
If p is the projection of b on a, q the projection of a on b, then
ap = bq
c2 = a2 + b2 + 2bq, if y > 90
c2 = a2 + b 2 - 2bq, if y < 90.
If ac and b c are the projections of a and b on c, then:
a2 -b = a\- b\.2
Further,
a2 + b2 -c 2
a2 + b2 - c*
P Ya
'
q "
26
bc abc ah a
K = 2r> r =
4A'
A= T
A= Vs(s - a)(s - 6)(j - c) = i Wz>2 - {a2 + b2 - c 2) 2,
2A 2A !_i, J, 1
P a + ^ + c'^-^ + c-a' p~~/> a "%>/>;
A =p . S = Pa(s - a), A = PPaPbPo
2
Pa + Pb+Pc=P + 4r,
wJ + ml + m? = \{a2 + b2 + c 2),
w* = ^j7^ V6c(a + b + c)(-a + 6 + c),
w = r-^ V6c(a +6 c)(a 6+ c).
516
FORMULAE
(ii) Parallelogram:
Notation: a,b = sides; h a , hb = altitudes; dl9 d% diagonals;
A = area.
Then A = ah a = bhb ,
and dy A = Vfl2 + b* 2aVb - 2

ha2 .
If a = b then dx is perpendicular to d2 .
~ '/
xx ^** i
^X
v *'''** 1
"1
--^ v' /
7><^X* /
Lr b
Fig. 435 Fig. 436
(iii) Trapezium:
Notation: a, b = parallel sides; c, d non-parallel sides;
h = altitude; A = area; s =a+b+c+ d
(a + b)h
Then A =
and h = Vj(s a+ 6)(.s c)Cs </).

a 7
d
(iv) Inscribed quadrilateral:

Notation: a, b, c, d = sides; r = radius of circumscribed circle;
= a +b+c+ d
A = area; a\, d2 diagonals; s
Then ,4 = V(s a)(s b)(s c)(s d),
r = jj ^âh + cd )(ac + &0(* + be),
517
FORMULAE
(ab + cd)(ac + bd)

-J ad + be
and dx d^ ac + bd (Ptolemy's theorem).
If a further circle can be inscribed in the quadrilateral, then
A = Vabcd.
Fig. 437
(2) Regular polygons

Notation: a =
length of side; r =
radius of circumscribed
circle; p =
radius of inscribed circle; d diagonal; A area. = =
If n is the number of sides, then the central angle associated with
a side is , and the interior angle is I 180 1

(i) Triangle:
/i = 2 V3 = = 3/> (h = altitude)
h a /- r
a
A = l V3 = j V3 = ^-Va = 3P VI *
518
FORMULAE
(ii) Square:
r = | Vl = P V2
a r rz
A = a2 = 2r 2 = 4p2
(iii) Pentagon:
r = ^ V50 + IOVI = />(V5 - 1)
p = V25 + 10V5 = ^(V5 + 1)
a = VlO - 2V5 = 2p V5 - 2V5
rf=^(V5 + 1) = ^ V10 + 2V5 = p V10 - 2V3
^ = j V25 + 10\/5 = ^ VlO + 2V5 = 5/>

2
V5-2V5
(iv) Hexagon:
r = a = -p\/3
(v) Octagon:
r = * V4 + 2V2 = p V4 - 2V2
2
p = |(V2+l) = ^V2+ V2
519
FORMULAE
a = r V2-V2 = 2p(V2 - 1)
A = 2fl
2
(V2 + 1) = 2r V2 =
2
8/>
2
(V2 - 1)
(vi) Decagon:
r = (a/5 + 1) = p- V50 - 10\/5

I
P = ^ V5 + 2V5 = ^ V10 + 2v^
a = ^ (V5 - 1) = ^ V25 - 10\/5
,4 = y V5 + 2V5 = ^ VlO - 2V5 = 2p

2
V25- 10V5
(vii) Circle:
r = radius; / = circumference; it = 3-1415. . . .
= 27rr
l
A = irr %
The arc-length for angle /? is - /?, and the area of sector with
2
angle is
^
77T

B. Solid geometry
A polyhedron is a body bounded by plane surfaces. It is convex
if the interior angles formed by adjacent planes are less than
180. A polyhedron is regular if its surfaces are regular congruent
polygons and if the same number of polygons meet at each vertex.
number of vertices, s the number of surfaces, e the
If v is the
number of edges and a the number of angles between the edges,
then for any convex polyhedron
v +s=e+ 2 (Euler's polyhedron theorem)
and 2e = a.
520
FORMULAE
1. General polyhedra and other solids
Notation: V =
volume; S total surface; A = lateral surface; =
Sh =base surface; Su =
upper surface; h altitude; rb base- = =
circle radius; r u =
upper surface-circle radius; R radius of =
sphere; a, b, c = edges; d = diagonal; s = generator; m=
median-section.
(1) Prism
V=hS h
Regular prism (Fig. 438 base-edge a) ;
1
V = -A a2hVl
4
S = afeV3 + 3/z]

\
.
^

_ _ _ r
Fig. 438 Fig. 439
(2) Rectangular solid (Fig. 439)
V= abc
S = 2(ab + bc + ca)
d= Va* + b2 + c 2
(3) Circular cylinder Fig. 440
General circular cylinder: V = 7rr h

2
Right circular cylinder: A = 2-nrh

(Fig. 440)
S = lirrQi + r)
521
FORMULAE
(4) Pyramid
v = sb .-
Regular four-sided right pyramid (Fig. 441 ; base edge a)
"-J*
S = a* + 2ajh* + j
/ \ \
p^ '
iu <>, \ ^\
f '
\\ >h \
\
*
'
~tr\-^
Fig. 441 Fig. 442
(5) Pyramidfrustrum (Fig. 442)
h
V= ^
(Sb + Vs su +
b Su)
(6) Circular cone
General circular cone V=^ 7T r*h
Right circular cone (Fig. 443) : A = irrs
S 7rr(s + r)
5 = Vr* + h2
(7) Frustrum of cone
Trh
General circular cone: V= -r- (rf + rb r u + r%)
Right circular cone (Fig. 444) : A= (r b + rjns
522
FORMULAE
Fig. 443 Fig. 444
(8) Prismatoid
V~-(Sb + Su + 4m)
(9) Obliquely-cut right three-sided prism
V=S a + 3b + c
b
(10) Sphere
Spherical zone between two parallel planes (Fig. 445) at distance h
K=y(3rJ+3r* + A)
S = 7r(r 2 +
6 2Rh + r*)
,4=2^
Fig. 445 Fig. 446

523
: :
FORMULAE
Spherical segment with altitude h (Fig. 446):
V=^(3r* + h*)
= 7r(2ri + h*)
S
A = lirRh = 7T{rl + A8 )
Spherical sector (Fig. 447 r = radius, h = altitude)

;
V=X7TR2k
= 7rR{r + 2h)
S
Spherical wedge (a = angle formed
by boundary planes)
= rf
fe)
(1 1) Ellipsoid (semi-axes a, b, c)
Fig. 447
V= r Trabc
(12) Ellipsoid of revolution

4
V= r -nab* (2a = axis of rotation).
(13) Paraboloid of revolution

1
V= ^ Trr
2
h
(14) Truncated paraboloid of revolution
(15) Anchor ring (Torus)

r = radius of rotated circle, R= distance of its centre from
axis of rotation:
V = 2 r 2R
2<7T
S = AnhR
524
FORMULAE
2. Regular polyhedra
There are only 5 regular convex polyhedra, the 'Platonic'

solids. Notation: R = radius of circumscribed sphere; r = radius
of inscribed sphere; a = edge.
(1) Tetrahedron (Fig. 448; 4 equilateral triangles)
F=^V2 S = aW3
R = \VZ , = f2 V6
I V
I \
I \
I \
I \
d
!
Fio. 448 Fig. 449
(2) Cube (Fig. 449; 6 squares)
V= a3 S = 6a2
R =
a
- rz
V3 r = a-
2 2
(3) Octahedron (Fig. 450; 8

equilateral triangles)
V=^V2 S= 2a2 V3
*-|V5 o Fio. 450
525
:
FORMULAE
(4) Dodecahedron (Fig. 451; 12 regular pentagons)
F=4(15 + 7\/5)
S= 3a2 V5(5 + 2V5)
i? = (l + V5)V3
5
=a /50 + 22V5
r
4
Fig. 451
(5) Icosahedron (Fig. 452; 20 equilateral triangles)
5a3 r-
S = 5a2 V3
R = I V2(5 + V5)
r = a 7 + 3V5
Fig. 452 C. Trigonometry
1. P/ae trigonometry
(i) The trigonometrical functions sine, cosine, tangent, secant,
cotangent and cosecant of an (acute) angle a are defined by the

following relations in a right-angled triangle (Fig. 453)
a
sin a = - cos a = - tan a =
c c
526
FORMULAE
cosec a =- sec a = tb cot a =-

a a
(See also p. 471 ff.)
The angular functions sin a, cos a, tan a, cot a can be repre-

sented by the segments marked in Fig. 454, where the circle has
unit radius. The four quadrants are denoted by I, II, III, IV.
cot a
\ana
Fig. 454
(ii) The signs of the trigonometrical functions in the 4 quad-

rants are
sin cos tan cot
I + + + +
II +
III + +
IV +
527
FORMULAE
The angular functions in the four quadrants are related as
follows
sin cos tan cot
a sin a cos a tana cot a
90 a cos a T sin a =F cot a T tan a
180 a T sin a cos a tan a db cot a
270 a cos a sin a T cot a =F tana
360 a sin a cos a tan a cot a
(iii) Values of the trigonometrical functions of special angles:
a sin a cos a tan a cot a
0 1 00
1
30 IV3 VJ VI
2 3
45 Ivi \ 1 1
1
60 ivi V3 '-V3
2 3
90 1 oo
180 - 1 00
270 - 1 00
360 1 co
528
FORMULAE
(iv) Relations between angle and arc-length in a circle of unit
radius
The arc-length associated with the angle a is
arc a = 27T -^rz (a measured in degrees)

3oU
a 1 30 45 60 90 180 270 360
77 77 77 77 77 377
arc a 77 277
180 6 4 3 2 2
Numerical
0-017 0-524 0-785 1-05 1-57 3-14 4-71 6-28
value
(v) In a general triangle, not necessarily right-angled (Fig.

455), the following theorems hold
(1) Sine theorem

a sin a. a _ sin a. b _ sin /?
6
~~
sin /? c
~ sin y c sin y
Fig. 455
(2) Cosine theorem

a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos a,
& = a2 +
2
c 2 2ac cos /?,
c2 = a2 + b2 lab cos y.
(3) Tangent theorem
a. ~y jj-y
a -. b
t*n^- c a
tan
6~ c tan
#
a + b
tan
ol +~-0' a + c tan
a + y' b + c
tan
P + Y
529
FORMULAE
(4) Cotangent theorem
+^b + c
a Jis
a)(s &)(.s c)
If s = and p
j
=
V j
'
then:
a j a s b y s c
2p /?
2 p 2 p
(5) Area of triangle

1 1 Q 1
A = 5 ah sin 7 = =
, . . , .
^ ca sin p ~ be sin a.
(6) Radius of circumscribed circle
a b c
2 sin a 2 sin ($ 2 sin y
(7) Radius of inscribed circle
a 6 y
p = (5 a) tan r = (s b) tan - = (s c) tan .
(8) Mollweide equations
(& + c) sin r = a cos -z

(& c) cos
a
;r = a sin zv
/?
-
(9) Altitude formulae
ha b sin y = c sin /?,
#6 = c sin a = a sin y,
hc asm^ = b sin a.
(10) Projection theorem
a b cos y + c cos /?,
b = a cos y + c cos a,
c = a cos j8 + & cos a.
530

FORMULAE
(vi) Connections between trigonometric functions:
sin2 a + cos 2 a = 1,
tana = sin a 1
cos a cot a
cos a 1
cot a =
sin a tan a
1 1
= 1 + tan2 a; cm""9 . = + 1 cot2 a.
cos* a sin" a
sin a cos a tan a cot a
tan a 1
sin a Vl cos2 a
Vl +tan 2
a Vl +cot 2 a
1 cot a
cos a Vl sin
2
a
Vl + 2
tan a Vl + cot2 a
sin a Vl cos2 a 1
tan a
Vl sin 2
a cos a cot a
Vl sin 2 a cos a 1
cot a
sin a Vl cos 2 a tan a
(vii) Addition theorems for trigonometrical functions:

(1) Addition theorems
sin (a P) = sin a cos cos a sin /? /S
cos (a = cos a cos =F sin a sin

/?) /? /?
v
1
tan a tan 8
8) = t
tan (a r
tan a tan =F
? p
cot a cot /S =F 1
cot(a0)
cot ^S cot a
531
FORMULAE
(2) Sums and differences offunctions
sin a +
.
sm p

= ~
2 sin

a + P
z cos P
ex.
-z
a + a
= 2 cos ~ sin 9
n /? . /?
sin a .
sin p
a + a
cos a + cos p = 2 cos ~
/?
cos 9
/?
a
= 2 sin +r sm ~
a j5 j5
cos a cos p
.
cos a sin fi
= 2 sin
(
4 5 - ^) sin
(
4 5 + ^)
cos (a T
cot* a
, a
tan r
p = sin a cos ff)
w
p
2. Spherical Trigonometry (see p. 406; Figs. 292, 293)
(1) The right-angled spherical triangle (c = hypotenuse)
cos e= cos a cos b

cos c = cot a cot p 90 < a + < 270
cos a = cos a sin P
= cos b sin ^}
-90 <<x-p< +90
cos p"
sin a = sm a
-
sin c
;
.
sin p
.
= -
sin b
sin c
sm a <
,
sin c
tan tan a
cos a = t
tan c
; p
cos r
.
= 7
tan c
. .
sin b < sin c .
tan 6
- a
= tan .
=
tan a
sin b
j-; tan p -7-
sin a
(2) The oblique spherical triangle
(i) Sine theorem

sin a:sin 6:sin c = sin a:sin p":sin y
532
:
FORMULAE
(a) Side-cosine theorem:
cos a = cos ft+ sin sin c cos a
cos c ft
cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos /?
cos c = cos a cos 6 + sin a sin 6 cos 7
(b) Angle-cosine theorem:

cos a = cos cos 7 + /ft sin ft sin 7 cos a
cos /? = cos y cos a + sin 7 sin a cos b
cos 7 = cos a cos + /? sin a sin /? cos c
(ii) Altitude formulae:

sin = sin sin a = sin A
a sin /? ft
c
sin sin 7 = sin c sin

ft = sin Aa /?
sin c sin a = sin a sin 7 = sin /*

6
(iii) sin a cos = cos sin c sin cos c cos a

/9 ft ft
sin a cos 7 = cos c sin sin c cos cos a ft ft
sin a cos = cos sin 7 + sin cos 7 cos a

ft /? /?
sin a cos c = cos 7 sin + sin 7 cos cos a /? /?
(iv) Delambre's and Gauss's equations:

.a.ft +r c .a
^ sin = sin ^ cos
/? 7
sin
2
.a
sin
^ cos +^ = cos a5 cos
ft c /9 +
2
y
a
cos ^ sin
.
rc =
ft
sin
. a
^
.
sin
0-y
2
cos ^ cos
a
c = cos a
ft
_ -z
.
sin
+ 7
(v) Napier's equations
+_-c cos
ft +
_7 = tan o cos - A /8 7
'
tan -z

A
tan +27 cos
jft ft +
2
c
== cot
a
2 cos 2~~c
ft
533
FORMULAE
tan
b
2
c .
sin +y = tan za =y
ft
-z
A .
sin
/?
6 y .
= cot =a
b -{ c . b c
tan sin -z sin
2 2
, ..
Tf a + b + c a + ft + y =
(vi) If ^ = *>. 2 a '
then
a_ /sin Q 6) sin (s
"c) a_ / sin s . sin (j a)
.
Sin = .
cos
2 V sin 6 . sin c *
2 ~~V sin b .sine
a_ a) _ / cos (<y cos (a

~y)
.
Sm = / cos a cos (<r

C0S
/?)
2 V sin sin y
'
2~V sin sin y
(vii) If S = Vsin s . sin (s a) . sin (s b) . sin (s c),

25"
then sin a =
sin 6 sin c
If S = v cos a . cos (a a) . cos (<r /?) . cos (a y),

2S
then sin a =
sin /? . sin y
t -x rr / /sin fr - a) . sin (js b) . sin (s c)

sms
a
= sin (s a)
then cot ;r j-
cos ( a a) . cos (a /?) . cos (cr y)

if K = J- cos a
then tan -
a
= cos (a a)

2 K
534
FORMULAE
(ix) If e = a + 8 + y 180 (spherical excess),
s V s ~~~ o s ~~ b s ~~ c
= / tan ^ tan r tan r tan r
I
then tan -A
4=V .
2
tan rb tan = c
j s
and tan
(H- tan r tan
s
2
s
2
a
If rf = 360 -(a + b + c) (spherical defect),

then
tan ^ = 45 + |J 45 - ^-^) X
J- tan ( tan (
tan (45-^) an (--^>

a 8 a y
tan tan
= r
and tan 6--3- a a a

tan tan
2 2
(x) Spherical in-circle radius p

given by tan p k.
(xi) Area of spherical triangle:
given by A= 2
-# arc s = r 2e (e in radians),
(xii) Area of spherical lime with angle a (radius of sphere R) :
given by A = 2jR 2
arc a = 2R 2
<x. (a in radians).
535
:
V. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
A. Analytical geometry of the plane
x, y are the rectangular cartesian coordinates of a point
P= P(x, y), x being the abscissa and y the ordinate.
1. Transformation of coordinates
(i) Parallel translation of the (x, j)-system
x = a + x' x' = x a;
y = b+/ y' =y-b.
The (x, j)-system passes over into the (*', /)-system by parallel
displacement of the axes so that the point (a, b) becomes the new
origin,
(ii) Rotations and parallel translation of the (x, j)-system:
x = a + x' cos a y' sin a;

x' = (x a) cos a + (y b) sin a;
y = b + x' sin a + y' cos a;

y = (x a) sin a + (y b) cos a.
2. Relations between coordinates ofpoints
(i) The distance d between two points P1 (xlt y^) and P2 (x2 , y^)
is
d= VOq-x^ + Oi-Ja)2 -
(ii)
the segment

The coordinates
PP
>
(x,
in the ratio
7) of the point P(x, y) which divides
m:n are
X 2
= *! + mx 2 = + my2
nyx
x yy m+n ,
m+n
1 1
where (xî) and (x&y^ are the coordinates of Px and P2 .
(iii) The area of the triangle with vertices Px(xx , yj, P^x^y^,
A
Ps(x3 ,y^)is
A = to(>2 - Ja) + x (y3 -yd + x3(y - y^}.

2 x
536
FORMULAE
(iv) The area A of a polygon with n sides and vertices Px(xx y^, ,
. . .,Pn(xn ,yJis
A= hixi(y2 -y n + x. (y3 - yd + x (y4 - y^ +

) 2 3 . . .
+ xn(y - yn_ x x )}.
3. Equation of a straight line
Let m = tan
<f>
be the gradient of the straight line relative to
the x-axis and a the angle between the x-axis and the positive
direction of the normal to the line. Let (a, 0) and (0, b) be the
points of intersection of the line with the x- and j>-axes respec-
tively.The perpendicular p from the origin onto the straight line
istaken as positive or negative according as its direction is or is
not that of the normal.
(i) General form:

Ax + By + C= (A,B not both zero)
C C A c
a= A' = =, w = =, p=
L
Then b
B* r
-j,
" B> VA* + B 2
5 A
sin a = ====, cos a = y
=
VA 2 + B2 VA + B
2 2
(ii) Hessian normal form:
x cos a+jsina p =
(iii) Straight line through the point (jc , y ) with gradient m:
y-y = m(x - *q)

(iv) Intercept equation:
a b
(v) Straight line through the points Px{xx , jj) and P2(x2 , J2) :
J-71 _ 72 ~7i
537
FORMULAE
(vi) Equation of the straight line through the point P^, y^)
and forming angle 6 with the straight line Ax + By + C = 0:
B tan A
y-^ = Aland + B (X - X
.
*>
(vii) Distance dx of the point Px (xx yj , from the straight line

Ax + By + C = 0:
d1 _ ^x1 +2By + C 1
VA + B*
(viii) Point of intersection P (x , y ) of the two straight lines
A xx + B y+C1 =
1 0, A 2x + B y+C =
2 2 (A XA 2 # AM'.

= B C - B CX
^\A% ~~ ^-"2,A X
X 2 2
A B2 A^
X
X
yQ ~A B -A B x 2 2 x
Angle between the two straight lines
A xx + By + Cx = A 2x + B& + C2 =
0; 0:
A X B2
A 2BX == m2 -mx
^
tan o
.
'
X 2 +

= A A J?^
s~"
-.
;

î w 2 + 1
!
(ix) Three straight lines
a iX x + a i2y +a = i3 (/ = 1, 2, 3)
are concurrent if
4. Conic sections
(1) 7%e general equation of the second degree. The general
equation
alxx2 + 2aX2xy + a22y2 + 2aX9x + 2^337 + ^ =

represents a conic section (curve of the second order). We dis-
tinguish the following cases
(i) Proper conic-sections, when A= \a ile \

^ 0:
(a) Real ellipse: A > 0; axx and ^ with same sign.
(b) Imaginary ellipse: ^33 > 0; axl and ^4 with different

signs.
538
FORMULAE
(c) Circle: A 33 >0; an = a^; an = (rectangular co-
ordinates).
(d) Parabola: A^ = 0.
(e) Hyperbola: ^< 0.
(ii) Degenerate conic sections, when A= 0:
(a) Real pair of straight lines, with finite point of inter-

section: A& < 0.
(b) Pair of parallel straight lines: A& = 0,

real if Au < or A 22 < 0,
coincident if Au = or A %2 = 0,
imaginary if A n > or A 22 > 0.
(c) Imaginary pair of straight lines with real, finite point
of intersection: A^ 0. >
1
1
b
\
c 7)
VJJ
I
X
-* a
Fig. 456
(2) The circle (Fig. 456)

(i) General equation:
jc
2
+ f + 2Ax + 2By + C=
(ii) Coordinates of centre (a, b), radius r:
(x - a)2 + O - bf = r*
(in) Centre at origin:

jc
2
+ / = r2
539
FORMULAE
(iv) Centre lying on x-axis at point (a, 0), origin lying on circle
(vertex equation):
f = lax - x 2
(v) Circle through the three points Px {xx ,y^, P2 (x2 ,y^) t
x2 + y2 x y 1
xl+yl *i yx 1
=
xl+yl x2 y2 1
xl+yl x3 yz 1
(vi) Tangent through the point Px (xx yx\ where ,

(a, b) is the
centre of the circleand r the radius:
(x - a){x - a) +
1 - b)(yx - b) = r2
(3) The parabola (Fig. 457). ^
Vertex-equation
y
2 = 2px
Equation in polar coordinates

(P,0):
P =
1 + cos
(In this equation the focus of

the parabola is the pole of the
coordinate system.)
Fig. 457
(i) Tangents through the point P^x^ y^:
y-*= yivr 2 - (x - xd
(ii) Tangent with gradient mi
V mx
2m
540
FORMULAE
(iii) Normal at the point P^x^ y^):
/>0 - ji) + yifr -xj = o
(iv) Length of the focal line from the point P^pc^y-î
(v) Area of the segment cut off by the chord with end-points
î(*i> yd and P2(x2 y^ , :
- yJ*
A = Oi
Up
(4) The ellipse (Fig. 458). Equation referred to principal axes:
a2 ^ b2 ~ l
where the lengths of the major and minor axes are 2a and 2b
respectively.
Fig. 458
Polar equation, relative to centre as pole:
P' = I e = numerical eccentricity = - I

1 s2 cos 2
(i) Tangents to the ellipse through the point Px(xx , y^):
-x y1 Vb xl +
l
2
a y\2 -ab2 2
,
Tangents with gradient m = tan <f>:
y mx = Vm2a 2 + b2
541
FORMULAE
(ii) Normal through the point Pxix^ y^):
(iii) Abscissae of the foci (linear eccentricity):
ex = + Va2 - b\ e2 =- Va 2
- #
(iv) Focal lengths of the point CPiC*i, Ji)
rt =a+ x^, r2 =a x s
(v) Area of the elliptical zone between the minor axis and
parallel chord at distance xx :
^Lv^-^ + ^sin- 1
^)
(vi) Area of the whole ellipse:
A = nab
Fig. 459
(5) Hyperbola (Fig. 459). Equation referred to principal axes:

x2 y2 _
~~
a2 ~b 2
where the lengths of the major and minor axes are 2a and lb
respectively.
542
:
FORMULAE
Polar equation, relative to centre as pole:
9
2___J!_
-1 e2 cos 2
( e = numerical eccentricity = - )
(i) Tangents from the point P&^yJ to the hyperbola:
>-*- ^
-xtf x V-b2xf + 2 v? + a2b2 fl
,
{x-xj.
a,_\x
Tangents with gradient m:
y mx = Vm2a2 b2 .
(ii) Normal through the point P^x^ yj:

2
) I
y-yi = - ??(*-
x~ *i)-
x
(iii) Asymptotes of the hyperbola:
a b a b
(iv) Abscissae of foci (linear eccentricity)
ex = + Va + b 2 2
\ e2 = -Va2 + b2 .
(v) Focal lengths of the point Px (x x yx) , :
rx = a + xx e\ r2 (a xx s).
(vi) Area of the segment of the hyperbola cut off by the chord
A = x1y1 -abln^+^j (xâ).
B. Analytical geometry of three dimensions

x, y, z are the rectangular cartesian coordinates of a point
P(x, y, z). The axes conventionally form a right-handed system,
i.e. regarded from the positive z-axis, the j-axis stands at a posi-
tive angle 90 relative to the *-axis. Where more suitable three-

dimensional polar coordinates r, 0, <j> are used instead.
543
FORMULAE
1. Transformation of coordinates
(1) Parallel translation of the (x,y, z)-system
x =a+ x' x' = x a
y=s b+y y =y-b
z = c + z' z' =z c.
The (x, y, z)-system passes over into the (x\ /, z')-system by

parallel displacement of the axes so that the point (a, b, c)
becomes the new origin.
(2) Rotation and parallel displacement of the (x, y, z)-system.
The z)-system passes over into the (x\ /, z')-system by
(x, y,
parallel displacement of the axes so that the point (a, b, c)
becomes the new origin, followed by a rotation of the axes. If the
cosines of the angles between the (x\ y\ z') and (x, y, z) axes are
denoted by
X y z
x' <*1 A 7i
y <*2 & Yz
z' <*3 & y3
then we have:
x = a + o^x' + 02/ + ocgZ*
y = b + &*' + + &z' W
z = c + y1x' + ytf' + y
x' = {x - a) + &0 - b) +
u.
x 7i(z - c)
/ = a^x - a) + AjO *) + 72^ - c)
z' = a3 (x - a) + p3 (y - b) + y3 (z - c).
The af , /3 i9 y* are related as follows:
I4 = ZPl = Zyl = af + ft + yf =
* & *
1,
2 a A=2 *
*y* = 2 Vk<*k =
k
*<*; + Aft + y*y* =
ft;,* -1,2, 3) O'^y).
544
FORMULAE
2. Relations between the coordinates of points

(i) The distance d between two points Px(xx yx
, , zj and
P2(x2 y2 z^ , , is
d=V(xx - x^ + (yx -yf + (z - ztf. x
(ii) The coordinates of the point P(x,y, z) which divides the
segment Px P2 in the ratio m :n are
x = mx2 + nxx :
> v = my2 + nyx : z = mz + z
2
;
t

m+n m+n

m+n
(iii) The area A of a triangle with vertices Px(xx yx , , z^,
P2 (x2 ,y2 , Za), P3(X3,73 , Zg) is
xx yx zx
A = - 2d XZ J2 Z2
*3 yz ZZ
where ^ is the distance of the plane of the triangle from the

origin.
(iv) The volume V of the tetrahedron with vertices P&c y t, it zj,
1=1,2,3,4:
xx yi zx 1
1 x2 y% z2 1
~6 Xq yz z3 1
*4 yi *4 1
3. The plane
A plane is thought of as having a fixed normal associated with
it. We
regard the positive side of the plane as that side into which
the positive direction of the normal is directed, a, /?, y denote
the positive angles (<L 180), which the normal makes with the
axes, a, b, c denote the intercepts of the plane with the axes.
The perpendicular p from O onto the plane is positive if it has
the same direction as the normal, and negative if not.
(i) General equation:
Ax + By + Cz + D=* 0.
545
18
FORMULAE
Then
D D D D
c p '
A* B' c> va* + b z + c 2

p p p
cos a = jj
A, cos = j>
B t cos y = -^ C.
The sign of the root establishes the direction of the fixed normal.
(ii) Hessian normal form:
x cos a + y cos $ + z cos y p = 0.

(iii) Intercept equation:
x V z
a b c
(iv) Planes through the point PQ (x ,y , z ):
A(x - x + 50 -y +) ) C(z - z = 0.
)
(v) Plane through the points Px(xv y1} Zj); P2 (x2 , 2, z^\
"a\x& ^3> %) '
X y z 1
Xl y\ *1 1
= 0.
x2 72 Z2 1
x3 y* Z3 1
The distance dx of the point Px(xx ylt zj , from the plane

Ax + By+ Cz + D = 0:
_ ^^ + By + Cz -f >
1_ x t
VA* + + C 2 2
The angle 0, in which the planes
^x + By + C z + D = x x
A x + B y+ C^z + D2 =
2 2
intersect:
A XA 2 + BtB2 + CX C%
cos =
VAl + B\ + Cf V^| + i?i + Cf
546
FORMULAE
The coordinates of the point of intersection of the planes
A xx + B^y + Cxz + Dx =
A 2x + Btf + C2z + D2 =
A zx + Bzy + C3z + D3 = 0:
-A Bi Cx ^1 -Di Cx
Û -A B* Q y= A2 ~>2 Ct
-A, B3 Q A z -Dz Q
Bx Ax Bx cx
z = Bo Z) = A Bz c,
D
A9 B*
'3 -D 3 Az B3 Q
4. 77ie straight line
A straight line is determined by two independent equations of

the first degree in x, y, z.
(i) General form:
A xx + Bxy+Cxz+ Dx =
A 2x + Boy + C2z + D 2 =
(straight line as intersection of two planes),
(ii) Simple form:
y = mx + b
z = nx + c
(straight line as intersection of two planes, one of which is
perpendicular to the (x, j)-plane, the other perpendicular to the

(x, z)-plane).
(iii) Straight line through the point Px(xx yv zj
, with direction
, A y:
x - *i _ y - y\ _ z - zi '
cos a cos ft cos y
(iv) Straight line through two points P&^y^z^ and
x xx y yx z z x
*2 - *i ^2 - /i Zo Z-i
547
FORMULAE
Angles a, fi, y between the straight line defined by the planes
A xx + By + Cxz + Dx =
A 2x + Btf + C& + D2 =
and the axes are given by:
Bx Cx 1 CX A X A X BX
=
1
cos a cos
n
= -^ cosy =
NB C 2 2 C2 -^2 A 2 B2
where
Bx Cx 2 CX A X 2 A X BX
N = 2
B2 C2 + C-2 A 2
+ A B
2 2
and N
may be either positive or negative.
Angle 6 between two straight lines with directions al9 fix , yx
and a2 fi2 y2 is given by:
, ,
cos = cos aj cos a2 + cos & cos fi 2 + cos y x cos y2 .
Shortest distance d between the two straight lines
y-yi y-y*
cos 04 cos fix
cos y x '
cos 0^ cos /? 2 cos y2
jcxx 2 cos ax cos a2
d= 7i
J2 cos A. cos &
sin
Zi z 2 cos yx cos y2
5. Surfaces of the second order
(1) The general equation of the second degree. The general

equation:
flu*
2
+ 2aX2xy + a^y* + 2axzxz + 20^^ + a^z2
+ 2a x + 2a^y + 2auz + au =
X4
represents a surface of the second order.
548
FORMULAB
We distinguish the following cases:
I. Proper Surfaces : A =
A>0
A<0
^44 -^ *44
Ait, A'Ali > not both
/
>
A'u > Imag. ellipsoid Ellipsoid
^44^44 -> U
Au =o "44 "44 /^44

Hyperboloid Hyperboloid
not both
of one sheet of two sheets
>0
Elliptical
^44 > paraboloid
^44= 0,
AU * Hyperbolic
A'M < paraboloid
II. Degenerate surfaces: A=

^'#0 A' = 0, A" ^
A' =
A An A" =
AU > Afo
not both A">0 A" <0 A'" ^0
A'AU > >0
AU> Imag.
^44-^44 ^" ell. cone
^44 7^0
"44 ^*44^44j
Ellipt.
not both
cone
>0
Imag.
Imag. ell. Ellipt.
A'u > cylinder cylinder
pair of
/*44 = 0, planes
Au #
Hyperb. Real pair
Au < cylinder of planes
Imag.
Real pair
An = 0, AU = 0, Parabol. parallel
of parallel
Double-
A 14^0 cylinder pair of
planes
plane
planes
549
FORMULAE
where
au #12 #22 #23 #33 #31

^44 + + an
#21 #22 #32 #33 ^13
A 4A ~ + #22 + #33
#11
A = A n + A 22 + ^33 + "^44
au fl
u #13 #11 #14 #22 #23
A" = <*12
+ + +
a21 #22 #31 #33 #41 #44 #32 #33
#22 #24 #33 #34

+ #42 #44
+ #43 #44
/4'" = u+fl fl
22 + #33 + #44*
(2) Particular surfaces of the second order. The general equation
of the second degree can be brought, by suitable coordinate
transformations, to the normal forms appropriate to the particular
surfaces of the second order,
(i) Real ellipsoid:
C2
+ b2
+ C2
- *
(referred to principal axes),
(ii) Hyperboloid of one sheet:
x2 )fi z2 _
aZ + F*~c*~
(referred to principal axes).
Asymptotic cone:
x2 y*
"*"* 2 """22 = 0.
a2 c
(iii) Hyperboloid of two sheets:
X2 V2 * *
a2
+ Z>
2 " -72+1 ==
(referred to principal axes).
550
FORMULAE
Asymptotic cone:
x2 y2 z2 __
^+ b 2 ~ 72 = ^'
(iv) Elliptical paraboloid:
x2 y2
a b
(a and b have the same sign),
(v) Hyperbolic paraboloid:
(a, b positive).
(vi) Real cone:
x2 y2 z 2
tf
+ b 2 ~7= 2
*
(vii) Imaginary cone:
a2
+ b2 ^ c2
U*
(viii) Elliptical cylinder:
*2 -
a2
+ yl
.
b2 ~
i
1#
(ix) Hyperbolic cylinder:
a2 62 ~ l'
(x) Parabolic cylinder:
551
FORMULAE
C. Vector calculus
1. Definitions
A scalar is a function of the position-coordinates (x, y, z)
(i)
which associates a numerical value with every point. In what

follows scalars are denoted by small greek letters.
(ii) A vector is a function of the position-coordinates (x, y, z)
which associates an absolute value and a direction with every

point. Vectors are sometimes indicated by arrows. Two vectors
are regarded as equal if lengths and directions can be made to
coincide by parallel translation. We shall denote vectors by small
latin letters in heavy type, a, b, c, and the corresponding
absolute values |a|, |b|, |c|, by a, b, c.
(iii) Components of a vector: suppose we have a rectangular
coordinate system (x, y, z) and vectors i, j, k each with absolute

value 1 (unit vectors), whose directions coincide respectively with
the directions of the coordinate axes. Then a vector a can be
uniquely represented in the form
a = aj + aJ + azk
where ax a v a z are
, , real numbers, the components of the vector a.
We also write
2. Vector Algebra
(1) Sum of two vectors. The sum of two vectors
a +b= c
isa vector c which depends on the summands a and b in such a

way that it is represented both in length and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram, two of whose sides proceeding
from the same point as the diagonal are represented by a and b.
In terms of components
<*x + b x = Cx
av + by = cv
as +b c z z'
552
FORMULAE
The following rules hold for sums
a+b= b + a
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
(2) Product of a vector and a scalar. The product â of a vector

and a scalar is taken to be the vector
b = c/>a
with absolute value b a<j> and the same direction as a. In terms

of components
bx = fax
by = y <f>a
bz = <f>a e .
(3) The scalar product of two vectors. The scalar or inner

product a b of two vectors a and b is a scalar of magnitude
.
a . b = ab cos <
where is the angle between the directions of a and

<f>
b. In terms
of components:
a b = axbx + ay b y + ae b g
.
we have:
=b a a . b .
(a + b).c = a.c + b.c
(Aa) b = A(a b) . .
a2 = |a| 2 = a a .
j.k = k.i = i.j = 0.

If b = 0, the vectors are perpendicular to one another.
a .
The vector product. By the vector or outer product a a b of

(4)
two vectors a and b is meant the vector
c = a Ab
which is perpendicular to the plane determined by a and b (the
vectors a, b, c forming a right-handed system) and of magnitude
c = |a a b| = ab sin <f>
553
FORMULAE
where cf> is again the angle between a and b. In terms of com-
ponents
cx = (a a = avb a bv
b^ z z
cy = (a a b) = a b x a xb z z
cz = (a a b) = ajb y a ybx
z .
We have:
(i) = b a a aa b
(a + b) a c = (a a c) + (b a c)
(Aa a b) = (a a Ab) = A(a a b)
iAi = JAJ = kAk =

iAJ = k; JAk = k Ai = i; j.
(ii) a (b a c) = b (c a a) = c (a a b)
. . .
a a (b a c) = b(ac) c(ab)
(a a b)(c a d) = a[b a (c a d)] = (ae)(bd) - (bc)(ad)
a a (b a c) + b a (c a a) + c a (a a b) =
(a a b) a (c a d) = c[(a a b)d] d[(a a b)c].
(iii) a . (b a c) is the volume of the parallelepiped denned by

the three vectors a, b, c. If a a b = 0, the vectors a and b are
parallel.
Separation of a vector a into two components of which one
is an arbitrary unit vector e:
parallel to, the other perpendicular to,
a = e(e . a) + e a (a a e).
The vectors a, b, c proceeding from a point form a tetrahedron

with volume
V= Tc . (a a b).
o
3. Vector analysis
(1) Gradient. Let (f>
= <f>(x, y, z) be a scalar. Then the gradient
of j> is denned as the vector
3A ,d(f> di>
grad^ = i^ + j^ + k^.
.
554
FORMULAE
Using the vector operator
d d 8
the gradient can be expressed in the form
grad <f>
= V<.
We have
V(< + v) = V< + Vy
(2) Divergence. The divergence of a vector a is defined as the

scalar
d,va== -^ + "^ + -aJ-
Using the vector operator V,

div a = Va,
the inner product of V and a. By twice applying V to the scalar,
we obtain:
82< d2<A dU
V(V0 = divgrad^ = -^ + ^ + ^ = A&
.
where VV is written as A-
We have
V(a + b) = Va + Vb
A(< + i) = A^ + Av-
(3) CwrJ. The curl of a vector a, curl a, denotes the vector
with components:
0a, da
(curl a), = Ty --^
Bet* da.
(curla) v = -^--^
$au Bdx
(curl a), = -^--^.
555
FORMULAE
Using the vector operator V, we can write
curl a =V a a.
We have
V a (a + b) = (V a a) + (V a b).
(4) Relations between grad, div and curl
div (a<) = div a + a grad

cf> <f>
curl (a<) = curl a a a grad

(f> (f>
div (a a b) = b curl a a curl b
curl (a a b) = (b grad) a (a grad) b + a div b b div a

grad (ab) = (b grad) a + (a grad b) + a a curl b + b a curl a
curl grad j>=

div curl a =
curl (curl a) = grad (div a) Aa.
Using V these formulae become:

= <Va + aV<
V(a<)
V a (a<) = 0(V a a) (a a \/<f>)
V(a a b) = b(V a a) a(V a b)

V a (a a b) = (bV)a - (aV)b + a(Vb) - b(Va)
V(ab) = (bV)a + (aV)b + a a (V a b) + b a (V a a)
V a (V<) =
V(V Aa) =
V a (V a a) = V(Va) - Aa.
556
VI. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
In this section we deal with the properties of special functions
which are of particular significance in geometry and physics. In
the individual cases we shall give
(a) the definition of the function concerned, as the solution

of a differential equation, or in terms of other functions;
(b) important representations as a series, an integral or a
product;
(c) functional equations, addition-theorems, differential co-

efficients, orthogonality relations, asymptotic behaviour at
significant points;
(d) relations with other functions discussed here.
1. Exponential functions
The exponential function exp (x) =

ex is the simplest integral
transcendental function without finite poles or zeros.
(1) Differential equation
/(*)-X*)-o
where j(0) = 1.
(2) Development as series
exp (x) = 1 +- + - + - + .. .
where oo < x < + oo.

Limit
exp (*) = lim ( 1 + 3 = lim -, -r;
\~n)
(3) Differential coefficient:
d

dx
e =
557
FORMULAE
Addition theorem:
exp (x + y) = exp (x) . exp (y)
(Because of the addition theorem we may write exp (x) = e*.)
Special values:
exp (1) = lim ( 1 + i) = e = 2-718281 ....

exp (277-/) = 1 ; exp (m) = 1.
2. Logarithmic functions
(1) The natural logarithm f(x) In x is defined as the inverse
function of the exponential function, i.e. by the relation
e in * = in g* = x
(2) Representation as series
x x2 x3 4
-y + j- - +
, JC
,
ln(l + ^) = . . .,
T
where 1 < x<, +1.
X X^ X? x^
=- - -
ln(l-*)
T y T -4-...,
where 1 <, x < +1.
2{^ + I(^)
3
ln(a + x) = lna +
where <a< 00, a < x < 00.
(x - 1 1 /* - 1\
3
1 (x - 1\ 5
1
where <x< 00.
Representation as integral: In x =
</ 1
Differential coefficient: -7- In x =-
558
FORMULAE
Functional equation: In xy In x + In y
x8
1
Limit: In x = lim (jc > 0)
e-<K) e
Singularities: In x has essential singularities (branch-points of

infinite order) and is therefore infinitely multiple-valued. The
function-values in the individual branches are separated by
multiples of 2-nL
3. Hyperbolic functions
(1) Definitions
= e* e~x e* + er*
sum x r cosh x
,

2
tanh x = zr-. : coth x = e*x + er*

e +
x
e~ x e e~x
sinh x and cosh x are solutions of the differential equation
y"(x)-y(x) = 0.
x? x?
sinh x = x + jj + jj + . . . , \x\ < oo
cosh x=l+2j + ^j + ..., |*| <
tanh x = x ^ 2 17
-3+y^x5 jj^x +
. _
7
...,
.
|*|
,
<
7T
x coth x=l+2*2
112 ~45*4 + 945*
6
|*| < tt
2 2nj5
- 1
+.?,<- ^w"" (2W )!
(the 2?w are Bernoulli's numbers, see p. 580).
559
,
Differential coefficients:
-j- sinh x cosh a -j- cosh x = sinh x

dx dx
d .__i. 1
d Â 1
, tclllil A. !
, o
4
"j"' COth . , a
a cosh x dx sinh' 5
a;
(3) The hyperbolic functions are related as follows:
sinh x 1
cosh2 x sinh 2
* = 1
u a
tanh , .
cosh x coth x
sinh 1 x + -r- 1 = / cosh x cosh ( x + -r- 1 = i sinh a
sinh ( x) = sinh a; cosh (a) = + cosh x

tanh (a) = tanh x coth (at) = coth x
1 coth x
cosh a = Vl + sinh2 a =
Vl tanh a 2
Vcoth a 2 1
tanh x 1
sinh x = Vcosh2 x 1=
Vl -tanh a 2
Vcoth2 a - 1
sinh a Vcosh2 a 1 1
tanh a = 2_
Vl + sinh A cosn x coth a:
coth a = Vl + sinh2 a cosh a 1
sinh a Vcosh2 a 1 tanh a
(4) Addition theorems:
j) = sinh a cosh y cosh a sinh y

sinh (a
cosh (a y) = cosh a cosh y sinh a sinh y
tanh a r tanhy
,
y) =
tanh (a "
,
r
1 tanh a tanh
.
1 , ,
:
j;
,
v)
coth (a JJ
,
v
coth coth v 1
ir rr
coth coth a
.
a-
j>
;
560
FORMULAE
Functions of double arguments:
sinh 2x = 2 cosh x . sinh x

cosh 2jc = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
2 tanh x
tanh 2x =
1 + tanh2 x
coth 2jc = coth2 x + 1
2 coth #
Function of half arguments:
x /cosh x 1
.
Smh
,
= 2
2 V
COsh
, x
= /cosh x + 1
2 V 2
jc sinh x cosh jc -- 1
~~ ~~
2 cosh jc + 1 sinh x
,x_ sinh x _ cosh + jc 1

"~ ~~
2 cosh jc 1 sinh x
Sums and differences of the functions:
smh x sinh 7 =
2
.
smh
, * ^Tv
~-y cosh ,
t-^-
cosh x + cosh j = 2 cosh -^- cosh ~-
+y^-v sinh y
x jc
cosh jc cosh j> = 2 sinh
tanh jc
sinh r
tanh yy = cosh v cosh
y)
,
(jc
jc
y
sinh (y jc)
coth jc coth y = ^
sinh
. ,
v
^
x sinh.y
. ,
561
FORMULAE
Products of the functions:
2 sinh nx sinh + m)x cosh (n m)x

mx = cosh (n
2 cosh nx cosh mx = cosh ( + m)x + cosh (n m)x
2 sinh nx cosh mx = sinh (n + m)x + sinh ( m)x
(5) Connections with trigonometric functions (see below)
sinh x = / sin /jc cosh x = cos ix
tanh jc = / tan a: coth x = +i cot ix
4. Trigonometric functions
(1) The trigonometric functions can be denned as follows:
e
ix _ e
-ix e
ix
+ e
-ix
sin x = -T-. cos x
2i 2
- ~ix
= /(e
* e ) i(e
ix
+ g~ i3?
)
tan * gix i
e
-ix COt X ~ e
ix _ g-za: '
sin x and cos x are both solutions of the differential equation
y'Xx)+y(x) = 0.
(2) Development as series
x Xs x5
= + " W <
sin x
U"
*
* *
3! 5! '
v2 v* ^;8
cos x =1- 2] + 4]
~ 6!
+ * * *
' M<
oo 22w f2 2n _n
oo 2 2w
x cot x = 2 7TTT
1 5n*2 *> 1*1 <w
n=l zn )- \
(the i? are Bernoulli's numbers, see p. 580).
Representation as product:
sin 7tx = nx U ( 1 2)
562
FORMULAE
Differential coefficients:
d d
.
-r sin x = cos x -r- cos x=-sinx

dx
d
-T-
dx
tan x =
cos2
Id
5
x
dx
-r cot x
dx
= sin2
1
(3) The trigonometric functions are related as follows:
2.2i
sur x+ = cos * 1
x 1 tan;c
sinx
cos x
cot X 1
.
sin (x + t/2) = cos x cos [x + tt}2) = sin x

sin ( x) = sin[X
x cos ( x) + cos X
tan ( x) = tanIX
x cot ( x) = cot X
tan* 1
sin x = Vl cos**
Vl + tan 2
x Vl + cot2 x
1 cot*
cos x = Vl sin2 x =
Vl + tan2 x Vl + cot2 *
sinx Vl cos2 X 1
tan* =
Vl -si
sin* x cos* cot*

COt X = Vl :
sin2 * cosx 1
sin x
,
Vl cos 2
*
^
tan x
Addition theorems:
sin (x y) = sin x cos ^ cos x sin y

cos (x j) = cos x cos j T sin x sin^
tan x tan v
tan (x y) = 7 *-
v
" IT tanxtanj>
y)' =
cot (x J ' Z
cotîcotx

cot x cot v T 1
,
563
FORMULAE
Functions of double argument:
2tanx
= 2^ sin x cos =
. _.
.
sin 2jc jc
1 + tan2 x
1 tan2 x
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x =
1 + tan x2
tan 2x = 2tan* 2
1 tan x
cot 1 2
jc
cot2jc =
2 cot x
Functions of half argument:
. x f\
cos*
sin
5in
2 = V-
x_
-./
/IT cos x
cos 5 2~ V 2

= -p-j x =
jc sin 1 cos x
tan = :
2 1 + cos x sin x
COt ~
x
= ^ sin = 1 + cos x
jc
:
2 1 cos x sin x

x
stay = 2 sin j^-y cos "-
=F y . jc
sin x
xy
+ cos = 2 cos j^-y cos j"
x+
cos x j>
cos x
x+y
cos_y = 2^ sin xy
y*- sin
. .

tan x tan ^y > COS v
sin (jc
JC

"
COS J
y)
sin (y x)
cot jc cot y = -^
.
sinjcsin^
.
564
FORMULAE
Products of the functions:
2 sin nx sin m)x cos (n + m)x

mx = cos (n
2 cos nx cos mx = cos (w m)* + cos (n + m)x
2 sin nx cos toc = sin (n >n)* + sin ( + jw)*
Special values:
n-l
sin(.7r) = sm(7TJ2.n) = ( 1) 2
cos ( . it) = ( l) n cos (w/2 . ) =

( - 0, 1, . . .) (n - 1, 3, . . .)
(4) Connections with hyperbolic functions
sin = sinh ix
* / tan *= tanh /* i
cos x = cosh /* cot x = +i coth ix
5. Inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions

(1) Definitions
-1 -1
sin *, cos *, tan-1 *, cot
-1
*
-1 -1 -1 -1
sinh *, cosh *, tanh *, coth *
are defined as the inverse functions of the trigonometric and

hyperbolic functions. Thus
sin (sin = sin-1 (sin *) = *

-1
*)
cos (cos *) = cos (cos *) = *

-1 -1
tan (tan-1 *) = tan (tan-1 *) = *
cot (cot *) = cot (cot *) = *

-1 -1
= sinh-1 (sinh *) = *
sinh (sinh-1 *)
cosh (cosh-1 *) = cosh-1 (cosh *) = *
tanh (tanh-1 *) = tanh (tanh-1 *) = *
coth (coth-1 *) = coth (coth-1 *) = *.
565
FORMULAE
lx3 1 3x*
sm-1 * = * + 23" + 2'4y + ,
,
1*1
,
^ ,
*
yO v0 y**
tan"1 X = X-y + y--y + ..., |*| ^ 1
3
tanh"1 x = coth"1 -1 = x + y + y + J3C X**
..., \x\ < I
(3) Differential coefficients
^ '
a lx=
v^' ~ 1<x< + 1-
where the sign of the root is positive if 7t/2 < sin-1 x < w/2.
<* 1
i ,
dx Vl -x 2
where the sign of the root is positive if < cos-1 x <tt.

<*
-j-
ax
tan
-1i
x
ax
î
= 3- cot-1 x = 7;1 5 *for all x.
1 + x*

-1
^(sinh jc) 1 dicoshr1 x) 1
dx Vjc 2
+ 1 <** Vj
-1
*/ , ,
dcoth * 1
tanh-1 x
dx dx 1 x 2

sin sin-1 ^ = sin-1 (xVl y2 yVl x )
-1
x 2
= cos" (Vl - x2 Vl -y2 T xy) 1
cos x cos-1 ^ = sin (yVl x2 xVl y )

-1 -1 2
= cos-1 (xy T Vl -x2 Vl -/)

tan
-1
x tan-1 ^v = tan-1 7-=
1 =F xy
566
FORMULAE
sinh"1 x = sinh-1 (xVy2 + yVx2 + 1)

sinh-1 ^ 1
= cosh"1 (Vx2 + 1 Vy2 + xy) 1
cosh-1 x cosh-1 j = sinh-1 (yVx2 xVy2 1) 1
= cosh-1 (jcy Vx2 - Vy - 1) 1

2
tanh-1 x tanh-1 y = tanh-1 -r

1 xy
t
Special values:
tan
-1 /..111
1=7t/4=1~- + -~^ + ...
(Leibniz's series).
Singularities: The functions each possess infinitely many values
for a given argument. On two branch-points of
each branch lie
the first order whose branch-intersections run to oo.
(4) Representation by means of logarithms

sin" x = +Hn (-ix + Vl - x2)
COS" x= +iln(x + iVl -x ) 2
=
i t
1 + ix
-
tan" x In
--T-
2
-z
1 ix
i, ix 1
cot"
2 /x + 1
sinh" a: = + Vx +
ln (x 2
1)
-
cosh x = ln (x + Vx2 - 1)
= x ln t1+x
1
-:
tanh x
2 1 x
coth x
x = r ln
r
2 x 1
6. The T-function
The function T(x) is a meromorphic function of x with
(1)
simple poles at* = =
n (n 0, 1, 2, . . .)and residues ( l) n/!.
567
: :.
FORMULAE
It is uniquely defined by the following conditions
(i) T(x + 1) = *r(*),

(ii) F(x) is real and positive when x is real and positive,
(iii) for real, positive x, [T'(x)f < T(x) T"(x),
(iv) T(l) = 1.
(2) Representation as integral
= x- 1
T(x) \ e- t t dt=\ (ln-j dt (R(x) > 0)
T{x) =
/>
e-H*-1 dt + y
oo
-j7
(
~
\\n
r x arbitrary
Representation as product:
1
= xe Cz
/ml
where C= lim 2 7
- In w \ = 0-577215
moo \J=1 *
/
(C is called Euler's constant).
Representation as limit:
1.2.3. . n nx
T(x + 1) = lim
. .
(x + l)(x + 2) . . . (x + n)
(3) Functional equations
T(x + 1) = jtf\jt)
77
rw r(i - jc)
sin7rx
r
(l
+ x r (\~ x COS7TJC
) )
Asymptotic behaviour (Stirling's formula)
S6S
FORMULAE
Special values:
r( + l) = ii! ( = 0,1,2,. . .)
ixd = r<2) = 1
7. The d-function
(1) The <5-function is not a function in the usual sense, being
only defined as a distribution. In using d(x), therefore, a certain
amount of caution is needed. The d-function satisfies the
conditions
(i) d(x - t) = for x ^ t.
X
(ii) ( d(x - t) dt = 1.
J ao
(2) Fourier-representation
d(x - t) = i f

e
iz(x-"
dz
Series representation
If <f> n(x) is a complete orthonormal system <5(jc t) can be
represented by the series
d(x-t) = f<f>*(x)<l> n (t)

n=0
Representation as limit:
1 . r 1 _fez2Tl
<5(* - t) = r lim -^ e
Vtt e-*o LVe J
"
* - 4 = I Hm sin
*7'
"( )
77 n-co l
L X l
J t
1 reiw(K-*n
569
FORMULAE
Special properties of d(x)
d(x) = d(-x) = d*(x); d(x) = 0, xÔ

ad(x) = d(A; xd(x) = 0; j(x)d(x) = f(0)d(x)
+00
f(t)d(x - t)dt =f(x)
J-00
/+00
d(x - t)d(s - t)dt = d(x -
J 00
Differentiation of the function:
d'(x) = -U(x) = -d'(-x)
<5"(*) = |<5(*);
^ n d(x)
= (-iy^n d(x)
We have the following formulae for the differential coefficients

of<5(x):
/+oo
jlt)d'(x
J *)</* =f'(x), iff'(x) is continuous for * =x
00
J/
n / 00
+ oo
(5'(x -
^n
/)<5(J - = <5'(* - j)
^n
i Xx) ^ d(t - X)dt = (- \r -fcKx\
if/ (n) (0 is continuous for t x
(3) Decomposition into d+(z) +

<5_(z). As a function of the
complex variable z, d(z) has poles of the first order at is and
ie, with residues + r . and x We .. can split <5(z) into a
sum of two functions, each of which has only one pole:
<5(z) - d+(z) + djz)
570
FORMULAE
where
i ,. i
= + 2tt7
t- lim .
ô (z e fc)
^ lim
+
:
2777 _^ z is
The following relations hold between <5+ (z) and (5_(z):
+ (z)
<5 = <5_(-z) = <5*(z) = (<3_(z*))*
(5_(z) = <5
+ (-z) = <3*(z) = +(z*))*.
(<5
571
VH. SERIES AND EXPANSIONS IN SERIES
1. General
(1) The formal sum of infinitely many terms
00
2 , = % + 2 + . . .
is called an infinite series. If the partial-sums
v =l
tend to a finite limit
s = lim sn ,
n-*-ao
the series is said to be convergent; otherwise it is said to be

divergent. The limiting value s of a convergent series is defined
to be its sum, and we write
00
s 2 .
v=l
00 00
2u v is said to be absolutely convergent if

2 Kl is a^ so con_
vergent; otherwise it is said to be conditionally convergent.

(2) A power-series is a series of the form
00
P(X) 2 a^ = a + a X +
-=0 l Cl
2 x2 +
where the av are constants and x is variable. For every power

series there exists a value p >
0, such that P{x) is absolutely
convergent for all |*| p. p is
called the radius of convergence, and the interval /> x < +p <
the interval of convergence. We have:
p = (lim ^Kl)"
1
-*00
or
a
p = lim 2-.
n--ao ^n+1
572
FORMULAE
A power-series P(x) represents a function of x within its
interval of convergence. It may be term by term

differentiated
within this interval. In what follows the interval of convergence
will usually be given in the form [a < x < a],
(3) If f(x) is differentiate (n + 1) times in the interval
(x, x + h), then we have Taylor's formula
h h2 hn
fix + h) =/(*) + T[ fXx) + ^/"W + . . . + ^f""(x)
where 6 < <

1. The last term is the remainder-term. If this
tends to as n tends to infinity, we obtain from Taylor's formula

the Taylor series. Other forms of the remainder terms are:
*+i = ,, V (w+1)
(* + m.
and
= nh ff ln+1) (* +
*+i
Jo
w- ty du
If we put x = and h = g, we obtain Maclaurin's formula or

series:
m =m + i/*<p) + . . . + ^/ (n)
(o>
'
,/
(w+1
W), o<0<i.
'
( + 1)!-
(4) Tests of convergence

(i) If \u n \
< C\vn \, where C is a constant independent of ,
00
and if vn is the wth term of the sequence 2 vn which is known

00
to be absolutely convergent, then 2

n=0
un is absolutely convergent.
00
(ii)
=o
2 un is absolutely convergent if
lim \u n
-*
\
1/n
< 1 (Cauchy's test).
573
. . 8
FORMULAE
(iii) If for all n > N, where N is a fixed number
U n+1
uv <P<1,
then 2
n=0
un ls absolutely convergent (d'Alembert's test).
(iv) 2
n=0
un is convergent if
lim(^-l)<-l
(Raabe's test).
00
(v) 2
n=0
un ls convergent if
Urn ((î"l) + l)ln<-l.
2. Series for known functions

The intervals of convergence for the following series are given
(where necessary) in square brackets.
(1 +
x) a is convergent for real x [1 <x< +1].
a+;#=
v ' i+^-?^^+
m 2\nr
" (m -'; )(2
31
r-"
nr
)
*'
+
(1 + x)-1 = - x + x - x3 + x* -
1
2
. . .
(1 + x)~2 = - 2x + 3x - 4X3 + 5x* -

1
2
. . .
z- , 1 1.1 . 1.1.3 , 1.1.3.5 ,
+
1 1 1.3 1.3.51.3.5.7
VT~+x 2* + 2.4 2.4.6 + 2. 4. 6.
574
.
FORMULAE
. W3 - I 111 *48
1.2.5 1 .2.5.8
+ . . .
_ 1 K4 1.4.7 1 . 4 . 7 . 10
(1 + x) -1 3
*+ 3>6 *
2
3.6.9 + 3.6.9.12
3 31 311 3113
3.1.1.3.5
2 . 4 . 6 . 8 . 10
** + . . ..
3 3 5 3 5 7
o + ,r-i + ^-^ + ^^-^ + ....
5 15 195
+ x)-v* = 1 - ^x + 32^- ni^ + JoS^ -
1
(1 " ' "
Ut-Jf; 1+
15
6 72
+
55
1296
935
31104 ^ , "
1 7 91 1729
U+x; i
6
*-i-
72 * 1296*^31104^
x x_ 2jc
2
4a4 8X3
l-^-l4.jc + l4.xa+ l4-^ + l4.x3 +
#
-* ^ <1 J-
575
FORMULAE
1 ^1 x 1
112
l-x 2 4 '
8
jc a:
4
x-iHr^ r^+i +
In the following series, Bn are Bernoulli's numbers (see p. 580)
and En Euler's numbers (see p. 580).
x3 x5 7
sin x x jf + jy
xyj + . . .
oo
v2n+l
1 ^ <co]
f -
-.I.*- )- earns
^2 jf4
j^6
cosx=1-2j + 4j-^ + . . .
oo
v2n
=?<- )"loi 1 ^ <C0]
[ -
tan x =x+ ^x? + is*

5
+ y^x + 1
2835
*9 +
cot
_1 J_ _2_ jc . 1_ 7 _ '"
*~x~3"~45^"~945^ 4725*
1 oo 02D
JC n -i (2)!
1 . 5 , . 61
sec*
oo p r 7J-2"
- X
4j
no(2n)l L
576
FORMULAE
cosec x =
11
-+ x+ tj
7
^ "*"
31
^+
T~~s\ 3 71
x
g
=o
2(2^'
(2w +
-
l)\
1)
^^ ^^
1.3.5
sin^x^ + ^x 1 o
3
1-3
* 274"!^ + 274~677 * +
.
'**
_ f 2^1 ^2n+l [x
2
^ll.
tan
-1
x = x xxr + ^zx5 7jX7 + ...
00 v2+l
2
x ( 2 x* 2 4 / x2 \ I
tan"1 * = rTTM + 3fT72 + 1

375 llT^j + " j
2w w
_ * y 2 (k!) 2
/ x 2
\
x' < 00.
~ T+x* =o (2* + 1)! \1 + xV
7T 1 1 11
1>3 1>3 5
I_
seC
-1
*
_
~ ?2 I JL I _ I_ '
x 2.3X3 2.4.5x6 2.4.6.7x7 '

*
* __ f W x-2-1 [ X> l]
X3 Xs X7
x2n+1
sinhx = x + 3 1+I] + y-
!
+ ...= Io (27T1 )! ^< ] -
577
19
FORMULAE
j^2 y4 y6 oo y2n
^*-l+2i + 4i + 6i + -"-.?og5l ^ <00] -
tanh x=s*--*3 + x 315^+.5

. .
- + i1 c- 1)*
1 -1
S *2n [* < *].
sinh"1 * = x - 2~3 ** + 2~4~~5 *
(2n)\
(
~ 1)n *2W+1 ** < * ]'
n?o 22 "(h!) 2 (2k + 1)
[
11 1-3
s
^ 1.1
*
= ,
ln2*
.
+ 22T2 -2^4^ +
1

-ln2* +
J l
(-l)^|^ [**>!].
I' 3 11
= z-z
1
u *
cosh"*1
l
x=m2x t
2 2jc 2 4 4x* 2
. '
'
'
tanh-1 x = x + -=xz + -^x5 + ^x + 1

. . .
oo
y2n+l
578
. . :
FORMULAE
1
-= 1 111.31
+
T
x~
sinh * t~53 5
x 2 3X 2 4 . 5jc
__ V fiy
^' ^ * >
2
- A }
2 "( (2n +
( 2
!)
2
1)
v-a-i rx
l >ll.
J
t , 1 ,2 x2 1 3 x4 1 .
cosh
^ = ^^-2l-2744""-*-
2 (2nV
-In - T '
x* \x*<\\
.,
S"*-1
,1
,2 + 22-2^4 +
ln;
1 x2 1 . 3 x4 ,
2W~1
1
-i
1
- 1
*-* + 3^ + 5^ +
! !
_i_ -Vô2n*~ +
n l
^2^n
r >1 J-
Numerical series
3.
Writing Sn =
1111
p+^+^ ^+ + -

J,
1
p we have
5i= oo
^ = _6 = 1-6449340668 . .
8
7T
"3 ~ = 1-2020569032
25-79436 . .
54 = ^= 1-0823232337...
^ = 295^5= 1 ' 0369277551 -
579
. . . ..
FORMULAE
S6 = =
7T
6
1-0173430620 . .
^ = 2995-I86 . .
= 1-0083492774 . .
S = = Ô040773562
9415
77
S9 = 29?49<35 = 1-0020083928 . .
S10 = 1-0009945751 . .
Bernoulli's Numbers
2n
2 -hr
(2n)l
2n
n ~~
_j_J_JLi_
4l
2n
2 2w 3 2w 2w *
* '
-y_L
*=! jfc
2 ***
(2
2w
- l>r2w
_JL , J_ J_ JL ""
w 2n 3 2n 5 2n 7 2n
2(2)! l
00 1
= V !_."
*fb {2k + l)
2
w ~~ *
(2)! l
2 **
i2 " S 2" 4^* " *
00 1
A K }
kZn
691
B - l
R -
Bl ~ 6* ^ ~ 2730*
** = 30'
*7 = 6'
l 3617
B - R -
1 43867
Z>
Ba
J 4,
=
~>
w'
30
Bn
-"9
a
9
798
5 174611
*5 -
" 66'
*fi10 ~
~l30~'
580
Euler's Numbers
En * 32+l "
1
$2n+l
. 1
72n+l
+
T
22n+2(2n)
00
1
= 2(-_!)fc-i n2+I
4=1 (2k-
^ = 1, E, = 1385,
E2 = 5, E, = 50521,
Ez -61, E6 = 2702765.
581
Vm. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
1. The differential coefficient
df{x)
The differential coefficient, or derivative, -^
x
=/ (x) of a
function /(jc), is the limiting value
* + *-**
/W- A
.
then/fc) is said to be differentiate

If /"'(*) exists at the point x,
there. The functionthen also continuous at that point. If the
is
differentiation process is repeated, the higher derivatives of f(x)

are obtained.
d_ (djw\
dx\ dx)~ dx*

W A {*M\ -iM-
_<sm_~ JrM - ~J M
f~
w .
'
dx\ dx* ) dx* '
Pf
etC*
If a function z f(x,y) depends on two variables x and y, two

partial derivatives can be formed. Regarding, e.g., y as constant
and f(x,y) accordingly as a function of x alone, the partial
derivative of the function with respect to xy denoted by
dz df(x,y)
^rorf
. .
(x,y) x t is:
dx>
"x h-*0 n
and similarly
dz Bz
dz = -^dx + dy
Fy
is the total differential of z.
By repetition of the process, we obtain the higher partial

derivatives
fxx qxv Jam

fafy Jw
~ Qyv Jxxx
^ fxxv ~ faz^y
etc.
582
:
FORMULAE
2. Rules for differentiation

(1) If fix) and g(x) are differentiable functions of the variable
x, then
|(A*)^))-^)d=^
~
dx \g(x)J g{xf
ln)
For the wth derivative =f (x) we have:
J n
>(f(*)g(x)) =f in Kx)g(x) + (")/<"^>(x)^>(x) + . . .
+ f(x)g<Kx).
(2) If y =/() and = g(x) are differentiable in the domain
under consideration then
dy dy du
The higher derivatives are
d2y_d y (du\ 2 2
,<fyû
dx 2 ~ du2 \dx)
+ du dx 2
'
cPy _ cPy /duy d2y du d2u dy cPu

dx*
z=z
dtf[dx')
+ 3 aWTxdx + du'd?' 2
<itC '
dx
(3) If y =f{x\ x = g(y) are inverse functions and -r-
ay
^ 0,
then
_dhc
dy 1_ d*y _ dy2
dx
~~
dx' dx2 ~ /dx\ a
'
dy
583
FORMULAE
(4) If the interdependence of the variables x and y is given in

the implicit form/(;c, v) 0, then =
8f df
and, if ^=0,
dy Sx_ U
dx~ df_~ /;
By
"y _
~ Jxxjv IfxvJxfy T fyyfx .
elc *
dx2 f*
'
(5) Differentiation of integrals

(i) Differentiation with respect to an integral-limit:
(ii) Differentiation with respect to a parameter, where the

limits a <; t <; b are independent of x:
(iii) Differentiation with respect to a parameter x where the

limits a = a(x) and b = b(x) are also dependent on this para-
meter:
X * = W*. *) - <*'(x)Ax, a) + jT ^ffx, dt

1 1& * t)
ax
3. Special cases of differentiation
da
-j- (a constant)
dxn _ nl dx _
~~
*/;t
'
dx~~
584
FORMULAE
dcf ^, de* _
-r- = a* In a; -3- = e*
</ log,, x _ 1 */lnx _ 1
dx ~x l0ga e; <fr ~JC
dx = cos x
Jsin x
1
dx =
d cos x
j sin x
dtanx 1
dx cos2 x
dcotx 1
(77
dx sin2 *
d 1
T- sin
-1,
x = , , 1 ..
<x< +1
.
dx Vl -x*
7r\
where the sign of the root is positive if < -z sin
-1
x <+ -z I
rf 1
-j- cos-1 x = . if -1 < x < +1
<**
'
Vl -x 2
(where the sign of the root is positive, < cos-1 x < tt)
d 1 7T IT
s*" x= m?- -2 <tai x< 2

, ,
l
t- sinh x = cosh *
OX
d
-v-cosh x = sinh x
ax
-7- tanh x =
dx cosh 2 jc
585
FORMULAE
d 1
-j-
,
coth x =
ax sinh 2 x
1
-r- sinh
-1
x =
ax Vx2 + 1
-j- cosh-1 x = 4.
V* 2
1
-
-1
tflnn -1 v = d (coth x)
dx dx
586
IX. INTEGRAL CALCULUS
A. General formulae
Definition of the indefinite integral The function F(x) is an
indefinite integral off(x), and written
F(x) = Sf(x)dx,
if
Since F(x) +C
is also an indefinite integral (C any constant)
we write generally
J/(jc) dx F(x) C. = +
Definition of the definite integral. If/(x) is continuous in the
interval a =
x <, x <, x n =
b, which is divided by the points
> *-i i nt o n sub-intervals such that the length of each

*n
interval tends to as n tends to oo, then there exists, independently

of the special subdivision chosen, the limiting value
G(a,b) = Um 2/(^)(^-^-i),
-*0O 1=1
where f satisfies the condition x^ < * <, x t.
If
Sf(x)dx = F(x) + C,
then
a
G(a, b) = f f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a).
The connection with the indefinite integral arises here if the upper
limit b = is variable. In this case:
f(x)dx = F(|) - F(a) = F() + C,

Ja
a function of the upper limit. Since

1
F(f) is an indefinite integral off().
587
FORMULAE
(1) f CJ{x) dx =C \f(x) dx,
where C is independent of x.
(2)
j IM g(x)] dx = jj(x) dx Jg(;c)
fc.
(3) Integration by parts:
|/(jc)G(jc) dx = F(x)G(x) - F(x)g(x) dx,

J
where F'(x) =/(*) and G'{x) = (x).

(4) Integration by substitution:
Jf(x)dx = jf(g(y))g'(y)dy,
where x is put equal to g(y).
a
(5) f /(*) <c =- ( f(x) dx.
Ja Jb
f [/(*)
Ja
g(x)] dx = f /(*) dxC g(x) dx.
Ja Ja
f /(*)
dx = ("fix) dx + Cf(x) dx.
Ja Ja Jc
udv = u(b)v(b) u(a)v(a) I vdu.

Ja Ja
(6) Suppose t = t(x) is one-valued ma<,x<,b and t(a) = a,

'() =
j#. Suppose the inverse function x = (/>(t) is also one-
valued in a <, t <> fi, and that t(x) and <J>(t) have continuous
derivatives in the intervals under consideration. Then:
/a ja
588
FORMULAE
B. Indefinite integrals
1. Rational Integrands
(1) (a + <*i x + *2*2 + + anxn ) dx = a^ + ^ x2

J
M^ C
(2)
C
J
( + *)"* (axfrilfr +
4- 1
^~ 1-
w fr-â-zFV?
(3)

J (x
î+
a)^
c
a)* A: 1 (x 1 *^ L
w
(4)
J
f -^r
ox + o
- -a In C(ac + 6).
/CN C ax + b ax +b ad + be
(6)
J
+rTA=
dx
f?(ax +r-^7
v
_
^ ~
d)~
)(c* *" '
^7
ad
1
x
u"
be
l
ax + 6
*^-T^ A+ c
L d
ex +
-
,_ f dx 1 , ax . _
1 .
_x ax
JsH^' & "5 ,IlC(* + *

,
(8) )-
=
(9)
J (x
2
+ a2)^1 ^ 2k(x2 + a )* + C 2
,.v C dx 1 . a:
( 10) "I-!a = " tan_1 " + C.

C dx _ 1 x2
=
(11)
J x(x
2
+a) 2
2^
ln
x 2
+ a2 + C
589
FORMULAE
ax b
(12)
ja^=rb^2ab lnC ax + b
(13)
/ x^-a* dx = \\n C(x2 - a*).
(14) Jjfi-taGfril).
"
+ Ci - "1
+C
(15)
J^T = tan ljc =s= tan
^ a
= -1
cot x + Cz .
2. Algebraic Integrands
(16) ( Vax + bdx = ," l)a (ax + by*"* + C.
(18) (ox + 6)^"^- + p)a

(ax + 6)
1+ */n
+ C,
/ (n
p= 1, 2, . . .(but />#-).
2aVa \ Va /
^lnQ^^ + VT), fora>0;
1
= , ax +&
(20) =J sin"1 +C for a < 0;
Jv5 2,
.
-a V6 2 ac
In Cz(ax + b), for b2 ac = 0.
Va"
*ax + 26*+Jirc.
590
FORMULAE
*f X ,
-1 bx + c , _
(23)
JV^
f
**
+o
.^ = 2^V^+T -T2 lnC (\
2
2 JC + v/ ^+^)-
/
m* + + C
dx l Vx* a*
(24) f
JWF+^ -^^^ =a
(25) f xVx* + a2 dx =l (jc

2
+ a2)3/2 + C.
(26) f xV* + a 2 2
<c = | (2x2 + a2) Vx2 + a2
- -r- In C(x + Vx* + a2),

o
f Vx2 + a2 /-= s fit, Vx2 + a2 - a
(29)
J^-^R +c -^vrb + c
*
(30) f <ix=- Va2 -x 2
-|-C.
J Vfl2 - x2
3. Transcendental Integrands
(31) f e^cfccî^ + C.
* * = ax + 26* + c.
2
591
FORMULAE
(32) /**:= j + C.
(33;
IJ^bb-T^' + V + C' b * '
(34;
(35 f xe-*
i
dx = :Ye- *+C. l
(36 I hixdx xlnx x + C.
(37 I sin x dx = cos x + C.
(38; I cos x dx = sin * + C.
1 x
(39 sin
2
* </x = -y sin * cos x + + C. -z
s
(40: tan ^ + C.
J sin*
dx
(41 cot x + C. .
sin6 *
J sn
r 1 x
(42 cos2 * <fo = ;r sin X cos x + + C.
-z
(43
f
*=
J cos
dx
3
2
tan x + C.
(44;
J
tan x dx = In cos * + C.
(45 I tan2 jc dx = tan * x+ C.
592
FORMULAE
(46) cot x dx = In sin x + C.
(47) cot3 x dx = - cot x + C.

J
(48) sinh x dx = cosh x + C.
(49) cosh x dx sinh x + C
(50)
v ' f4-=lntan^2 + C = ln2?^li
sinh*
+ C.
J sinh*
<51 >
JsT5^=- coth * + c
< 52>
J c"^ =
^ (,anh *> + c = "^553^ + c'
= tan-1 (sinh x) + C 2.
+a
< 53 >
Jc^ = tanh *
(54) f sinh-1 ^= a: sinh"1 ^ - Vx + a +

2 2
C.
(55) f cosh"1 ^= xcosh-1 ^ - Vx - a + 2 2

C.
(56) Jxsinh-^^c - ^+^ sinh-1 ^ - ? V^T^ + C.
(57) f *cosh-*g<fr = 2X*~ ^ cosh-1 ^ - | Vx^^tf + C.
593

FORMULAE
C. Definite Integrals
1. Rational Integrands
l '
Jo (ax* + 2bx + cr
-,
(-l)n-l gn-1 r ] b
a > 0, ac> 62 .
(2)
Jo Sm3*-T ^W'
wosin
n
n >p = 1, 2, . . .; ab > 0.
(3)
J
=
1 xn ax = - cot
n n
m, n = 1, 2, . . .; w <; 1.
m, n, p = 1, 2, . . .; n>m, n> p.
(5)
Jo (*
2
+ a )(x + b) n
2
~ ( - 1)! ' dA""1 U +

2 2
\2a
ln
a/
J'
n = 1, 2, . . .; a>0, b>0.
(^ ^f_ + 2Bx_C_
W Jo
2
(a* 2
+ 6)(c;c + </)**
ff
n ^ (-^ V^ + CVac)7T
~ad-bc bc 2Vabcd (Vol + Vbc)
a, b, c, d> 0, ad # Ac.
594
FORMULAE
2. Algebraic Integrands
dx
(7)
o ax2
it + 2bx + c)Vx Vlc(Vac + b)
a > 0, b > 0, ac> b\
+c~
(8)
a*2 + 2ta
Jo ^2a(Va~c + b)
a>0, b>0, ac> b2 .
rb dx
dx it
(9)
Ja {CX + d)V{x a)(b - x) V(ac + d)(bc + d)
ac + d>0, be + d > 0.
V(x a)(b x)7
+ d - Vbc +
V
0) ' " " <** = [Vac d]\
fI
Ja ex "T^
+ </ 2^2
c=0, ac + d>0, bc + d>0.

S ln(l + V2),
o vr + a 2
3. Transcendental Integrands
b
C e
(14)
1 7+ <3e*
a
A3 y + <5e*
A<5 ^ 0, (y + de*>)(y + de*") > 0.
1 . Va + b +Vb , rt
dx
(15)
r VfleHft t= tan-l
A > 0, < -b < a.
595
FORMULAE
r dx it
(16
^ + e-^-4A' A>0 '
f
1
x e
x
e-2
(17)
Jlfr+T**-
dx = ln-> a,/9>0.
o x oc
00 2
JC 7T
f
Jl ?+r*-ir (2I

i
*-*<* = -
f"e- tf rfx = 2f"e- to'<fa=yj. A>0.
|
^-(aa^ta+c) ^_ jl e *
, a > 0.
b z ac
7_-e a
a>0.
,
a
(25) j e-^+^+*x*dx = ?-^Jle , a > 0.
(26) f (In *)* <fr = wifc

e T(A: +1), A: > -1.
(27) P7^*-
*
Jo'V 2
w f-rr-v^.
Jo
i /ln
W J ^rr^=6- (30)
J 3F=i*-F
(31)
i J+l * " " 12-
(32)
Jl J+T* - S - '
596
r
FORMULAE
Jao
e-x laxdx= C
o
(C is Euler's constant, 0-577215665 . . .)
=-
(34) f V*** In jc &
\ Jj (C + In 4X), A>0.
(35) / (sin x) cos x Jx = 0.

fr/2
(36) I /(cos x) sin x <c = 0.

J -77/2
1
COS -
r * >|6|,
w/2
Va2 - 62
f </x
( 37 > -TT-- = 6 + V&2 - o2
Jo a + bsmx 1
In
VZ>2 -a 2
1*1 < 14
w/2 7' 2
r <& f
( 38 >
Jo
tit
+ cos x Jo
+
a 6 sin x
rV2 1 COS an
(39) sin
S ax dx = aÔ.
Jo
(40) cos ax dx = - sin -y> aÔ.

r
|
T 1 sin-1 COS
-1
1 - VT
(41)
cos"1
pxdx=.sm~ lP ^ 0^/><^l.
Jo
|sin-^^ = ag-l) 5 flÔ.
(43)
Jo
a
( cos-1 -dx
<*
= a aÔ.
t (44)
Jo
f W 1
x * = J2 In 2.
597
FORMULAE
1 -1 -1
tan tan 1
J*
-1
,*~
l
f tan /x\ , an a. _
,,_ C^sinhax it an
(47) fa = ta,1
26
4>
, ,
W-
i
J itahta' 26
{48 ) f"^*
Jo COSh OX
^_ 7T
> w ' '
.
26 COS ^T
r <& _ it
~~
J cosh for 2b*
sinh-1 *^ =
r
W (^
(*\ r
;
<*<
(50)
_[ J- . 1.
(51)
(52)
Jl
|
f<
cosh"1 * -33-
tanh"1 - dx = a In 2.
2tr
mttVtV *><>
coth-1
ax = a > 0.
(53) -5-.
Ja 8
598
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE 1
Powers, square-roots, and cube-roots

ofx = 100 to x = 1000
Graph for Table 1
Ordinate A: x*. x9 , ]fx, VlOxT *VxT B: 1/x
X2
x3 /
1/
10x .
F
F
x1
123457810
1.00 to 1.50
K lOx v;
t.oo 1*0000 1.000 1*00000 1.0000 3.162 1*0000
1.01 1*0201 1.030 0.99010 1.0050 3.178 1*0033
1.02 1.0404 1.061 0.98039 1.0100 3.194 1*0066
1*03 1.0609 1.093 0.97087 1.0149 3.209 1*0099
1.04 1.0816 1.125 0.96154 1*0198 3.225 1*0132
1.05 1.1025 1.158 0.95238 1*0247 3*240 1*0164
1.06 1.1236 1.191 0.94340 1*0296 3*256 1*0196
1.07 1.1449 1.225 0.93458 1*0344 3.271 1*0228
1.08 1.1664 1.260 0.92593 1*0392 3.286 1.0260
1.09 1.1881 1.295 0.91743 1*0440 3.302 1.0291
1.10 1.2100 1.331 0.90909 1*0468 3.317 1.0323
1.11 1.2321 1.368 0.90090 1*0536 3.332 1.0354
1.12 1.2544 1.405 0.89286 1.0583 3.347 1.0385
1.13 1.2769 1.443 0*88496 1.0630 3.362 1.0416
1.14 1.2996 1.482 0.87719 1.0677 3.376 1.0446
1.15 1.3225 1.521 0*86957 1*0724 3.391 1*0477
1.16 1.3456 1.561 0.86207 1.0770 3.406 1.0507
1.17 1.3689 1.602 0.85470 1.0817 3.421 1.0537
1.18 1.3924 1.643 0.84746 1.0863 3.435 1*0567
1.19 1.4161 1.685 0.84034 1.0909 3.450 1.0597
1.20 1.4400 1.728 0.83333 1*0954 3.464 1.0627
1.21 1.4641 1.772 0.82645 1*1000 3.479 1.0656
1.22 1.4884 1.816 0.81967 1*1045 3*493 1.0685
1.23 1.5129 1.861 0.81301 1*1091 3.507 1*0714
1.24 1.5376 1.907 0*80645 1*1136 3*521 1*0743
1.25 1.5625 1*953 0*80000 1*1180 3*536 1.0772
1.26 1.5876 2.000 0*79365 1*1225 3*550 1*0801
1.27 1*6129 2.048 0.78740 1*1269 3*564 1*0829
1.28 1.6384 2.097 0.78125 1*1314 3*578 1*0858
1.29 1.6641 2.147 0.77519 1*1358 3*592 1*0886
1.30 1.6900 2.197 0*76923 1*1402 3*606 1*0914
1.31 1.7161 2.248 0.76336 1*1446 3*619 1*0942
1*32 1*7424 2.300 0.75758 1*1489 3.633 1*0970
1*33 1.7689 2.353 0.75188 1*1533 3.647 1*0997
1*34 1.7956 2.406 0.74627 1.1576 3.661 1*1025
1*35 1.8225 2*460 0.74074 1.1619 3.674 1*1052
1*36 1.8496 2.515 0.73529 1.1662 3.688 1*1079
1*37 1.8769 2.571 0.72993 1.1705 3.701 1.1106
1*38 1.9044 2.628 0.72464 1.1747 3.715 1.1133
1*39 1.9321 2.686 0.71942 1.1790 3.728 1*1160
1*40 1.9600 2.744 0.71429 1.1832 3.742 1*1187
1*41 1*9881 2.803 0.70922 1.1874 3.755 1*1213
1.42 2*0164 2.863 0. 70423 1.1916 3.768 1*1240
1.43 2*0449 2.924 0.69930 1.1958 3.782 1*1266
1.44 2.0736 2.986 0*69444 1.2000 3*795 1*1292
1.45 2.1025 3.049 0*68966 1.2042 3*808 1*1319
1.46 2.1316 3.112 0.68493 1*2083 3.821
1.47 1*1344
2*1609 3.177 0.68027 1*2124 3.834 1*1370
1.48 2.1904 3.242 0.67568 1.2166 3.847
1.49 1*1396
2.2201 3.308 0.67114 1.2207 3.860 1*1422
1*50 2.2500 3.375 0.66667 1*2247 3.873 1*1447
r* r*
1.50 fo 2.00
f* lOx V*
1.50 2.2500 3.375 0.66667 1.2247 9.873 1.
1.51 2.2801 3.443 0.66225 1.2288 3.886 1.

1.52 2.3104 3.512 0.65789 1.2329 3.899 1.
1.53 2.3*09 3.582 0.65359 1.2369 3.912 1.
1.54 2.3716 3.652 0.64935 1.2410 3.924 1.
1.55 2.4025 3.724 0.64516 1.2450 3.937 1.
1.56 2.4336 3.796 0.64103 1.2490 3.950 1.

1.57 2.4649 3.870 0.63694 1.2530 3.962 1.
1.58 2.4964 3*944 0.63291 1.2570 3.975 1.
1.59 2.5281 4.020 0.62893 1.2610 3.987 1.
1*60 2.5600 4.096 0.62500 1.2649 4.000 1.
1.61 2.5921 4.173 0.62112 1.2689 4.012 1.

1.62 2.6244 4.252 0.61728 1.2728 4.025 1.
1.63 2.6569 4.331 0.61350 1.2767 4.037 1.
1.64 2.6896 4.411 0.60976 1.2806 4.050 1.
1.65 2.7225 4.492 0.60606 1.2845 4.062 1.
1.66 2.7556 4.574 0.60241 1.2884 4.074 1.

1.67 2.7889 4.657 0.59880 1.2923 4.087 1.
1*68 2.8224 4.742 0.59524 1*2961 4.099 1.
1.69 2.8561 4.827 0.59172 1.3000 4.111 1.
1.70 2.8900 4.913 0.58824 1.3038 4.123 1.
1.71 2.9241 5.000 0.58480 1.3077 4.135 1.

1.72 2.9584 5.086 0.58140 1.3115 4.147 1.
1.73 2.9929 5.178 0.57803 1.3153 4.159 1.
1.74 3.0276 5.268 0.57471 1.3191 4.171 1.
1.75 3.0625 5.359 0.57143 1.3229 4.183 1.
1.76 3.0976 3.452 0.56818 1.3266 4.195 1.

1.77 3.1329 5.545 0.56497 1.3304 4.207 1.
1.78 3.1684 5.640 0.56180 1.3342 4.219 1.
1.79 3.2041 5.735 0.55866 1.3379 4.231 1.
1.80 3.2400 5.832 0.55556 1.3416 4.243 1.
1.81 3.2761 5.930 0.55249 1.3454 4.254 1.

1*82 3.3124 6.029 0.54945 1.3491 4.266 1.
1.83 3.3489 6.128 0.54645 1.3528 4.278 1.
1.84 3.3856 6.230 0.54348 1.3565 4.290 1.
1.85 3.4225 6.332 0.54054 1.3601 4.301 1.
1.86 3.4596 6.435 0.53763 1.3638 4.313 1.

1.87 3.4969 6.539 0.53476 1.3675 4.324 1.
1.88 3.5344 6.643 0.53191 1.3711 4.336 1.
1.89 3.5721 6.751 0.52910 1.3748 4.347 1.
1.90 3.6100 6.859 0.52632 1.3784 4.359 1.
1.91 3.6481 6.968 0.52356 1.3820 4.370 1.

1.92 3.6864 7.078 0**52083 1.3856 4.382 1.
1.93 3.7249 7.189 0.51813 1.3892 4.393 1.
1.94 3.7636 7.301 0.51546 1.3928 4.405 1.
1.95 3.8025 7.415 0.51282 1.3964 4.416 1.
1*96 3.8416 7.530 0. 51020 1.4000 4.427 1.

1.97 3.8809 7.645 0.50761 1.4036 4.438 1.
1.98 3.9204 7.762 0.50505 1.4071 4.450 1.
1.99 3.9601 7.881 0.50251 1.4107 4.461 1.
2.00 4.0000 6.000 0.50000 1.4142 4.472 1.
K Y*
2.00 to 2.50
x x1 IT* Vx
2.00 4.0000 8.000 0.50000 1.4142 4.472 1.2599
2.01 4.0401 8.121 0.49751 1.4177 4.483 1.2620
2.02 4.0804 8.242 0.49505 1.4213 4.494 1.2641
2.03 4.1209 8.365 0.49261 1.4248 4.506 1.2662
2.04 4.1616 8.490 0.49020 1.4283 4.517 1.2683
2.05 4*2025 8.615 0.48780 1.4318 4.528 1.2703
2.06 4.2436 8.742 0.48544 1.4353 4.539 1.2724
2.07 4.2849 8.870 0.48309 1.4387 4.550 1.2745
2.08 4.3264 8.999 0.48077 1.4422 4.561 1.2765
2.09 4.3681 9.129 0.47847 1.4457 4.572 1.2785
2.10 4.4100 9.261 0.47619 1.4491 4.583" 1.2806
2.11 4.4521 9.394 0.47393 1.4526 4.593 1.2826
2.12 4.4944 9.528 0.47170 1.4560 4.604 1.2846
2.13 4.5369 9.664 0.46948 1.4595 4.615 1.2866
2.14 4.5796 9*800 0.46729 1.4629 4.626 1.2887
2.15 4.6225 9.938 0.46512 1.4663 4.637 1.2907
2.16 4.6656 10.078 0.46296 1.4697 4.648 1.2927

2.17 4.7089 10.218 0.46083 1.4731 4.658 1.2947
2.18 4.7524 10.360 0.45872 1.4765 4.669 1.2966
2.19 4.7961 10.503 0.45662 1.4799 4.680 1.2986
2.20 4.8400 10.648 0.45455 1.4832 4.690 1.3006
2.21 4.8841 10.794 0.45249 1.4866 4.701 1.3026
2.22 4.9284 10.941 0.45045 1.4900 4.712 1.3045
2.23 4.9729 11.090 0.44843 1.4933 4.722 1.3065
2.24 5.0176 11.239 0.44643 1.4967 4.733 1.3084
2.2$ 5.0625 11.391 0.44444 1.5000 4.743 1.3104
2.26 5.1076 11.543 0.44248 1.5033 4.754 1.3123
2.27 5.1529 11.697 0.44053 1.5067 4.764 1*3142
2.28 5.1984 11.852 0.43860 1.5100 4.775 1.3162
2.29 5.2441 12.009 0.43668 1.5133 4.785 1.3181
2.30 5.2900 12.167 0.43478 1.5166 4.796 1*3200
2.31 5.3361 12.326 0.43290 1.5199 4.806 1*3219
2.32 5.3824 12.487 0.43103 1.5232 4.817 1*3238
2.33 5.4289 12.649 0.42918 1.5264 4.827 1.3257
2.34 5.4756 12.813 0.42735 1.5297 4.837 1*3276
2.35 5.5225 12.978 0.42553 1.5330 4.848 1*3295
2.36 5.5696 13.144 0.42373 1.5362 4.858 1*3314
2.37 5.6169 13.312 0.42194 1.5395 4.868 1*3333
2.38 5.6644 13.481 0.42017 1.5427 4.879 1*3351
2.39 5.7121 13.652 0.41841 1.5460 4.889 1*3370
2*40 5.7600 13.824 0.41667 1.5492 4.899 1*3389
2.41 5.8081 13.998 0.41494 1.5524 4.909 1*3407
2.42 5.8564 14.172 0.41322 1.5556 4.919 1.3426
2.43 5.9049 14.349 0.41152 1.5588 4.930 1*3444
2.44 5.9536 14.527 0.40984 1.5620 4.940 1*3463
2.45 6.0025 14.706 0.40816 1.5652 4.950 1*3481
2.46 6.0516 14.887 0.40650 1.5684 4.960 1*3499
2.47 6.1009 15.069 0.40486 1.5716 4.970 1*3518
2.48 6.1504 15.253 0.40323 1.5748 4.980 1.3536
2.49 6.2001 15.438 0.40161 1.5780 4.990 1*3554
2.50 6.2500 15.625 0.40000 1.5811 5.000 1.3572
r* r*
2.50 to 3.00
X v X
s
1
X l fm v;
.50 6.2500 15.625 0.40000 1.5811 5.000 1.3572
.51 6.3001 15.813 0.39841 1.5843 5.010 1,3590

.52 6.3504 16.003 0.39683 1.5875 5.020 1.3608
.53 6.4009 16.194 0.39526 1.5906 5.030 1.3626
.54 6.4516 16.387 0.39370 1.5937 5.040 1*3644
.55 6.5025 16.581 0.39216 1.5969 5.050 1.3662
56 6.5536 16.777 0.3906$ 1.6000 5.060 1.3680

.57 6.6049 16.975 0.38911 1.6031 5.070 1.3698
58 6.6564 17.174 0.38760 1.6062 5.079 1.3715
.59 6.7081 17.374 0.38610 1.6093 5.089 1.3733
.60 6.7600 17.576 0.38462 1.6125 5,099 1.3751
61 6.8121 17.780 0.38314 1.6155 5.109 1.3768

.62 6.8644 17.985 0.38168 1.6186 5.119 1.3786
.63 6.9169 18.191 0.38023 1.6217 5.128 1.3803
.64 6.9696 18.400 0.37879 1.6248 5.138 1.3821
.65 7.0225 18.610 0.37736 1.6279 5,148 1.3838
.66 7.0756 18.821 0.37594 1.6310 5.158 1.3856

.67 7.1289 19.034 0.37453 1.6340 5.167 1.3873
.68 7.1824 19.249 0.37313 1.6371 5.177 1.3890
69 7.2361 19.465 0.37175 1.6401 5.187 1.3908
.70 7.2900 19.683 0.37037 1.6432 5.196 1.3925
.71 7.3441 19.903 0.36900 1.6462 5.206 1.3942

.72 7.3984 20.124 0.36765 1.6492 5.215 1.3959
73 7.4529 20.346 0.36630 1.6523 5.225 1.3976
.74 7.5076 20.571 0.36496 1.6553 5.235 1.3993
.75 7.5625 20.797 0.36364 1.6583 5.244 1.4010
.76 7.6176 21.025 0.36232 1.6613 5.254 1.4027

.77 7.6729 21.254 0.36101 1.6643 S.263 1.4044
.78 7.7284 21.485 0.35971 1.6673 5.273 1.4061
.79 7.7841 21.718 0.35842 1.6703 5.282 1.4078
.80 7.8400 21.952 0.35714 1.6733 5.292 1.4095
.81 T.8961 22.188 0.35587 1.6763 5.301 1.4111

82 7.9524 22.426 0.35461 1.6793 5.310 1.4128
.83 8.0089 22.665 0.35336 1.6823 5.320 1.4145
84 8.0656 22.906 0.35211 1.6852 5.329 1.4161
85 8.1225 23.149 0.35088 1.6882 5.339 1.4178
.86 8.1796 23.394 0.34965 1.6912 5.348 1.4195

.87 8.2369 23.640 0.34843 1.6941 5.357 1.4211
.88 8.2944 23.888 0.34722 1.6971 5.367 1.4228
89 8.3521 24.138 0.34602 1.7000 5.376 1.4244
90 8.4100 24.389 0.34483 1.7029 5.385 1.4260
.91 8.4681 24.642 0.34364 1.7059 5.394 1.4277

.92 8.5264 24.897 0.34247 1.7088 5.404 1.4293
.93 8.5849 25.154 0.34130 1.7117 5.413 1.4309
.94 8.6436 25.412 0.34014 1.7146 5.422 1.4326
.95 8.7025 25.672 0.33898 1.7176 5.431 1.4342
.96 8.7616 25.934 0.33784 1.7205 5.441 1.4358

.97 8.8209 26.198 0.33670 1.7234 5.450 1.4374
.98 8.8804 26.464 0.33557 1.7263 5.459 1.4390
.99 8.9401 26.731 0.33445 1.7292 5.468 1.4406
.00 9.0000 27.000 0.33333 1.7321 5.477 1.4422
r* VZ
3.00 to 3.50
r* v;
1.00 9.0000 27.000 0.33333 1.7321 5.477 1.4422
3.01 9.0601 27.271 0.33223 1.7349 5.486 1.4439

9.02 9.1204 27.544 0.33113 1.7378 5.495 1.4454
1.03 9.1809 27.818 0.33003 1.7407 5.505 1.4470
3.04 9.2416 28.094 0.32895 1.7436 5.514 1.4486
3.05 9.3025 28.373 0.32787 1.7464 5.523 1.4502
3*06 9.3636 28.653 0.32680 1.7493 5.532 1.4518
3.07 9.4249 28.934 0.32573 1.7521 5.541 1.4534
3.08 9.4864 29.218 0.32468 1.7550 5.550 1.4550
3.09 9.5481 29.504 0.32362 1.7578 5.559 1.4565
3.10 9.6100 29.791 0.32258 1.7607 5.568 1.4581
3.11 9.6721 30.080 0.32154 1.7635 5.577 1.4597
3.12 9.7344 30.371 0.32051 1.7664 5-586 1.4612
3.13 9.7969 30.664 0.31949 1.7692 5.595 1.4628
3.1* 9.8596 30.959 0.31847 1.7720 5.604 1.4643
3.15 9.9225 31.256 0.31746 1.7748 5.612 1.4659
3.16 9.9856 31.554 0.31646 1.7776 5.621 1.4674
3.17 10.0489 31.855 0.31546 1.7804 5.630 1.4690
3.18 10.1124 32.157 0.31447 1.7833 5.639 1.4705
3.19 10.1761 32.462 0.31348 1.7861 5.648 1.4721
3.20 10.2400 32.768 0.31250 1.7889 5.657 1.4736
3.21 10.3041 33.076 0.31153 1.7916 5.666 1.4751
3.22 10.3684 33.386 0.31056 1.7944 5.675 1.4767
3.23 10.4329 33.698 0.30960 1.7972 5,683 1.4782
3.24 10.4976 34.012 0.30864 1.8000 5.692 1.4797
3.25 10.5625 34.328 0.30769 1.8028 5.701 1.4812
3.26 10.6276 34.646 0.30675 1.8055 5.710 1.4828
3.27 10.6929 34.966 0.30581 1.8083 5.718 1.4843
3.28 10.7584 35.288 0.30488 1.8111 5.727 1.4858
3.29 10.8241 35.611 0.30395 1.8138 5.736 1.4873
3*30 10.8900 35.937 0.30303 1.8166 5.745 1.4888
3.31 10.9561 36.265 0.30211 1.8193 5.753 1.4903
3.32 11.0224 36.594 0.30120 1.8221 5.762 1.4918
3.33 11*0889 36.926 0.30030 1.8248 5.771 1.4933
3.34 11.1556 37.260 0.29940 1.8276 5.779 1.4948
3.35 11.2225 37.595 0.29851 1.8303 5.788 1.4963
3.36 11.2896 37.933 0.29762 1.8330 5.797 1.4978
3.37 11.3569 38.273 0.29674 1.8358 5.805 1.4993
3.38 11.4244 38.614 0.29586 1*8385 5.814 1.5007
3.39 11.4921 38.958 0.29499 1.8412 5.822 1.5022
3.40 11.5600 39.304 0.29412 1.8439 5.831 1.5037
3.41 11.6281 39.652 0.29326 1*8466 5.840 1.5052
3.42 11.6964 40.002 0.29240 1*8493 5.848 1.5066
3.43 11.7649 40.354 0.29155 1.8520 5.857 1.5081
3*44 11.8336 40.708 0.29070 1.8547 5.865 1.5096
3.45 11*9025 41.064 0.28986 1.8574 5.874 1.5110
3.46 11.9716 41.422 0.28902 1.8601 5.882 1.5125
3.47 12.0409 41.782 0.28818 1.8628 5.891 1.5139
3.48 12.1104 42.144 0.28736 1.8655 5.899 1.5154
3.49 12.1801 42.509 0.28653 1.8682 5.908 1.5168
3.50 12.2500 42.87$ 0.2857} 1.8708 9.916 1.5183
Y^ v^ yi
3.50 to 4.00
1
X x X X Tx l/lOx Y*
3.50 12.2500 42.875 0.28571 1.8708 5.916 1.5183
3.51 12.3201 43.244 0.28490 1.8735 5.925 1.5197

3.52 12.3904 43.614 0.28409 1.8762 5.933 1.5212
3.53 12.4609 43.987 0.28329 1.8788 5.941 1.5226
3. 54 12.5316 44.362 0.28249 1.8815 5.950 1.5241
3.55 12.6025 44.739 0.28169 1.8841 5.958 1.5255
3.56 12.6736 45.118 0.28090 1.8868 5.967 1.5269

3.57 12.7449 45.499 0.28011 1.8894 5.975 1.5283
3.58 12.8164 45.883 0.27933 1.8921 5.983 1.5298
3.59 12.8881 46.268 0.27855 1.8947 5.992 1.5312
3.60 12.9600 46.656 0.27778 1.8974 6.000 1.5326
3.61 13.0321 47.046 0.27701 1.9000 6.008 1.5340

3.62 13.1044 47.438 0.27624 1.9026 6.017 1.5355
3.63 13.1769 47.832 0.27548 1.9053 6.025 1.5369
3.64 13.2496 48.229 0.27473 1.9079 6.033 1.5383
3.65 13.3225 48.627 0.27397 1.9105 6.042 1.5397
3.66 13.3956 49.028 0.27322 1.9131 6.050 1.5411

3.67 13.4689 49.431 0.27248 1.9157 6.058 1.5425
3.68 13.5424 49.836 0.27174 1.9183 6.066 1.5439
3.69 13.6161 50.243 0.27100 1.9209 6.075 1.5453
3.70 13.6900 50.653 0.27027 1.9235 6.083 1.5467
3.71 13.7641 51.065 0.26954 1.9261 6.091 1.5481

3.72 13.8384 51.479 0.26882 1.9287 6.099 1.5495
3.73 13.9129 51.895 0.26810 1.9313 6.107 1.5508
3.74 13.9876 52.314 0.26738 1.9339 6.116 1.5522
3.75 14.0625 52.734 0.26667 1.9365 6.124 1.5536
3.76 14,1376 53.157 0.26596 1.9391 6.132 1.5550

3.77 14.2129 53.583 0.26525 1.9416 6.140 1.5564
3.78 14.2884 54.010 0.26455 1.9442 6.148 1.5577
3.79 14.3641 54.440 0.26385 1.9468 6.156 1.5591
3.80 14.4400 54.872 0.26316 1.9494 6.164 1.5605
3.81 14.5161 55.306 0.26247 1.9519 6.173 1.5619

3.82 14.5924 55.743 0.26178 1.9545 6.181 1.5632
3.83 14.6689 56.182 0.26110 1.9570 6.189 1.5646
3*84 14.7456 56.623 0.26042 1.9596 6.197 1.5659
3.85 14.8225 57.067 0.25974 1.9621 6.205 1.5673
3.86 14.8996 57.512 0.25907 1.9647 6.213 1.5687

3.87 14.9769 57.961 0.25840 1.9672 6.221 1.5700
3.88 15.0544 58.411 0.25773 1.9698 6.229 1.5714
3.89 15.1321 58.864 0.25707 1.9723 6.237 1.5727
3.90 15.2100 59.319 0*25641 1.9748 6.245 1.5741
3.91 15.2881 59.776 0.25575 1.9774 6.253 1.5754

3.92 15.3664 60.236 0.25510 1.9799 6.261 1.5767
3.93 15.4449 60.698 0.25445 1.9824 6.269 1.5781
3.94 15.5236 61.163 0.25381 1.9849 6.277 1.5794
3.95 15.6025 61.630 0.25316 1.9875 6.285 1.5808
3.96 15.6816 62.099 0.25253 1.9900 6.293 1.5821

3.97 15.7609 62.571 0.25189 1.9925 6.301 1.5834
3.98 15.8404 63.045 0.25126 1.9950 6.309 1.5848
3.99 15.9201 63.521 0.25063 1.9975 6.317 1.5861
4.00 16.0000 64.000 0.25000 2.0000 6.325 1.5874
Y~x VTOx" Vx"

4.00 h> 4.50
x fx VTo^ %
4*00 16.0000 64.000 0.25000 2.0000 6.325 1.5874
4*01 16.0801 64.481 0.24938 2.0025 6.332 1.5887

4.02 16.1604 64.965 0.24876 2.0050 6.340 1.5900
4*03 16.2409 65.451 0.24814 2.0075 6.348 1.5914
4*04 16.3216 65.939 0.24752 2.0100 6.356 1.5927
4.03 16.4023 66.430 0.24691 2.0125 6.364 1.5940
4.06 16.4836 66.923 0.24631 2.0149 6.372 1.5953
4.07 16.5649 67.419 0.24570 2.0174 6.380 1.5966
4.08 16.6464 67.917 0.24510 2.0199 6.387 1.5979
4.09 16.7281 68.418 0.24450 2.0224 6.395 1.5992
4.10 16.8100 68.921 0.24390 2.0248 6.403 1.6005
4.11 16.8921 69.427 0.24331 2.0273 6.411 1.6018
4.12 16.9744 69.935 0.24272 2.0298 6.419 1.6031
4.13 17.0569 70.445 0.24213 2.0322 6.427 1.6044
4.14 17.1396 70.958 0.24155 2.0347 6.434 1.6057
4.15 17.2225 71.473 0.24096 2.0372 6.442 1.6070
4.16 17.3056 71.991 0.24038 2.0396 6.450 1.6083

4.17 17.3889 72.512 0.23981 2.0421 6.458 1.6096
4.18 17.4724 73.035 0.23923 2.0445 6.465 1.6109
4.19 17.5561 73.560 0.23866 2.0469 6.473 1.6121
4.20 17.6400 74.088 0.23810 2.0494 6.481 1.6134
4.21 17.7241 74.618 0.23753 2.0518 6.488 1.6147
4.22 17.8084 75.151 0.23697 2.0543 6.496 1.6160
4.23 17.8929 75.687 0.23641 2.0567 6.504 1.6173
4.24 17.9776 76.225 0.23589 2.0591 6.512 1.6185
4.29 18.0625 76.766 0.23529 2.0616 6.519 1.6198
4.26 18.1476 77.309 0.23474 2.0640 6.527 1.6211
4.27 18.2329 77.854 0.23419 2.0664 6.535 1.6223
4.28 18.3184 78.403 0.23364 2.0688 6.542 1.6236
4.29 18.4041 78.954 0.23310 2.0712 6.550 1.6249
4.30 18.4900 79.507 0.23256 2.0736 6.557 1.6261
4.31 18.5761 80.063 0.23202 2.0761 6.565 1.6274
4.32 18.6624 80.622 0.23148 2.0785 6.573 1.6287
4.33 18.7489 81.183 0.23095 2.0809 6.580 1.6299
4.34 18.8356 81.747 0.23041 2.0833 6.588 1.6312
4.35 18.9225 82.313 0.22989 2.0857 6.595 1.6324
4.36 19.0096 82.882 0.22936 2.0881 6.603 1.6337
4.37 19.0969 83.453 0.22883 2.0905 6.611 1.6349
4.38 19.1844 84.028 0.22831 2.0928 6.618 1.6362
4.39 19.2721 84.605 0.22779 2.0952 6.626 1.6374
4.40 19.3600 85.184 0.22727 2.0976 6.633 1.6386
4.41 19.4481 85.766 0.22676 2.1000 6.641 1.6399
4.42 19.5364 86.351 0.22624 2.1024 6.648 1.6411
4.43 19.6249 86.938 0.22573 2.1048 6.656 1.6424
4.44 19.7136 87.528 0.22523 2.1071 6.663 1.6436
4.45 19.8025 88.121 0.22472 2.1095 6.671 1.6448
4.46 19.8916 88.717 0.22422 2.1119 6.678 1.6461
4.47 19.9809 89.315 0.22371 2.1142 6.686 1.6473
4.48 20.0704 89.913 0.22321 2.1166 6.693 1.6485
4.49 20.1601 90.519 0.22272 2.1190 6.701 1.6497
4.90 20.2500 91.125 0.22222 2.1213 6.708 1.6510
yx yTox" Yx
4.50 to 5.00
3
r* iox y*
4.50 20.2500 91.125 0.22222 2.1213 6.708 1.6510
4.91 20.3401 91.734 0.22173 2.1237 6.716 1.6522

4.52 20.4304 92.345 0.22124 2.1260 6.723 1.6534
4*53 20.5209 92.960 0.22075 2.1284 6.731 1.6546
4.54 20.6116 93.577 0.22026 2.1307 6.738 1.6558
4.55 20.7025 94.196 0.21978 2.1331 6.745 1.6571
4.56 20.7936 94.819 0.21930 2.1354 6.753 1.6583

4.57 20.8849 95.444 0.21882 2.1378 6.760 1.6595
4.58 20.9764 96.072 0.21834 2.1401 6.768 1.6607
4.59 21.0681 96.703 0.21786 2.1424 6.775 1.6619
4.60 21.1600 97.336 0.21739 2.1448 6.782 1.6631
4.61 21.2521 97.972 0.21692 2.1471 6.790 1.6643

4.62 21.3444 98.611 0.21645 2.1494 6.797 1.6655
4.63 21.4369 99.253 0.21598 2.1517 6.804 1.6667
4.64 21.5296 99.897 0.21552 2.1541 6.812 1.6679
4.65 21.6225 100.545 0.21505 2.1564 6.819 1.6691
4.66 21.7156 101.195 0.21459 2.1587 6.826 1.6703

4.67 21.8089 101.848 0.21413 2.1610 6.834 1.6715
4.68 21.9024 102.503 0.21368 2.1633 6.841 1.6727
4.69 21.9961 103.162 0.21322 2.1656 6.848 1.6739
4.70 22.0900 103.823 0.21277 2.1679 6.856 1.6751
4.71 22.1841 104.487 0.21231 2.1703 6.863 1.6763

4.72 22.2784 105.154 0.21186 2.1726 6.870 1.6774
4.73 22.3729 105.824 0.21142 2.1749 6.877 1.6786
4.74 22.4676 106.496 0.21097 2.1772 6.885 1.6798
4.75 22.5625 107.172 0*21053 2.1794 6.892 1.6810
4.76 22.6576 107.850 0.21008 2.1817 6.899 1.6822

4.77 22.7529 108.531 0.20964 2.1840 6.907 1.6833
4.78 22.8484 109.215 0.20921 2.1863 6.914 1.6845
4.79 22.9441 109.902 0.20877 2.1886 6.921 1.6857
4.80 23.0400 110.592 0.20833 2.1909 6.928 1.6869
4.81 23.1361 111.285 0.20790 2.1932 6.935 1.6880

4.82 23.2324 111.980 0.20747 2.1954 6.943 1.6892
4.83 23.3289 112.679 0.20704 2.1977 6.950 1.6904
4.84 23.4256 113.380 0.20661 2.2000 6.957 1.6915
4.85 23.5225 114.084 0.20619 2.2023 6.964 1.6927
4.86 23.6196 114.791 0.20576 2.2045 6.971 1.6939

4.87 23.7169 115.501 0.20534 2.2068 6.979 1.6950
4.88 23.8144 116.214 0.20492 2.2091 6.986 1.6962
4.89 23.9121 116.930 0.20450 2.2113 6.993 1.6973
4.90 24.0100 117.649 0.20408 2.2136 7.000 1.6985
4.91 24.1081 118.371 0.20367 2.2159 7.007 1.6997

4.92 24.2064 119.095 0.20325 2.2181 7.014 1.7008
4.93 24.3049 119.823 0.20284 2.2204 7.021 1.7020
4.94 24.4036 120.554 0.20243 2.2226 7.029 1.7031
4.95 24.5025 121.287 0.20202 2.2249 7.036 1.7043
4.96 24.6016 122.024 0r20161 2.2271 7.043 1.7034

24.7009 122.763 0.20121 2.2293 7.050 1.7065
4.97
24.8004 123.506 0.20080 2.2316 7.057 1.7077
4.98
4.99 24.9001 124.251 0.20040 2.2338 7.064 1.7088
29.0000 125.000 0.20000 2.2361 7.071 1.7100
5*00
1
r* Y*
5.00 to 5.50
V^
5.00 25.0000 125.000 0.20000 2.2361 7.071 1.7100
5.01 25.1001 125.752 0.19960 2.2383 7.078 1.7111

5.02 25.2004 126.506 0.19920 2.2405 7.085 1.7123
5.03 25.3009 127.264 0.19881 2.2428 7.092 1.7134
5.04 25.4016 128.024 0*19841 2.2450 7.099 1.7145
5.05 25.5025 128.788 0.19802 2.2472 7.106 1.7157
5.06 25.6036 129.554 0.19763 2.2494 7.113 1.7168

5.07 25.7049 130.324 0.19724 2.2517 7.120 1.7179
5.06 25.8064 131.097 0.19685 2.2539 7.127 1.7190
5.09 25.9081 131.872 0.19646 2.2561 7.134 1.7202
5.10 26.0100 132.651 0.19608 2.2583 7.141 1.7213
5.11 26.1121 133.433 0.19569 2.2605 7.148 1.7224

5.12 26.2144 134.218 0.19531 2.2627 7.155 1.7235
5.13 26.3169 135.006 0.19493 2.2650 7.162 1.7247
5.14 26.4196 135.797 0.19455 2.2672 7.169 1.7258
5.15 26.5225 136.591 0.19417 2.2694 7.1.76 1.7269
5*16 26.6256 137.388 0.19380 2.2716 7.183 1.7280

5.17 26.7289 138.188 0.19342 2.2738 7.190 1.7291
5.18 26.8324 138.992 0.19305 2.2760 7.197 1.7303
5.19 26.9361 139.798 0.19268 2.2782 7.204 1.7314
5.20 27.0400 140.608 0.19231 2.2804 7.211 1.7325
5.21 27.1441 141.421 0.19194 2.2825 7.218 1.7336

5.22 27.2484 142.237 0.19157 2.2847 7.225 1.7347
5.23 27.3529 143.056 0.19120 2.2869 7.232 1.7358
5.24 27.4576 143.878 0.19084 2.2891 7.239 1.7369
5.25 27.5625 144.703 0.19048 2.2913 7.246 1.7380
5.26 27.6676 145.532 0.19011 2.2935 7.253 1.7391

5.27 27.7729 146.363 0.18975 2.2956 7.259 1.7402
5.28 27.8784 147.198 0.18939 2.2978 7.266 1.7413
5.29 27.9841 148.036 0.18904 2.3000 7.273 1.7424
5.30 28.0900 148.877 0.18868 2.3022 7.280 1.7435
5.31 28.1961 149.721 0.18832 2.3043 7.287 1.7446

5.32 28.3024 150.569 0.18797 2.3065 7.294 1.7457
5.33 28.4089 151.419 0.18762 2.3087 7.301 1.7468
5.34 28.5156 152.273 0.18727 2.3108 7.308 1.7479
5.35 28.6225 153.130 0.18692 2.3130 7.314 1.7490
5.36 28.7296 153.991 0.18657 2.3152 7.321 1.7501

5.37 28.8369 154.854 0.18622 2.3173 7.328 1.7512
5.38 28.9444 155.721 0.18587 2.3195 7.335 1.7522
5.39 29.0521 156.591 0.18553 2.3216 7.342 1.7533
5.40 29.1600 157.464 0.18519 2.3238 7.348 1.7544
5.41 29.2681 158.340 0.18484 2.3259 7.355 1.7555

5.42 29.3764 159.220 0.18450 2.3281 7.362 1.7566
5.43 29.4849 160.103 0.18416 2.3302 7.369 1.7577
5*44 29.5936 160.989 0.18382 2.3324 7.376 1.7587
5.45 29.7025 161.879 0.18349 2.3345 7.382 1.7598
5.46 29.8116 162.771 0.18315 2.3367 7.389 1.7609

5.47 29.9209 163.667 0.18282 2.3388 7.396 1.7620
5.48 30.0304 164.567 0.18248 2.3409 7.403 1.7630
5.49 30.1401 165.469 0.18215 2.3431 7.409 1.7641
5.50 30.2500 166.375 0.18182 2.3452 7.416 1*7652
Y~* r*
5.50 to 6.00
1
1
X x X X r* l/JOx" v=
9*50 30.2500 166.375 0.18182 2.3452 7.416 1.7652
5.51 30.3601 167.284 0.18149 2.3473 7.423 1.7662

5.52 30.4704 168.197 0.18116 2.3495 7.430 1.7673
5.53 30.5809 169.112 0.18083 2.3516 7.436 1.7684
5.54 30.6916 170.031 0.18051 2.3537 7.443 1.7694
5*55 30.8025 170.954 0.18018 2.3558 7.450 1.7705
5.56 30.9136 171.680 0.17986 2.3580 7.457 1.7716

5.57 31.0249 172.809 0.17953 2.3601 7.463 1.7726
5.58 31.1364 173.741 0.17921 2.3622 7.470 1.7737
5.59 31.2481 174.677 0.17889 2.3643 7.477 1.7748
5.60 31.3600 175.616 0.17857 2.3664 7.483 1.7758
5.61 31.4721 176.558 0.17825 2.3685 7.490 1.7769

5.62 31.5844 177.504 0.17794 2.3707 7.497 1.7779
5.63 31.6969 178.454 0.17762 2.3728 7.503 1.7790
5.64 31.8096 179.406 0.17730 2.3749 7.510 1.7800
5*65 31.9225 180.362 0.17699 2.3770 7,517 1.7811
5.66 32.0356 181.321 0.17668 2.3791 7.523 1.7821

5.67 32.1489 182.284 0.17637 2.3812 7.530 1.7832
5.68 32.2624 183.250 0.17606 2.3833 7.537 1.7842
5*69 32.3761 184.220 0.17575 2.3854 7.543 1.7853
5.70 32.4900 185.193 0.17544 2.3875 7.550 1.7863
5.71 32.6041 186.169 0.17513 2.3396 7.556 1.7874

5.72 32.718* 187.149 0.17483 2.3917 7.563 1.7884
5.73 32.8329 188.133 0.17452 2.3937 7.570 1.7894
5.74 32.9476 189.119 0.17422 2.3958 7.576 1.7905
5.75 33.0625 190.109 0.17391 2.3979 7.583 1.7915
5.76 33.1776 191.103 0.17361 2.4000 7.589 1.7926

5.77 33.2929 192.100 0.17331 2.4021 7.596 1.7936
5.78 33.4084 193.101 0.17301 2.4042 7.603 1.7946
5.79 33.5241 194.105 0.17271 2.4062 7.609 1.7957
5.80 33.6400 195.112 0.17241 2.4083 7.616 1.7967
5.81 33.7561 196.123 0.17212 2.4104 7.622 1.7977

5.82 33.8724 197.137 0.17182 2.4125 7.629 1.7988
5.83 33.9889 198.155 0.17153 2.4145 7.635 1.7998
5.84 34.1056 199.177 0.17123 2.4166 7.642 1.8008
5*85 34.2225 200.202 0.17094 2.4187 7.649 1.8018
5.' 86 34.3396 201.230 0.17065 2.4207 7.655 1.8029
5.87 34.4569 202.262 0.17036 2.4228 7.662 1.8039
5.88 34.5744 203.297 0.17007 2.4249 7,668 1.8049
5.89 34.6921 204.336 0.16978 2.4269 7.675 1.8059
5.90 34.8100 205.379 0.16949 2.4290 7.681 1.8070
5.91 34.9281 206.423 0.16920 2.4310 7.688 1.8080
5.92 35.0464 207.475 0.16892 2.4331 7,694 1.8090
5.93 35*1649 208.528 0.16863 2.4352 7.701 1.8100
5.94 35.2836 209.585 0.16835 2.4372 7.707 1.6110
5.95 35.4025 210.645 0.16807 2.4393 7.714 1.8121
5.96 35.5216 211.709 0.16779 2.4413 7.720 1.8131

5.97 35.6409 212.776 0.16750 2.4434 7.727 1.6141
5.98 35.7604 213.847 0.16722 2.4454 7.733 1.8151
5*99 35.8801 214.922 0.16694 2.4474 7.740 1.8161
6.0Q 36.0000 216.000 0.16667 2.4495 7.746 1.8171
r* Y*
6.00 to 6.50
1
3
X x> X X fx yiox V"x
6*00 36* 0000 216* 000 0*16667 2,4495 7,746 1,8171
6*01 36. 1201 217. 082 0.16639 2,4515 7.752 1,8181

6.02 36. 2404 218. 167 0.16611 2.4536 7.759 1,8191
6*03 36. 3609 219. 256 0.16584 2.4556 7.765 1,8201
6.04 36. 4816 220. 349 0.16556 2.4576 7.772 1.8211
6*05 36. 6025 221. 445 0,16529 2.4597 7.778 1,8222
6*06 36. 7236 222. 545 0.16502 2.4617 7.785 1.8232

6.07 36. 8449 223. 649 0.16474 2.4637 7.791 1.8242
6.08 36. 9664 224. 756 0.16447 2.4658 7.797 1*8252
6.09 37. 0881 225. 867 0.16420 2.4678 7.804 1.8262
6.10 37. 2100 226. 981 0.16393 2.4698 7.810 1.8272
6.11 37. 3321 228. 099 0.16367 2.4718 7.817 1*8282

6.12 37. 4544 229. 221 0.16340 2.4739 7.823 1.8292
6.13 37. 5769 230. 346 0.16313 2.4759 7.829 1.8302
6.14 37. 6996 231. 476 0.16287 2.4779 7.836 1.8311
6*15 37. 8225 232. 608 0,16260 2.4799 7.842 1.8321
6.16 37, 9456 233. 745 0.16234 2.4819 7.849 1.8331

6.17 38. 0689 234, 885 0.16207 2.4839 7.855 1.8341
6.18 38. 1924 236.,029 0.16181 2*4860 7.861 1.8351
6.19 38i 3161 237,,177 0.16155 2.4880 7.868 1.8361
6*20 38. 4400 238,,328 0.16129 2,4900 7.874 1.8371
6.21 38. 5641 239 ,483 0.16103 2,4920 7.880 1.8381

6.22 38. 6884 240 ,642 0.16077 2.4940 7.887 1.8391
6.23 38. 8129 241 ,804 0.16-051 2.4960 7.893 1.8400
6.24 38.,9376 242 .971 0.16026 2.4980 7.899 1.8410
6.25 39..0625 244 .141 0,16000 2,5000 7,906 1.8420
6.26 39 ,1876 245 .314 0,15974 2.5020 7.912 1.8430

6.27 39 .3129 246 .492 0.15949 2.5040 7,918 1.8440
6.28 39 .4384 247 .673 0.15924 2.5060 7.925 1.8450
6.29 39, 5641
248 .858 0.15898 2,5080 7.931 1.8459
6.30 39 ,6900 250 ,047 0,15873 2,5100 7.937 1.8469
6.31 39 .8161 251 .240 0.15848 2.5120 7,944 1.8479

6.32 39 .9424 252 .436 0.15823 2.5140 7.950 1.8489
6.33 40 .0689 253 .636 0.15798 2.5159 7.956 1.8498
6.34 40 .1956 254 .840 0.15773 2.5179 7.962 1.8508
6.35 40 .3225 256 048 0,15748 2.5199 7,969 1.8518
6.36 40 .4496 257 .259 0.15723 2.5219 7.975 1,8528

6.37 40 .5769 258 .475 0.15699 2.5239 7.981 1.8537
6.38 40 .7044 259 694 0.15674 2.5259 7.987 1.8547
6.39 40 .8321 260 .917 0.15649 2.5278 7.994 1.8557
6.40 40 9600 262 .144 0,15625 2.5298 8.000 1.8566
6.41 41 .0881 263 .375 0.15601 2.5318 8.006 1.8576

6.42 41 2164 264 .609 0.15576 2.5338 8.012 1.8586
6.43 41 .3449 265 848 0.15552 2,5357 8.019 1.8595
6.44 41 .4736 267 090 0,15528 2.5377 8.025 1.8605
6.45 41 6025 268 336 0,15504 2.5397 8.031 1,8615
6*46 *1 .7316 269 586 0,15480 2.5417 8.037 1.8624

6.47 41 8609 270 840 0,15456 2.5436 8.044 1.8634
6.48 41 9904 272 .098 0.15432 2.5456 8.050 1.8643
6.49 42 .1201 273 .359 0.15408 2.5475 8.056 1*8653
6*50 42 ,2500 274 625 0.15385 2.5495 8.062 1.8663
1
X *> X* X y= l/Tox V;
6..50 to 7.00
3
X X* X yaox Vx
X r*
6*50 42.2500 274.625 0.15385 2.5495 8.062 1.8663
6*51 42.3801 275.894 0.15361 2.5515 8.068 1.8672
6.52 42.5104 277.168 0.15337 2.5534 8.075 1.8682
6. S3 42.6409 278.445 0.15314 2.5554 8.081 1.8691
6.54 42.7716 279.726 0.15291 2.5573 8.087 1.8701
6.55 42.9025 281.011 0.15267 2.5593 8.093 1.8710
6.56 43.0336 282.300 0.15244 2.5612 8.099 1.8720
6.57 43.1649 283.593 0.15221 2.5632 8.106 1.8729
6.58 43.2964 284.890 0.15198 2.5652 8.112 1.8739
6.59 43.4281 286.191 0.15175 2.5671 8.118 1.8748
6.60 43.5600 287.496 0.15152 2.5690 8.124 1.8758
6.61 43.6921 288.805 0.15129 2.5710 8.130 1.8767
6.62 43.8244 290.118 0.15106 2.5729 8.136 1.8777
6.63 43.9569 291.434 0.15083 2.5749 8.142 1.8786
6.64 44.0896 292.755 0.15060 2.5768 8.149 1.8796
6.65 44.2225 294.080 0.15038 2.5788 8.155 1.8805
6.66 44.3556 295.408 0,15015 2.5807 8.161 1.8814
6.67 44.4689 296.741 0,14993 2.5826 8.167 1.8824
6.68 44.6224 298.078 0.14970 2.5846 8.173 1.8833
6.69 44.7561 299.418 0.14948 2.5865 8,179 1.8843
6.70 44.8900 300.763 0.14925 2.5884 8,165 1.8852
6.71 45.0241 302.112 0.14903 2.5904 8,191 1.8861
6.72 45.1584 303.464 0.14881 2.5923 8.198 1.8871
6.73 45.2929 304.821 0.14859 2.5942 8.204 1.8880
6.74 45.4276 306.182 0.14837 2.5962 8.210 1.8889
6.75 45.5625 307.547 0.14815 2.5981 8.216 1.8899
6.76 45.6976 308.916 0.14793 2.6000 8.222 1.8908
6.77 45.8329 310.289 0.14771 2.6019 8.228 1.8917
6.78 45.9684 311.666 0.14749 2.6038 8.234 1.8927
6.79 46.1041 313.047 0.14728 2.6058 8.240 1.8936
6*80 46*2400 314,432 0.14706 2.6077 6.246 1.8945
6.81 46.3761 315.821 0.14684 2.6096 8.252 1.8955
6.82 46.5124 317.215 0.14663 2.6115 8.258 1.8964
6.83 46.6489 318.612 0.14641 2.6134 8.264 1.8973
6.84 46.7856 320.014 0.14620 2.6153 8.270 1.8982
6.85 46.9225 321.419 0.14599 2.6173 8.276 1.8992
6.86 47.0596 322.829 0.14577 2.6192 8.283 1.9001
6.87 47.1969 324.243 0.14556 2.6211 8.289 1.9010
6.88 47.3344 325.661 0.14535 2,6230 8.295 1.9019
6.89 47.4721 327.083 0.14514 2.6249 8.301 1.9029
6*90 47.6100 328.509 0.14493 2.6268 8,307 1.9038
6.91 7,7481 329,939 0.14472 2.6287 8.313 1.9047
6.92 47.8864 331.374 0.14451 2.6306 8.319 1.9056
6.93 48.0249 332.813 0.14430 2.6325 8.325 1.9065
6.94 48.1636 334.255 0.14409 2.6344 8.331 1.9075
6*95 48*3025 335.702 0.14388 2.6363 8.337 1.9084
6.96 48.4416 337.154 0.14368 2,6382 8.343 1.9093
6.97 48.5809 338.609 0.14347 2.6401 8.349 1.9102
6*98 48.7204 340.068 0.14327 2,6420 8.355 1.9111
6.99 48.8601 341.532 0.14306 2,6439 8,361 1.9120
7*00 49.0000 343.000 0,14286 2.6458 8.367 1.9129
x
fa fm 7^
7.00 to 7.50
1
X x
J
x
X r* l/Tox" v;
7.00 49.0000 343.000 ,14286 2.6458 8.367 1 .9129
7.01 49 .1401 344.472 ,14265 2.6476 8.373 1 .9138

7.02 49 .2804 345.948 ,14245 2.6495 8.379 1 .9148
7.03 49 .4209 347.429 ,14225 2.6514 6.385 1 .9157
7.04 49 .5616 348.914 ,14205 2.6533 8.390 1 9166
7.05 49 ,7025 350.403 ,14184 2.6552 8.396 1 .9175
7.06 49 .8436 351.696 ,14164 2.6571 8.402 1 .9184

7.07 49 .9849 353.393 ,14144 2.6589 8.408 1 .9193
7.08 50 ,1264 354.895 ,14124 2.6608 8.414 1 .9202
7.09 50 ,2681 356.401 .0 ,14104 2.6627 8.420 1 .9211
7.10 50.,4100 357.911 ,14085 2.6646 8.426 1 .9220
7.11 50. 5521 359.425 ,14065 2.6665 8.432 1 ,9229

7.12 50. 6944 360.944 ,14045 2.6683 8.438 1 ,9238
7.13 50 ,8369 362.467 0, 14025 2.6702 8.444 1 ,9247
7.14 50. 9796 363.994 ,14006 2.6721 8.450 1 ,9256
7.15 51.,1225 365.526 ,13986 2.6739 8.456 1 ,9265
7.16 51. 2656 367.062 ,13966 2.6758 8.462 1 ,9274

7.17 51 ,4089 368.602 ,13947 2.6777 8.468 1 ,9283
7.18 51 ,5524 370.146 13928 2.6796 8.473 1 ,9292
7.19 51. 6961 371.695 ,13908 2.6814 8.479 1 ,9301
7.20 51.,8400 373.248 ,13889 2.6833 8.485 1 ,9310
7.21 51.,9841 374.805 ,13870 2.6851 8.491 1 ,9319

7.22 52 ,1284 376.367 ,13850 2.6870 8.497 1 ,9328
7.23 52.,2729 377.933 ,13831 2.6889 8.503 1 .9337
7.24 52 ,4176 379.503 ,13812 2.6907 8.509 1 .9345
7.25 52.,5625 381.078 ,13793 2.6926 8.515 1 .9354
7.26 52.,7076 382.657 ,13774 2.6944 8.521 1 .9363

7.27 52 ,8529 384.241 ,13755 2.6963 8.526 1 .9372
7.28 52.,9984 385.828 13736 2.6981 8.532 1 .9381
7.29 53.,1441 387.420 ,13717 2.7000 8.538 1 .9390
7.30 53. 2900 389.017 ,13699 2.7019 8.544 1 .9399
7.31 53. 4361 390.618 0, 13680 2.7037 8.550 1 ,9408

7.32 53, 5824 392.223 ,13661 2.7055 8.556 1 ,9416
7.33 53. 7289 393.833 ,13643 2.7074 8.562 1 ,9425
7.34 53, 8756 395.447 ,13624 2.7092 8.567 1 ,9434
7.35 54,,0225 397.065 ,13605 2.7111 8.573 1 .9443
7.36 54,,1696 398.688 ,13587 2.7129 8.579 1 ,9452

7.37 54, 3169 400.316 ,13569 2.7148 8.585 1 .9461
7.38 54, 4644 401.947 0,,13550 2.7166 8.591 1 .9469
7.39 54, 6121 403.583 ,13532 2.7185 8.597 1 ,9478
7.40 54, 7600 405.224 ,13514 2.7203 8.602 1 ,9487
7.41 54, 9081 406.869 0,,13495 2.7221 8.608 1 ,9496

7.42 55, 0564 408.518 0.,13477 2.7240 8.614 1 ,9504
7.43 55, 2049 410.172 0. 13459 2.7258 8.620 1 ,9513
7.44 55. 3536 411.831 0,,13441 2.7276 8.626 1 ,9322
7.45 55. 5025 413.494 0,,13423 2.7295 8.631 1 ,9531
7.46 55, 6516 415.161 ,13405 2.7313 8.637 1 ,9539

7.47 55, 8009 416.833 0. 13387 2.7331 8.643 1 ,9548
7.48 55. 9504 418.509 0. 13369 2.7350 8.649 1 ,9557
7.49 56. 1001 420.190 0. 13351 2.7368 8.654 1.,9566
7.50 56. 2500 421.875 0. 13333 2.7386 6.660 1.,9574
1
'10x
7.50 to 8.00
1 I yTox" ]/x
X X X> X r
7.50 56.2500 421.875 0.13333 2.7386 8.660 i.9574
7.31 56.4001 423.565 0.13316 2.7404 8.666 1.9583

7.52 56.5504 425.259 0.13298 2.7423 8.672 1.9592
7.53 56.7009 426.958 0.13280 2.7441 8.678 1.9600
7.54 56.8516 428.661 0.13263 2.7459 8.683 1.9609
7.55 57.0025 430.369 0.13245 2.7477 8.689 1.9618
7.56 57.1536 432.081 0.13228 2.7495 8.693 1.9626

7.57 57.3049 433.798 0.13210 2.7514 8.701 1.9635
7.58 57.4564 435.520 0.13193 2.7532 8.706 1.9644
7.59 57.6081 437.245 0.13175 2.7550 8.712 1.9652
7.60 57.7600 438.976 0.13158 2.7568 8.718 1.9661
7.61 57.9121 440.711 0.13141 2.7586 8.724 1.9670

7.62 58.0644 442.451 0.13123 2.7604 8.729 1.9678
7.63 58.2169 444.195 0.13106 2.7622 8.735 1.9687
7.6* 58.3696 445.944 0.13089 2.7641 8.741 1.9695
7.65 58.5225 447.697 0.13072 2.7659 8.746 1.9704
7.66 58.6756 449.455 0.13055 2.7677 8.752 1.9713

7.67 58.8289 451.218 0.13038 2.7695 8.758 1.9721
7.68 58.9824 452.985 0.13021 2.7713 8.764 1.9730
7.69 59.1361 454.757 0.13004 2.7731 8.769 1.9738
7.70 59.2900 456.533 0.12987 2.7749 8.775 1.9747
7.71 59.4441 458.314 0.12970 2.7767 8.781 1.9755

7.72 59.5984 460.100 0.12953 2.7785 8.786 1.9764
7.73 59.7529 461.890 0.12937 2.7803 8.792 1.9772
7.74 59.9076 463.685 0.12920 2.7821 8.798 1.9781
7.75 60.0625 465.484 0.12903 2.7839 8.803 1.9789
7.76 60.2176 467.289 0.12887 2.7857 8.809 1.9798

7.77 60.3729 469.097 0.12870 2.7875 8.815 1.9806
7.78 60.5284 470.911 0.12853 2.7893 8.820 1.9815
7.79 60.6841 472.729 0.12837 2.7911 8.826 1.9823
7.80 60.8400 474.552 0.12821 2.7928 8.832 1.9832
7.81 60.9961 476.380 0.12804 2.7946 8.837 1.9840

7.82 61.1524 478.212 0.12788 2.7964 8.843 1.9849
7.83 61.3089 480.049 0.12771 2.7982 6.849 1.9857
7.84 61.4656 481.890 0.12755 2.8000 8.854 1.9866
7.85 61.6225 483.737 0.12739 2.8018 8.860 1.9874
7.86 61.7796 483.588 0.12723 2.8036 8.866 1.9883

7.87 61.9369 487.443 0.12706 2.8054 8.871 1.9891
7.88 62.0944 489.304 0.12690 2.8071 8.877 1.9899
7.89 62.2521 491.169 0.12674 2.8089 8.683 1.9908
7.90 62.4100 493.039 0.12658 2.8107 6.888 1.9916
7.91 62.5681 494.914 0.12642 2.8125 8.894 1.9925

7.92 62.7264 496.793 0.12626 2.8142 8.899 1.9933
7.93 62.8849 498.677 0.12610 2.8160 8.905 1.9941
7.94 63.0436 500.566 0.12594 2*8178 8.911 1.9950
7.95 63.2025 502.460 0.12579 2.8196 8.916 1.9958
7.96 63.3616 504.356 0.12563 2.8213 8.922 1.9967

7.97 63.5209 506.262 0.12547 2.8231 8.927 1.9975
7.98 63.6804 508.170 0.12531 2.8249 8.933 1.9983
7.99 63.8401 510.082 0.12516 2.8267 8.939 1.9992
8.00 64.0000 512.000 0.12500 2.8284 8.944 2.0000
v;
8.00 to 8.50
1
X x* x
X fx yTb^ V:
8.00 64.0000 512.000 .12500 2.8284 8.944 2 0000
8*01 64.1601 513.922 .12484 2.8302 8.950 2 .0008

8.02 64.3204 515.850 .12469 2.8320 8.955 2 .0017
8*03 64.4809 517.782 .12453 2.8337 8.961 2 .0025
8*04 64.6416 519.718 .12438 2.8355 8.967 2 .0033
8.05 64.8025 521.660 .12422 2.8373 8.972 2 .0042
8.06 64.9636 523.607 .12407 2.8390 8.978 2 .0050

8.07 65.124? 525.558 .12392 2.8408 8.983 2 .0058
8.08 65.2864 527.514 .12376 2.8425 8.989 2 .0066
8*09 65.4481 529.475 .12361 2.8443 8.994 2 0075
8.10 65.6100 531.441 .12346 2.8460 9.000 2 .0083
8.11 65.7721 533.412 0,12330 2.8478 9.006 2..0091
8.12 65.9344 535.387 0,.12315 2.8496 9.011 2..0100
8.13 66.0969 537.368 0. 12300 2.8513 9.017 2. 0108
8.14 66.2596 539.353 0.12285 2.8531 9.022 2..0116
8.19 66.4225 541.343 0,12270 2.8548 9.028 2..0124
8.16 66.5856 543.338 12255 2.8566 9.033 2..0132

8.17 66.7489 545.339 ,12240 2.8583 9.039 2 .0141
8.18 66.9124 547.343 12225 2.8601 9.044 2 .0149
8.19 67.0761 549.353 0..12210 2.8618 9.050 2 .0157
8.20 67.2400 551.368 .12195 2.8636 9.055 2 .0165
8.21 67.4041 553.388 0<,12180 2.8653 9.061 2..0173

8.22 67.5684 555.412 12165 2.8671 9.066 2 .0182
8.23 67.7329 557.442 0.12151 2.8688 9.072 2< 0190
8*24 67.8976 559.476 Oi.12136 2.8705 9.077 2..0198
8.25 68.0625 561.516 0..12121 2.8723 9.083 2 0206
8.26 68.2276 563.560 0..12107 2.8740 9.088 2 .0214

8.27 68.3929 565.609 0,.12092 2.8758 9.094 .2 0223
8.28 68.5584 567.664 0,,12077 2.8775 9.099 2 0231
8.29 68.7241 569.723 0, ,12063 2.8792 9.105 2 .0239
8.30 68.8900 571.787 0.,12048 2.8810 9.110 2..0.247
8.31 69.0561 973.856 0.,12034 2.8827 9.116 2..0255

8.32 69.2224 575.930 0.,12019 2.8844 9.121 2 .0263
8.33 69.3889 578.010 0- ,12005 2.8862 9.127 2..0271
8.34 69.5556 580.094 0 ,11990 2.8879 9.132 2 .0279
8.39 69.7225 582.183 0. 11976 2.8896 9.138 2..0288
8.36 69.8896 584.277 0,,11962 2.8914 9.143 2.,0296

8.37 70.0569 586.376 0.,11947 2.8931 9.149 2 .0304
8.38 70.2244 588.460 0,,11933 2.8948 9.154 2 0312
8.39 70.3921 590.590 0..11919 2.8965 9.160 2 .0320
8*40 70.5600 592.704 0..1.1905 2.8983 9.165 2 .0328
8.41 70.7281 994.823 0, .11891 2.9000 9.171 2 .0336

8.42 70.8964 596.948 0..11876 2.9017 9.176 2 .0344
8.43 71.0649 599.077 0,.11862 2.9034 9.182 2 .0352
8.44 71.2336 601.212 0 .11848 2.9052 9.187 2 .0360
8.49 71.4025 603.351 0..11834 2.9069 9.192 2 .0368
6.46 71.5716 605.496 0.11820 2.9086 9.198 2 .0376

8*47 71.7409 607.645 0. 11806 2.9103 9.203 2 .0384
8.48 71.9104 609.800 0. 11792 2.9120 9.209 2 .0392
8.49 72.0801 611.960 0, 11779 2.9138 9.214 2 ,0400
8.50 72.2500 614.125 0, 11769 2.9155 9.220 2 .0408
v; v;
6.50 to 9.00
1
X X*
s
X X r* l/iox Y*
8 .50 72.2500 614.125 0.11765 2.9155 9.220 2. 0401
8 .51 72.4201 616.295 0.11751 2.9172 9.225 2. 0411

8 .52 72.5904 618.470 0.11737 2.9189 9.230 2. 042'
8 .53 72.7609 620.650 0.11723 2.9206 9.236 2 043
8 .54 72.9316 622.836 0.11710 2.9223 9.241 2. 044(
8 .55 73.1025 625.026 0.11696. 2.9240 9.247 2. 044
8 .56 73.2736 627.222 0.11682 2.9257 9.252 2. 045

8 .57 73i4449 629.423 0.11669 2.9275 9.257 2. 046'
8 .58 73.6164 631.629 0.11655 2.9292 9.263 2. 047,
8 .59 73.7881 633.840 0.11641 2.9309 9.268 2. 048<
8 .60 73.9600 636.056 0.11628 2.9326 9.274 2. 0481
8 .61 74.1321 638.277 0.11614 2.9343 9.279 2, 049<

8 .62 74.3044 640.504 0.11601 2.9360 9.284 2< .050'
8 .63 74.4769 642.736 0.11587 2.9377 9.290 2< 051
8 .64 74.6496 644.973 0.11574 2.9394 9.295 2. 052
8 .65 74.8225 647.215 0.11561 2.9411 9.301 2. 052
8 .66 74.9956 649.462 0.11547 2.9428 9.306 2. 053<

8 .67 75.1689 651.714 0.11534 2.9445 9.311 2, 054
8 .68 75.3424 653.972 0.11521 2.9462 9.317 2* 055
8 .69 75.5161 656.235 0.11507 2.9479 9.322 2,.055<
8 .70 75.6900 658.503 0.11494 2.9496 9.327 2,.056
8 .71 75.8641 660.776 0.11481 2.9513 9.333 2 .057

8 .72 76.0384 663.055 0.11468 2.9530 9.338 2 .058
8 .73 76.2129 665.339 0.11455 2.9547 9.343 2 .059
8 .74 76.3876 667.628 0.11442 2.9563 9.349 2 .059
8 .75 76.5625 669.922 0.11429 2.9580 9.354 2 .060
8 .76 76.7376 672.221 0.11416 2.9597 9.359 2 .061

8 .77 76.9129 674.526 0.11403 2.9614 9.365 2 .062
8 .78 77.0884 676.836 0.11390 2.9631 9.370 2 .063
8 .79 77.2641 679.151 0.11377 2.9648 9.375 2 .063
8..80 77.4400 681.472 0.11364 2.9665 9.381 2 .064
8. 81 77.6161 683.798 0.11351 2.9682 9.386 2 .065

8< 82 77.7924 686.129 0.11338 2.9698 9.391 2 .066
8. 83 77.9689 688.465 0.11325 2.9715 9.397 2 .066
8. 84 78.1456 690.807 0.11312 2,9732 9.402 2 ,067
8. 85 78.3225 693.154 0.11299 2.9749 9.407 2 .068
8. 86 78.4996 695.506 0.11287 2.9766 9.413 2 .069

8. 87 78.6769 697.864 0.11274 2.9783 9.418 2 .070
8. 88 78.8544 700.227 0.11261 2.9799 9.423 2 .070
8. 89 79.0321 702.595 0.11249 2.9816 9.429 2 .071
8. .90 79.2100 704.969 0.11236 2.9833 9.434 2 .072
8. 91 79.3881 707.348 0.11223 2.9850 9.439 2 .073

8< 92 79.5664 709.732 0.11211 2.9866 9.445 2 .073
8. 93 79.7449 712.122 0.11198 2.9883 9.450 2 .074
8. 94 79.9236 714.517 0.11186 2.9900 9.455 2 .075
8. .93 80.1025 716.917 0.11173 2.9917 9.460 2 .076
8. 96 80.2816 719.323 0.11161 2.9933 9.466 2 .077

8. 97 80.4609 721.734 0.11148 2.9950 9.471 2 .077
8. 98 80.6404 724.151 0.11136 2.9967 9.476 2 .078
8. 99 80.8201 726.573 0.11123 2.9983 9.482 2 .079
9i 00 81.0000 729.000 0.11111 3.0000 9.487 2 .080
v; v;
9.00 to 9.50
V~* r*
.00 81 ,0000 729.000 0.11111 3 .0000 9.487 2 .0801
.01 81 ,1801 731.433 0.11099 3 .0017 9.492 2 0809

.02 81 ,3604 733.871 0.11086 3 .0033 9.497 2 0816
.03 81, 5409 736.314 0.11074 3 .0050 9.503 2 ,0824
.04 81, 7216 738.763 0.11062 3 .0067 9.508 2 .0832
.05 81, 9025 741.218 0.11050 3 .0083 9.513 2 .0839
.06 82. 0836 743.677 0.11038 3 .0100 9.518 2, 0847

.07 82, 2649 746.143 0.11025 3 .0116 9.524 2 .0855
.08 82, 4464 748.613 0.11013 3 .0133 9.529 2,,0862
.09 82 6281 751.089 0.11001 3 .0150 9.534 2 ,0870
.10 82, 8100 753.571 0.10989 3 .0166 9.539 2,,0878
.11 82, 9921 756.058 0.10977 3 .0183 9.545 2, 0885

.12 83, 1744 758.551 0.10965 3 .0199 9.550 2. 0893
.13 83, 3569 761.048 0.10953 3 ,0216 9.555 2, 0901
.14 83, 5396 763.552 0.10941 3 ,0232 9.560 2, 0908
.15 83, 7225 766.061 0.10929 3 ,0249 9.566 2, 0916
.16 63, 9056 768.575 0.10917 3 ,0265 9.571 2, 0923

.17 84, 0889 771.095 0.10905 3 .0282 9.576 2, 0931
.18 84 ,2724 773.621 0.10893 3 .0299 9.581 2, 0939
.19 84 ,4561 776.152 0.10881 3 ,0315 9.586 2, 0946
.20 84 ,6400 778.688 0.10870 3 ,0332 9.592 2, 0954
.21 84 8241 781.230 0.10858 3 ,0348 9.597 2, 0961

.22 85 0084 783.777 0.10846 3 0364 9.602 2. 0969
.23 85 ,1929 786.330 0.10834 3 ,0381 9.607 2. 0977
.24 85 ,3776 788.889 0.10823 3 ,0397 9.612 2, 0984
.25 85 ,5625 791.453 0.10811 3 ,0414 9.618 2. 0992
.26 85 ,7476 794.023 0.10799 3 0430 9.623 2 0999

.27 85 9329 796.598 0.10787 3 0447 9.628 2. 1007
.28 86, 1184 799.179 0.10776 3 0463 9.633 2. 1014
.29 86, 3041 801.765 0.10764 3, 0480 9.638 2. 1022
30 86 4900 804.357 0.10753 3, 0496 9.644 2, 1029
.31 86 6761 806.954 0.10741 3 ,0512 9.649 2. 1037

.32 86 8624 809.558 0.10730 3 0529 9.654 2, 1045
.33 87, 0489 812.166 0.10718 3 ,0545 9.659 2, 1052
.34 87 ,2356 814.781 0.10707 3 ,0561 9.664 2, 1060
.35 87 ,4225 817.400 0.10695 3 ,0578 9.670 2* 1067
.36 87 ,6096 820.026 0.10684 3, 0594 9.675 2, 1075

.37 87 ,7969 822.657 0.10672 3 0610 9.680 2, 1082
38 87 ,9844 825.294 0.10661 3 0627 9.685 2, 1090
.39 88 .1721 827.936 0.10650 3 0643 9.690 2. 1097
40 88 .3600 830.584 0.10638 3 ,0659 9.695 2, 1105
.41 88 .5481 83.3.238 0.10627 3 ,0676 9.701 2. 1112

.42 88 .7364 835.897 0.10616 3 ,0692 9.706 2, 1120
.43 88 .9249 838.562 0.10604 3 .0708 9.711 2. 1127
.44 89 .1136 841.232 0.10593 3 ,0725 9.716 2. 1134
.45 89 .3025 843.909 0.10582 3 ,0741 9.721 2, 1142
.46 89 ,4916 846.591 0.10571 3 ,0757 9.726 2. 1149

.47 89 6809 849.278 0.10560 3 ,0773 9.731 2, 1157
.48 89, 8704 851.971 0.10549 3. 0790 9.737 2, 1164
49 90, 0601 854.670 0J10537 3 0806 9.742 2. 1172
.50 90, 2500 857.375 0.10526 3, 0822 9.747 2, 1179
X X* xJ r* j/T(k
X
9.50 to 10.00
^ 10~x Vx
9.50 90.2500 857.375 0.10526 3.0822 9.747 2.1179
9.51 90.4401 860.085 0.10515 3.0838 9.752 2.1187

9.52 90.6304 862.801 0.10504 3.0854 9.757 2.1194
9.53 90.8209 865.523 0.10493 3.0871 9.762 2.1201
9.54 91.0116 868.251 0.10482 3.0887 9.767 2.1209
9.55 91.2025 870.984 0.10471 3.0903 9.772 2.1216
9.56 91.3936 873.723 0.10460 3.0919 9.778 2.1224

9.57 91.5849 876.467 0.10449 3.0935 9.783 2.1231
9.58 91.7764 879.218 0.10438 3.0952 9.788 2.1238
9.59 91.9681 881.974 0.10428 3.0968 9.793 2.1246
9.60 92.1600 884.736 0.10417 3.0984 9.798 2*1253
9.61 92.3521 887.504 0.10406 3.1000 9.803 2.1261

9.62 92.5444 890.277 0.10395 3.1016 9.808 2.1268
9.63 92.7369 893.056 0.10384 3.1032 9.813 2.1275
9.64 92.9296 895.841 0.10373 3.1048 9.818 2.1283
9.65 93.1225 898.632 0.10363 3.1064 9.823 2.1290
9.66 93.3156 901.429 0.10352 3.1081 9.829 2.1297
9.67 93.5089 904.231 0.10341 3.1097 9.834 2.1305
9.68 93.7024 907.039 0.10331 3.1113 9.839 2.1312
9.69 93.8961 909.853 0.10320 3.1129 9.844 2.1319
9.70 94.0900 912.673 0.10309 3.1145 9.849 2.1327
9.71 94.2841 915.499 0.10299 3.1161 9.854 2.1334
9.72 94.4784 918.330 0.10288 3.1177 9.859 2.1341
9.73 94.6729 921.167 0.10277 3.1193 9.864 2.1349
9.74 94.8676 924.010 0.10267 3.1209 9.869 2.1356
9.75 95.0625 926.859 0.10256 3.1225 9.874 2.1363
9.76 95.2576 929.714 0.10246 3.1241 9.879 2.1371
9.77 95.4529 932.575 0.10235 3.1257 9.884 2.1378
9.78 95.6484 935.441 0.10225 3.1273 9.889 2.1385
9.79 95.8441 938.314 0.10215 3.1289 9.894 2.1392
9.80 96.0400 941.192 0.10204 3.1305 9.899 2.1400
9.81 96.2361 94&. 076 0.10194 3.1321 9.905 2.1407
9.82 96.4324 946.966 0.10183 3.1337 9.910 2.1414
9.83 96.6289 949.862 0.10173 3.1353 9.915 2.1422
9.64 96.8256 952.764 0.10163 3.1369 9.920 2.1429
9.85 97.0225 955.672 0.10152 3.1385 9.925 2.1436
9.86 97.2196 958.585 0.10142 3.1401 9.930 2.1443
9.87 97.4169 961.505 0.10132 3.1417 9.935 2.1451
9.88 97.6144 964.430 0.10121 3.1432 9.940 2.1458
9.89 97.8121 967.362 0.10111 3.1448 9.945 2.1465
9.90 98.0100 970.299 0.10101 3.1464 9.950 2.1472
9.91 98.2081 973.242 0.10091 3.1480 9.955 2.1480
9.92 98.4064 976.191 0.10081 3.1496 9.960 2.1487
9.93 98.6049 979.147 0.10070 3.1512 9.965 2.1494
9.94 98.8036 982.108 0.10060 3.1528 9.970 2.1501
9.95 99.0025 985.075 0.10050 3.1544 9.975 2.1508
9.96 99.2016 988.048 0.100*0 3.1559 9.980 2.1516
9.97 99.4009 991.027 0.10030 3.1575 9.985 2.1523
9.98 99.600* 994.012 0.10020 3.1591 9.990 2.1530
9.99 99.8001 997.003 0.10010 3.1607 9.995 2.1537
10.00 100.0000 1000.000 0.10000 3.1623 10.000 2.1544
r* r*
TABLE 2
Five-figure tables of common logarithms from

N= 100 to N= 1000
Graph for Table 2
logN
logN
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
LG N
100 00 000 043 087 130 173 217 260 303 3*6 389
101 00 432 475 518 561 60* 647 689 732 775 817
102 00 860 903 945 988 030 072 *115 157 199 *242
103 01 284 326 368 410 452 494 536 578 620 662
104 01 703 745 787 828 870 912 953 995 *036 *078
105 02 119 160 202 243 284 325 366 407 449 490
106 02 531 572 612 653 694 735 776 816 857 898
107 02 938 979 *019 060 *100 *141 181 *222 262 302
108 03 342 383 423 463 503 543 583 623 663 703
109 03 743 782 822 862 902 941 981 021 060 100
110 04 139 179 218 258 297 336 376 415 454 493
111 04 532 571 610 650 689 727 766 805 844 883
112 04 922 961 999 *038 *077 *115 154 192 231 269
113 05 308 346 385 423 461 500 538 576 614 652
114 05 690 729 767 805 843 881 918 956 994 *032
115 06 070 108 145 183 221 258 296 333 371 408
116 06 446 483 521 558 595 633 670 707 744 781
117 06 819 856 893 930 967 004 041 078 *115 *151
118 07 188 225 262 298 335 372 408 445 482 518
119 07 555 591 628 664 700 737 773 809 846 882
120 07 918 954 990 027 063 099 135 171 207 *243
121 08 279 314 350 386 422 458 493 529 565 600
122 08 636 672 707 743 778 814 849 884 920 955
123 08 991 026 *061 *096 132 *167 #202 237 *272 307
124 09 342 377 412 447 482 517 552 587 621 656
125 09 691 726 760 795 830 864 899 934 968 #003
126 10 037 072 106 140 175 209 243 278 312 346
127 10 380 415 449 483 517 551 585 619 653 687
128 10 721 755 789 823 857 890 924 958 992 *025
129 11 059 093 126 160 193 227 261 294 327 361
130 11 394 428 461 494 528 561 594 628 661 694
131 11 727 760 793 826 860 893 926 959 992 024
132 12 057 090 123 156 189 222 254 287 320 352
133 12 385 418 450 483 516 548 581 613 646 678
134 12 710 743 775 808 840 872 905 937 969 *00l
135 13 033 066 098 130 162 194 226 258 290 322
136 13 334 386 418 450 481 513 545 577 609 640
137 13 672 704 735 767 799 830 862 893 925 956
138 13 988 019 051 *082 114 145 176 208 239 270
139 14 301 333 364 395 426 457 489 520 551 582
140 14 613 644 673 706 737 768 799 829 860 891
141 14 922 953 983 *014 045 076 106 137 #168 M98
142 15 229 259 290 320 351 381 412 442 473 503
143 15 534 564 594 625 655 685 715 746 776 806
144 15 836 866 897 927 957 987 *017 047 077 107
145 16 137 167 197 227 256 286 316 346 376 406
146 16 433 465 495 524 554 584 613 643 673 702
147 16 732 761 791 820 850 879 909 938 967 997
148 17 026 056 085 114 143 173 202 231 260 289
149 17 319 348 377 406 435 464 493 522 551 580
150 17 609 638 667 696 725 754 782 611 840 869
N 12345*789 LG N
ISO 17 609 638 667 696 725 754 782 811 840 869
151 17 898 926 955 984 013 041 070 099 127 156
152 18 184 213 241 270 298 327 355 384 412 441
153 18 469 498 526 554 563 611 639 667 696 724
154 18 752 780 808 837 865 893 921 949 977 005
155 19 033 061 089 117 145 173 201 229 257 285
156 19 312 340 368 396 424 451 479 507 535 562
157 19 590 618 645 673 700 728 756 783 811 838
158 19 866 893 921 948 976 003 030 058 085 112
159 20 140 167 194 222 249 276 303 330 358 383
160 20 412 439 466 493 520 548 575 602 629 656
161 20 683 710 737 763 790 817 644 871 898 925
162 20 932 978 005 032 059 085 112 139 165 192
163 21 219 245 272 299 325 352 378 405 431 458
164 21 484 511 537 564 590 617 643 669 696 722
165 21 748 775 601 827 854 880 906 932 958 985
166 22 on 037 063 089 115 141 167 194 220 246
167 22 272 298 324 350 376 401 427 453 479 505
168 22 531 557 583 608 634 660 686 712 737 763
169 22 789 614 840 666 891 917 943 968 994 019
170 23 045 070 096 121 147 172 198 223 249 274
171 23 300 325 350 376 401 426 452 477 502 528
172 23 553 578 603 629 654 679 704 729 754 779
173 23 805 830 855 680 905 930 955 980 005 030
174 24 055 080 105 130 155 180 204 229 254 279
175 24 304 329 353 378 403 428 452 477 502 527
176 24 551 576 601 625 650 674 699 724 748 773
177 24 797 822 846 871 895 920 944 969 993 018
178 25 042 066 091 115 139 164 188 212 237 261
179 25 285 310 334 358 382 406 431 455 479 503
180 25 527 551 575 600 624 648 672 696 720 744
181 25 768 792 816 640 864 888 912 933 959 983
182 26 007 031 055 079 102 126 150 174 198 221
183 26 245 269 293 316 340 364 387 411 435 458
184 26 482 505 529 553 576 600 623 647 670 694
185 26 717 741 764 788 611 834 658 881 905 928
186 26 951 975 998 021 045 068 091 114 138 161
187 27 184 207 231 254 277 300 323 346 370 393
188 27 416 439 462 485 508 531 554 677 600 623
189 27 646 669 692 715 738 761 784 807 830 852
190 27 875 898 921 944 967 989 012 035 058 081
191 28 103 126 149 171 194 217 240 262 285 307
192 28 330 353 375 398 421 443 466 488 511 533
193 28 556 578 601 623 646 668 691 713 733 758
194 28 780 803 823 847 670 892 914 937 959 981
195 29 003 026 048. 070 092 115 137 159 181 203
196 29 226 248 270 292 314 336 358 380 403 425
197 29 447 469 491 513 535 557 579 601 623 645
198 29 667 688 710 732 754 776 798 820 842 863
199 29 885 907 929 951 973 994 016 038 060 #081
200 30 103 125 146 168 190 211 233 255 276 298
N 123496789 IG N
200 30 103 125 146 16* 190 211 233 253 276 296
201 30 320 341 363 384 406 428 449 471 492 514
202 30 535 557 578 600 621 643 664 685 707 728
203 30 750 771 792 814 835 856 878 699 920 942
204 30 963 984 006 027 048 069 091 112 133 154
203 31 175 197 218 239 260 281 302 323 345 366
206 31 387 408 429 450 471 492 513 534 555 576
207 31 597 618 639 660 681 702 723 744 765 785
208 31 806 827 848 869 890 911 931 952 973 994
209 32 0U 5 035 056 077 098 118 139 160 181 201
210 32 222 243 263 284 305 325 346 366 387 408
211 32 428 449 469 490 510 531 552 572 593 613
212 32 634 654 675 695 715 736 756 777 797 818
213 32 838 858 879 899 919 940 960 980 001 021
214 33 041 062 082 102 122 143 163 183 203 224
215 33 244 264 284 304 325 945 965 385 405 425
216 33 445 465 486 506 526 546 566 586 606 626
217 33 646 666 686 706 726 746 766 786 806 826
218 33 846 866 885 905 925 945 965 985 005 025
219 34 044 064 084 104 124 143 163 183 203 223
220 34 242 262 282 301 321 341 361 380 400 420
221 34 439 459 479 498 518 537 557 577 596 616
222 34 635 655 674 694 713 733 753 772 792 811
223 34 830 850 869 889 908 928 947 967 986 005
224 35 025 044 064 083 102 122 141 160 180 199
225 35 218 238 257 276 293 315 334 353 372 392
226 33 411 430 449 468 488 507 526 545 564 583
227 35 603 622 641 660 679 698 717 736 755 774
228 35 793 813 832 851 870 889 908 927 946 965
229 35 984 003 021 040 059 078 097 116 135 154
230 36 173 192 211 229 248 267 286 305 324 342
231 36 361 380 399 418 436 455 474 493 511 530
232 36 549 568 586 60S 624 642 661 680 698 717
233 36 736 754 773 791 810 829 847 866 884 903
234 36 922 940 959 977 996 014 033 051 070 088
235 37 107 125 144 162 181 199 218 236 254 273
236 37 291 310 328 346 365 383 401 420 438 457
237 97 473 493 911 530 548 566 585 603 621 639
238 37 658 676 694 712 731 749 767 783 603 822
239 37 840 858 876 694 912 931 949 967 985 003
240 38 021 039 057 075 093 112 130 148 166 184
241 98 202 220 238 256 274 292 310 328 346 364
242 36 382 399 417 435 453 471 489 507 523 543
243 38 561 578 596 614 632 650 668 686 703 721
244 38 739 757 775 792 810 828 846 863 881 899
245 38 917 934 952 970 987 003 023 041 058 076
246 39 094 111 129 146 164 182 199 217 233 252
247 39 270 287 305 322 340 358 373 393 410 428
248 39 445 463 480 498 515 533 550 568 585 602
249 39 620 637 655 672 690 707 724 742 759 777
250 39 794 811 629 846 863 881 898 915 933 950
N 123456789 LG N
250 39 794 811 829 846 863 881 898 915 933 950
251 39 967 985 002 019 037 054 071 088 106 123
252 40 140 157 175 192 209 226 2*3 261 278 295
253 40 312 329 346 364 381 398 415 432 449 466
254 40 483 500 518 535 552 569 586 603 620 637
255 40 654 671 688 705 722 739 756 773 790 807
256 40 824 841 858 875 892 909 926 943 960 976
257 40 993 010 027 044 061 078 095 111 128 145
258 41 162 179 196 212 229 246 263 280 296 313
259 41 330 347 363 380 397- 414 430 447 464 481
260 41 497 514 531 547 564 581 597 614 631 647
261 41 664 681 697 714 731 747 764 780 797 814
262 41 830 847 863 880 896 913 929 946 963 979
263 41 996 012 029 045 062 078 095 111 127 144
264 42 160 177 193 210 226 243 259 275 292 308
265 42 325 341 357 374 390 406 423 439 455 472
266 42 488 504 521 537 553 570 586 602 619 635
267 42 651 667 684 700 716 732 749 765 781 797
268 42 613 830 846 862 878 894 911 927 943 959
269 42 975 991 008 024 040 056 072 088 104 120
270 43 136 152 169 185 201 217 233 249 265 281
271 43 297 313 329 345 361 377 393 409 425 441
272 43 457 473 489 505 521 337 553 569 584 600
273 43 616 632 648 664 680 696 712 727 743 759
274 43 775 791 807 823 838 854 870 886 902 917
275 43 933 949 965 981 996 012 028 044 059 075
276 44 091 107 122 138 154 170 185 201 217 232
277 44 248 264 279 295 311 326 342 358 373 389
278 44 404 420 436 451 467 483 498 514 529 545
279 44 560 576 592 607 623 638 654 669 685 700
260 44 716 731 747 762 778 793 809 824 840 855
281 44 871 886 902 917 932 948 963 979 994 010
282 45 025 040 056 071 066 102 117 133 148 163
283 45 179 194 209 225 240 255 271 286 301 317
284 45 332 347 362 378 393 408 423 439 454 469
285 43 484 500 315 530 543 561 576 591 606 621
286 45 637 652 667 682 697 712 728 743 758 773
287 45 788 803 618 834 849 664 879 694 909 924
288 45 939 954 969 984 000 015 030 045 060 073
289 46 090 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 223
290 46 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345 359 37*
291 46 389 404 419 434 449 464 479 494 509 523
292 46 538 553 568 583 598 613 627 642 657 672
293 46 667 702 716 731 746 761 776 790 805 820
294 46 833 650 864 879 894 909 923 938 953 967
295 46 982 997 012 026 041 056 070 085 100 114
296 47 129 144 139 173 188 202 217 232 246 261
297 47 276 290 305 319 334 349 363 378 392 407
298 47 422 436 451 465 480 494 509 524 538 553
299 47 567 582 596 611 625 640 654 669 683 698
300 47 712 727 741 756 770 784 799 813 828 842
N 123*5*789 LG N
300 47 712 727 741 756 770 784 799 819 828 642
301 47 857 871 885 900 914 929 943 958 972 986
302 48 001 015 029 044 058 073 087 101 116 130
303 48 144 159 173 187 202 216 230 244 259 273
304 48 287 302 316 330 344 359 373 387 401 416
305 48 430 444 458 473 487 501 5X5 530 544 558
306 48 572 586 601 615 629 643 657 671 686 700
307 48 714 728 742 756 770 785 799 613 827 841
308 48 855 869 883 897 911 926 940 954 968 982
309 48 996 010 024 038 052 066 080 094 108 122
310 49 136 150 164 178 192 206 220 234 248 262
311 49 276 290 304 318 332 346 360 374 388 402
312 49 415 429 443 457 471 485 99 513 527 541
313 49 554 568 582 596 610 624 638 651 665 679
314 49 693 707 721 734 748 762 776 790 803 817
315 49 831 845 859 872 886 900 914 927 941 955.
316 49 969 982 996 010 024 037 051 06S 079 092
317 50 106 120 133 147 161 174 188 202 215 229
318 50 243 256 270 284 297 311 325 338 352 365
319 50 379 393 406 420 433 447 461 474 488 501
320 50 515 529 542 556 569 583 596 610 623 637
321 50 651 664 678 691 705 718 732 745 759 772
322 50 786 799 813 826 840 853 666 880 893 907
323 50 920 934 947 961 974 987 001 014 028 041
324 51 055 068 081 095 103 121 135 148 162 175
325 51 188 202 215 228 242 255 268 282 295 308
326 51 322 335 348 362 375 388 402 415 428 441
327 51 455 468 481 495 508 521 534 548 561 574
328 51 587 601 614 627 640 654 667 680 693 706
329 51 720 733 746 759 772 786 799 812 825 838
330 51 851 865 678 691 904 917 930 943 957 970
331 51 983 996 009 022 035 048 061 075 088 101
332 52 114 127 140 153 166 179 192 205 218 231
333 52 244 257 270 284 297 310 323 336 349 362
334 52 375 388 401 414 427 440 453 466 479 492
335 52 504 517 530 543 556 569 582 595 608 621
336 52 634 647 660 673 686 699 711 724 737 750
337 52 763 776 789 802 815 827 840 853 866 879
338 52 892 905 917 930 943 956 969 982 994 007
339 53 020 033 046 058 071 084 097 110 122 135
340 53 148 161 173 186 199 212 224 237 250 263
341 53 275 288 301 314 326 339 352 364 377 390
342 53 403 415 428 441 453 466 479 491 504 517
343 53 529 542 555 567 580 393 605 618 631 643
344 53 656 668 681 694 706 719 732 744 757 769
345 53 782 794 807 820 832 845 857 870 882 895
346 53 908 920 933 945 958 970 983 993 008 020
347 54 033 045 058 070 083 095 108 120 133 145
348 54 158 170 183 195 208 220 233 245 258 270
349 54 283 295 307 320 332 345 357 370 382 394
350 54 407 419 432 444 456 469 481 494 506 518
N 12 34
LG N
5 678 9
330 54 407 41* 432 444 456 469 461 494 506 516
151 54 531 543 555 568 580 593 605 617 630 642
352 54 654 667 679 691 704 716 728 741 753 765
353 54 777 790 802 614 827 839 851 864 876 888
354 54 900 913 925 937 949 962 974 986 998 Oil
355 55 023 035 047 060 072 084 096 108 121 133
356 55 145 157 169 182 194 206 218 230 242 255
357 53 267 279 291 303 315 328 340 352 364 376
358 55 388 400 413 425 437 449 461 473 465 497
359 55 509 522 534 546 558 570 582 594 606 618
360 55 630 642 654 666 678 691 703 715 727 739
361 55 751 763 775 787 799 811 823 835 847 859
362 55 871 883 895 907 919 931 943 955 967 979
363 55 991 003 015 027 038 050 062 074 086 098
364 56 110 122 134 146 158 170 182 194 205 217
365 56 229 241 253 263 277 289 301 312 324 336
366 56 348 360 372 384 396 407 419 431 443 455
367 56 467 478 490 502 514 526 538 549 561 573
368 56 585 597 608 620 632 644 656 667 679 691
369 56 703 714 726 738 750 761 773 785 797 808
370 56 820 832 644 855 867 879 891 902 914 926
371 56 937 949 961 972 984 996 '008 019 031 043
372 57 054 066 078 089 101 113 124 136 148 159
373 57 171 163 194 206 217 229 241 252 264 276
37* 57 287 299 310 322 334 345 357 368 380 392
375 57 403 415 426 438 449 461 473 484 496 507
376 57 519 530 542 553 565 576 588 600 611 623
377 37 634 646 657 669 680 692 703 715 726 738
378 57 749 761 772 784 795 807 818 830 841 852
379 57 864 875 887 898 910 921 933 944 955 967
380 37 978 990 001 013 024 033 047 058 070 081
381 58 092 104 115 127 138 149 161 172 184 195
382 58 206 218 229 240 252 263 274 286 297 309
383 58 320 331 343 354 365 377 388 399 410 422
384 58 433 444 456 467 478 490 501 512 524 535
385 38 546 557 569 580 591 602 614 625 636 647
386 58 659 670 681 692 704 715 726 737 749 760
387 58 771 782 794 805 816 827 838 850 861 872
388 58 883 894 906 917 928 939 950 961 973 984
389 58 993 006 017 028 040 051 062 073 084 095
390 19 106 118 129 140 151 162 173 184 195 207
391 59 218 229 240 251 262 273 284 295 306 318
392 59 329 340 351 362 373 384 393 406 417 428
393 59 439 450 461 472 483 494 506 517 528 539
394 59 550 561 572 583 594 603 616 627 638 649
395 39 660 671 682 693 704 713 726 737 748 759
396 39 770 780 791 802 813 824 835 846 857 868
397 59 879 690 901 912 923 934 945 956 966 977
398 59 988 999 010 021 032 043 054 065 076 086
399 60 097 108 119 130 141 152 163 173 184 195
400 60 206 217 228 239 249 260 271 282 293 304
LG N
3 *
400 60 206 217 228 239 249 260 271 282 29* 304
401 60 314 325 336 347 358 369 379 390 401 412
402 60 423 433 444 455 466 477 487 498 509 520
403 60 531 541 552 563 574 564 595 606 617 627
404 60 638 649 660 670 681 692 703 713 724 735
405 60 746 756 767 778 788 799 810 821 631 842
406 60 853 863 874 885 895 906 917 927 938 949
407 60 959 970 981 991 002 013 023 034 045 055
408 61 066 077 087 098 109 119 130 140 151 162
409 61 172 183 194 204 215 223 236 247 257 268
410 61 278 289 300 310 321 331 342 352 363 374
411 61 384 395 405 416 426 437 448 458 469 479
412 61 490 500 511 521 532 542 553 563 574 584
413 61 595 606 616 627 637 648 658 669 679 690
414 61 700 711 721 731 742 752 763 773 784 794
415 61 805 815 826 836 847 857 868 878 688 899
416 61 909 920 930 941 951 962 972 982 993 003
417 62 014 024 034 045 055 066 076 086 097 107
418 62 118 128 138 149 159 170 180 190 201 211
419 62 221 232 242 252 263 273 284 294 304 315
420 62 325 335 346 356 366 377 387 397 408 416
421 62 428 439 449 459 469 480 490 500 511 521
422 62 531 542 552 562 572 583 593 603 613 624
423 62 634 644 655 665 675 685 696 706 716 726
424 62 737 747 757 767 778 788 798 608 618 629
425 62 639 849 859 870 680 890 900 910 921 931
426 62 941 951 961 972 982 992 002 012 022 033
427 63 043 053 063 073 083 094 104 114 124 134
428 63 144 135 165 173 185 195 205 215 225 236
429 63 246 256 266 276 286 296 306 317 327 337
430 63 347 357 367 377 387 397 407 417 428 438
431 63 448 458 468 478 488 498 508 518 528 538
432 63 548 558 568 579 589 599 609 619 629 639
433 63 649 659 669 679 689 699 709 719 729 739
434 63 749 759 769 779 789 799 809 819 829 839
435 63 849 859 869 679 889 899 909 919 929 939
436 63 949 959 969 979 986 998 008 018 028 038
437 64 048 058 068 078 088 098 108 118 128 137
438 64 147 157 167 177 187 197 207 217 227 237
439 64 246 256 266 276 286 296 306 316 326 335
440 64 345 355 365 375 385 395 404 414 424 434
441 64 444 454 464 473 483 493 503 513 523 532
442 64 542 552 562 572 582 591 601 611 621 631
443 64 640 650 660 670 680 689 699 709 719 729
4*4 64 738 748 758 768 777 787 797 807 616 826
445 64 836 846 856 865 675 885 895 904 914 924
446 64 933 943 953 963 972 982 992 002 Oil 021
447 65 031 040 050 060 070 079 089 099 108 118
448 65 128 137 147 157 167 176 186 196 205 215
449 65 225 234 244 254 263 273 283 292 302 312
450 65 321 331 341 350 360 369 379 389 398 408
450 65 321 331 3*1 350 360 369 379 389 398 408
451 65 418 427 437 447 456 466 475 485 495 504
452 65 514 523 533 543 552 562 571 581 591 600
453 65 610 619 629 639 648 658 667 677 686 696
454 65 706 715 725 734 744 753 763 772 782 792
455 65 801 811 820 830 839 849 858 868 877 687
456 65 896 906 916 925 935 944 954 963 973 982
457 65 992 001 Oil 020 030 039 049 058 068 077
458 66 087 096 106 115 124 134 143 153 162 172
459 66 181 191 200 210 219 229 238 247 257 266
460 66 276 285 295 304 314 323 332 342 351 361
461 66 370 380 389 398 406 417 427 436 445 455
462 66 464 474 483 492 502 511 521 530 539 549
463 66 556 567 577 586 596 605 614 624 633 642
464 66 652 661 671 680 689 699 708 717 727 736
465 66 745 755 764 773 783 792 801 611 620 629
466 66 639 848 857 867 876 665 694 904 913 922
467 66 932 941 950 960 969 978 987 997 006 015
468 67 025 034 043 052 062 071 080 089 099 108
469 67 117 127 136 145 154 164 173 182 191 201
470 67 210 219 228 237 247 256 265 274 284 293
471 67 302 311 321 330 339 348 357 367 376 385
472 67 394 403 413 422 431 440 449 459 468 477
473 67 486 495 504 514 523 532 541 550 560 569
474 67 578 587 596 605 614 624 633 642 651 660
475 67 669 679 668 697 706 715 724 733 742 752
476 67 761 770 779 788 797 806 815 825 834 843
477 67 852 861 870 879 688 897 906 916 925 934
478 67 943 952 961 970 979 986 997 006 015 024
479 68 034 043 052 061 070 079 088 097 106 115
480 68 124 133 142 151 160 169 178 187 196 205
481 68 215 224 233 242 251 260 269 276 287 296
482 68 305 314 323 332 341 350 359 368 377 386
463 68 395 404 413 422 431 440 449 458 467 476
484 68 465 494 502 511 520 529 538 547 556 565
485 66 574 583 592 601 610 619 628 637 646 655
486 68 664 673 681 690 699 708 717 726 735 744
487 68 753 762 771 780 789 797 806 815 824 833
488 68 842 851 860 669 678 686 895 904 913 922
489 68 931 940 949 958 966 975 984 993 002 Oil
490 69 020 028 037 046 055 064 073 082 090 099
491 69 108 117 126 135 144 152 161 170 179 168
492 69 197 205 214 223 232 241 249 258 267 276
493 69 285 294 302 311 320 329 338 346 355 364
494 69 373 381 390 399 408 417 425 434 443 452
495 69 461 469 478 487 496 504 513 522 531 539
496 69 546 557 566 574 583 592 601 609 618 627
497 69 636 644 653 662 671 679 688 697 705 714
498 69 723 732 740 749 758 767 775 784 793 801
499 69 810 819
-
827 836 645 854 662 871 880 688

500 69 697 906 914 923 932 v 940 949 958 966 975
3 4
500 69 897 906 914 923 932 940 949 958 966 975
501 69 984 992 001 010 018 027 036 044 053 062
502 70 070 079 088 096 105 114 122 131 140 148
503 70 157 165 174 183 191 200 209 217 226 234
504 70 243 252 260 269 278 286 295 303 312 321
505 70 329 338 346 355 364 372 381 389 398 406
506 70 415 424 432 441 449 458 467 4 75 484 492
507 70 501 509 518 526 535 544 552 561 569 578
508 70 586 595 603 612 621 629 638 646 655 663
509 70 672 680 689 697 706 714 723 731 740 749
510 70 757 766 774 783 791 800 808 817 825 834
511 70 842 851 859 868 876 885 893 902 910 919
512 70 927 935 944 952 961 969 978 986 995 003
513 71 012 020 029 037 046 054 063 071 079 088
514 71 096 105 113 122 130 139 147 155 164 172
515 71 181 189 198 206 214 223 231 240 248 257
516 71 265 273 282 290 299 307 315 324 332 341
517 71 349 357 366 374 383 391 399 408 416 425
518 71 433 441 450 458 466 475 483 492 500 508
519 71 517 525 533 542 550 559 567 575 584 592
520 71 600 609 617 625 634 642 650 659 667 675
521 71 684 692 700 709 717 725 734 742 750 759
522 71 767 775 784 792 800 809 817 825 834 842
523 71 850 858 867 875 883 892 900 908 917 925
524 71 933 941 950 958 966 975 983 991 999 008
525 72 016 024 032 041 049 057 066 074 082 090
526 72 099 107 115 123 132 140 148 156 165 173
527 72 181 189 198 206 214 222 230 239 247 255
528 72 263 272 280 268 296 304 313 321 329 337
529 72 346 354 362 370 378 387 395 403 411 419
530 72 428 436 444 452 460 469 477 485 493 501
531 72 509 518 526 534 542 550 558 567 575 583
532 72 591 599 607 616 624 632 640 648 656 665
533 72 673 681 689 697 705 713 722 730 738 746
534 72 754 762 770 779 787 795 803 811 819 827
535 72 635 643 852 860 868 876 884 892 900 908
536 72 916 925 933 941 949 957 965 973 981 989
537 72 997 006 014 022 030 038 046 054 062 070
538 73 078 086 094 102 HI 119 127 135 143 151
539 73 159 167 175 183 191 199 207 215 223 231
540 73 239 247 255 263 272 280 288 296 304 312
541 73 320 328 336 344 352 360 368 376 384 392
542 73 400 408 416 424 432 440 448 456 464 472
543 73 480 488 496 504 512 520 528 536 544 552
544 73 560 568 576 584 592 600 608 616 624 632
545 73 640 648 656 664 672 679 687 695 703 711
546 73 719 727 735 743 751 759 767 775 783 791
547 73 799 807 815 823 830 838 846 654 862 870
548 73 878 886 894 902 910 918 926 933 941 949
549 73 957 965 973 981 989 997 005 013 020 028
550 74 036 .044 052 060 068 076 084 092 099 107
16 N
3 4
550 74 036 044 032 060 068 076 084 092 099 107
551 74 115 123 131 139 147 155 162 170 178 186
552 74 194 202 210 218 225 233 241 249 257 265
553 74 273 280 288 296 304 312 320 327 333 343
554 74 351 359 367 374 382 390 398 406 414 421
555 74 429 437 449 453 461 468 476 484 492 500
556 74 507 515 523 531 5 39 547 554 562 570 578
557 74 586 593 601 609 617 624 632 640 648 656
558 74 663 671 679 687 695 702 710 718 726 733
559 74 741 749 757 764 772 780 788 796 803 811
560 74 819 827 834 842 850 858 865 873 881 889
561 74 896 904 912 920 927 935 943 950 958 966
562 74 974 981 989 997 005 012 020 028 033 043
563 75 051 059 066 074 082 089 097 105 113 120
564 75 128 136 143 151 159 166 174 182 189 197
969 75 205 213 220 228 236 243 251 259 266 274
966 73 282 289 297 305 312 320 328 335 343 351
567 75 358 366 374 381 389 397 404 412 420 427
568 75 435 442 450 4*8 465 473 481 488 496 504
569 75 511 519 526 534 542 549 557 565 572 580
570 75 587 595 603 610 618 626 633 641 648 656
571 75 664 671 679 686 694 702 709 717 724 732
572 75 740 747 755 762 770 778 785 793 800 808
573 75 815 823 831 838 846 853 861 868 876 884
574 75 891 899 906 914 921 929 937 944 952 959
575 75 967 974 982 989 997 005 *012 020 027 035
576 76 042 050 057 065 072 080 087 093 103 110
577 76 118 125 133 140 148 155 163 170 178 185
578 76 193 200 208 215 223 230 238 245 253 260
579 76 268 275 283 290 298 305 313 320 328 335
580 76 343 350 358 365 373 380 388 395 403 410
581 76 418 423 433 440 448 455 462 470 477 485
582 76 492 500 507 515 522 530 537 545 552 559
583 76 567 574 582 589 597 604 612 619 626 634
584 76 641 649 656 664 671 678 686 693 701 708
585 76 716 723 730 738 745 753 760 768 775 782
586 76 790 797 805 812 819 827 894 842 849 856
587 76 864 871 879 886 893 901 908 916 923 930
588 76 938 945 953 960 967 975 982 989 997 004
589 77 012 019 026 034 041 048 056 063 070 078
590 77 085 093 100 107 115 122 129 137 144 151
591 77 159 166 173 181 188 195 203 210 217 225
592 77 232 240 247 254 262 269 276 283 291 298
593 77 305 313 320 327 335 342 349 357 364 371
594 77 379 386 393 401 408 413 422 430 437 444
595 77 452 459 466 474 481 488 495 503 510 517
596 77 525 532 539 546 554 561 568 576 583 590
597 77 597 605 612 619 627 634 641 648 656 663
598 77 670 677 685 692 699 706 714 721 728 733
599 77 743 750 757 764 772 779 786 793 801 808
600 77 13 22 30 837 844 851 859 66 873 0
N 123*56789 LG N
600 77 815 822 830 837 844 851 859 866 873 880
601 77 887 895 902 909 916 924 931 938 945 952
602 77 960 967 974 981 988 996 003 010 017 025
603 78 032 039 046 053 061 068 075 082 089 097
604 78 104 HI 118 125 132 140 147 154 161 168
605 78 176 183 190 197 204 211 219 226 233 240
606 78 247 254 262 269 276 283 290 297 305 312
607 78 319 326 333 340 347 355 362 369 376 383
608 78 390 398 A05 412 419 426 433 440 447 455
609 78 462 469 476 483 490 497 504 512 519 526
610 78 533 540 547 554 561 569 576 583 590 597
611 78 604 611 618 625 633 640 647 654 661 668
612 78 675 682 689 696 704 711 718 725 732 739
613 78 746 753 760 767 774 781 789 796 803 810
614 78 817 824 831 838 845 852 859 866 873 880
615 78 888 895 902 909 916 923 930 937 944 951
616 78 958 965 972 979 986 993 000 007 014 021
617 79 029 036 043 050 057 064 071 078 085 092
618 79 099 106 113 120 127 134 141 148 155 162
619 79 169 176 183 190 197 204 211 218 225 232
620 79 239 246 253 260 267 274 281 288 295 302
621 79 309 316 323 330 337 344 351 358 363 372
622 79 379 386 393 400 407 414 421 428 435 442
623 79 449 456 463 470 477 484 491 498 505 511
624 79 518 525 532 539 546 553 560 567 574 581
625 79 588 595 602 609 616 623 630 637 644 650
626 79 657 664 671 678 685 692 699 706 713 720
627 79 727 734 741 748 754 761 768 775 782 789
628 79 796 803 810 817 824 831 837 844 851 858
629 79 865 872 879 886 893 900 906 913 920 927
630 79 934 941 948 955 962 969 975 982 989 996
631 80 003 010 017 024 030 037 044 051 058 065
632 80 072 079 085 092 099 106 113 120 127 134
633 80 140 147 154 161 168 175 182 188 195 202
634 80 209 216 223 229 236 243 250 257 264 271
635 80 277 284 291 298 305 312 318 325 332 339
636 80 346 353 359 366 373 380 387 393 400 407
637 80 414 421 428 434 441 448 455 462 468 473
638 80 482 489 496 502 509 516 523 530 536 543
639 80 550 557 564 570 577 584 591 598 604 611
640 80 618 625 632 638 645 652 659 665 672 679
641 80 686 693 699 706 713 720 726 733 740 747
642 80 754 760 767 774 781 787 794 801 808 614
643 80 821 828 835 841 848 855 862 668 875 882
644 80 889 895 902 909 916 922 929 936 943 949
645 80 956 963 969 976 983 990 996 003 010 017
646 81 023 030 037 043 050 057 064 070 077 084
647 81 090 097 104 111 117 124 131 137 144 151
648 81 158 164 171 178 184 191 198 204 211 218
649 81 224 231 238 245 251 258 265 271 278 285
650 81 291 296 305 311 318 325 331 338 345 351
LG N
298 305 311 318 325 331 338 345 351

650 81 291
365 371 78 385 391 398 405 411 418

651 81 358 3
438 445 451 458 465 471 478 485
65? 81 425 431
498 505 511 518 525 531 538 544 551
653 81 491
564 571 578 584 591 598 604 611 617
654 81 558
624 631 637 644 651 657 664 671 677 684
655 81
697 704 710 717 723 730 737 743 750

656 81 690
757 763 770 776 783 790 796 803 809 816
657 81
829 836 842 849 856 862 869 875 882
658 81 823
895 902 908 913 921 928 935 941 948
659 81 889
954 961 968 974 981 987 994 000 007 014
660 81
033 040 046 053 060 066 073 079

661 82 020 027
099 105 112 119 125 132 138 145
662 82 086 092
82 151 158 164 171 178 184 191 197 204 210
663 276
82 217 223 230 236 243 249 256 263 269
664
665 82 282 289 295 302 308 315 321 328 334 341
82 347 354 360 367 373 380 387 393 400 406
666 465 471
667 82 413 419 426 432 439 445 452 458
478 484 491 497 504 510 517 523 530 536
668 82
543 549 556 562 569 575 582 588 595 601
669 82
607 614 620 627 633 640 646 653 659 666
670 82
82 672 679 685 692 698 705 711 718 724 730
671
737 743 750 756 763 769 776 782 789 795
672 82
82 802 808 814 821 827 834 840 847 853 860
673
866 872 879 885 892 898 905 911 918 924
674 82
930 937 943 950 956 963 969 975 982 988
675 82
82 995 001 008 014 020 027 033 040 046 052
676
677 83 059 065 072 078 085 091 097 104 110 117
678 83 123 129 136 142 149 155 161 168 174 181
187 193 200 206 213 219 225 232 238 245
679 83
680 83 251 257 264 270 276 283 289 296 302 308
83 315 321 327 334 340 347 353 359 366 372
681
682 83 378 385 391 398 404 410 417 423 429 436
442 448 455 461 467 474 480 487 493 499
683 83
684 83 506 512 518 525 531 537 944 550 556 563
685 83 569 575 582 588 594 601 607 613 620 626
686 63 632 639 645 651 658 664 670 677 683 689
687 83 696 702 708 715 721 727 734 7-40 746 753
688 83 759 765 771 778 784 790 797 803 809 816
83 822 828 835 841 847 853 860 866 872 879
689
690 83 885 891 897 904 910 916 923 929 935 942
691 83 948 954 960 967 973 979 985 992 998 004
692 84 Oil 017 023 029 036 042 048 055 061 067
693 84 073 080 086 092 098 105 111 117 123 130
694 84 136 142 148 155 161 167 173 180 186 192
695 84 198 205 211 217 223 230 236 242 248 255
696 84 261 267 273 280 286 292 296 305 311 317
697 84 323 330 336 342 348 354 361 367 373 379
698 84 386 392 398 404 410 417 423 429 435 442
84 448 454 460 466 473 479 485 491 497 504
699
700 84 510 516 522 528 535 541 547 553 559 566
H 123456789 LG N
700 84 510 516 522 528 535 541 547 553 559 566
701 84 572 578 584 590 597 603 609 615 621 628
702 84 634 640 646 652 658 665 671 677 683 689
703 84 696 702 708 714 720 726 733 739 745 751
704 84 757 763 770 776 782 788 794 800 807 813
705 84 819 825 831 837 844 850 856 862 868 874
706 84 880 887 893 899 905 911 917 924 930 936
707 84 942 948 954 960 967 973 979 985 991 997
708 85 003 009 016 022 028 034 040 046 052 058
709 85 065 071 077 083 089 095 101 107 114 120
710 85 126 132 138 144 150 156 163 169 175 181
711 85 187 193 199 205 211 217 224 230 236 242
712 85 248 254 260 266 272 278 285 291 297 303
713 85 309 315 321 327 333 339 345 352 358 364
714 85 370 376 382 388 394 400 406 412 418 42 5
715 85 431 437 443 449 455 461 467 473 479 485
716 85 491 497 503 509 516 522 526 534 540 546
717 85 552 558 564 570 576 582 568 594 600 606
718 85 612 618 625 631 637 643 649 655 661 667
719 85 673 679 665 691 697 703 709 715 721 727
720 85 733 739 745 751 757 763 769 775 781 788
721 65 794 800 806 612 818 824 830 836 842 848
722 85 854 860 866 872 878 664 890 896 902 908
723 85 914 920 926 932 938 944 950 956 962 968
724 85 974 980 986 992 998 004 010 016 022 028
725 86 034 040 046 052 058 064 070 076 082 088
726 86 094 100 106 112 118 124 130 136 141 147
727 86 153 159 165 171 177 183 189 195 201 207
728 86 213 219 225 231 237 243 249 255 261 267
729 86 273 279 285 291 297 303 308 314 320 326
730 86 332 336 344 350 356 362 368 374 380 366
731 86 392 398 404 410 415 421 427 433 439 445
732 66 451 457 463 469 475 481 487 493 499 504
733 86 510 516 522 528 534 540 546 552 558 564
734 86 570 576 581 587 593 599 605 611 617 623
735 86 629 635 641 646 652 658 664 670 676 682
736 66 688 694 700 705 711 717 723 729 735 741
737 86 747 753 759 764 770 776 782 788 794 800
738 86 806 812 817 823 829 835 841 847 853 859
739 86 864 870 876 882 888 894 900 906 911 917
740 86 923 929 935 941 947 953 958 964 970 976
741 86 982 988 994 999 005 Oil 017 023 029 035
742 87 040 046 052 058 064 070 075 081 087 093
743 87 099 105 111 116 122 128 134 140 146 151
744 87 157 163 169 175 181 186 192 198 204 210
745 87 216 221 227 233 239 245 251 256 262 268
746 87 274 280 286 291 297 303 309 315 320 326
747 67 332 338 344 349 355 361 367 373 379 384
748 87 390 396 402 408 413 419 425 431 437 442
749 87 448 454 460 466 471 477 483 489 495 500
750 87 506 512 518 523 529 535 541 547 552 558
LG N
3 4
750 87 506 512 518 523 529 535 541 547 552 558
751 87 564 570 576 581 587 393 599 604 610 616
752 87 622 628 633 639 645 651 656 662 668 674
753 87 679 685 691 697 703 708 714 720 726 731
754 87 737 743 749 754 760 766 772 777 783 789
755 87 795 800 806 812 818 623 829 835 841 846
756 87 852 858 864 869 875 881 887 892 898 904
757 87 910 915 921 927 933 938 944 950 955 961
758 87 967 973 978 984 990 996 001 007 013 018
759 88 024 030 036 041 047 053 058 064 070 076
760 88 081 087 093 098 104 110 116 121 127 133
761 88 138 144 150 156 161 167 173 178 184 190
762 88 195 201 207 213 218 224 230 235 241 247
763 88 252 258 264 270 275 281 287 292 298 304
764 88 309 315 321 326 332 338 343 349 355 360
765 88 366 372 377 383 389 395 400 406 412 417
766 88 423 429 434 440 446 451 457 463 468 474
767 88 480 485 491 497 502 508 513 519 525 530
768 88 536 542 547 553 559 564 570 576 581 587
769 88 593 598 604 610 615 621 627 632 638 643
770 88 649 655 660 666 672 677 683 689 694 700
771 88 705 711 717 722 728 734 739 745 750 756
772 88 762 767 773 779 784 790 795 801 807 812
773 88 818 824 829 835 840 846 852 857 863 868
774 88 874 880 885 891 897 902 908 913 919 925
775 88 930 936 941 947 953 958 964 969 975 981
776 88 986 992 997 003 #009 014 020 025 031 037
777 89 042 048 053 059 064 070 076 081 087 092
778 89 098 104 109 115 120 126 131 137 143 148
779 89 154 159 163 170 176 182 187 193 198 204
780 89 209 215 221 226 232 237 243 248 254 260
781 89 265 271 276 282 287 293 298 304 310 315
782 89 321 326 332 337 343 348 354 360 365 371
783 89 376 382 387 393 398 404 409 415 421 426
784 89 432 437 443 448 454 459 465 470 476 481
785 89 487 492 498 504 509 515 520 526 531 537
786 89 542 548 553 359 564 570 573 581 586 592
787 89 597 603 609 614 620 625 631 636 642 647
788 89 653 658 664 669 675 680 686 691 697 702
789 89 708 713 719 724 730 735 741 746 752 757
790 89 763 768 774 779 783 790 796 801 807 812
791 89 818 823 829 834 840 845 851 856 862 867
792 89 873 878 883 889 894 900 905 911 916 922
793 89 927 933 938 944 949 955 960 966 971 977
794 89 982 988 993 998 004 009 015 020 026 031
795 90 037 042 048 053 059 064 069 075 080 086
796 90 091 097 102 108 113 119 124 129 135 140
797 90 146 151 157 162 168 173 179 184 189 195
798 90 200 206 211 217 222 227 233 238 244 249
799 90 255 260 266 271 276 282 287 293 298 304
800 90 309 314 320 325 331 336 342 347 352 358
LG N
3 4
800 90 309 314 320 325 331 336 3*2 347 352 358
801 90 363 369 374 380 385 390 396 401 407 412
802 90 417 423 428 434 439 445 450 455 461 466
803 90 472 477 482 488 493 499 504 509 515 520
804 90 526 531 336 342 547 553 558 563 569 574
805 90 580 585 590 596 601 607 612 617 623 628
806 90 634 639 644 650 655 660 666 671 677 682
807 90 687 693 698 703 709 714 720 725 730 736
608 90 7*1 747 752 757 763 768 773 779 784 789
809 90 795 800 806 811 816 822 827 632 838 843
810 90 849 854 859 865 870 873 881 886 891 897
811 90 902 907 913 918 924 929 934 940 945 950
612 90 956 961 966 972 977 982 988 993 998 #004
813 91 009 014 020 025 030 036 041 046 052 057
814 91 062 068 073 078 084 089 094 100 105 110
815 91 116 121 126 132 137 142 148 153 158 164
816 91 169 174 180 165 190 196 201 206 212 217
817 91 222 228 233 238 243 249 254 259 265 270
818 91 275 281 286 291 297 302 307 312 318 323
819 91 328 334 339 344 350 355 360 365 371 376
820 91 381 387 392 397 403 408 413 418 424 429
821 91 434 440 445 450 455 461 466 471 477 482
822 91 487 492 498 503 508 514 519 524 529 535
823 91 540 545 551 556 561 566 572 577 582 587
824 91 593 598 603 609 614 619 624 630 635 640
825 91 645 651 656 661 666 672 677 682 687 693
826 91 698 703 709 714 719 724 730 735 740 745
827 91 751 756 761 766 772 777 782 787 793 798
828 91 603 808 814 819 824 829 834 840 845 850
829 91 855 861 866 871 876 882 887 892 897 903
630 91 908 913 918 924 929 934 939 944 950 955
831 91 960 965 971 976 981 986 991 997 002 007
832 92 012 018 023 028 033 038 044 049 054 059
833 92 063 070 075 080 085 091 096 101 106 111
834 92 117 122 127 132 137 143 148 153 158 163
835 92 169 174 179 184 189 195 200 205 210 215
836 92 221 226 231 236 241 247 252 257 262 267
837 92 273 278 283 288 293 298 304 309 314 319
830 92 324 330 335 340 345 350 355 361 366 371
639 92 376 381 387 392 397 402 407 412 418 423
840 92 428 433 438 443 449 454 459 464 469 474
841 92 480 483 490 495 500 505 511 516 521 526
842 92 531 536 542 547 552 557 562 567 572 578
843 92 583 588 593 598 603 609 614 619 624 629
844 92 634 639 645 650 655 660 665 670 675 681
843 92 686 691 696 701 706 711 716 722 727 732
846 92 737 742 747 752 758 763 768 773 778 783
847 92 788 793 799 804 809 814 819 824 829 834
848 92 640 845 850 855 860 865 870 875 881 886
649 92 891 896 901 906 911 916 921 927 932 937
850 92 942 947 952 957 962 967 973 978 983 988
H 123436769 LG H
850 92 942 9*7 952 957 962 967 97S 978 983 988
851 92 993 998 003 008 013 018 024 029 034 039
852 93 044 049 054 059 064 069 073 080 085 090
853 93 095 100 105 110 115 120 123 131 136 141
854 93 146 151 156 161 166 171 176 181 186 192
855 93 197 202 207 212 217 222 227 232 237 242
856 93 247 252 258 263 268 273 278 283 288 293
857 93 298 303 308 313 318 323 328 334 339 344
858 93 349 554 359 364 369 374 379 384 389 394
859 93 399 404 409 414 420 425 430 435 440 445
860 93 450 453 460 465 470 473 480 485 490 495
861 93 500 505 510 515 520 526 531 536 541 546
862 93 551 556 561 566 571 576 581 586 591 596
863 93 601 606 611 616 621 626 631 636 641 646
864 93 651 656 661 666 671 676 682 687 692 697
865 93 702 707 712 717 722 727 732 737 742 747
866 93 752 757 762 767 772 777 782 787 792 797
867 93 802 807 812 817 822 827 832 837 842 847
868 93 852 857 862 867 872 877 882 887 892 897
869 93 902 907 912 917 922 927 932 937 942 947
870 93 952 957 962 967 972 977 982 987 992 997
871 94 002 007 012 017 022 027 032 037 042 047
872 94 052 057 062 067 072 077 082 086 091 096
873 94 101 106 111 116 121 126 131 136 141 146
874 94 151 156 161 166 171 176 181 186 191 196
873 94 201 206 211 216 221 226 231* 236 240 245
876 94 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 283 290 295
877 94 300 305 310 313 320 323 330 335 340 345
878 94 349 354 359 364 369 374 379 384 389 394
879 94 399 404 409 414 419 424 429 433 438 443
880 94 448 453 458 463 468 473 478 483 488 493
881 94 498 503 507 312 517 522 327 332 537 542
882 94 547 552 557 562 567 571 576 581 586 591
883 94 596 601 606 611 616 621 626 630 635 640
88* 94 645 650 655 660 665 670 675 680 685 689
885 94 694 699 704 709 714 719 724 729 734 738
886 94 743 748 753 758 763 768 773 778 783 787
88? 94 792 797 802 807 812 817 822 827 832 836
888 94 841 846 851 856 861 866 871 876 880 885
889 94 890 895 900 905 910 915 919 924 929 934
890 94 939 944 949 954 959 963 968 973 978 983
891 94 988 993 998 002 007 012- 017 022 027 032
892 95 036 041 046 051 056 061 066 071 075 080
893 95 085 090 095 100 105 109 114 119 124 129
894 95 134 139 143 148 153 158 163 168 173 177
895 95 182 187 192 197 202 207 211 216 221 226
896 95 231 236 240 245 250 253 260 265 270 274
897 93 279 284 289 294 299 303 308 313 318 323
898 95 328 332 337 342 347 352 357 361 366 371
899 95 376 381 386 390 395 400 405 410 415 419
900 95 424 429 434 439 444 448 453 458 463 468
N 123*56769 LG N
900 95 424 429 434 439 444 448 453 450 463 468
901 95 472 477 482 487 492 497 501 506 511 516
902 95 521 525 530 535 540 545 550 554 559 564
903 95 569 574 578 583 588 593 598 602 607 612
904 95 617 622 626 631 636 641 646 650 655 660
905 95 665 670 674 679 684 689 694 698 703 708
906 95 713 718 722 727 732 737 742 746 751 756
907 95 761 766 770 775 780 785 789 794 799 604
908 95 809 813 818 623 628 832 837 842 847 852
909 95 856 861 866 871 875 880 885 690 895 899
910 95 904 909 914 918 923 928 933 938 942 947
911 95 952 957 961 966 971 976 980 985 990 995
912 95 999 004 009 014 019 023 020 033 038 042
913 96 047 052 057 061 066 071 076 080 085 090
914 96 095 099 104 109 114 118 123 126 133 137
915 96 142 147 152 156 161 166 171 175 180 185
916 96 190 194 199 204 209 213 218 223 227 232
917 96 237 242 246 251 256 261 265 270 275 280
918 96 284 289 294 298 303 308 313 317 322 327
919 96 332 336 341 346 350 355 360 365 369 374
920 96 379 384 388 393 398 402 407 412 417 421
921 96 426 431 435 440 445 450 454 459 464 468
922 96 473 478 463 487 492 497 501 506 511 515
923 96 520 525 530 534 539 544 548 553 558 562
924 96 567 572 577 561 586 591 595 600 605 609
925 96 614 619 624 628 633 638 642 647 652 656
926 96 661 666 670 675 680 685 689 694 699 703
927 96 708 713 717 722 727 731 736 741 745 750
928 96 755 759 764 769 774 778 783 768 792 797
929 96 802 806 811 816 820 825 830 834 839 844
930 96 848 853 858 862 867 872 876 881 886 890
931 96 895 900 904 909 914 918 923 928 932 937
932 96 942 946 951 956 960 965 970 974 979 984
933 96 988 993 997 002 007 Oil 016 021 025 030
934 97 035 039 044 049 053 058 063 067 072 077
935 97 081 086 090 095 100 104 109 114 118 123
936 97 128 132 137 142 146 151 155 160 165 169
937 97 174 179 183 188 192 197 202 206 211 216
938 97 220 225 230 234 239 243 248 253 257 262
939 97 267 271 276 280 285 290 294 299 304 308
940 97 313 317 322 327 331 336 340 345 350 354
941 97 359 364 368 373 377 382 387 391 396 400
942 97 403 410 414 419 424 428 433 437 442 447
943 97 451 456 460 465 470 474 479 483 488 493
944 97 97 502 506 511 516 520 325 529 534 539
945 97 543 548 552 557 562 566 571 575 580 585
946 97 389 594 598 603 607 612 617 621 626 630
947 97 635 640 644 649 633 658 663 667 672 676
948 97 681 685 690 695 699 704 708 713 717 722
949 97 727 731 736 740 745 749 754 759 763 768
950 97 772 777 782 786 791 795 800 604 809 813
LG N
3 4
950 97 772 777 762 78* 791 795 00 804 809 813
951 97 818 823 827 832 836 641 845 850 855 859
952 97 864 868 873 877 882 886 891 896 900 905
953 97 909 914 918 923 928 932 937 941 946 950
954 97 955 959 964 968 973 978 982 987 991 996
955 98 000 005 009 014 019 023 028 032 037 041
956 98 046 050 055 059 064 068 073 078 082 087
957 98 091 096 100 105 109 114 118 123 127 132
958 98 137 141 146 150 155 159 164 168 173 177
959 98 182 186 191 195 200 204 209 214 218 223
960 98 227 232 236 241 245 250 254 259 263 268
961 98 272 277 281 286 290 295 299 304 308 313
962 98 318 322 327 331 336 340 345 349 354 358
963 98 363 367 372 376 381 385 390 394 399 403
964 98 408 412 417 421 426 430 435 439 444 448
965 98 453 457 462 466 471 475 480 484 489 493
966 98 498 502 507 511 516 520 525 529 534 538
967 98 543 547 552 556 561 565 570 574 579 583
968 98 588 592 597 601 605 610 614 619 623 628
969 98 632 637 641 646 650 655 659 664 668 673
970 98 677 682 686 691 693 700 704 709 713 717
971 98 722 726 731 735 740 744 749 753 758 762
972 98 767 771 776 780 784 789 793 798 802 807
973 98 811 816 820 825 829 634 838 843 847 851
974 98 856 86Q 865 869 874 878 883 887 892 896
975 98 900 90* 909 914 918 923 927 932 936 941
976 98 945 949 954 958 963 967 972 976 981 985
977 98 989 994 998 003 007 012 016 021 023 029
978 99 034 038 043 047 052 056 061 065 069 074
979 99 078 083 087 092 096 100 103 109 114 118
980 99 123 127 131 136 140 145 149 154 158 162
981 99 167 171 176 180 185 189 193 198 202 207
982 99 211 216 220 224 229 233 238 242 247 251
983 99 255 260 264 269 273 277 282 286 291 295
984 99 300 304 308 313 317 322 326 330 335 339
985 99 344 348 352 357 361 366 370 374 379 383
986 99 388 392 396 401 405 410 414 419 423 427
987 99 432 436 441 445 449 454 458 463 467 471
988 99 476 480 484 489 493 498 502 506 511 515
989 99 520 524 528 533 537 542 546 550 555 559
990 99 564 568 572 577 581 585 590 594 599 603
991 99 607 612 616 621 625 629 634 638 642 647
992 99 651 656 660 664 669 673 677 682 686 691
993 99 695 699 704 708 712 717 721 726 730 734
994 99 739 743 747 752 756 760 765 769 774 778
993 99 782 787 791 795 800 804 808 813 817 622
996 99 826 830 835 839 843 848 852 856 861 865
997 99 870 874 878 883 887 891 896 900 904 909
998 99 913 917 922 926 930 933 939 944 948 952
999 99 957 961 965 970 974 976 983 987 991 996
000 00 000 004 009 013 017 022 026 030 03S 039
TABLE 3
Trigonometrical functions
$ the central angle of the unit circle.
x = 0-000 to x = 0-800
Graph for Table 3
cot
1 J I
,an
1
/cos
t >v sin
V / \
cot
f\
tan/ \
-3
.71 n 3 7i
o f 2
2tj
1
90 180 270 360

-90
0*000 0 00 00.00 0.00000 1.00000 .00000 <o
0*001 03 26.26 0*00100 1.00000 .00100 1000.00

0*002 06 52.53 0.00200 1.00000 .00200 499.999
0*003 10 18.79 0.00300 1.00000 .00300 333.332
0.00* 13 45.06 0.00400 0.99999 .00400 249.999
0.005 17 11.32 0.00500 0.99999 .00500 199.998
0.006 20 37.59 0.00600 0.99998 .00600 166.665

0.007 24 03.85 0.00700 0.99998 .00700 142.855
0.008 27 30.12 0.00800 0.99997 .00800 124.997
0.009 30 56.38 0.00900 0.99996 .00900 111.108
0.010 34 22.65 0.01000 0.99995 .01000 99.9967
0.011 37 48.91 0.01100 0.99994 .01100 90.9054

0.012 41 15.18 0.01200 0.99993 .01200 83.3293
0.013 44 41.44 0.01300 0.99992 .01300 76.9187
0.01* 48 07.71 0.01400 0.99990 .01400 71.4239
0.015 51 33.97 0.01500 0.99989 .01500 66.6617
0.016 55 00.24 0.01600 0.99987 .01600 62.4947

0*017 58 26.50 0.01700 0.99986 .01700 58.8179
0.018 1 01 52.77 0.01800 0.99984 .01800 55.5496
0.019 1 05 19.03 0.01900 0.99982 .01900 52.6252
0.020 1 08 45.30 0.02000 0.99980 .02000 49.9933
0.021 1 12 11.56 0.02100 0.99978 .02100 47.6120

0.022 1 15 37.83 0.02200 0.99976 .02200 45.4472
0.023 1 19 04.09 0.02300 0.99974 .02300 43.4706
0.02* 1 22 30.36 0.02400 0.99971 .02400 41.6587
0*025 1 25 56.62 0.02500 0.99969 .02501 39.9917
0.026 1 29 22.88 0.02600 0.99966 .02601 38.4529

0.027 1 32 49.15 0.02700 0.99964 02701 37.0280
0.028 1 36 15.41 0.02800 0.99961 02801 35.7050
0.029 1 39 41.68 0.02900 0.99958 02901 34.4731
0*030 1 43 07.94 0.03000 0.99955 .03001 33.3233
0.031 1 46 34.21 0.03100 0.99952 .03101 32.2477

0.032 1 50 00.47 0.03199 0.99949 .03201 31.2393
0.033 1 53 26.74 0.03299 0.99946 .03301 30.2920
0.034 1 56 53.00 0.03399 0.99942 .03401 29.4004
0.035 2 00 19.27 0.03499 0.99939 0. 03501 28.5598
0.036 2 03 45.53 0.03599 0.99935 03602 27.7658

0.037 2 07 11.80 0.03699 0.99932 03702 27.0147
0.038 2 10 38.06 0.03799 0.99928 03802 26.3031
0.039 2 14 04.33 0.03899 0.99924 0. 03902 25.6280
0.0*0 2 17 30.59 0.03999 0.99920 0< 04002 24.9867
0.041 2 20 56.86 0.04099 0.99916 0, 04102 24.3766

0.042 2 24 23.12 0.04199 0.99912 0. 04202 23.7955
0.043 2 27 49.39 0.04299 0.99908 0. 04303 23.2415
0.044 2 31 15.65 0.04399 0.99903 0. 04403 22.7126
0.045 2 34 41.92 0.04498 0.99899 o. 04503 22.2072
0.046 2 38 08.18 0.04598 0.99894 0. 04603 21.7238

0.047 2 41 34.45 0.04698 0.99890 0. 04703 21.2609
0.048 2 45 00.71 0.04798 0.99885 0. 04804 20.8173
0.049 2 48 26.98 0.04898 0.99880 0. 04904 20.3918
0*050 2 51 53.24 0.04998 0.99875 0. 05004 19.9833
tan x cot x
tan x cot x
0*050 2
e'51' 53.24" 0.04998 0.99875 0.05004 19.9833
0.051 2 55 19.51 0.05098 0.99870 0.05104 19.5908

0.052 2 58 45.77 0.05198 0.99865 0.05205 19.2134
0.053 3 02 12.03 0.05298 0.99860 0.05305 18.8503
0.054 3 05 38.30 0.05397 0.99854 0.05405 18.5005
Q.055 3 09 04.56 0.05497 0.99849 0.05506 18.1635
0.056 3 12 30.83 0.05597 0.99843 0.05606 17.8385

0.057 3 15 57.09 0.05697 0.99838 0.05706 17.5249
0.058 3 19 23.36 0.05797 0.99832 0.05807 17.2220
0.059 3 22 49.62 0.05897 0.99826 0.05907 16.9295
0.060 3 26 15.89 0.05996 0.99820 0.06007 16.6467
0.061 3 29 42.15 0.06096 0.99814 0.06108 16.3731

0.062 3 33 08.42 0.06196 0.99808 0.06208 16.1084
0.063 3 36 34.68 0.06296 0.99802 0.06308 15.8520
0.064 3 40 00.95 0.06396 0.99795 0.06409 15.6037
0.065 3 43 27.21 0.06495 0.99789 0.06509 15.3629
0.066 3 46 53.48 0.06595 0.99782 0.06610 15.1295

0.067 3 50 19.74 0.06695 0.99776 0.06710 14.9030
0*068 3 53 46.01 0.06795 0.99769 0.06811 14.6832
0.069 3 57 12.27 0.06895 0.99762 0.06911 14.4697
0.070 4 00 38.54 0.06994 0.99755 0.07011 14.2624
0.071 4 04 04.80 0.07094 0.99748 0.07112 14.0608

0.072 4 07 31.07 0.07194 0.99741 0.07212 13.8649
0.073 4 10 57.33 0.07294 0.99734 0.07313 13.6743
0.074 4 14 23.60 0.07393 0.99726 0.07U4 13.4888
0.075 4 17 49.86 0.07493 0.99719 0.07514 13.3083
0.076 4 21 16.13 0.07593 0.99711 0.07615 13.1326

0.077 4 24 42.39 0.07692 0.99704 0.07715 12.9613
0.078 4 28 08.65 0.07792 0.99696 0.07816 12.7945
0.079 4 31 34.92 0.07892 0.99688 0.07916 12.6319
0.080 4 35 01.18 0.07991 0.99680 0. 08017 12.4733
0.081 4 38 27.45 0.08091 0.99672 0.08118 12.3187

0.082 4 41 53.71 0.08191 0.99664 0.08218 12.1678
0.083 4 45 19.98 0.08290 0.99656 0.08319 12.0205
0*084 4 48 46.24 0.08390 0.99647 0.08420 11.8767
0.085 4 52 12.51 0.08490 0.99639 0.08521 11.7364
0*086 4 55 38.77 0.08589 0.99630 0.08621 11.5992

0.087 4 59 05.04 0.08689 0.99622 0.08722 11.4652
0.088 5 02 31.30 0.08789 0.99613 0.08823 11.3343
0.089 5 05 57.57 0.08888 0.99604 0.08924 11.2063
0.090 5 09 23.83 0.08988 0.99595 0.09024 11.0811
0.091 5 12 50.10 0.09087 0.99586 0.09125 10.9587

0.092 5 16 16.36 0.09187 0.99577 0.09226 10.8389
0.093 5 19 42.63 0.09287 0.99568 0.09127 10.7217
0.094 5 23 08.89 0.09386 0.99559 0.09428 10.6069
0*095 5 26 35.16 0.09486 0.99549 0.09529 10.4946
0.096 5 30 01.42 0.09585 0.99540 0.09630 10.3846

0.097 5 33 27.69 0.09685 0.99530 0.09731 10.2769
0.098 5 36 53.95 0.09784 0.99520 0.09831 10.1714
0.099 5 40 Z0.22 0.09884 0.99510 0.09932 10.0680
0.100 5 43 46.48 0.09983 0.99500 0.10033 9.96664
cot X
fan x cot x
.100 5 3' 46.48" 0. 09983 0.99500 0. 10Q33 9.96664
101 5 47 12.75 0. 10083 0.99490 0. 10134 9.86730

102 5 50 39.01 0. 10182 0.99480 10236 9.76990
103 5 54 05.28 0. 10282 0.99470 10337 9.67438
.104 5 57 31.54 0. 10381 0.99460 10438 9.58069
.105 6 00 57.80 0. 10481 0.99449 0. ,10539 9.48878
106 6 04 24.07 0. 10580 0.99439 0.,10640 9.39860

.107 6 07 50.33 0. 10680 0.99428 0. 10741 9.31010
.108 6 11 16.60 0. 10779 0.99417 0. 10842 9.22323
.109 6 14 42.86 0. 10878 0.99407 0. 10943 9.13795
110 6 18 09.13 0. 10978 0.99396 0. 11045 9.05421
111 6 21 35.39 0. 11077 0.99385 0. 11146 8.97198

112 6 25 01.66 0. 11177 0.99373 0. 11247 8.89121
.113 6 28 27.92 0. 11276 0.99362 0, 11348 8.81186
114 6 31 54.19 0. 11375 0.99351 0. 11450 8.73390
115 6 35 20.45 0. 11475 0.99339 0< 11551 8.65729
.116 6 38 46.72 11574 0.99328 0.,11652 8.58199

117 6 42 12.98 .11673 0.99316 .11754 8.50797
.118 6 45 39.25 .11773 0.99305 .11855 8.43521
.119 6 49 05.51 .11872 0.99293 .11956 8.36366
.120 6 52 31.78 11971 0.99281 0. 12058 8.29329
.121 6 55 58.04 0,.12070 0.99269 0,.12159 8.22409

.122 6 59 24.31 .12170 0.99257 0, 12261 8.15601
.123 7 02 50.57 .12269 0.99245 .12362 8.08904
.124 7 06 16.84 .12368 0.99232 .12464 8.02314
125 7 09 43.10 .12467 0.99220 ,12566 7.95829
1.126 7 13 09.37 ,12567 0.99207 ,12667 7.89446

(.127 7 16 35.63 .12666 0.99195 12769 7.83164
.128 7 20 01.90 .12765 0.99182 ,12870 7.76979
.129 7 23 28.16 .12864 0.99169 0,,12972 7.70889
.130 7 26 54.42 0..12963 0.99156 0. 13074 7.64893
131 7 30 20.69 0. 13063 0.99143 0, 13175 7.58987

.132 7 33 46.95 0..13162 0.99130 0, 13277 7.53171
.133 7 37 13.22 .13261 0.99117 0, 13379 7.47441
.134 7 40 39.48 .13360 0.99104 ,13481 7.41797
.135 7 44 05.75 ,13459 0.99090 0,,13583 7.36235
(.136 7 47 32.01 .13558 0.99077 ,13684 7.30755

.137 7 50 58.28 .13657 0.99063 13786 7.25355
1.138 7 54 24.54 .13756 0.99049 .13888 7.20032
).139 7 57 50.81 ,13855 0.99036 .13990 7.14785
1*140 8 01 17.07 ,13954 0.99022 0..14092 7.09613
141 8 04 43.34 0. 14053 0.99008 0. 14194 7.04514

.142 8 08 09.60 ,14152 0.98993 0. 14296 6.99486
.143 8 11 35.87 0. 14251 0.98979 0. 14398 6.94528
.144 8 15 02.13 0. 14350 0.98965 0. 14500 6.89638
.143 8 18 28.40 0. 14449 0.98951 0. 14602 6.84815
.146 8 21 54.66 0. 14548 0.98936 0. 14705 6.80058
.147 8 25 20.93 0. 14647 0.98921 0. 14807 6.75365
.148 8 28 47.19 0. 14746 0.98907 0, 14909 6.70735
.149 8 32 13.46 0. 14845 0.98892 0. 15011 6.66167
.150 8 35 39.72 0. 1*944 0.98877 0. 15114 6.61659
tan x
tan x cot x
C
.150 8 35 39.72 .14944 0.98877 .15114 6.61659
.151 6 39 05.99 .15043 0.98862 .15216 6.57211

.152 8 42 32.25 .15142 0.98847 .15318 6.52820
153 8 45 58.52 .15240 0.98832 .15421 6.48487
.15* 8 49 24.78 .15339 0.98817 .15523 6.44209
.155 8 52 51.04 .15438 0.98801 .15625 6.39986
.156 8 56 17.31 .15537 0.98786 .15728 6.35817

157 8 59 43.57 .15636 0.98770 .15830 6.31701
.158 9 03 09.84 .15734 0.98754 .15933 6.27636
.159 9 06 36.10 .15833 0.98739 .16035 6.23622
.160 9 10 02.37 .15932 0.98723 .16138 6.19658
.161 9 13 28.63 .16031 0.98707 .16241 6.15742

.162 9 16 54.90 .16129 0.98691 .16343 6.11874
.163 9 20 21.16 .16228 0.98674 .16446 6.08054
.164 9 23 47.43 .16327 0.98658 .16549 6.04280
.165 9 27 13.69 .16425 0.98642 .16651 6.00551
.166 9 30 39.96 .16524 0.98625 .16754 5.96866

167 9 34 06.22 .16622 0.98609 ,16857 5.93225
168 9 37 32.49 .16721 0.98592 .16960 5.89628
169 9 40 58.75 .16820 0.98575 .17063 5.86072
170 9 44 25.02 .16918 0.98558 .17166 5.82558
171 9 47 51.28 .17017 0.98542 17269 5.79084

172 9 51 17.55 .17115 0.98524 0. 17372 5.75651
0. 173 9 54 43.81 .17214 0.98507 0. 17475 5.72256
174 9 58 10.08 .17312 0.98490 0. 17578 5.68901
175 10 01 36.34 .17411 0.98473 0. 17681 5.65583
0. 176 10 05 02.61 .17509 0.98455 0. 17784 5.62303

177 10 08 28.87 .17608 0.98438 0. 17887 5.59059
0. 178 10 11 55.14 17706 0.98420 0. 17990 5.55852
179 10 15 21.40 17805 0.98402 0. 18094 5.52680
0. 180 10 18 47.67 17903 0.98384 0. 18197 5.49543
0. 181 10 22 13.93 0. 18001 0.98366 0. 18300 5.46440

0. 182 10 25 40.19 0. 18100 0.98348 0. 18404 5.43370
0. 183 10 29 06.46 Oi 18198 0.98330 0. 18507 5.40334
0- 184 10 32 32.72 0. 18296 0.98312 0. 18611 5.37331
o. 185 10 35 58.99 0. 18395 0.98294 0. 18714 5.34360
0< 186 10 39 25.25 0. 18493 0.98275 0. 18818 5.31420

0. 187 10 42 51.52 0. 18591 0.98257 0. 18921 5.28511
188 10 46 17.78 0. 18689 0.98238 0. 19025 5.25633
0. 189 10 49 44.05 0. 18788 0.98219 0. 19128 5.22785
0. 190 10 53 10.31 0. 18886 0.98200 0. 19232 5.19967
0. 191 10 56 36.58 0. 18984 0.98181 0. 19336 5.17178

0. 192 11 00 02.84 0. 19082 0.98162 0. 19439 5.14418
0. 193 11 03 29.11 0. 19180 0.98143 0. 19543 5.11685
0. 194 11 06 55.37 0. 19279 0.98124 0. 19647 5.08981
o. 195 11 10 21.64 0. 19377 0.98105 0. 19751 5.06304
o. 196 11 13 47.90 0. 19475 0.98085 0. 19855 5.03654

0. 197 11 17 14.17 0. 19573 0.98066 0. 19959 5.01030
o. 198 11 20 40.43 0. 19671 0.98046 0. 20063 4.98433
0. 199 11 24 06.70 0. 19769 0.98026 0. 20167 4.95862
0. 200 11 27 32.96 0. 19867 0.98007 0. 20271 4.93315
cot X
0.200 11**2T 32.96' 0.19867 0.98007 0.20271 4.93315
0.201 11 30 59.23 0.19965 0.97987 0.20375 4.90794

0.202 11 34 25.49 0.20063 0.97967 0.20479 4.88298
0.203 11 37 51.76 0.20161 0.97947 0.20584 4.85826
0.204 11 41 18.02 0.20259 0.97926 0.20688 4.83377
0.205 11 44 44.29 0.20357 0.97906 0.2079? 4.80952
0.206 11 48 10.55 0.20455 0.97886 0.20896 4.78551

0.207 11 51 36.81 0.20552 0.97865 0.21001 4.76172
0.208 11 55 03.08 0.20650 0.97845 0.21105 4.73816
0.209 11 58 29.34 0.20748 0.97824 0.21210 4.71482
0.210 12 01 55.61 0.20846 0.97803 0.21314 4.69170
0.211 12 05 21.87 0.20944 0.97782 0.21419 4.66879

0.212 12 06 48.14 0.21042 0.97761 0.21523 4.64610
0.213 12 12 14.40 0.21139 0.97740 0.21628 4.62362
0.214 12 15 40.67 0.21237 0.97719 0.21733 4.60135
0.215 12 19 06.93 0.21335 0.97698 0.21838 4.57927
0.216 12 22 33.20 0.21432 0.97676 0.21942 4.55740

0.217 12 25 59.46 0.21530 0.97655 0.22047 4.53573
0.218 12 29 25.73 0.21628 0.97633 0.22152 4.51426
0.219 12 32 51.99 0.21725 0.97612 0.22257 4.49298
0.220 12 36 18.26 0.21823 0.97590 0.22362 4.47188
0.221 12 39 44.52 0.21921 0.97568 0.22467 4.45098

0.222 12 43 10.79 0.22018 0.97546 0.22572 4.43026
0.223 12 46 37.05 0.22116 0.97524 0.22677 4.40972
0.224 12 50 03.32 0.22213 0.97502 0.22782 4.38937
0.225 12 53 29.58 0.22311 0.97479 0.22888 4.36919
0.226 12 56 55.65 0.22408 0.97457 0.22993 4.34919

0.227 13 00 22.11 0.22506 0.97435 0.23098 4.32 936
0.228 13 03 48.38 0.2?6C3 0.97412 0.23203 4.30970
0.229 13 07 14.64 0.22700 0.97389 0.23309 4.29021
0.230 13 10 40.91 0.22798 0.97367 0.23414 4.27089
0.231 13 14 07.17 0.22895 0.97344 0.23520 4.25173

0.232 13 17 33.44 0.22992 0.97321 0.23625 4.23273
0.233 13 20 59.70 0.23090 0.97298 0.23731 4.21390
0.234 13 24 25.96 0.23187 0.97275 0.23837 4.19522
0.235 13 27 52.23 0.23284 0.97251 0.23942 4.17670
0.236 13 31 18.49 0.23382 0.97228 0.24048 4.15833

0.237 13 34 44.76 0.23479 0.97205 0.24154 4.14011
0.238 13 38 11.02 0.23576 0.97181 0.24260 4.12205
0.239 13 41 37.29 0.23673 0.97158 0.24366 4.10413
0.240 13 45 03.55 0.23770 0.97134 0.24472 4.08636
<\.241 13 48 29.82 0.23867 0.97110 0.24578 4.06873
0.242 13 51 56.08 0.23964 0.97086 0.24684 4.05125
0.243 13 55 22.35 0.24062 0.97062 0.24790 4.03391
0.244 13 58 48.61 0.24159 0.97038 0.24896 4.01670
0.245 14 02 14.88 0.24256 0.97014 0.25002 3.99964
0.246 14 05 41.1* 0.24353 0.96989 0.25109 3.98271
0.247 14 09 07.41 0.24450 0.96965 0.25215 3.96591
0.248 14 12 33.67 0.24547 0.96941 0.25321 3.94925
0.249 14 15 59.94 0.24643 0.96916 0.25428 3.93272
0.250 14 19 26.20 0.24740 0.96691 0.25534 3.91632
II 9 sin x cos x fan x cof x
2IA
tan x cot x
0*250 14 19 26. 20" 0.24740 0*96891 0.25534 3*91632
0.251 14 22 52.47 0.24837 0.96866 0.25641 3.90004

0.252 14 26 18.73 0.24934 0.96842 0.25747 3.88390
0.253 14 29 45.00 0.25031 0.96817 0.25854 3.86787
0.254 14 33 11.26 0.25128 0.96792 0.25961 3.85197
0.255 14 36 37.53 0.25225 0.96766 0.26067 3.83620
0.256 14 40 03.79 0.25321 0.96741 0.26174 3.82054

0.257 14 43 30.06 0.25418 0.96716 0.26281 3.80500
0.258 14 46 56.32 0.25515 0.96690 0.26388 3.78958
0.259 14 50 22.58 0.25611 0.96665 0.26495 3.77428
0.260 14 53 48.85 0.25708 0.96639 0.26602 3.75909
0.261 14 57 19.11 0.25805 0.96613 0.26709 3.74402

0.262 15 00 41.38 0.25901 0.96587 0.26816 3.72906
0.263 15 04 07.64 0.25998 0.96561 0.26924 3.71421
0.264 15 07 33.91 0.26094 0.96535 0.27031 3.69947
0.265 15 11 00.17 0.26191 0.96509 0.27138 3.68484
0.266 15 14 26.44 0.26287 0.96483 0.27246 3.67031

0.267 15 17 52.70 0.26384 0.96457 0.27353 3.65589
0.268 15 21 18.97 0.26480 0.96430 0.27461 3.64158
0.269 15 24 45.23 0.26577 0.96404 0.27568 3.62737
0.270 15 28 11.50 0.26673 0.96377 0.27676 3.61326
0.271 15 31 37.76 0.26770 0.96350 0.27784 3.59926

0.272 15 35 04.03 0.26866 0.96324 0.27891 3.58535
0.273 15 38 30.29 0.26962 0.96297 0.27999 3.57155
0.274 15 41 56.56 0.27058 0.96270 0.28107 3.55784
0.275 15 45 22.82 0.27155 0.96243 0.28215 3.54423
0.276 15 48 49.09 0.27251 0.96215 0.28323 3.53072

0.277 15 52 15.35 0.27347 0.96188 0.28431 3.51730
0.278 15 55 41.62 0.27443 0.96161 0.28539 3.50397
0.279 15 59 07.88 0.27539 0.96133 0.28647 3.49074
0.280 16 02 34.15 0.27636 0.96106 0.28755 3.47760
0.281 16 06 00.41 0.27732 0.96078 0.28864 3.46456

0.282 16 09 26.68 0.27828 0.96050 0.28972 3.45160
0.283 16 12 52.94 0.27924 0.96022 0.29081 3.43873
0.284 16 16 19.20 0.28020 0.95994 0.29189 3.42595
0.285 16 19 45.47 0.28116 0.95966 0.29298 3.41325
0.286 16 23 11.73 0.28212 0.95938 0.29406 3.40065

0.287 16 26 38.00 0.28308 0.95910 0.29515 3.38812
0.288 16 30 04.26 0.28404 0.95881 0.29624 3.37569
0.289 16 33 30.53 0.^3499 0.95853 0.29732 3.36333
0.290 16 36 56.79 0.28595 0.95824 0.29841 3.35106
0.291 16 40 23.06 0.28691 0.95796 0.29950 3.33887

0.292 16 43 49.32 0.28787 0.95767 0.30059 3.32677
0.293 16 47 15.59 0.28883 0.95738 0.30168 3.31474
0.294 16 50 41.85 0.28978 0.95709 0.30277 3.30279
0.295 16 54 08.12 0.29074 0.95680 0.30387 3.29092
0.296 16 57 34.38 0.29170 0.95651 0.30496 3.27913

0.297 17 01 00.65 0.29265 0.95622 0.30605 3.26742
0.298 17 04 26.91 0.29361 0.95593 0.30715 3.25578
0.299 17 07 53.18 0.29456 0.95563 0.30824 3.24422
0.300 17 11 19.44 0.29552 0.95534 0.30934 3.23273
tan x
0.300 17 11 19.44 0.29552 0.95534 0.30934 3.23273

0.301 17 14 45.71 0.29648 0.95504 0.31043 3.22131
0.302 17 18 11.97 0.29743 0.95474 0.31153 3.20997
0.303 17 21 38.24 0.29838 0.95445 0.31263 3.19871
0.304 17 25 04.50 0.29934 0.95415 0.31372 3.18751
0*305 17 28 30.77 0.30029 0.95385 0.31482 3.17639
0.306 17 31 57.03 0.30125 0.95355 0.31592 3.16533
0.307 17 35 23.30 0.30220 0.95324 0.31702 3.15435
0.308 17 38 49.56 0.30315 0.95294 0.31812 3.14343
0.309 1-7 42 15.83 0.30411 0.95264 0.31923 3.13258
0.310 17 45 42.09 0.30506 0.95233 0.32033 3.12180
0.311 17 49 08.35 0.30601 0.95203 0.32143 3.11109
0.312 17 52 34.62 0.30696 0.95172 0.32253 3.10045
0.313 17 56 00.88 0.30791 0.95141 0.32364 3.08987
0.314 17 59 27.15 0.30887 0.95111 0.32474 3.07935
0.315 18 02 53.41 0.30982 0.95080 0.32585 3.06890
0.316 18 06 19.68 0.31077 0.95049 0.32696 3.05852
0.317 18 09 45.94 0.31172 0.95017 0.32806 3.04819
0.318 18 13 12.21 0.31267 0.94986 0.32917 3.03793
0.319 18 16 38.47 0.31362 0.9*955 0.3302 3.02773
0.320 18 20 04.74 0.31457 0.94924 0.33139 3.01760
0.321 18 23 31.00 0.31552 0.94892 0.33250 3.00752

0.322 18 26 57.27 0.31646 0.94860 0.33361 2.99751
0.323 18 30 23.53 0.31741 0.94829 0.33472 2.98755
0.324 18 33 49.80 0.31836 0.94797 0.33583 2.97766
0.325 18 37 16.06 0.31931 0.94765 0.33695 2.96782
0.326 18 40 42.33 0.32026 0.9*733 0.33806 2.9580*

0.327 18 44 08.59 0.32120 0.94701 0.33918 2.94832
0.328 18 47 34.86 0.32215 0.9*669 0.34029 2.93665
0.329 18 51 01.12 0.32310 0.94637 0.34141 2.92905
0.330 18 54 27.39 0.32404 0.94604 0.34252 2.91950
0.331 18 57 53.65 0.32499 0.9*572 0.3436* 2.91000
0.332 19 01 19.92 0.32593 0.94539 0.34476 2.90056
0.333 19 04 46.18 0.32688 0.94507 0.34588 2.89117
0.334 19 08 12.45 0.32782 0.94474 0.34700 2.88184
0.335 19 11 38.71 0.32877 0.9*441 0.34812 2.87256
0.336 19 15 04.97 0.32971 0.9**08 0.3492* 2.8633*
0.337 19 18 31.24 0.33066 0.9*375 0.35037 2.85*17
0.338 19 21 57.50 0.33160 0.9*342 0.35149 2.8*505
0.339 19 25 23.77 0.33254 0.9*309 0.35261 2.83598
0.340 19 28 50.03 0.33349 0.94275 0.35374 2.82696
0.3*1 19 32 16.30 0.334*3 0.9*2** 0.35*86 2.81799
0.342 19 35 42.56 0.33537 0.94209 0.35599 2.80908
0.343 19 39 08.83 0.33631 0.94175 0.35712 2.80021
0.344 19 42 35.09 0.33726 0.9*1*1 0.35824 2.791*0
0.345 19 46 01.36 0.33820 0.9*108 0.35Q37 2.78263
0.346 19 *9 27.62 0.3391* 0.9*07* 0.36050 2.77391
0.347 19 52 53.89 0.34008 0.94040 0.36163 2.76524
0.3*8 19 56 20.15 0.34102 0.9*006 0.36276 2.75662
0.349 19 59 46.42 0.34196 0.93972 0.36190 2.74804
0.350 20 03 12.68 0.34290 0.93937 0.36503 2.73951
cot X
0. 350 20 03' 12.68 0.34290 0.93937 .36503 2.73951
o. 351 20 06 38.95 0.34384 0.93903 .36616 2.73103

Oi 352 20 10 05.21 0.34476 0.93869 .36730 2.72259
o. 353 20 13 31.48 0.34571 0.93834 .36843 2.71421
o. 354 20 16 57.74 0.34665 0.93799 .36957 2.70586
.355 20 20 24.01 0.34759 0.93765 .37071 2.69756
.356 20 23 50.27 0.34853 0.93730 .37184 2.68931

.357 20 27 16.54 0.34946 0.93695 .37298 2.68110
.358 20 30 42.80 0.35040 0.93660 .37412 2.67293
.359 20 34 09.07 0.35134 0.93625 .37526 2.66481
.360 20 37 35.33 0.35227 0.93590 .37640 2.65673
.361 20 41 01.60 0.35321 0.93554 .37754 2.64669

.362 20 44 27.86 0.35415 0.93519 .37869 2.64070
.363 20 47 54.12 0.35508 0.93484 .37983 2.63274
.364 20 51 20.39 0.35601 0.93448 .38098 2.62483
.365 20 54 46.65 0.35695 0.93412 .38212 2.61696
.366 20 58 12.92 0.35788 0.93377 .38327 2.60914

.367 21 01 39.18 0.35882 0.93341 .38442 2.60135
.368 21 05 05.45 0.35975 0.93305 .38556 2.59360
.369 21 08 31.71 0.36068 0.93269 .38671 2.58590
.370 21 11 57.98 0.36162 0.93233 .38786 2*57823
.371 21 15 24.24 0.36255 0.93197 .38901 2.57060

.372 21 18 50.51 0.36348 0.93160 .39017 2.56301
.373 21 22 16.77 0.36441 0.93124 .39132 2.55546
.374 21 25 43.04 0.36534 0.93087 .39247 2.54 795
.375 21 29 09.30 0.36627 0.93051 .39363 2.54048
,376 21 32 35.57 0.36720 0.93014 .39478 2.53304

,377 21 36 01.83 0.36813 0.92977 0..39594 2.52565
378 21 39 28.10 0.36906 0.92940 39710 2.51829
0< 379 21 42 54.36 0.36999 0.92904 0. 39825 2.51096
0. 380 21 46 20.63 0.37092 0.92866 0. 39941 2.50368
381 21 49 46.69 0.37185 0.92829 .40057 2.49643

.382 24 53 13.16 0.37278 0.92792 .40173 2.48921
.383 21 56 39.42 0.37370 0.92755 .40290 2.48203
384 22 00 05.69 0.37463 0.92717 .40406 2.47489
.385 22 03 31.95 0.37556 0.92680 .40522 2.46778
386 22 06 58.22 0.37649 0.92642 .40639 2.46071

.387 22 10 24.48 0.37741 0.92605 .40755 2.45367
388 22 13 50.74 0.37834 0.92567 .40872 2.44667
389 22 17 17.01 0.37926 0.92529 .40989 2.43970
.390 22 20 43.27 0.38019 0.92491 0. 41105 2.43276
0. 391 22 24 09.54 0.38111 0.92453 0. 41222 2.42586

0 392 22 27 35.80 0.38204 0.92415 o. 41339 2.41900
0. 393 22 31 02.07 0.38296 0.92376 0. 41457 2.41216
0< 394 22 34 28.33 0.38388 0.92338 0. 41574 2.40536
o. 395 22 37 54.60 0.38481 0.92300 0. 41691 2.39859
0 396 22 41 20.86 0.38573 0.92261 0. 41809 2.39185

0. 397 22 44 47.13 0.38665 0.92223 0. 41926 2.38515
0. 398 22 48 13.39 0.38758 0.92184 0. 42044 2.37847
0. 399 22 51 39.66 0.38850 0.92145 0. 42161 2.37183
0. 400 22 55 05.92 0.38942 0.92106 0. 42279 2.36522
cot X
0*400 22 55 05.92 0.38942 0.92106 0.42279 2. 36522
0.401 22 58 32.19 0.39034 0.92067 0.42397 2. 35864

0.402 23 01 58.45 0.39126 0.92028 0.42515 2. 35210
0.403 23 05 24.72 0.39218 0.91989 0.42633 2. 34558
0.404 23 08 50.98 0.39310 0.91950 0.42752 2. 33909
0.405 23 12 17.25 0.39402 0.91910 0.42870 2, 33264
0.406 23 15 43.51 0.39494 0.91871 0.42988 2, 32621

0.407 23 19 09.78 0.39586 0.91831 0.43107 2. 31981
0*408 23 22 36.04 0.39677 0.91792 0.43226 2. 31345
0.409 23 26 02.31 0.39769 0.91752 0.43344 2. 30711
0.410 23 29 28.57 0.39861 0.91712 0.43463 2. 30080
0.411 23 32 54.84 0.39953 0.91672 0.43582 2. 29452

0.412 23 36 21.10 0.40044 0.91632 0.43701 2. 28827
0.413 23 39 47.36 0.40136 0.91592 0.43820 2. 28205
0.414 23 43 13.63 0.40227 0.91552 0.43940 2. 27586
0.415 23 46 39.89 0.40319 0.91512 0.44059 2. 26969
0.416 23 50 06.16 0.40410 0.91471 0.44178 2 .26355

0.417 23 53 32.42 0.40502 0.91431 0.44298 2 .25744
0.418 23 56 58.69 0.40593 0.91390 0.44418 2 .25136
0.419 24 00 24.95 0.40685 0.91350 0.44537 2 .24531
0.420 24 03 51.22 0.40776 0.91309 0.44657 2 .23928
0.421 24 07 17.48 0.40867 0.91268 0.44777 2 .23328

0.422 24 10 43.75 0.40959 0.91227 0.44897 2 .22730
0.423 24 14 10.01 0.41050 0.91186 0.45018 2 .22136
0.424 24 17 36.28 0.41141 0.91145 0.45138 2 .21543
0*425 24 21 02.54 0.41232 0.91104 0.45258 2 .20954
0*426 24 24 28.81 0.41323 0.91063 0.45379 2 .20367

0*427 24 27 55.07 0.41414 0.91021 0.45500 2 ,19783
0*428 24 31 21.34 0.41505 0.90980 0.45620 2 19201
0*429 24 34 47.60 0.41596 0.90938 0.45741 2 .18622
0*430 24 38 13.87 0.41687 0.90897 0.45862 2 .18045
0.431 24 41 40.13 0.41778 0.90855 0.45983 2 .17471

0.432 24 45 06.40 0.41869 0.90813 0.46104 2 .16899
0.433 24 48 32.66 0.41960 0.90771 0.46226 2 .16330
0.434 24 51 58.93 0.42050 0.90729 0.46347 2 .15763
0.435 24 55 25.19 0*42141 0.90687 0.46469 2 .15199
0*436 24 58 51.46 0.42232 0.90645 0.46590 2 .14637

0.437 25 02 17.72 0.42322 0.90603 0.46712 2 .14077
0.438 25 05 43.99 0.42413 0.90560 0.46834 2 .13520
0.439 25 09 10.25 0.42503 0.90518 0.46956 2 .12966
0.440 25 12 36.51 0.42594 0.90475 0.47078 2 .12413
0.441 25 16 02.78 0.42684 0.90433 0.47200 2 .11863

0.442 25 19 29.04 0.42775 0.90390 0.47323 2 .11315
0*443 25 22 55.31 0.42865 0.90347 0.47445 2 ,10770
0.444 25 26 21.57 0.42956 0.90304 0.47568 2 .10227
0.445 2-5 29 47.84 0.43046 0.90261 0.47690 2 .09686
0.446 25 33 14.10 0.43136 0.90218 0.47813 2 .09148

0.447 25 36 40.37 0.43226 0.90175 0.47936 2 .08611
0.448 25 40 06.63 0.43316 0.90132 0.48059 2 .08077
0.449 25 43 32.90 0.43406 0.90088 0.48182 2 ,07545
0.450 25 46 59.16 0.43497 0.90045 0.48306 2 .07016
cof X
tan x cot x
0.450 25 46' 59.16 0.43497 0.90045 .48306 2.07016
0.451 25 50 25.43 0.43587 0.90001 .48429 2.06488

0.452 25 53 51.69 0.43677 0.89958 .48552 2.05963
0.453 25 57 17.96 0.43766 0.89914 .48676 2.05440
0.454 26 00 44.22 0.43856 0.89870 .48800 2.04919
0.455 26 04 10.49 0.43946 0.89826 .48924 2.04400
0.456 26 07 36.75 0.44036 0.89782 ,49048 2.03883

0.457 26 11 ?3.02 0.44126 0.89738 .49172 2.03369
0.458 26 14 29.28 0.44216 0.89694 .49296 2.02856
0.459 26 17 55.55 0.44305 0.89650 .49420 2.02346
0.460 26 21 21.81 0.44395 0.89605 .49545 2.01837
0.461 26 24 48.08 0.44484 0.89561 .49669 2.01331

0.462 26 28 14.34 0.44574 0.89516 .49794 2.00827
0.463 26 31 40.61 0.44663 0.89472 .49919 2.00324
0*464 26 35 06.87 0.44753 0.89427 .50044 1.99824
0.465 26 38 33.13 0.44842 0.89382 .50169 1.99326
0.466 26 41 59.40 0.44932 0.89337 .50294 1.98829

0.467 26 45 25.66 0.45021 0.89292 .50420 1.98335
0.468 26 48 51.93 0.45110 0.89247 .50545 1.97843
0.469 26 52 18.19 0.45199 0.89202 .50671 1.97352
0.470 26 55 44.46 0.45289 0.89157 .50797 1.96864
0.471 26 59 10.72 0.45378 0.89111 .50922 1.96377

0.472 27 02 36.99, 0.45467 0.89066 51048 1.95892
0.473 27 06 03.25 0.45556 0.89021 .51175 1.95410
0*474 27 09 29.52 0.45645 0.88975 51301 1.94929
0.475 27 12 55.78 0.45734 0.68929 .51427 1.94450
0.476 27 16 22.05 0.45823 0.88883 51554 1.93972

0.477 27 19 48.31 0.45912 0.88838 51680 1.93497
0.478 27 23 14.58 0.46000 0.88Z92 0. 51807 1.93024
0.479 27 26 40.84 0.46089 0.88746 0. 51934 1.92552
0.480 27 30 07.11 0.46178 0.88699 0. 52061 1.92082
0.481 27 33 33.37 0.46267 0.88653 52188 1.91614

0.482 27 36 59.64 0.46355 0.88607 0. 52316 1.91148
0.483 27 40 25.90 0.46444 0.88561 52443 1.90683
0.484 27 43 52.17 0.46532 0.88514 0. 52571 1.90221
0.485 27 47 18.43 0.46621 0.88467 0. 52698 1.89760
0.486 27 50 44.70 0.46709 0.88421 0. 52826 1.89300

0.487 27 54 10.96 0.46798 0.88374 o. 52954 1.68843
0.488 27 57 37.23 0.46886 0.88327 0. 53082 1.88387
0.489 28 01 03.49 0.46974 0.88280 0. 53210 1.87933
0.490 28 04 29.76 0.47063 0.88233 0. 53339 1.87481
0.491 28 07 56.02 0.47151 0.88186 0. 53467 1.87030

0.492 28 11 22.28 0.47239 0.88139 0. 53596 1.86581
0.493 28 14 48.55 0.47327 0.88092 0. 53725 1.86134
0.494 28 18 14.81 0.47415 0.88044 0. 53854 1.85688
0.495 28 21 41.08 0.47503 0.87997 0. 53983 1.85244
0.496 28 25 07.34 0.47591 0.87949 0. 54112 1.84802
0.497 28 28 33.61 0.47679 0.87902 o. 54241 1.84361
0.498 28 31 59.87 0.47767 0.87854 0. 54371 1.83922
0.499 28 35 26.14 0.47855 0.87806 0. 54500 1.83485
0.500 28 38 52.40 0.47943 0.87758 o. 54630 1.83049
tan x cot x
tan x
.500 28 38' 52.40 0.47943 0.87758 0.54630 1.83049

.501 28 42 18.67 0.48030 0.87710 0.54760 1.82614
.502 28 45 44.93 0.48118 0.87662 0.54890 1.82182
.503 28 49 11.20 0.48206 0.87614 0.55020 1.81751
.504 28 52 37.46 0.48293 0.87566 0.55151 1.81.321
.505 28 56 03.73 0.48381 0.87517 <J. 55281 1.80893
.506 28 59 29.99 0.48468 0.87469 0.55412 1.80467

.507 29 02 56.26 0.48556 0.87421 0.55543 1.80042
.508 29 06 22.52 0.48643 0.87372 0.55674 1.79618
.509 29 09 48.79 0.48730 0.87323 0.55805 1.79197
.510 29 13 15.05 0.48818 0.87274 0.55936 1.78776
.511 29 16 41.32 0.48905 0.87226 0.56067 1.78357

.5?2 29 20 07.58 0.48992 0.87177 0.56199 1.77940
.513 29 23 33.85 0.49079 0.87128 0.56330 1.77524
.514 29 27 00.11 0.49166 0.87078 0.56462 1.77110
.515 29 30 26.38 0.49253 0.87029 0.56594 1.76697
.516 29 33 52.64 0.49340 0.86980 0.56726 1.76285

.517 29 37 18.90 0.49427 0.86931 0.56859 1.75875
.518 29 40 45.17 0.49514 0.86881 0.56991 1.75467
.519 29 44 11.43 0.49601 0.86832 0.57123 1.75059
.520 29 47 37.70 0.49688 0.86782 0.57256 1.74654
.521 29 51 03.96 0.49775 0.86732 0.57389 1.74249

.522 29 54 30.23 0.49861 0.86682 0.57522 1.73846
.523 29 57 56.49 0.49948 0.86632 0.57655 1.73445
.524 30 01 22.76 0.50035 0.86582 0.57789 1.73045
.525 30 04 49.02 0.50121 0.86532 0.57922 1.72646
.526 30 08 15.29 0.50208 0.86482 0.58056 1.72249

.527 30 11 41.55 0.50294 0.86432 0.58189 1.71853
.528 30 15 07.82 0.50381 0.86382 0.58323 1.71458
.529 30 18 34.08 0.50467 0.86331 0.58457 1.71065
.530 30 22 00.35 0.50553 0.86281 0.58592 1.70673
.531 30 25 26.61 0.50640 0.86230 0.58726 1.70282

.532 30 28 52.88 0.50726 0.86179 0.58861 1.69893
.533 30 32 19.14 0.50812 0.86129 0.58995 1.69505
.534 30 35 45.41 0.50898 0.86078 0.59130 1.69118
.535 30 39 11.67 0.50984 0.86027 0.59265 1.68733
.536 30 42 37.94 0.51070 0.85976 0.59401 1.68349

.537 30 46 04.20 0.51156 0.85925 0.59536 1.67966
.538 30 49 30.47 0.51242 0.85874 0.59671 1.67584
.539 30 52 56.73 0.51328 0.85822 0.59807 1.67204
.540 30 56 23.00 0.51414 0.85771 0.59943 1.66825
.541 30 59 49.26 0.51499 0.85719 0.60079 1.66448

.542 31 03 15.52 0.51585 0.85668 0.60215 1.66071
.543 31 06 41.79 0.51671 0.85616 0.60351 1.65696
.544 31 10 08.05 0.51756 0.85565 0.60488 1.65322
.545 31 13 34.32 0.51842 0.85513 0.60625 1.64949
.546 31 17 00.58 0.51927 0.85461 0.60762 1.64578

.547 31 20 26.85 0.52013 0.85409 0.60899 1.64208
.548 31 23 53.11 0.52098 0.85357 0.61036 1.63839
.549 31 27 19.38 0.52183 0.85305 0*61173 1.63471
.550 31 30 45.64 0.52269 0.85252 0.61311 1.63104
cot X
tan x cot x
0.550 31 30 '45.64 0.52269 0.85252 0.61311 1.63104
0.551 31 34 11.91 0.52354 0.85200 0.61448 1.62739

0.552 31 37 38.17 0.52439 0.85148 0.61586 1.62374
0.553 31 41 04.44 0.52524 0.85095 0.61724 1.62011
0.554 31 44 30.70 0.52609 0.85043 0.61862 1.61650
0.555 31 47 56.97 0.52694 0*84990 0.62001 1.61289
0.556 31 51 23.23 0.52779 0.84937 0.62139 1.60929

0.557 31 54 49.50 0.52864 0.84884 0.62278 1.60571
0.558 31 58 15.76 0.52949 0.84832 0.62417 1.60214
0.559 32 01 42.03 0.53034 0.84779 0.62556 1.59857
0.560 32 05 08.29 0.53119 0.84726 0.62695 1.59502
0.561 32 08 34.56 0.53203 0.84672 0.62834 1.59149

0.562 32 12 00.82 0.53288 0.84619 0.62974 1.58796
0.563 32 15 27.09 0.53373 0.84566 0.63114 1.58444
0.564 32 18 53.35 0.53457 0.84512 0.63254 1.58094
0.565 32 22 19.62 0.53542 0.84459 0.63394 1.57744
0.566 32 25 45.88 0.53626 0.84405 0.63534 1.57396

0.567 32 29 12.15 0.53710 0.84352 0.63674 1.57049
0.568 32 32 38.41 0.53795 0.84298 0.63815 1.56703
0.569 32 36 04.67 0.53879 0.84244 0.63956 1.56358
0.570 32 39 30.94 0.53963 0.84190 0.64Q97 1.56014
0.571 32 42 57.20 0.54047 0.84136 0.64238 1.55671

0.572 32 46 23.47 0.54131 0.84082 0.64379 1.55329
0.573 32 49 49.73 0.54216 0.84028 0.64521 1.54988
0.574 32 53 16.00 0.54300 0.83974 0.64663 1.54649
0.575 32 56 42.26 0.54383 0.83919 0.64805 1.54310
0.576 33 00 08.53 0.54467 0.83865 0.64947 1.53973

0.577 33 03 34.79 0.54551 0.83810 0.65089 1.53636
0.578 33 07 01.06 0.54635 0.83756 0.65231 1.53300
0.579 33 10 27.32 0.54719 0.83701 0.65*74 1.52966
0.580 33 13 53.59 0.54802 0.83646 0.65517 1.52633
0.581 33 17 19.85 0.54886 0.83591 0.65660 1.52300

0.582 33 20 46.12 0.54970 0.83536 0.65603 1.51969
0.583 33 24 12.38 0.55053 0.83481 0.65946 1.51638
0.584 33 27 38.65 0.55137 0.63426 0.66090 1.51309
0.585 33 31 04.91 0.55220 0.83371 0.66234 1.50980
0.586 33 34 31.18 0.55303 0.83316 0.66378 1.50653

0.587 33 37 57.44 0.55387 0.83261 0.66*22 1.50326
0.588 33 41 23.71 0.55470 0.83205 0.66666 1.50001
0.589 33 44 49.97 0.55553 0.83150 0.66811 1.49676,
0.590 33 48 16.24 0.55636 0.83094 0.66*956 1.49353'
0.591 33 51 42.50 0.55719 0.83038 0.67100 1.49030

0.592 33 55 08.77 0.55802 0.82983 0.67246 1.48709
0.593 33 58 35.03 0.55885 0.82927 0.67391 1.48388
0.594 34 02 01.29 0.55968 0.82871 0.67536 1.48068
0.595 34 05 27.56 0.56051 0.82815 0.67682 1.47749
0.596 34 08 53.82 0.56134 0.82759 0.67828 1.47432

0.597 34 12 20.09 0.56216 0.82703 0.67Q74 1.47115
0.598 34 15 46.35 0.56299 0.82646 0.68120 1.46799
0.599 34 19 12.62 0.56382 0.82590 0.68267 1.46484
0.600 34 22 38.88 0.56464 0.82534 0.68414 1.46170
tan x cot x
tan x cot x
0*600 34 22 38.88 0*56464 0.82534 0*68414 1.46170

0.601 34 26 05.15 0.56547 0.82477 0.68561 1.45856
0.602 34 29 31.41 0.56629 0.82420 0.68708 1.45544
0.603 34 32 57.68 0.56712 0.82364 0.68855 1.45233
0.604 34 36 23.94 0.56794 0.82307 0.69P03 1.44922
0.605 34 39 50.21 0.56876 0.82250 0.69150 1.44613
0.606 34 43 16.47 0.56958 0.82193 0.69298 1.44304

0.607 34 46 42.74 0.57041 0.82136 0.69446 1.43996
0.608 34 50 09.00 0.57123 0.82079 0.69595 1.43689
0.609 34 53 35.27 0.57205 0.82022 0.69743 1.43383
0.610 34 57 01.53 0.57287 0.81965 0.69892 1.43078
0.611 35 00 27.80 0.57369 0.81907 0.70041 1.42774

0.612 35 03 54.06 0.57451 0.81850 0.70190 1.42470
0.613 35 07 20.33 0.57532 0.81793 0.70339 1.42168
0.614 35 10 46.59 0.57614 0.81735 0.70489 1.41866
0.613 35 14 12.86 0.57696 0.81677 0.70639 1.41565
0.616 35 17 39.12 0.57778 0.81620 0.70789 1.41265

0.617 35 21 05.39 0.57859 0.81562 0.70939 1.40966
0.618 35 24 31.65 0.57941 0.81504 0.71089 1.40668
0.619 35 27 57.92 0.58022 0.81446 0.71?40 1.40370
0.620 35 31 24.18 0.58104 0.81388 0.71391 1.40074
0.621 35 34 50.44 0.58185 0.81330 0.71542 1.39778

0.622 35 38 16.71 0.58266 0.81271 0.71693 1.39483
0.623 35 41 42.97 0.58347 0.81213 0.71845 1.39189
0*624 35 45 09.24 0.58429 0.81155 0.71996 1.38896
0.625 35 48 35.50 0.58510 0.81096 0.72148 1.38603
0.626 35 52 01.77 0.58591 0.81038 0.72301 1.38311

0.627 35 55 28.03 0.58672 0.80979 0.72453 1.38021
0.628 35 58 54.30 0.58753 0.80920 0.72606 1.37730
0.629 36 02 20.56 0.58834 0.80862 0.72758 1.37441
0.630 36 05 46.83 0.58914 0.80803 0.72911 1.37153
0.631 36 09 13.09 0.58995 0.80744 0.73065 1.36865

0.632 36 12 39.36 0.59076 0.80685 0.73218 1.36578
0.633 36 16 05.62 0.59157 0.80626 0.73372 1.36292
0.634 36 19 31.89 0.59237 0.80566 0.73526 1.36006
0.635 36 22 58.15 0.59318 0.80507 0*73680 1.35722
0*636 36 26 24.42 0.59398 0.80448 0.73834 1.35438

0.637 36 29 50.68 0.59479 0.80388 0.73989 1.35155
0.638 36 33 16.95 0.59559 0.80329 0.74J44 1.34873
0.639, 36 36 43.21 0.59639 0.80269 0.74299 1.34591
0*640 36 40 09.48 0.59720 0.80210 0*74454 1.34310
0.641 36 43 35.74 0.59800 0.80150 0.74610 1.34030

0.642 36 47 02.01 0.59880 0.80090 0.74766 1.33751
0.643 36 50 28.27 0.59960 0.80030 0.74922 1.33473
0*644 36 53 54.54 0.60040 0.79970 0.75078 1.33195
0*645 36 57 20.80 0.60120 0*79910 0.75234 1.32916
0.646 37 00 47.06 0.60200 0.79850 0.75391 1.32642
0*647 37 04 13.33 0.60280 0.79790 0.75548 1.32366
0.648 37 07 39.59 0.60359 0.79729 0.75705 1.32091
0.649 37 11 05.86 0.60439 0.79669 0.75863 1.31817
0*650 37 14 32*12 0.60519 0*79608 0.76020 1.31544
tan x cot x
tan x cot x
0*650 37*'14 32.12 0*60519 0.79608 0.76020 1.31544

0.651 37 17 58.39 0.60598 0.79548 0.76178 1.31271
0.652 37 21 24.65 0.60678 0.79487 0.76337 1.30999
0.653 37 24 50.92 0.60757 0.79426 0.76495 1.30728
0.654 37 28 17.18 0.60837 0.79366 0.76654 1.30457
0.655 37 31 43.45 0.60916 0.79305 0.76812 1.30187
0.656 37 35 09.71 0.60995 0.79244 0.76O72 1.29918
0.657 37 38 35.98 0.61074 0.79183 0.77131 1.29650
0.658 37 42 02.24 0.61154 0.79122 0.77?91 1.29382
0.659 37 45 28.51 0.61233 0.79060 0.77450 1.29115
0.660 37 48 54.77 0.61312 0.78999 0.77610 1.28849
0.661 37 52 21.04 0.61391 0.78938 0.77771 1.28583
0. 662 37 55 47.30 0.61470 0.78876 0.77931 1.28318
0.663 37 59 13.57 0.61548 0.78815 0.78092 1.28054
0.664 38 02 39.83 0.61627 0.78753 0.78253 1.27790
0*665 38 06 06.10 0.61706 0.78692 0.78415 1.27527
0.666 38 09 32.36 0.61785 0.78630 0.78576 1.27265

0.667 38 12 58.63 0.61863 0.78568 0.78738 1.27003
0.668 38 16 24.89 0.61942 0.78506 0.78900 1.26742
0.669 38 19 51.16 0.62020 0.78444 0.79063 1.26482
0.670 38 23 17.&2 0.62099 0.78382 0.79225 1.26222
0.671 38 26 43.68 0.62177 0.78320 0.79388 1.25963

0.672 38 30 09.95 0.62255 0.78258 0.79S51 1.25705
0.673 38 33 36.21 0.62333 0.78196 0.79715 1.25447
0.674 38 37 02.48 0.62412 0.78133 0.79879 1.25190
0.675 38 40 28.74 0.62490 0*78071 0.80042 1.24934
0*676 38 43 55.01 0.62568 0.78008 0.80207 1.24678

0.677 38 47 21.27 0.62646 0.77946 0.80371 1.24423
0.678 38 50 47.54 0.62724 0.77883 0.80536 1.24168
0.679 38 54 13.60 0.62802 0.77820 0.80701 1.23914
0*680 38 57 40.07 0.62879 0.77757 0.80866 1.23661
0.681 39 01 06.33 0.62957 0.77694 0.81032 1.23409

0.682 39 04 32.60 0.63035 0.77631 0.81197 1.23157
0.683 39 07 58.86 0.63112 0.77568 0.81364 1.22905
0.684 39 11 25.13 0.63190 0.77505 0.81530 1.22654
0*685 39 14 51.39 0.63267 0.77442 0.81696 1.22404
0.686 39 18 17.66 0.63345 0.77379 0.81863 1.22155

0.687 39 21 43.92 0.63422 0.77315 0.82031 1.21906
0.688 39 25 10.19 0.63499 0.77252 0.82198 1.21658
0.689 39 28 36.45 0.63577 0.77188 0.82366 1.21410
0.690 39 32 02.72 0.63654 0.77125 0.82534 1.21163
0.691 39 35 28.98 0.63731 0.77061 0.82702 1.20916

0.692 39 38 55.25 0.63808 0.76997 0.82870 1.20670
0.693 39 42 21.51 0.63885 0.76933 0.83039 1.20425
0.694 39 45 47.78 0.63962 0.76869 0.83208 1.20180
0.695 39 49 14.04 0.64039 0.76805 0.83378 1.19936
0.696 39 52 40.31 0*64115 0.76741 0.83547 1.19693

0.697 39 56 06.57 0.64192 0.76677 0.83717 1.19450
0.698 39 59 32.83 0.64269 0.76613 0.83888 1.19207
0.699 40 02 59.10 0.64345 0.76549 0.84058 1.18965
0.700 40 06 25.36 0.64422 0.76484 0.84229 1.18724
tan x cot x
tan x cot x
0.700 W '06' 25.36 0.64422 0*76484 0*84229 1*18724

0.701 40 09 51.63 0*64498 0.76420 0.84400 1.18484
0.702 40 13 17.89 0.64575 0.76355 0.84571 1.18243
0.703 40 16 44.16 0.64651 0.76291 0.84743 1.18004
0.70* 40 20 10.42 0.64727 0.76226 0.84915 1.17765
0.705 40 23 36.69 0*64803 0*76161 Q. 85087 1.17527
0.706 40 27 02.95 0.64880 0.76096 0.85260 1.17289
0.707 40 30 29.22 0.64956 0.76031 0.85433 1.17051
0.708 40 33 55.48 0.65032 0.75966 0.85606 1.16815
0.709 40 37 21.75 0.65108 0.75901 0.85779 1.16578
0.710 40 40 48.01 0.65183 0.75836 0.85953 1.16343
0.711 40 44 14.28 0.65259 0.75771 0.86127 1.16108
0.712 40 47 40.54 0.65335 0.75706 0.86301 1.15873
0.713 40 51 06.81 0.65411 0.75640 0.86476 1.15639
0.714 40 54 33.07 0.65486 0.75575 0.86651 1.15406
0.715 40 57 59.34 0.65562 0.75509 0.86826 1.15173
716 41 01 25.60 0.65637 0.75444 0.87002 1.14940
0.717 41 04 51.87 0.65713 0.75378 0.87177 1.14709
0.718 41 08 18.13 0.65788 0.75312 0.87354 1.14477
0.719 41 11 44.40 6.65863 0.75246 0.87530 1.14247
0.720 41 15 10.66 0.65938 0.75181 0.87707 1.14016
0.721 41 18 36.93 0.66014 0.75115 0.87884 1.13787
0.722 41 22 03.19 0.66089 0.75049 0.88061 1.13557
0.723 41 25 29.45 0.66164 0.74982 0.88?39 1.13329
0.724 41 28 55.72 0.66239 0.74916 0.88417 1.13100
0.725 41 32 21.98 0.66314 0.74850 0.88595 1.12873
0.726 41 35 48.25 0.66388 0.74784 0.88774 1.12646
0.727 41 39 14.51 0.66463 0.74717 0.88953 1.12419
0.728 41 42 40.78 0.66538 0.74651 0.89132 1.12193
0.729 41 46 07.04 0.66612 0.74584 0.89312 1.11967
0.730 41 49 33.31 0.66687 0.74517 0.89492 1.11742
0.731 41 52 59.57 0.66761 0.74451 0.89672 1.11518
0.732 41 56 25.84 0.66836 0.74384 0.89853 1.11293
0.733 41 59 52.10 0.66910 0.74317 0.90n33 1.11070
0.734 42 03 18.37 0.66984 0.74250 0.90215 1.10847
0.735 42 06 44.63 0.67059 0.74183 0.90396 1.10624
0.736 42 10 10.90 0.67133 0.74116 0.90578 1.10402
0.737 42 13 37.16 0.67207 0.74049 0.90760 1.10180
0.738 42 17 03.43 0.67281 0.73982 0.90943 1.09959
0.739 42 20 29.69 0.67355 0.73914 0.91126 1.09738
0.740 42 23 55.96 0.67429 0.73847 0.91309 1.09518
0.741 42 27 22.22 0.67503 0.73779 0.91492 1.09299
0.742 42 30 48.49 0.67576 0.73712 0.91676 1.09079
0.743 42 34 14.75 0.67650 0.73644 0.91861 1.08861
0.744 42 37 41.02 0.67724 0.73577 0.92045 1.08642
0.745 42 41 07.28 0.67797 0.73509 0.92230 1.08425
0.746 42 44 33.55 0.67871 0.73441 0.92415 1.08207
0.747 42 47 59.81 0.67944 0.73373 0.92601 1.07990
0.748 42 51 26.08 0.68017 0.73305 0.92787 1.07774
0.749 42 54 52.34 0.68091 0.73237 0.92973 1.07558
0*750 42 56 18.60 0.68164 0.73169 0.93160 1.07343
tan x cot x
tan x cot x
.750 42 58 18 60 0.68164 0.73169 0.93160 1.07343
.751 43 01 44 .87 0.68237 0.73101 0.93347 1.07128

.752 43 05 11 .13 0.68310 0.73032 0.93534 1.06913
753 43 08 37 .40 0.68383 0.72964 0.93722 1.06699
754 43 12 03 .66 0.68456 0.72896 0.93O10 1.06485
755 43 15 29 .93 0.68529 0.72827 0.94098 1.06272
.756 43 18 56 .19 0.68602 0.72759 0.94287 1.06060

757 43 22 22 .46 0.68674 0.72690 0.94476 1.05847
.758 43 25 48 .72 0.68747 0.72621 0.94665 1.05635
759 43 29 14 .99 0.68820 0.72552 0.94855 1.05424
.760 43 32 41 .25 0.68892 0.72484 0.95045 1.05213
761 43 36 07 .52 0.68965 0.72415 0.95236 1.05003

762 43 39 33 .78 0.69037 0.72346 0.95427 1.04793
763 43 43 00 .05 0.69109 0.72277 0.95618 1.04583
764 43 46 26 .31 0.69182 0.72207 0.95809 1.04374
0. 765 43 49 52 .58 0.69254 0.72138 0.96001 1.04165
0 766 43 53 18 ,84 0.69326 0.72069 0.96194 1.03957

o. 767 43 56 45 .11 0.69398 0.72000 0.96386 1.03749
768 44 00 11 .37 0.69470 0.71930 0.96580 1.03542
769 44 03 37 .64 0.69542 0.71861 0.96773 1.03335
,770 44 07 03 .90 0.69614 0.71791 0.96967 1.03128
.771 44 10 30 .17 0.69685 0.71721 0.97161 1.02922

772 44 13 56 .43 0.69757 0.71652 0.97356 1.02716
773 44 17 22 .70 0.69829 0.71582 0.97*51 1.02511
774 44 20 48 .96 0.69900 0.71512 0.97746 1.02306
0. 775 44 24 15 .22 0.6997? 0.71442 0.97942 1.02102
o. 776 44 27 41 .49 0.70043 0.71372 0.98138 1.01898

0. 777 44 31 07 .75 0.70114 0.71302 0.98334 1.01694
Oi 778 44 34 34 02 0.70186 0.71232 0.98531 1.01491
0. 779 44 38 00 .28 0.70257 0.71162 0.98728 1.01288
0. 780 44 41 26 .55 0.70328 0.71091 0.98926 1.01086
.781 44 44 52 .81 0.70399 0.71021 0.99124 1.00884

.782 44 48 19 .08 0.70470 0.70951 0.99323 1.00682
.783 44 51 45 .34 0.70541 0.70880 0.99522 1.00481
784 44 55 11 .61 0.70612 0.70809 0.99721 1.00280
.785 44 58 37 .87 0.70683 0.70739 0.99920 1.00080
.786 45 02 04 .14 0.70753 0.70668 1.00120 0.99880

.787 45 05 30 .40 0.70824 0.70597 1.00321 0.99680
788 45 08 56 .67 0.70894 0.70526 1.00522 0.99481
789 45 12 22 .93 0.70965 0.70456 1.00723 0.99282
.790 45 15 49 .20 0.71035 0.70385 1.00925 0.99084
791 45 19 15 46 0.71106 0.70313 1.01127 0.98886
0. 792 45 22 41..73 0.71176 0.70242 1.01329 0.98688
793 45 26 07 99 0.71246 0.70171 1.01532 0.98491
0< 794 45 29 34 26 0.71316 0.70100 1.01735 0.98294
0. 795 45 33 00 52 0.71386 0.70028 1.01939 0.98098
0. 796 45 36 26. 79 0.71456 0.69957 1.02143 0.97902
o. 797 45 39 53. 05 0.71526 0.69886 1.02348 0.97706
0. 798 45 43 19, 32 0.71596 0.69814 1.02*53 0.97511
o. 799 45 46 45. 58 0.71666 0.69742 1.02758 0.97316
0. 800 45 50 11. 84 0.71736 0.69671 1.02964 0.97121
tan x cot x
TABLE 4
Exponential functions
Natural logarithms
Hyperbolic functions
from x = 0000 to x = 1-650
Graph for Table 4
Ordinate A: In x, e x , B: e~x
-i 1
r
-1 Inx
-2 i i
1 1 1 1 1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Graph for Table 4
Hyperbolic functions
cos IX
coth X
sirih x
"t anh X
/
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
cosh x tanh x coth
1.000 0.00000 1.00000 0.00000 09 1.00000
.001 0.00100 1.00000 0.00100 1000.00 -6.90776 1.00100

.002 0.00200 1.00000 0.00200 500.001 -6.21461 1.00200
.003 0.00300 1.00000 0.00300 333.334 -5.80914 1.00300
.004 0.00400 1.00001 0.00400 250.001 -5.52146 1.00401
.005 0.00500 1.00001 0.00500 200.002 -5.29832 1.00501
.006 0.00600 1.00002 0.00600 166.669 -5.11600 1.00602

.007 0.00700 1.00002 0.00700 142.859 -4.96185 1.00702
.008 0.00800 1.00003 0.00800 125.003 -4.82831 1.00803
.009 0.00900 1.00004 0.00900 111.114 -4.71053 1.00904
.010 0.01000 1.C0005 0.01000 100.003 -4.60517 1.01005
.011 0.01100 1.00006 0.01100 90.9128 -4.50986 1.01106

.012 0.01200 1.00007 0.01200 83.3373 -4.42285 1.01207
.013 0.01300 1.00008 0.01300 76.9274 -4.34281 1.01308
.014 0.01400 1.00010 0.01400 71.4332 -4.26870 1.01410
.015 0.01500 1.00011 0.01500 66.6717 -4.19971 1.01511
.016 0.01600 1.00013 e. 01600 62.5053 -4.13517 1.01613

.017 0.01700 i.ooei4 0.01700 58.8292 -4.07454 1.01715
.018 0.01800 1.00016 0.01800 55.5616 -4.01738 1.01816
.019 e. 01900 1.00018 0.01900 52.6379 -3.96332 1.01918
.020 0.02000 1.00020 0.02000 50.0067 -3.91202 1.02020
.021 0.02100 1.00022 0.02100 47.6260 -3.86323 1.02122

.022 0.02200 1.00024 0.02200 45.4619 -3.81671 1.02224
.023 0.02300 1.00026 0.02300 43.4859 -3.77226 1.02327
.024 0.02400 1.00029 0.02400 41.6747 -3.72970 1.02429
.029 0.02500 1.00031 0.02499 40.0083 -3.68888 1.02532
.026 0.02600 1.00034 0.02599 38.4702 -3.64966 1.02634

.027 0.02700 1.00036 0.02699 37.0460 -3.61192 1.02737
.028 0.02800 1.00039 0.02799 35.7236 -3.57555 1.02840
.029 0.02900 1.00042 0.02899 34.4924 -3.54046 1.02942
.030 0.03000 1.00045 0.02999 33.3433 -3.50656 1.03045
.031 0.03100 1.00048 0.03099 32.2684 -3.47377 1.03149

.032 0.03201 1.00051 0.03199 31.2607 -3.44202 1.03252
.033 0.03301 1.00054 0.03299 30.3140 -3.41125 1.03355
.034 0.03401 1.00058 0.03399 29.4231 -3.38139 1.03458
.035 0.03501 1.00061 0.03499 28.5831 -3.35241 1.03562
.036 0.03601 1.00065 0.03598 27.7898 -3.32424 1.03666

.037 0.03701 1.00068 0.03698 27.0394 -3.29684 1.03769
.038 0.03801 1.00072 0.03798 26.3285 -3.27017 1.03873
.039 0.03901 1.00076 0.03898 25.6540* -3.24419 1.03977
.040 0.04001 1.00080 0.03998 25.0133 -3.21888 1.04081
.041 0.04101 1.00084 0.04098 24.4039 -3.19418 1.04185

.042 0.04201 1.00088 0.04198 23.8235 -3.17009 1.04289
.043 0.04301 1.00092 0.04297 23.2701 -3.14656 1.04394
.044 0.04401 1.00097 0.04397 22.7419 -3.12357 1.04498
.045 0.04502 1.00101 0.04497 22.2372 -3.10109 1.04603
.046 0.04602 1.00106 0.04597 21.7545 -3.07911 1.04707

.047 0.04702 1.00110 0.04697 21.2923 -3.05761 1.04812
.048 0.04802 1.00115 0.0*796 20.8493 -3.03655 1.04917
.049 0.04902 1.00120 0.04896 20.4245 -3.01593 1.05022
.050 0.05002 1.00125 0.04996 20.0167 -2.99573 1.05127
sinh x cosh x tanh x coth In x

sinh x cosh tanh x coth x In e-
0.050 0.05002 1.00125 0.04996 20.0167 -2.99573 1.05127 0.95123

0.051 0.05102 1.00130 0.05096 19.6248 -2.97593 1.05232 0.95028
0.052 0.05202 1.00135 0.05195 19.2481 -2.95651 1.05338 0.94933
0.053 0.05302 1.00140 0.05295 18.8856 -2.93746 1.05443 0.94838
0.054 0.05403 1.00146 0.05395 18.5365 -2.91877 1.05548 0.94743
0.055 0.05503 1.00151 0.05494 18.2001 -2.90042 1.05654 0.94649
0.05603 1.00157 0.05594 17.8758 -2.P8240 1.05760 0.94554
0.05703 1.00162 0.05694 17.5629 -2.86470 1.05866 0.94459
0.05803 1.00168 0.05794 17.2607 -2.84731 1.05971 0.94365
0.05903 1.00174 O.Oi.893 16.9688 -2.83022 1.06078 0.94271
0.06004 1*00180 0.05993 16.6867 -2.81341 1.06184 0.94176
0*06104 1*00186 0.06092 16.4138 -2.79688 1.06290 0.94082
0*06204 1.00192 0.06192 16.1497 -2.78062 1.06396 0.93988
0.06304 1.00199 0.06292 15.8940 -2.76462 1.06503 0.93894
0*06404 1.00205 0.06391 15.6463 -2.74887 1.06609 0.93800
0*06505 1.00211 0.06491 15.4063 -2.73337 1.06716 0.93707
0*06605 1.00218 0.06590 15.1735 -2.71810 1.06823 0.93613
0.06705 1.00225 0.06690 14.9477 -2.7Q306 1.06930 0.93520
0.06805 1.00231 0.06790 14.7285 -2.68825 1.07037 0.93426
0.06905 1.00238 0.06889 14.5157 -2.67365 1.07144 0.93333
0.07006 1.00245 0.06989 14.3090 -2.65926 1.07251 0.93239
0.07106 1.00252 0.07088 14.1082 -2.64508 1.07358 0.93146
0.07206 1.00259 0.07188 13.9129 -2.63109 1.07466 0.93053
0.07306 1.00267 0.07287 13.7230 -2.61730 1.07573 0.92960
0.07407 1.00274 0.07387 13.5382 -2.60369 1.07681 0.92867
0.07507 1.00281 0.07486 13.3583 -2.59027 1.07788 0.92774
0*07607 1.00289 0.07583 13.1832 -2.57702 1.07896 0.92682
0.07708 1.00297 0.07685 13.0127 -2.56395 1.08004 0.92589
0.07808 1.00304 0.07784 12.8463 -2.55105 1.08112 0.92496
0.07908 1.00312 0.07884 12.6846 -2.S3831 1.08220 0.92404
0.08009 1.00320 0.07983 12.5267 -2.52573 1.08329 0.92312
0.08109 1.00328 0.08082 12.3727 -2.51331 1.08437 0.92219
0.08209 1.00336 0.08182 12.2224 -2.S0104 1.08546 0.92127
0.08310 1.00345 0.C8281 12.0758 -2.48891 1.08654 0.92035
0*08410 1.00353 0.08380 11.9327 -2.47694 1.08763 0.91943
0.08510 1.00361 0.08480 11.7930 -2.46510 1.08872 0.91851
0.08611 1.00370 0.08579 11.6566 -2.45341 1.08981 0.91759
0.08711 1.00379 0.08678 11.5232 -2.44183 1.09090 0.91668
0.08811 1.00387 0.08777 11.3930 -2.43042 1.09199 0.91576
0.06912 1.00396 0.08877 11.2656 -2.41912 1.09308 0.91485
0.09012 1.00405 0.08976 11.1411 -2.40795 1.09417 0.91393
0.09113 1.00414 0.09075 11.0193 -2.39690 1.09527 0.91302
0.09213 1.00423 0.09174 10.9002 -2.38597 1.09636 0.91211
0.09313 1.00433 0.09273 10.7837 -2.37516 1.09746 0.91119
0.09414 1.00442 0.09372 10.6696 -2.36446 1.09856 0.91028
0.09514 1.00452 0.09472 10.5580 -2.35388 1.09966 0.90937
0.09615 1.00461 .09571 10.4486 -2.34341 1.10076 0.90846
0.09715 1.00471 .09670 10.3416 -2.33304 1.10186 0.90756
0.09816 1.00481 ,09769 10.2367 -2.32279 1.10296 0.90665
0.09916 1.00490 ,09868 10.1340 -2.31264 1.10407 0.90574
0*10017 1.00500 ,09967 10.0333 -2.30259 1.10517 0.90484
Sinh x cosh tonh x coth x In

sinh x cosh x tanh x coth x In x
0.100 0.10017 1.00500 0.09967 10.0333 -2.30259 1.10517 0.90484
0*101 0.10117 1.00510 0.10066 9.93463 -2.29263 1.10628 0*90393

0*102 0.10218 1.00521 0.10165 9.83790 -2.28278 1.10738 0.90303
0.103 0.10318 1.00531 0.10264 9.74305 -2.27303 1.10849 0.90213
0.104 0.10419 1.00541 0.10363 9.65003 -2.26336 1.10960 0.90123
0.105 0.10519 1.00552 0.10462 9.55878 -2.25379 1.11071 0.90032
0.106 0.10620 1.00562 0.10560 9.46927 -2.24432 1.11182 0.89942

0.107 0.10720 1.00573 0.10659 9.38143 -2.23493 1.11293 0.89853
0.108 0.10821 1.00584 0.10758 9.29523 -2.22562 1.11405 0.89763
0.109 0.10922 1.00595 0.10857 9.21062 -2.21641 1.11516 0.89673
0.110 0.11022 1.00606 0.10956 9.12755 -2.20727 1.11628 0.89583
0*111 0.11123 1.00617 0.11055 9.04598 -2.19823 1.11739 0.89494

0.112 0.11223 1.00628 0.11153 8.96587 -2.18926 1.11851 0.89404
0.113 0.11324 1.00639 0.11252 8.88719 -2.18037 1.11963 0.89315
0.114 0.11425 1.00651 0.11351 8.80990 -2.17156 1.12075 0.89226
0.115 0.11525 1.00662 0.11450 8.73395 -2.16282 1.12187 0.89137
0.116 0.11626 1.00674 0.11548 8.65932 -2.15417 1.12300 0.89048

0.117 0.11727 1.00685 0.11647 8.58597 -2.14558 1.12412 0.88959
0.118 0.11827 1.00697 0.11746 8.51387 -2.13707 1.12524 0.88870
0.119 0.11928 1.00709 0.11844 8.44299 -2.12863 1.12637 0.88781
0.120 0.12029 1.00721 0.11943 8.37329 -2.12026 1.12750 0.88692
0.121 0.12130 1.00733 0.12041 8.30476 -2.11196 1.12862 0.88603

0.122 0.12230 1.00745 0.12140 8.23735 -2.10373 1.12975 0.88515
0.123 0.12331 1.00757 0.12238 8.17104 -2.09557 1.13088 0.88426
0.124 0.12432 1.00770 0.12337 8.10581 -2.08747 1.13202 0.88338
0.125 0.12533 1.00782 0.12435 8.04162 -2.07944 1.13315 0*88250
0.126 0.12633 1.00795 0.12534 7.97846 -2.07147 1.13428 0*88161

0.127 0.12734 1.00808 0.12632 7.91630 -2.06357 1.13542 0*88073
0.128 0.12835 1.00820 0.12731 7.85512 -2.Q5573 1.13655 0*87985
0.129 0.12936 1.00833 0.12829 7.79489 -2*04794 1.13769 0.87897
0.130 0.13037 1.00846 0.12927 7.73559 -2.04022 1.13883 0*87810
0.131 0.13138 1.00859 0.13026 7.67720 -2.03256 1.13997 0.87722

0.132 0.13238 1.00872 0.13124 7.61971 -2.02495 1.14111 0.87634
0.133 0.13339 1.00886 0.13222 7.56308 -2.01741 1.14225 0.87547
0*134 0.13440 1.00899 0.13320 7.50730 -2.00992 1.14339 0*87459
0.135 0.13541 1.00913 0.13419 7.45235 -2.00248 1.14454 0*87372
0.136 0.13642 1.00926 0.13517 7.39822 -1.99510 1.14568 0.87284

0*137 0.13743 1.00940 0.13615 7.34488 -1.98777 1.14683 0*87197
0.138 0.13844 1.00954 0.13713 7.29232 -1.98050 1.14798 0.87110
0.139 0.13945 1.00968 0.13811 7.24052 -1.97328 1.14912 0.87023
0*140 0.14046 1.00982 0.13909 7.18946 -1.96611 1.15027 0*86936
0.141 0.14147 1.00996 0.14007 7.13914 -1.95900 1.15142 0*86849

0.142 0.14248 1.01010 0.14105 7.08952 -1.95193 1.15258 0.86762
0.143 0.14349 1.01024 0.14203 7.04061 -1.94491 1.15373 0.86675
0.144 0.14450 1.01039 0.14301 6.99238 -1.93794 1.15488 0.86589
0.145 0.14551 1.01053 0.14399 6.94482 -1.93102 1.15604 0.86502
0.146 0.14652 1.01068 0.14497 6.89791 -1.92415 1.15720 0.86416

0.147 0.14753 1.01082 0.14595 6.85165 -1.91732 1.15835 0.86329
Q.148 0.14854 1.01097 0.14693 6.80602 -1.91054 1.15951 0.86243
0.149 0.14955 1.01112 0.14791 6.76100 -1.90381 1.16067 0.86157
0.150 0.15056 i.01127 0.14889 6.71659 -1.89712 1.16183 0*86071

sinh cosh x tanh x coth x In x
0.150 0.15056 1.01127 0.14889 6.71659 -1.89712 1.16183 0.86071

0.151 0.15157 1.01142 0.14986 6.67277 -1.89048 1.16300 0.85985
0.152 0.15259 1.01157 0.15084 6.62954 -1.88387 1.16416 0.85899
0.153 0.15360 1.01173 0.15182 6.58687 -1.87732 1.16532 0.85813
0.154 0.15461 1.01188 0.15279 6.54476 -1.87080 1.16649 0.85727
0.155 0.15562 1.01204 0.15377 6.50320 -1.86433 1.16766 0.85642
0.156 0.15663 1.01219 0.15475 6.46217 -1.85790 1.16883 0.85556
0.157 0.15765 1.01235 0.15572 6.42167 -1.85151 1.17000 0.85470
0.158 0.15866 1.01251 0.15670 6.38169 -1.84516 1.17117 0.85385
0.159 0.15967 1.01267 0.15767 6.34222 -1.83885 1.17234 0.85300
0*160 0.16068 1.01283 0.15865 6.30324 -1.83258 1.17351 0.85214
0.161 0.16170 1.01299 0.15962 6.26475 -1.82635 1.17468 0.85129
0.162 0.16271 1.01315 0.16060 6.22675 -1.82016 1.17586 0.85044
0.163 0.16372 1.01331 0.16157 6.18921 -1.81401 1.17704 0.84959
0.164 0.16474 1.01348 0.16255 6.15213 -1.80789 1.17821 0.84874
0.165 0.16575 1.01364 0.16352 6.11551 -1.80181 1.17939 0.84789
0*166 0.16676 1.01381 0.16449 6.07933 -1.79577 1.18057 0.84705
0.167 0.16778 1.01398 0.16546 6.04359 -1.78976 1.18175 0.84620
0.168 0.16679 1.01415 0.16644 6.00828 -1.78379 1.18294 0.84535
0.169 0.16981 1.01431 0.16741 5.97339 -1.77786 1.18412 0.84451
0.170 0.17082 1.01448 0.16838 5.93891 -1.77196 1.18530 0*84366
0.171 0.17183 1.01466 0.16935 5.90484 -1.76609 1.18649 0*84282
0.172 0.17285 1.01483 0.17032 5.87117 -1.76026 1.18768 0*84198
0.173 0.17386 1.01500 0.17129 5.83790 -1.75446 1.18887 0*84114
0.174 0.17488 1.01518 0.17227 5.80501 -1.74870 1.19006 0*84030
0.175 0.17589 1.01535 0.17324 5.77250 -1.74297 1.19125 0.83946
0.176 0.17691 1.01553 0.17420 5.74036 -1.73727 1.19244 0.83862
0.177 0.17793 1.01571 0.17517 5.70859 -1.73161 1.19363 0.83778
0.178 0.17894 1.01588 0.17614 5.67719 -1.72597 1.19483 0.83694
0.179 0.17996 1.01606 0.17711 5.64613 -1.72037 1.19602 0.83611
0*160 0.18097 1.01624 0.17808 5.61543 -1.71480 1.19722 0.83527
0.181 0.18199 1.01643 0.17905 5.58506 -1.70926 1.19842 0*83444
0.182 0.18301 1.01661 0.18002 5.55504 -1.70375 1.19961 0*83360
0.183 0.18402 1.01679 0.18098 5.52535 -1.69827 1.20081 0.83277
0.184 0.18504 1.01698 0.18195 5.49598 -1.69282 1.20202 0*83194
0.185 0.18606 1.01716 0.18292 5.46693 -1.68740 1.20322 0.83110
0.186 0.18707 1.01735 0.18388 5.43820 -1.68201 1.20442 0.83027
0.187 0.18809 1.01754 0.18485 5.40978 -1.67665 1.20563
0.188
0*82944
0.18911 1.01772 .18582 5.38167 -1.67131 1.20683 0.82861
0.189 0.19013 1.01791 0.18678 5.35386 -1.66601 1.20804 0.82779
0*190 0.19115 1.01810 0.18775 5.32634 -1.66073 1.20925 0.82696
0.191 0.19216 1.01830 0.18871 5.29911 -1.65548 1.21046
0.192 0.82613
0.19318 1.01849 0.18967 5.27218 -1.65026 1.21167 0.82531
0.193 0.19420 1.01868 0.19064 5.24552 -1.64507 1.21288
0*194 0.82448
0.19522 1.01888 0.19160 5.21914 -1.63990 1.21410 0.82366
0*195 0.19624 1.01907 0.19257 5.19304 -1.63476 1.21531 0.82283
0.196 0.19726 1.01927 0.19353 5.16721 -1.62964 1.21653
0.197 0.82201
0.19828 1.01947 0.19449 5.14164 -1.62455 1.21774
0.198 0.19930 0.82119
1.01967 0.19545 5.11633 -1.61949 1.21896 0.82037
0*199 0.20032 1.01987 0.19641 5.09128 -1.61445
0*200 1.22018 0.81955
0.20134 1.02007 0.19738 5.06649 -1.60944 1.22140 0*81873
sinh cosh tanh x coth
0*200 0.20134 1.02007 0.19738 5.06649 -1 .60944 1.22140 0.81873
0.201 0.20236 1.02027 0.19634 5.04194 -1 .60445 1.22262 0.81791

0*202 0.20338 1.02047 0.19930 5.01765 -1 .59949 1.22385 0.81709
0*203 0.20440 1.02068 0.20026 4.99359 -1 .59455 1.22507 0.81628
0*204 0.20542 1.02088 0.20122 4.96977 -1 .58964 1.22630 0*81546
0*205 0.20644 1.02109 0.20218 4.94619 -1 .58475 1.22753 0.81465
0*206 0.20746 1.02129 0.20313 4.92284 -1 .57988 1.22875 0.81363

0.207 0.20648 1.02150 0.20409 4.89972 -1 .57504 1.22998 0.81302
0*206 0.20950 1.02171 0.20505 4.87683 -1 .57022 1.23121 0.81221
0*209 0.21052 1.02192 0.20601 4.85415 -1 .56542 1.23244 0.81140
0*210 0.21155 1.02213 0.20697 4.83170 -1 .56065 1.23368 0.81058
0*211 0.21257 1.02234 0.20792 4.80946 -1 .55590 1.23491 0.80977

0*212 0.21359 1.02256 0.20888 4.78744 -1 .55117 1.23615 0.80696
0.213 0.21461 1.02277 0.20984 4.76562 -1 .54646 1.23738 0.80816
0*214 0.21564 1.02299 0.21079 4.74401 -1 .54178 1.23862 0.80735
0.215 0.21666 1.02320 0.21175 4.72261 -1 .53712 1.23986 0.80654
0.216 0.21768 1.02342 0.21270 4.70141 -1 .53248 1.24110 0.80574

0.217 0.21871 1.02364 0.21366 4.68040 -1 .52786 1.24234 0.80493
0.216 0.21973 1.02386 0.21461 4.65959 -1 .52326 1.24359 0.80413
0.219 0.22075 1.02408 0.21556 4.63898 -1 .51868 1.24483 0.80332
0.220 0.22178 1.02430 0.21652 4.61855 -1 .51413 1.24608 0.80252
0.221 0.22280 1.02452 0.21747 4.59831 -1 .50959 1.24732 0.80172

0.222 0.22383 1.02474 0.21842 4.57826 -1 .50508 1.24857 0.80092
0.223 0.22485 1.02497 0.21938 4.55839 -1 .50058 1.24982 0.80011
0.224 0.22588 1.02519 0.22033 4.53870 -1 .49611 1*25107 0.79932
0.225 0.22690 1.02542 0.22128 4.51919 -1 .49165 1.25232 0.79852
0.226 0.22793 1.02565 0.22223 4.49966 -1 .48722 1.25358 0.79772

0.227 0.22895 1.02588 0.22318 4.48069 -1 .48281 1.25463 0.79692
0.228 0.22998 1.02610 0.22413 4.46170 -1 .47841 1.25609 0.79612
0.229 0.23101 1.02634 0.22508 4.44288 -1 .47403 J. 25734 0.79533
0.230 0.23203 1.02657 0.22603 4.42422 -1 .46968 1.25860 0.79453
0.231 0.23306 1.02660 0.22698 4.40573 -1 .46534 1.25986 0.79374

0.232 0.23409 1.02703 0.22793 4.38740 -1 .46102 1.26112 0.79295
0.233 0.23511 1.02727 0.22887 4.36923 -1 .45672 1.26238 0.79215
0.234 0.23614 1.02750 0.22982 4.35122 -1 .45243 1.26364 0.79136
0.235 0.23717 1.02774 0.23077 4.33337 -1 .44817 1.26491 0.79057
0.236 0.23820 1.02798 0.23171 4.31566 -1 .44392 1.26617 0.78978

0.237 0.23922 1.02822 0.23266 4.29812 -1 .43970 1.26744 0.78899
0.238 0.24025 1.02846 0.23361 4.28072 -1 .43548 1.26871 0.78820
0.239 0.24128 1.02870 0.23455 4.26347 -1 .43129 1.26998 0.78741
0.240 0.24231 1.02894 0.23550 4.24636 -1 .42712 1.27123 0.78663
0.241 0.24334 1*02918 0.23644 4.22940 -li.42296 1.27252 0*78584

0.242 0.24437 1.02943 0.23738 4.21258 -1..41882 1.27379 0.78506
0.243 0.24540 1.02967 0.23833 4.19591 -1. 41469 1.27507 0.78427
0.244 0.24643 1.02992 0*23927 4.17937 -1 41059 1.27634 0.78349
0*245 0.24746 1.03016 0.24021 4.16297 -1. 40650 1.27762 0.78270
0*246 0.24849 1.03041 0.24)15 4.14671 -1..40242 1.27890 0*78192

0.247 0.24952 1.03066 0.24210 4.13058 -1..39837 1.28018 0.78114
0.248 0.25055 1.03091 0.24304 4.11459 -1 .39433 1*28146 0.78036
0.249 0.25158 1.03116 0.24398 4.09872 -1..39030 1.28274 0.77958
0.250 0.25261 1.03141 0.24492 4*08299 -1 .38629 1*28403 0.77880
sinh x cosh x tanh x coth x \n x

0*250 0.25261 1*03141 0.24492 4.08299 -1.38629 1.28403 0.77880
0.251 0.25364 1.03167 0.24586 4.06738 -1.38230 1.28531 0.77802

0.252 0.25468 1.03192 0.24680 4.05190 -1.37833 1.28660 0.77724
0.253 0.25571 1.03218 0.24774 4.03654 -1.37437 1.28788 0.77647
0.254 0.25674 1.03243 0.24868 4.02131 -1.37042 1.28917 0.77569
0.255 0.25777 1.03269 0.24961 4.00620 -1.36649 1.29046 0.77492
0.256 0.25881 1.03295 0.25055 3.99121 -1.36258 1.29175 0.77414
0.257 0.25984 1.03321 0.25149 3.97634 -1.35868 1.29305 0.77337
0.258 0.26087 1.03347 0.25242 3.96159 -1.35480 1.29434 0.77260
0.259 0.26191 1.03373 0.25336 3.94695 -1.35093 1.29563 0.77182
0.260 0.26294 1.03399 0.25430 3.93243 -1.34707 1.29693 0.77105
0*261 0.26397 1.03425 0.25523 3.91803 -1.34323 1.29823 0.77028
0.262 0.26501 1.03452 0.25617 3.90373 -1.33941 1.29953 0.76951
0.263 0.26604 1.03478 0.25710 3.88955 -1.33560 1.30083 0.76874
0*264 0.26708 1.03505 0.25803 3.87547 -1.33181 1.30213 0.76797
0.265 0.26811 1.03532 0.25897 3.86151 -1.32803 1.30343 0.76721
0.266 0.26915 1.03559 0.25990 3.84765 -1.32426 1.30474 0.76644
0.267 0.27018 1.03586 0.26083 3.83390 -1.32051 1.30604 0.76567
0.268 0.27122 1.03613 0.26176 3.82025 -1.31677 1.30735 0.76491
0.269 0.27226 1.03640 0.26269 3.80671 -1.31304 1.30866 0.76414
0.270 0.27329 1.03667 0.26362 3.79327 -1.30933 1.30996 0.76338
0.271 0.27433 1.03695 0.26456 3.77993 -1.30564 1.31128 0.76262
0.272 0.27537 1.03722 0.26548 3.76669 -1.30195 1.31259 0.76185
0.273 0.27640 1.03750 0.26641 3.75355 -1.29828 1.31390 0.76109
0.274 0.27744 1.03777 0.26734 3.74051 -1.29463 1.31521 0.76033
0.275 0.27848 1.03805 0.26827 3.72757 -1.29098 1.31653 0.75957
0.276 0.27952 1.03833 0.26920 3.71472 -1.28735 1.31785 0.75881
0.277 0.28056 1.03861 0.27013 3.70197 -1.28374 1.31917 0.75805
0.278 0.28159 1.03889 0.27105 3.68932 -1.28013 1.32049 0.75730
0.279 0.28263 1.03917 0.27198 3.67675 -1.27654 1.32181 0.75654
0.280 0.28367 1.03946 0.27291 3.66428 -1.27297 1.32313 0.75578
0.281 0.28471 1.03974 0.27383 3.65190 -1.26940 1.32445 0.75503
0.282 0.28575 1.04003 0.27476 3.63960 -1.26585 1.32578 0.75427
0.283 0.28679 1.04031 0.27568 3.62740 -1.26231 1.32711 0.75352
0.284 0.28783 1.04060 0.27660 3.61529 -1.25878 1.32843 0.75277
0*285 0.28887 1.04089 0.27753 3.60326 -1.25527 1.32976 0.75201
0*286 0.28991 1.04118 0.27845 3.59132 -1.25176 1.33109 0.75126
0.287 0.29096 1.04147 0.27937 3.57947 -1.24827 1.33242 0.75051
0.288 0.29200 1.04176 0.28029 3.56770 -1.24479 1.33376 0.74976
0.289 0.29304 1.04205 0.28121 3.55601 -1.24133 1.33509 0.74901
0.290 0.29408 1.04235 0.28213 3.54440 -1.23787 1.33643 0.74826
0.291 0.29512 1.04264 0.28305 3.53288 -l.?3443 1.33776 0.74752
0.292 0.29617 1.04294 0.28397 3.52144 -1.23100 1.33910 0.74677
0.293 0.29721 1.04323 0.28489 3.51008 -1.22758 1.34044 0.74602
0.294 0.29825 1.04353 0.28581 3.49880 -1.22418 1.34178 0.74528
0.295 0.29930 1.04383 0.28673 3.48760 -1.22078 1.34313 0.74453
0.296 0.30034 1.04413 0.28765 3.47647 -1.21740 1.34447 0.74379
0.297 0.30139 1.04443 0.28856 3.46543 -1.21402 1.34582 0.74304
0.298 0.30243 1.04473 0.28948 3.45445 -1.21066 1.34716 0.74230
0.299 0.30348 1.04503 0.29040 3.44356 -1.20731 1.34851 0.74156
0.300 0.30452 1.04534 0.29131 3.43274 -1.20397 1.34986 0.74082
sinh cosh x tanh coth x

sinh x cosh tanh x coth x In x
.300 0.30452 1.04534 0.29131 3.43274 1.20397 1.34986 0.74082
.301 0.30557 1.04564 0.29223 3.42199 . 1.20065 1.35121 0.74008

.302 0.30661 1.04595 0.29314 3.41132 - 1.19733 1.35256 0.73934
.303 0.30766 1.04626 0.29406 3.40072 - L. 19402 1.35391 0*73860
.304 0.30870 1.04656 0.29497 3.39019 - L. 19073 1.35527 0.73786
305 0.30975 1.04687 0.29588 3.37973 " 1.18744 1.35663 0.73712
.306 0.31080 1.04718 0.29679 3.36934 _ 1.18417 1.35798 0.73639

.307 0.31185 1.04750 0.29771 3.35903 - L. 18091 1.35934 0.73565
.308 0.31289 1.04781 0.29862 3.34878 - L. 17766 1.36070 0.73492
.309 0.31394 1.04812 0.29953 3.33860 - 1.17441 1.36206 0.73418
.310 0.31499 1.04844 0.30044 3.32848 - L. 17118 1.36343 0.73345
.311 0.31604 1.04875 0.30135 3.31844 . 1.16796 1.36479 0.73271

.312 0.31709 1.04907 0.30226 3.30846 - L. 16475 1.36615 0.73198
.313 0.31814 1.04939 0.30316 3.29855 - 1.16155 1.36752 0.73125
.314 0.31919 1.04970 0.30407 3.28870 - L. 15836 1.36889 0.73052
.315 0.32024 1.05002 0.30498 3.27892 - t. 15518 1.37026 0.72979
.316 0.32129 1.05034 0.30589 3.26920 _ L. 15201 1.37163 0.72906

.317 0.32234 1.05067 0.30679 3.25954 - 1.14885 1.37300 0.72833
.318 0.32339 1.05099 0.30770 3.24995 - L. 14570 1.37438 0.72760
.319 0.32444 1.05131 0.30860 3.24042 - 1.14256 1.37575 0.72688
.320 0.32549 1.05164 0.30951 3.23095 - 1.13943 1.37713 0.72615
.321 0.32654 1.05196 0.31041 3.22154 - 1.13631 1.37851 0.72542

.322 0.32759 1.05229 0.31131 3.21219 - 1.13320 1.37988 0.72470
.323 0.32865 1.05262 0.31222 3.20290 - 1.13010 1.38127 0.72397
.324 0.32970 1.05295 0.31312 3.19367 - 1.12701 1.38265 0.72325
.325 0.33075 1.05328 0.31402 3.18450 - 1.12393 1.38403 0.72253
.326 0.33181 1.05361 0.31492 3.17539 .] 1.12086 1.38542 0.72181

.327 0.33286 1.05394 0.31582 3.16633 - 11780
L. 1.38680 0.72108
.328 0.33391 1.05428 0.31672 3.15734 - 11474
L. 1.38819 0.72036
.329 0.33497 1.05461 0.31762 3.14840 - L. 11170 1.38958 0.71964
.330 0.33602 1.05495 0.31852 3.13951 - 1.10866 1.39097 0.71892
.331 0.33708 1.05528 0.31942 3.13068 . 1. 10564 1.39236 0.71821

.332 0.33813 1.05562 0.32032 3.12191 - 1.10262 1.39375 0.71749
.333 0.33919 1.05596 0.32121 3.11319 - 1.09961 1.39515 0.71677
.334 0.34024 1.05630 0.32211 3.10453 - I. 09661 1.39654 0.71605
.335 0.34130 1.05664 0.32301 3.09591 - L. 09362 1.39794 0.71534
336 0.34236 1.05698 0.32390 3.08736 . L. 09064 1.39934 0.71462

.337 0.34342 1.05732 0.32480 3.07885 - L. 08767 1.40074 0.71391
.338 0.34447 1.05767 0.32569 3.07040 - L. 08471 1.40214 0.71320
.339 0.34553 1.05801 0.32658 3.06200 - L. 08176 1.40354 0*71248
.340 0.34659 1.05836 0.32748 3.05365 -3 L. 07881 1.40495 0.71177
.341 0.34765 1.05871 0.32837 3.04535 .] .07587 1.40635 0.71106

.342 0.34871 1.05905 0.32926 3.03710 -: .07294 1.40776 0.71035
.343 0.34977 1.05940 0.33015 3.02890 - .07002 1.40917 0.7096*
.344 0.35082 1.05975 0.33104 3.02075 - L. 06711 1.41058 0.70893
.345 0.35188 1.06011 0.33193 3.01265 - 1.06421 1.41199 0.70822
.346 0.35295 1.06046 0.33282 3.00460 .]I. 06132 1.41340 0.70751

.347 0.35401 1.06081 0.33371 2.99659 -: .05843 1.41482 0.70681
.348 0.35507 1.06117 0.33460 2.98864 -: .05555 1.41623 0.70610
.349 0.35613 1.06152 0.33649 2.98073 -: L. 05268 1.41765 0-70539
.350 0.35719 1.06188 0.33638 2.97287 -3 1.04982 1.41907 0.70469

sinh cosh tanh cofh x tn x
0.350 0.35719 i. 06188 0.33638 2.97287 -1.0*982 1.419Q7 0.70469

0.351 0.35825 1.06224 0.33726 2.96505 -1.Q4697 1.42049 0.70398
0.352 0.35931 1.06259 0.33815 2.95728 -1.Q4412 1.42191 0.70328
0.353 0.36038 1.06295 0.33903 2.94956 -1. Q4129 1.42333 0.70258
0.354 0.36144 1.06332 0.33992 2.94188 -1.Q3846 1.42476 0.70187
0.355 0.36250 1.06368 0.34080 2.93425 -1.Q3564 1.42618 0.70117
0.356 0.36357 1.06404 0.34169 2.92666 -1. Q3282 1.42761 0.70047
0.357 0.36463 1.06440 0.34257 2.91912 -1.03002 1.42904 0.69977
0.358 0.36570 1.06477 0.34345 2.91162 -1.02722 1.43047 0.69907
0.359 0.36676 1.06514 0.34433 2.90417 -1.Q2443 1.43190 0.69837
0.360 0.36783 1.06550 0.34521 2.89675 -1.02165 1.43333 0.69768
0.361 0.36889 1.06587 0.34609 2.88938 -1.01888 1.43476 0.69698
0.362 0.36996 1.06624 0.34697 2.88206 -1.01611 1.43620 0.69628
0.363 0.37102 1.06661 0.34785 2.87477 -1.01335 1.43764 0.69559
0.364 0.37209 1.06698 0.34873 2.86753 -1.01060 1.43907 0.69489
0.365 0.37316 1.06736 0.34961 2.86033 -1.00786 1.44051 0.69420
0*366 0.37423 1.06773 0.35049 2.8531.6 -1.00512 1.44196 0.69350
0.367 0.37529 1.06810 0.35136 2.84604 -1.00239 1.44340 0.69281
0.368 0.37636 1.06848 0.35224 2.83896 -0.99967 1.44484 0.69212
0.369 0.37743 1.06886 0.35312 2.83192 -0.99696 1.44629 0.69143
0.370 0.3785Q 1.06923 0.35399 2.82492 -0.99425 1.44773 0.69073
0*371 0.37957 1.06961 0.35487 2.81796 -0.99155 1.44918 0.69004
0.372 0.38064 1.06999 0.35574 2.81104 -0.98886 1.45063 0.68935
0.373 0.38171 1.07037 0.35661 2.80416 -0.98618 1.45208 0.68867
0.374 0.38278 1.07076 0.35749 2.79732 -0.98350 1.45354 0.68798
0.375 0.38385 1.07114 0.35836 2.79051 -0.98083 1.45499 0.68729
0*376 0.38492 1.07152 0.35923 2.78374 -0.97817 1.45645 0.68660
0.377 0.38599 1.07191 0.36010 2.77701 -0.97551 1.45790 0.68592
0.378 0.38707 1.07230 0.36097 2.77032 -0.97286 1.45936 0.68523
0.379 0.38814 1.07268 0.36184 2.76366 -0.97022 1.46082 0.68455
0*380 0.38921 1.07307 0.36271 2.75704 -0.96758 1.46228 0.68386
0.381 0.39028 1.07346 0.36358 2.75046 -0.96496 1.46375 0.68318
0.382 0.39136 1.07385 0.36444 2.74391 -0.96233 1.46521 0.68250
0.383 0.39243 1.07425 0.36531 2.73740 -0.95972 1.46668 0.68181
0.384 0.39351 1.07464 0.36618 2.73093 -0.95711 1.46815 0.68113
0.385 0.39458 1.07503 0.36704 2.72449 -0.95451 1.46961 0.68045
0*386 0.39566 1.07543 0.36791 2.71808 -0.95192 1.47108 0.67977
0.387 0.39673 1.07582 0.36877 2.71171 -0.94933 1.47256 0.67909.
0.388 0.39781 1.07622 0.36963 2.70537 -0.94675 1.47403 0.67841
0.389 0.39889 1.07662 0.37050 2.69907 -0.94418 1.47550 0.67773
0.390 0.39996 1.07702 0.37136 2.69280 -0.94161 1.47698 0.67706
0.391 0.40104 1.07742 0.37222 2.68657 -0*93905 1.47846 0.67638
0.392 0.40212 1.07782 0.37308 2.68037 -0.93649 1.47994 0.67570
0.393 0.40319 1.07822 0.37394 2.67420 -0.93395 1.48142 0.67503
0.394 0.40427 1.07863 0.37480 2.66807 -0.93140 1.48290 0.67435
0.395 0.40535 1.07903 0.37566 2.66196 -0.92887 1.48438 0.67368
0*396 0.40643 1.07944 0.37652 2.65589 -0.92634 1.48587 0.67301
0.397 0.40751 1.07984 0.37738 2.64986 -0.92382 1.48736 0.67233
0.398 0.40859 1.08025 0.37824 2.64385 -0.92130 1.48884 0.67166
0.399 0.40967 1.08066 0.37909 2.63 788 -0.91879 1.49033 0.67099
0.400 0.41075 1.08107 0.37995 2.63193 -0.91629 1.49182 0.67032
sinh x cosh fanh x coth x In x

sinh x cosh tanh x coth
400 0,41075 1.08107 0. 37995 2. 63193 -0.91629 1.49182 0.67032
.4Q1 0.41183 1.08148 .38080 2 .62602 -0.91379 1.49332 0.66965

.402 0.41292 1.08190 .38166 2 .62014 -0.9H30 1.49481 0.66898
.403 0.41400 1.08231 38251 2 ,61429 -0.90882 1.49631 0.66831
.404 0.41508 1.08272 Q 38337 2 60847 -0.90634 1.49780 0.66764
405 0.41616 1.08314 0. 38422 2 60268 -0.90387 1.49930 0*66698
.406 0.41725 1.08356 0. 38507 2 59692 -0.90140 1.50080 0.66631

.407 0.41833 1.08397 38592 2 59119 -0.89894 1.50230 0.66564
.408 0.41941 1.08439 0. 38677 2 .58549 -0.89649 1.50381 0.66498
.409 0.42050 1.08481 0. 38762 2 57982 -0.89404 1.50531 0.66431
.410 0.42158 1.08523 0. 38847 2. 57418 -0.89160 1.50682 0.66365
.411 0.42267 1.08566 0. 38932 ?. 56857 -0.88916 1.50833 0.66299

.412 0.42376 1.08608 39017 2 ,56299 -0.88673 1.50983 0.66232
.413 0.42484 1.08650 .39102 2 ,55743 -0.88431 1.51135 0.66166
.414 0.42593 1.08693 .39186 2 ,55191 -0.88189 1.51286 0.66100
.415 0.42702 1.08736 .39271 2 ,54641 -0.87948 1.51437 0.66034
.416 0.42810 1.08778 .39356 2 .54094 -0.87707 1.51589 0.65968

.417 0.42919 1.08821 .39440 2 .53550 -0.87467 1.51740 0.65902
.418 0.43028 1.08864 .39524 2 .53008 -0.87227 1.51892 0.65836
.419 0.43137 1.08907 .39609 2 ,52469 -0.86988 1.52044 0.65770
.420 0.43246 1.08950 .39693 2 ,51933 -0.86750 1.52196 0.65705
.421 0.43355 1.08994 .39777 2 .51400 -0.86512 1.52348 0.65639

.422 0.43464 1.09037 .39861 2 50869 -0.86275 1.52501 0.65573
.423 0.43573 1.09081 .39945 2 .50341 -0.86038 1.52653 0.65508
424 0.43682 1.09124 ,40029 2 49816 -0.85802 1.52806 0.65442
.425 0.43791 1.09168 .40113 2 ,49293 -0.85567 1.52959 0.65377
.426 0.43900 1.09212 .40197 2 ,48773 -0.85332 1.53112 0.65312

.427 0.44009 1.09256 .40281 2 48255 -0.85097 1.53265 0.65246
.428 0.44119 1.09300 40365 2 ,47740 -0.84863 1.53419 0.65181
.429 0.44228 1.09344 40449 2 47228 -0.84630 1.53572 0.65116
430 0.44337 09368 40532 2.,46718 -0.84397 1.53726 0.65051
431 0.44447 1,09433 .40616 2.,46210 -0.84165 1.53880 0.64986

.432 0.44556 1,09477 ,40699 2 ,45705 -0.83933 1.54034 0.64921
.433 0*44666 1,09522 .40783 2 .45203 -0.83702 1.54188 0.64856
434 0,44775 1,09567 ,40866 2 .44703 -0.83471 1.54342 0.64791
.435 0*44885 1,09611 .40949 2 .44205 -0.83241 1.54496 0.64726
.436 0.44995 1,09656 .41032 2 .43710 -0.83011 1.54651 0.64662

.437 0.45104 1.09701 .41115 2 .43217 -0.82782 1.54806 0.64597
438 0.45214 1,09747 .41199 2 .42727 -0.82554 1.54960 0.64533
439 0.45324 1.09792 .41282 2 .42239 -0. Q2326 1.55116 0.64468
440 0.45434 1.09837 .41364 2 .41754 -0.82098 1.55271 0*64404
.441 0.45543 1.09883 .41447 2 .41270 -0.81871 1.55426 0*64339

442 0,45653 1.09928 .41530 2 .40789 -0.81645 1.55582 0.64275
443 0.45763 1.09974 .41613 2 .40311 -0.81419 1.55737 0.64211
444 0,45873 1.10020 .41695 2 ,39834 -0.81193 1.55893 0.64147
.445 0*45983 1.10066 .41778 2 39360 -0.80968 1.56049 0.64082
446 0*46093 1.10112 .41861 2.,38888 -0.80744 1.56205 0.64018

447 0.46204 1*10158 .41943 2 ,38419 -0.80520 1.56361 0.63954
448 0.46314 1.1020* .42025 2 ,37952 -0.80296 1.56518 0.63890
.449 0*46424 1.10251 .42108 2 ,37486 -0.80073 1.56674 0.63827
450 0*46534 1.10297 .42190 2 ,37024 -Q.79851 1.56831 0.63763
sinh x cosh x tanh x coth x

sinh x cosh x tonh coth x In x
0*450 0.46534 1.10297 0.42190 2.37024 -0.79851 1.56831 0.63763

0.^51 0.46645 1.10344 0.42272 2.36563 -0.79629 1.56988 0.63699
0.452 0.46755 1.10390 0.42354 2.36104 -0.79407 1.57145 0.63635
0.453 0.46865 1.10437 0.42436 2.35648 -0.79186 1.57302 0.63572
0*454 0.46976 1.10484 0.42518 2.35194 -0.78966 1.5 7460 0*63508
0*455 0*47086 1.10531 0*42600 2.34742 -0.78746 1.57617 0*63445
0.456 0.47197 1.10578 0.42682 2.34292 -0.78526 1.57775 0*63381
0.457 0.47307 1.10625 0.42764 2.33844 -0.78307 1.57933 0*63318
0.458 0.47418 1.10673 0.42845 2.33398 -0.78089 1.58091 0.63255
0.459 0.47529 1.10720 0.42927 2.32954 -0.77871 1.58249 0.63192
0.460 0.47640 1*10768 0.43008 .2.32513 -0.77653 1.58407 0.63128
0.461 0.47750 1.10816 0.43090 2.32073 -0.77436 1.58566 0.63065
0.462 0.47861 1.10863 0.43171 2.31635 -0.77219 1.58725 0.63002
0.463 0.47972 1.10911 0.43253 2.31200 -0.77003 1.58883 0.62939
0.464 0.48083 1.10959 0.43334 2.30766 -0.76787 1.59042 0.62876
0.465 0.48194 1.11007 0.43415 2.30335 -0.76572 1.59201 0.62814
0.466 0.*8305 1.11056 0.43496 7. 29905 -0.76357 1.59361 0.62751
0*467 0.48416 1.11104 0.43577 2.29478 -0.76143 1.59520 0.62688
0.468 0.48527 1.11153 0.43658 2.29052 -0.75929 1.59680 0.62625
0.469 0.48638 1*11201 0.43739 2.28628 -0.75715 1.59839 0.62563
0.470 0.48750 1.11250 0.43820 2.28207 -0.75502 1.59999 0.62500
0.471 0.48861 1*11299 0.43901 2.27787 -0.75290 1.60159 0.62438
0.472 0.48972 1.11348 0.43981 2.27369 -0.75078 1.60320 0.62375
0.473 0.49084 1.11397 0.44062 2.26953 -0.74866 1.60480 0.62313
0.474 0.49195 1*11446 0.44143 2.26539 -0.74655 1.60641 0.62251
0.475 0.49306 1.11495 0.44223 2.26126 -0.74444 1.60801 0*62189
0.476 0.49418 1.11544 0.44303 2.25716 -0.74234 1.60962 0*62126
0.477 0.49530 1.11594 0.44384 2.25308 -0.74024 1.61123 0.62064
0.478 0.49641 1.11643 0.44464 2.24901 -0.73814 1.61285 0.62002
0.479 0.49753 1.11693 0.44544 2.24496 -0*73605 1.61446 0.61940
0*480 0.49865 1.11743 0.44624 2.24093 -0.73397 1*61607 0.61878
0.481 0.49976 1.11793 0*44704 2.23692 -0*73189 1.61769 0.61816
0.482 0.50088 1.11843 0*44784 2.23292 -0.72981 1.61931 0.61755
0.483 0.50200 1.11693 0*44864 2.22894 -0.72774 1.62093 0.61693
0*484 0.50312 1.11943 0*44944 2.22498 -0.72567 1*62255 0.61631
0*485 0.50424 1*11994 0*45024 2.22104 -0.72361 1.62418 0.61570
0.486 0.50536 1.12044 0.45104 2.21712 -0.72155 1.62580 0.61508
0.487 0.50648 1.12095 0.45183 2.21321 -0.71949 1.62743 0.61447
0.488 0.50760 1.12145 0.45263 2.20932 -0.71744 1.62905 0.61385
0.489 0.50872 1.12196 0.45342 2.20545 -0.71539 1.63068 0.61324
0*490 0*50984 1.12247 0*45422 2.20159 -0.71335 1.63232 0.61263
0.491 0.51097 1.12298 0.45501 2.19776 -0.71131 1.63395 0.61201
0.492 0.51209 1.12349 0.45580 2.19393 -0.70928 1.63558 0.61140
0.493 0.51321 1.12401 0.45659 2.19013 -0.70725 1.63722 0.61079
0*494 0.51434 1.12452 0.45739 2.18634 -0.70522 1.63886 0.61018
0.495 0.51546 1.12503 0.45818 2.18257 -0.70320 1.64050 0.60957
0.496 0,51659 1.12555 0.45897 2.17881 -0.70118 1*64214 0.60896
0.497 0.51771 1.12607 0.45975 2.17507 -0.69917 1.64378 0.60839
0.498 0.51884 1.12659 0.46054 2.17135 -0.69716 1.64543 0.60774
0.499 0.51997 1.12711 0.46133 2.16764 -0.69515 1.64707 0*60714
0.500 0.52110 1.12763 0.46212 2.16395 -0.69315 1.64872 0.60653
sinh x cosh x tanh x coth
tinh x cosh x tanh x coth x In x
(.500 0.52110 1.12763 0.46212 2.16395 -0.69313 1.64872 0,60653
1.501 0.52222 1.12815 0.46290 2.16028 -0.69U5 1.65037 0.60592

1.502 0.52335 1.12867 0.46369 2.15662 -0.68916 1.65202 0.60532
.503 0*52448 1.12919 0.46447 2.15298 -0.68717 1.65367 0.60471
.504 0.52561 1.12972 0.46526 2.14935 -0.68518 1.65533 0.60411
505 0.52674 1.13025 0.46604 2.14574 -0.68320 1.65699 0.60351
.506 0.52787 1.13077 0.46682 2.14214 -0.68122 1.65864 0.60290

.507 0.52900 1.13130 0.46760 2.13856 -0.67924 1.66030 0.60230
.508 0.53013 1.13183 0.46839 2.13499 -0.67727 1.66196 0.60170
509 0,53127 1.13236 0.46917 2.13144 -0.67531 1.66363 0.60110
.510 0.53240 1.13289 0.46995 2.12791 -0.67334 1.66529 0.60050
511 0.53353 1.13343 0.47072 2.12439 -0.67139 1.66696 0.59990

.512 0.53466 1.13396 0.47150 2.12088 -0.66943 1.66863 0.59930
513 0.53580 1.13450 0.47228 2.11739 -0.66748 1.67029 0.59870
514 0.53693 1,13503 0.47306 2.11391 -0.66553 1.67197 0.59810
.515 0.53807 1,13557 0.47383 2.11045 -0.66359 1.67364 0.59750
516 0.53920 1,13611 0.47461 2.10701 -0.66165 1.67531 0.59690

.517 0.54034 1.13665 0.47538 2.10357 -0.65971 1.67699 0.59631
518 0.54148 1.13719 0.47615 2.10016 -0.65778 1.67867 0.59571
519 0.54262 1,13773 0.47693 2.09675 -0.65585 1.68035 0.59512
520 0.54373 1.13827 0.47770 2.09336 -0.65393 1.68203 0.59452
521 0.54489 1.13882 0.47847 2.08999 -0.65201 1.68371 0.59393

.522 0.54603 1.13936 0.47924 2.08663 -0.65009 1.68540 0.59333
523 0.54717 1.13991 0.48001 2.08328 -0.64817 1.68708 0.59274
524 0.54831 1.14046 0.48078 2.07995 -0.64626 1.68877 0.59215
525 0.54943 1.14101 0.48155 2.07663 -0.64436 1.69046 0.59156
.526 0.55059 1.14156 0.48232 2.07332 -0.64245 1.69215 0*59096

.527 0.55173 1.14211 0.48308 2.07003 -0.64055 1.69384 0.59037
.528 0.55288 1.14266 0*48385 2.06675 -0.63866 1.69554 0.58978
.529 0.55402 1.14321 0.48462 2.06349 -0.63677 1.69723 0.58919
530 0.55516 1.14377 0.48538 2.06024 -0.63488 1.69893 0.58860
.531 0.55631 1.14432 0.48613 2.05700 -0.63299 1.70063 0.58802

.532 0.55745 1.14488 0.48691 2.05377 -0.63111 1.70233 0.58743
533 0.55860 1.14544 0.48767 2.05056 -0.62923 1.70404 0*58684
.534 0.55974 1.14600 0.48843 2.04736 -0.62736 1.70574 0.58626
.535 0.56089 1.14656 0.48919 2.04418 -0.62549 1.70745 0*58567
.536 0.56204 1.14712 0,48995 2.04101 -0.62362 1.70916 0*58508

.537 0.56318 1.14768 0.49071 2.03785 -0.62176 1.71087 0*58450
538 0.56433 1.14825 0.49147 2.03470 -0.61990 1.71258 0.58391
.539 0.56548 1.14881 0.49223 2,03157 -0.61804 1.71429 0.58333
.540 0*56663 1.14938 0.49299 2,02845 -0.61619 1.71601 0.58275
.541 0.56778 1,14994 0.49374 2.02534 -0.61434 1.71772 0.58217

.542 0.56893 1.15051 0.49450 2.02224 -0.61249 1.71944 0.58158
543 0.57008 1.15108 0.49526 2.01916 -0.61065 1.72116 0.58100
.544 0.57123 1.15165 0.496*01 2.01609 -0.60881 1.72288 0.58042
.545 0.57238 1.15223 6.49676 2. Q1303 -0.60697 1.72461 0.57984
.546 0.57354 1.15280 0.49752 2.00998 -0.60514 1.72633 0.57926

.547 0.57469 1.15337 0.49827 2.00695 -0.60331 1.72806 0.57868
.548 0.57584 1.15395 0.49902 2.00393 -0.60148 1.72979 0.57810
.549 0.57700 1.15452 0.49977 2.00092 -0.59966 1.73152 0.57753
.550 0,97815 1.15510 0.50052 1,99792 -0.59784 1.73325 0.57695
sinhx cosh x tanh x coth x Inx -*

0*550 0.57615 1.15510 0.50052 1.99792 -0.49784 1.73325 0.57695

0.57931 1.15568 0.50127 1.99494 -0.59602 1.73499 0.57637
0.58046 1.15626 0.50202 1.99196 -0.59421 1.73672 0*57580
0.58162 1.15684 0.50277 1.98900 -0.59240 1.73846 0.57522
0.58278 1.15742 0.50351 1.98605 -0.59059 1.74020- 0*57465
0.58393 1.15801 0.50426 1.98311 -0.58879 1.74194 0.57407
0.58509 1.15859 0.50500 1.98018 -0.58699 1.74368 0.57350
0.58625 1.15918 0.50575 1.97727 -0.58519 1.74543 0.57293
0.58741 1.15976 0.50649 1.97436 -0.58340 1.74717 0.57235
0.58857 1.16035 0.50724 1.97147 -0.58161 1.74892 0.57178
0.58973 1.16094 0.50798 1.96859 -0.57982 1.75067 0.57121
0.59089 1.16153 0.50872 1.96572 -0.57803 1.75242 0.57064
0.59205 1.16212 0.50946 1.96286 -0.57625 1.75418 0.57007
0.59322 1.16272 0.51020 1.96002 -0.57448 1.75593 0.56950
0.59438 1.16331 0.51094 1.95718 -0.57270 1.75769 0.56893
0.59554 1.16390 0.51168 1.95435 -0.57093 1.75945 0.56836
0.59671 1.16450 0.51242 1.95154 -0.56916 1.76121 0.56779
0.59787 1.16510 0.51315 1.94874 -0.56740 1.76297 0.56722
0.59904 1.16570 0.51389 1.94595 -0.56563 1.76473 0.56666
0.60020 1.16630 0.51462 1.94316 -0.56387 1.76650 0.56609
0.60137 1.16690 0.51536 1.94039 -0.56212 1.76827 0.56553
0.60254 1.16750 0.51609 1.93763 -0.56037 1.77004 0.56496
0.60371 1.16810 0.51683 1.93489 -0.55862 1.77181 0.56440
0.60487 1.16871 0.51756 1.93215 -0.55687 1.77358 0.56383
0.60604 1.16931 0.51829 1.92942 -0.55513 1.77535 0.56327
0.60721 1.16992 0.51902 1.92670 -0.55339 1.77713 0.56270
0.60838 1.17053 0.51975 1.92399 -0.55165 1.77891 0.56214
0.60955 1.17113 0.52048 1.92130 -0.54991 1.78069 0.56158
0.61073 1.17174 0.52121 1.91861 -0.54818 1.78247 0.56102
0.61190 1.17236 0.52194 1.91594 -0.54645 1.78425 0.56046
0.61307 1.17297 0.52267 1.91327 -0.54473 1.78604 0.55990
0.61424 1.17358 0.52339 1.91061 -0.54300 1.78783 0*55934
0.61542 1.17420 0.52412 1.90797 -0.54128 1.78961 0.55878
0.61659 1.17481 0.52484 1.90533 -0.53957 1.79140 0.55822
0.61777 1.17543 0.52557 1.90271 -0.53785 1.79320 0.55766
0.61894 1.17605 0.52629 1.90009 -0.53614 1.79499 0.55711
0.62012 1.17667 0.52701 1.89749 -0.53444 1.79679 0.55655
0.62130 1.17729 0.52773 1.89489 -0.53273 1.79858 0.55599
0.62247 1.17791 0.52846 1.89231 -0.53103 1.80038 0.55544
0.62365 1.17853 0.52918 1.88973 -0.52933 1.80219 0.55488
0.62483 1.17916 0.52990 1.88716 -0.52763 1.80399 0.55433
0.62601 1.17978 0.53061 1.88461 -0.52594 1.80579 0.55377
0.62719 1.18041 0.53133 1.88206 -0.52425 1.80760 0.55322
0.62837 1.18104 0.53205 1.87952 -0.52256 1.80941 0.55267
0.62955 1.18167 0.53277 1.87700 -0.52088 1.81122 0.55211
0.63073 1.18230 0.53348 1.87448 -0.51919 1.81303 0.55156
0.63192 1.18293 0.53420 1.87197 -0.51751 1.81484 0.55101
0.63310 1.18356 0.53491 1.86947 -0.51584 1.81666 0.55046
0.63428 1.18419 0.53562 1.86698 -0.51416 1.81848 0.54991
0.63547 1.18483 0.53634 1.86450 -0.51249 1.82030 0.54936
0.63665 1.18547 0.53705 1.86203 -0.51083 1.82212 0.54881
sinh x cosh x tanh coth x In x
0*600 0.63665 1.18547 .53705 1.86203 -0.11083 1.82212
0*601 0.63784 ] 1.18610 .53776 1 L. 85956 -0*50916 L. 82394

0.602 0.63903 L. 18674 ,53847 L. 85711 -0. "50750 1.82577
0*603 0.64021 L. 18738 .53918 1.85467 -0.50584 1.82759
0*604 o.64i4o : L. 18802 .53989 L. 85223 -0.50418 I. 82942
0*605 0.64259 L. 18866 .54060 L. 84980 -0.50253 L. 83125
0*606 0.64378 1 L. 18931 .54131 ] L. 84739 -0.50088 L. 83308

0*607 0.64497 ] 1.18995 .54201 ] 1.84498 -0.49923 1.83492
0*608 0.64616 J L. 19060 .54272 3 1.84258 -0.49758 L. 83675
0*609 0.64735 ] 1.19124 .54342 3 1.84019 -0*49594 1.83859
0*610 0.64854 ] t. 19189 .54413 ] 1.83781 -0.49430 3 L. 84043
0*611 0.64973 ] t. 19254 .54483 1 L. 83543 -0.49266 1 1.84227

0.612 0.65093 1 L. 19319 54553 ] L. 83307 -0.49102 3 1.84412
0*613 0.65212 ] 1.19384 .54624 ] L. 83071 -0.48939 ] .84596
0*614 0.65331 J 1.19449 .54694 ] L. 82837 -0.48776 3 L. 84781
0.615 0.65451 ] 1.19515 0.,54764 1 1.82603 -0*48613 3 L. 84966
0*616 0.65570 ] 1.19580 .54834 1 .82370 -0.48451 1 L. 85151

0.617 0.65690 1.19646 .54904 ] L.82 137 -0.48289 : L. 85336
0*618 0.65810 L. 19712 .54973 ] 1.81906 -0.48127 J L. 85521
0*619 0.65929 L. 19778 .55043 ] L.81676 -0.47965 3 1.85707
0*620 0.66049 : L. 19844 .55113 1 .81446 -0.47804 ] 1.85893
0*621 0.66169 1 1.19910 .55182 ] L. 81217 -0*47642 J 1.86079

0*622 0.66289 ] 1.19976 .55252 3 1.80989 -0.47482 ] .86265
0.623 0.66409 ! 1.20042 .55321 1 .80762 -0.47321 3 1.86451
0.624 0.66529 ! 1.20109 .55391 ] .80536 -0.47160 3 .86638
0.625 0.66649 ] 1.20175 0..55460 1 .80310 -0.47000 3 1.86825
0.626 0.66769 ] t. 20242 0. .55529 1 80086 -0.46840 3 .87012

0.627 0.66890 1L. 20309 ,55598 3 1.79862 -0.46681 ] .87199
0.628 0.67010 ] L. 20376 55667 3 .79639 -0.46522 3 .87386
0.629 0.67130 ] 1.20443 0^ 55736 ] .79416 -0*46362 .87573
0.630 0.67251 1.20510 ,55805 31 .79195 -0.46204 3 .87761
0.631 0.67371 ] 1.20577 ,55874 1 .78974 -0.46045 3 .87949

0*632 0.67492 1.20645 .55943 ] L. 78754 -0.45887 ] L. 88137
0*633 0.67613 1.20712 .56011 : 1.78535 -0.45728 1 L. 88325
0.634 0.67734 1.20780 .56080 ] L. 78317 -0.45571 3 L. 88514
0.635 0.67854 ] 1.20848 ,56149 3 L. 78099 -0.45413 3 L. 88702
0.636 0.67975 1 1.20916 .56217 3 L. 77882 -0.45256 3 1.88891

0*637 0.68096 L. 20984 .56285 ]1.77666 -0.45099 1 L.89080
0.638 0.68217 ] L. 21052 .56354 ]L. 77451 -0.44942 ] .89269
0.639 0.68338 1 1.21120 ,56422 ] .77236 -0.44785 3 .89459
0*640 0.68459 ] 1.21189 0 56490 1 .77023 -0*44629 3 89648
0.641 0.68581 J L. 21257 o. 56558 1 .76810 -0.44473 ] .89838

0*642 0.68702 3 21326 0. 56626 ] .76597 -0.4*317 1 .90028
0.643 0.68823 ] .21395 0. 56694 I .76386 -0.44161 ] .90218
0.644 0.68945 3 L. 21463 0. 56762 1 .76175 -0.44006 ] .90408
0*645 0.69066 ] .21532 0. 56829 1 .75965 -0.43850 1 90599
0*646 0.69188 3 .21602 o. 56897 ] .75756 -0.43696 1 .90789

0.647 0.69309 3 .21671 0.,56965 3 .75547 -0.43541 3 90980
0.648 0.69431 3 .21740 0. 57032 J .75340 -0.43386 .91171
.21810 0. 57100 1 .75132 -0.43232 3 .91363
0.649 0.69553 1
1.21879 0..57167 1.74926 -0.43078 3I. 91554

0.650 0.69675 ] 1
sinh ;
cosh x tanh x coth x In x
0*650 0.69675 1.21879 0.5716T 1.74926 -0.43078 1.91554 0.52209

0.651 0.69797 1.21949 0.57234 1.74720 -0.42925 1.91746 0.52152
0.652 0.69919 1.22019 0.57301 1.74516 -0.42771 1.91938 0.52100
0.653 0.70041 1.22089 0.57369 1.74311 -0.42618 1.92130 0.52048
0.654 0.70163 1.22159 0.57436 1.74108 -0.42465 1.92322 0.51996
0.655 0.70285 1.22229 0.57503 1.73905 -0.42312 1.92514 0.51944
0.656 0.70407 1.22300 0.57570 1.73703 -0.42159 1.92707 0.51892
0.657 0.70530 1.22370 0.57636 1.73502 -0.42007 1.92900 0.51840
0*658 0.70652 1.22441 0.57703 1.73301 -0.41855 1.93093 0.51789
0.659 0.70775 1.22511 0.57770 1.73101 -0.41703 1.93286 0.51737
0*660 0.70897 1.22582 0.57836 1.72902 -0.41552 1.93479 0.51685
0.661 0.71020 1.22653 0.57903 1.72703 -0.41400 1.93673 0.51633
0.662 0.71142 1.22724 0.57969 1.72505 -0.41249 1.93867 0.51582
0*663 0.71265 1.22795 0.58036 1.72308 -0.41098 1.94061 0.51530
0.664 0.71388 1.22867 0.56102 1.72111 -0.40947 1.94255 0.51479
0.665 0.71511 1.22938 0.58168 1.71915 -0.40797 1.94449 0.51427
0.666 0.71634 1.23010 0.58234 1.71720 -0.40647 1.94644 0.51376
0.667 0.71757 1.23081 0.58300 1.7.1526 -0.40497 1.94638 0.51325
0.666 0.71880 1.23153 0.58366 1.71332 -0.40347 1.95033 0.51273
0.669 0.72003 1.23225 0.58432 1.71139 -0.40197 1.95228 0.51222
0.670 0.72126 1.23297 0.58498 1.70946 -0.40048 1.95424 0.51171
0.671 0.72250 1.23369 0.58564 1.70754 -0.39899 1.95619 0.51120
0.672 0.72373 1.23442 0.58629 1.70563 -0.39750 1.95815 0.51069
0.673 0.72497 1.23514 0.58695 1.70372 -0.39601 1.96011 0.51018
0.674 0.72620 1.23587 0.58760 1.70182 -0.39453 1.96207 0.50967
0.675 0.72744 1.23659 0.58826 1.69993 -0.39304 1.96403 0.50916
0.676 0.72868 1.23732 0.58891 1.69804 -0.39156 1.96600 0.50865
0.677 0.72991 1.23805 0.58957 1.69616 -0.39008 1.96796 0.50814
0.67S 0.73115 1.23878 0.59022 1.69429 -0.38861 1.96993 0.50763
0.679 0.73239 1.23951 0.59087 1.69242 -0.38713 1.97190 0.50712
0.680 0.73363 1.24025 0.59152 1.69056 -0.38566 1.97388 0.50662
0.681 0.73487 1.24098 0.59217 1.68871 -0.38419 1.97585 0.50611
0.682 0.73611 1.24172 0.59282 1.68686 -0.38273 1.97783 0.50560
0.683 0.73735 1.24245 0.59347 1.68502 -0.38126 1.97981 0.50510
0.684 0.73860 1.24319 0.59411 1.68318 -0.37980 1.98179 0.50459
0.685 0.73984 1.24393 0.59476 1.68135 -0.37834 1.98377 0.50409
0*686 0.74109 1.24467 0.59541 1.67953 -0.37688 1.98576 0.50359
0.687 0.74233 1.24541 0.59605 1.67771 -0.37542 1.98774 0.50308
0.688 0.74358 1.24616 0.59670 1.67590 -0.37397 1.98973 0.50258
0.689 0.74482 1.24690 0.59734 1.67409 -0.37251 1.99172 0.50208
0*690 0.74607 1.24765 0.59798 1.67229 -0.37106 1.99372 0.50158
0.691 0.74732 1.24839 0.59662 1.67050 -0.36962 1.99571 0*50107
0.692 0.74857 1.24914 0.59927 1.66871 -0.36817 1.99771 0.50057
0.693 0.74982 1.24989 0.59991 1.66693 -0.36673 1.99971 0.50007
0.694 0.75107 1.25064 0.60055 1.66515 -0.36528 2.00171 0.49957
0.695 0.75232 1.25139 0.60118 1.66338 -0.36384 2.00371 0.49907
0.696 0.75357 1.25214 0.60182 1.66162 -0.36241 2.00571 0.49858
D.697 0.75482 1.25290 0.60246 1.65986 -0.36097 2.00772 0.49808
D.698 0.75607 1.25365 0.60310 1.65811 -0.35954 2.00973 0.49758
5.699 0.75733 1.254*1 0.60373 1.65636 -0.35810 2.01174 0.49708
3.700 0.75858 1.25517 0.60437 1.65462 -0.35667 2.01375 0.49659
sinh cosh :
tanh :
coth
:
sinh x cosh x tanh x cothx In x
0.700 0*75858 1.25517 .60*37 1.65*62 -0 .35667 2.01375
0.701 0.7598* 1.25593 .60500 1.65289 -0 .35525 2.01577

0.702 0.76110 1.25669 .6056* 1.65116 -0 .35382 2.01778
0*703 0.76235 1.257*5 .60627 1.6*9*3 -0 .35240 2.01980
0.704 0.76361 1.25821 .60690 1.6*772 -0 .35098 2.02182
0.705 0.76*87 1.25898 60751 1.6*600 -0 .3*956 2.02385
0.706 0.76613 1.2597* .60816 1.6**30 -0 .3*81* 2.02587

0.707 0.76739 1.26051 .60879 1.6*260 -0 .34672 2.02790
0.708 0.76865 1.26128 .609*2 1.6*090 -0 .3*531 2.02993
0.709 0.76991 1.26205 .61005 1.63921 -0 .3*390 2.03196
0.710 0.77117 1.26282 .61068 1.63753 -0 ,3*2*9 2.03399
0.711 0.772** 1.26359 .61130 1.63585 -0 .34108 2.03603

0.712 0.77370 1.26*36 .61193 1.63*18 -0 33968 2.03806
0.713 0.77*97 1.2651* .61255 1.63251 -0 .33827 2.04010
0.71* 0.77623 1.26591 .61318 1.63085 -0 .33687 2.04214
0.715 0.77750 1.26669 .61380 1.62919 -0 ,33547 2.04419
0*716 0.77876 1.267*7 .61**3 1.6275* -0 .33408 2.04623

0.717 0.78003 1.26825 .61505 1.62589 -0 33268 2.04828
0.718 0.78130 1.26903 61567 1.62*25 -0 33129 2.05033
0.719 0.78257 1.26981 61629 1.62261 -0, 32989 2.05238
0.720 0.7838* 1.27059 .61691 1.62098 -0. 32850 2.05443
0.721 0.78511 1.27138 .6175* 1.61936 -0< 32712 2.05649

0.722 0.78638 1.27216 61815 1.6177* -0. 32573 2.05855
0.723 0.78766 1.27295 61876 1.61612 -0. 32435 2.06061
0.72* 0.78893 1.2737* 61938 1.61*52 -0. 32296 2.06267
0.725 0.79020 1.27*53 0< 62000 1.61291 -o. 32158 2.06473
0*726 0.791*8 1.27532 0. 62061 1.61131 -0. 32021 2.06680

0.727 0.79275 1.27611 .62123 1.60972 -0. 31883 2.06886
0.728 0.79*03 1.27690 6218* 1.60813 -0. 31745 2.07093
0.729 0.79531 1.27770 .622*5 1.60655 -0. 31608 2.07301
0.730 0.79659 1.278*9 62307 1.60*97 -0. 31471 2.07508
0.731 0.79786 1.27929 62368 1.60339 -0. 31334 2.07716

0.732 0.7991* 1.28009 62*29 1.60183 -0. 31197 2.07923
0.733 0.800*2 1.28089 .62*90 1.60026 -0. 31061 2.08132
0.73* 0.80171 1.28169 .62551 1.59870 -0. 30925 2.08340
0.735 0.80299 1.282*9 .62611 1.59715 -0. 30788 2.08548
0.736 0.80*27 1.28330 .62672 1.59560 -0 30653 2.08757

0.737 0.80555 1.28*10 .62733 1.59*06 -0 30517 2.08966
0.738 0.8068* 1.28*91 .6279* 1.59252 -0. 30381 2.09175
0.739 0.80812 1.28572 .6285* 1.59099 -0 .30246 2.09384
0.7*0 0.809*1 1.28652 .62915 1.589*6 -0. 30111 2.09594
0.7*1 0.81070 1.28733 .62975 1.58793 -0.29975 2.09803

0.7*2 0.81199 1.28815 .63035 1.586*2 -0.29841 2.10013
0.7*3 0.81327 1.28896 63095 1.58*90 -0.29706 2.10223
0.7** 0.81*56 1.28977 .63156 1.58339 -0.29571 2.10434
0.7*5 0*81585 1.29059 .63216 1.58189 -0 29437 2.10644
0.7*6 0.8171* 1.291*0 .63276 1.58039 -0 .29303 2.10855

0.7*7 0.818** 1.29222 .63336 1.57889 -0 .29169 2.11066
0*7*8 0.81973 1.2930* .63395 1.577*0 -0 .29035 2.11277
0.7*9 0.82102 1.29386 .63*55 1.57592 -o .28902 2.11488
0*750 0.82232 1.29*68 .63515 1.57**3 -0 .28768 2.11700

lh x cosh x tanh x coth x In x
0.750 0.82232 1.29468 0.63515 1.57443 -0.28768 2.11700 0.47237

0.751 0.82361 1.29551 0.63575 1.57296 -0.28635 2.11912 0.47189
0.752 0.82491 1.29633 0.63634 1.57149 -0.28502 2.12124 0.47142
0.753 0.82620 1.29716 0.63694 1.57002 -0.28369 2.12336 0.47095
0.754 0.82750 1.29798 0.63753 1.56656 -0.*28236 2.12548 0.47048
0.755 0.62680 1.29881 0.63812 1.56710 -0.28104 2.12761 0.47001
0.756 0.83010 1.29964 0.63871 1.56564 -0.27971 2.12974 0.46954
0.757 0.83140 1.30047 0.63931 1.56419 -0.27839 2.13187 0.46907
0.758 0.83270 1.30130 0.63990 1.56275 -0.27707 2.13400 0.46860
0.759 0.83400 1.30214 0.64049 1.56131 -0.27575 2.13614 0.46813
0.760 0.83530 1.30297 0.64106 1.55968 -0.27444 2.13828 0**6767
0.761 0.83661 1.30381 0.64167 1.55844 -0.27312 2.14042 0.46720
0.762 0.83791 1.30464 0.64225 1.55702 -0.27181 2.14256 0.46673
0.763 0.83922 1.30548 0.64284 1.55560 -0.27050 2.14470 0.*6627
0.764 0.84052 1.30632 0.64343 1.55418 -0.26919 2.14685 0.*6580
0.765 0.84183 1.30716 0.64401 1.55276 -0.26788 2.14899 0**6533
0.766 0.64314 1.30801 0.64460 1.55136 -0.26657 2.15114 0**6487
0.767 0.84445 1.30885 0.64518 1.54995 -0.26527 2.15330 0.46440
0*768 0.84576 1.30970 0.64576 1.54855 -0.26397 2.15545 0*46394
0.769 0.84707 1.31054 0.64635 1.54716 -0.26266 2.15761 0.46348
0.770 0.84838 1.31139 0.64693 1.54576 -0.26136 2.15977 0.46301
0.771 0.84969 1.31224 0.64751 1.54438 -0.26007 2.16193 0.46255
0.772 0.85100 1.31309 0.64809 1.54299 -0.25877 2.16409 0.46209
0.773 0.85231 1.31394 0.64867 1.54161 -0.25748 2.16626 0.46163
0.774 0.85363 1.31479 0.64925 1.54024 -0.25618 2.16842 0.46116
0.775 0.85494 1.31565 0.64983 1.53887 -0.25489 2.17059 0.46070
0.776 0.85626 1.31650 0.65040 1.53750 -0.25360 2.17276 0*4602*
0.777 0.85758 1.31736 0.65098 1.53614 -0.25231 2.17494 0.*5978
0.778 0.85869 1.31822 0.65156 1.53478 -0.25103 2.17711 0.*5932
0.779 0.86021 1.31908 0.65213 1.53343 -0.24974 2.17929 0.*5886
0.780 0.86153 1.31994 0.65271 1.53208 -0.24846 2.18147 0.45841
0.781 0.86285 1.32080 0.65328 1.53074 -0.24718 2.18365 0.45795
0.782 0.86417 1.32166 0.65385 1.52940 -0.24590 2.18584 0.45749
0.783 0.86550 1.32253 0.65443 1.52806 -0.2*462 2.18803 0.45703
0.784 0.86682 1.32340 0.65500 1.52673 -0.24335 2.19022 0.45656
0.785 0.86814 1.32426 0.65557 1.52540 -0.2*207 2.19241 0.45612
0.786 0.86947 1.32513 0.65614 1.52407 -0.2*080 2.19460 0.45566
0.787 0.87079 1.32600 0.65671 1.52275 -0.23953 2.19680 0.45521
0.788 0.87212 1.32687 0.65727 1.52143 -0.23826 2.19899 0.*5475
0.789 0.87345 1.32775 0.65784 1.52012 -0.23699 2.20119 0.45430
0.790 0.87478 1.32862 0.65841 1.51861 -0.23572 2.20340 0**5384
0.791 0.87610 1.32950 0.65896 1.51751 -0.23446 2.20560 0**5339
0.792 0.87743 1.33037 0.65954 1.51621 -0.23319 2.20781 0**529*
0.793 0.87877 1.33125 0.66011 1.51491 -0.23193 2.21002 0**52*9
0.794 0.88010 1.33213 0.66067 1.51362 -0.23067 2.21223 0.45203
0.795 0.88143 1.33301 0.66123 1.51233 -0.22941 2.21444 0.45158
0.796 0.88276 1.33389 0.66179 1.51104 -0.22816 2.21666 0.*5113
0.797 0.88410 1.33478 0.66236 1.50976 -0.22690 2.21887 0.*5068
0.798 0.88543 1*33566 0.66292 1.50848 -0.22565 2.122109 0.*5023
0.799 0.88677 1.33655 0.66348 1.50721 -0.22439 2.22332 0.44978
0.800 0.88811 1.33743 0.66404 1.50594 -0.22314 2.22554 0.44933
sinh x cosh x tanh coth

0.800 0.88811 1.33743 0.66404 1.50594 -0.72314 2.22554
0.801 0.88944 1.33832 0.66460 1.50467 22189 2.22777

0.802 0.89078 1.33921 0.66515 1.50341 22065 2.23000
0.803 0.89212 1.34011 0.66571 1.50215 21940 2.23223
0.804 0.89346 1.34100 0.66627 1.50090 21816 2.2 3446
0.805 0.89480 1.34189 0.66682 1.49965 21691 2.23670
0*806 0.89615 1.34279 0.66738 1.49840 21567 2.23893

0.807 0.89749 1.34368 0.66793 1.49716 21443 2.24117
0.808 0.89883 1.34458 0.66849 1.49592 21319 2.24342
0.809 0.90018 1.34548 0.66904 1.49468 21196 2.24566
0*810 0.90152 1.34638 0.66959 1.49345 21072 2.24791
0.811 0.90287 1.34729 0.67014 1.49222 20949 2.25016

0.812 0.90422 1.34819 0.67069 1.49100 20825 2.25241
0.813 0.90557 1.34909 0.67124 1.48978 20702 2.25466
0.814 0.90692 1.35000 0.67179 1.48856 20579 2.25692
P. 815 0.90827 1.35091 0.67234 1.48734 20457 2.25918
0.816 0.90962 1.35182 0.67269 1.48613 20334 2.26144

0.817 0.91097 1.35273 0.67343 1.48493 20212 2.26370
0.818 0.91232 1.35364 0.67398 1.48372 20089 2.26596
0.819 0.91368 1.35455 0.67453 1.48252 19967 2.26823
0*820 0.91503 1.35547 0.67507 1.48133 19845 2.27050
0*821 0.91639 1.35638 0.67561 1.48014 19723 2.27277

0.822 0.91775 1.35730 0.67616 1.47895 19601 2.27505
0.823 0.91910 1.35822 0.67670 1.47776 19480 2.27732
0.824 0.92046 1.35914 0.67724 1.47658 19358 2.27960
0.825 0.92182 1.36006 0.67778 1.47540 19237 2.28188
0.826 0.92318 1.36098 0.67832 1.47423 19116 2.28416

0.827 0.92454 1.36190 0.67886 1.47305 18995 2.28645
0.828 0.92591 1.36283 0.67940 1.47189 18874 2.28874
0.829 0.92727 1.36376 0.67994 1.47072 18754 2.29103
0*830 0.92863 1.36468 0*68048 1.46956 18633 2.29332
0.831 0.93000 1.36561 0.68101 1.46840 18513 2.29561

0.832 0.93137 1.36654 0.68155 1.46725 18392 2.29791
0.833 0.93273 1.36748 0.68208 1.46610 18272 2.30021
0.834 0.93410 1.36841 0.68262 1.46495 18152 2.30251
fl.835 0.93547 1.36934 0.68315 1.46380 18032 2.30481
0.836 0.93684 1.37028 0.68368 1.46266 17913 2.30712

0.837 0.93821 1.37122 0.68422 1.46153 17793 2.30943
0.838 0.93958 1.37216 0.68475 1.46039 17674 2.31174
0.839 0.94095 1.37310 0*68528 1.45926 17554 2.31405
0.840 0.94233 1.37404 0.68581 1.45813 17435 2.31637
0*841 0.94370 1.37498 0*68634 1.45701 17316 2.31866

0.842 0.94508 1.37593 0.68687 1.45589 17198 2.32100
0*843 0.94645 1.37687 0*68739 1.45477 17079 2.32333
0*844 0.94783 1.37782 0.68792 1.45365 16960 2.32565
0*845 0.94921 1.37877 0.68845 1.45254 16842 2.32798
0*846 0.95059 1.37972 0.68897 1.45143 16724 2.33031

0*847 0.95197 1.38067 0.68950 1.45033 16605 2.33264
0.848 0.95335 1.38162 0.69002 1.44923 16487 2.33497
0*849 0.95473 1,38258 0.69055 1.44813 16370 2.33731
0.850 0.95612 1.38353 0.69107 1.44703 16252 2.33965

0.S50 0.95612 1.38353 0.69107 1.44703 -0.16252 2.33965 0.42741

0.851 0.95750 1.38449 0.69159 1.44594 -0.16134 2.34199 0.42699
0.852 0.95888 1.38545 0.69211 1.44485 -0.16017 2.34433 0.42656
0.853 0.96027 1.38641 0.69263 1.44377 -0.15900 2.34668 0.42613
0.85* 0.96166 1.38737 0.69315 1.44268 -0.15782 2.34902 0.42571
0.855 0.96305 1.38833 0.69367 1.44160 -0.15665 2.35137 0.42528
0.856 0.96443 1.38929 0.69419 1.44053 -0.15548 2.35373 0.42486
0.857 0.96582 1.39026 0.69471 1.43945 -0.15432 2.35608 0.42443
0.858 0.96721 1.39122 0.69523 1.43838 -0.15315 2.35844 0.42401
0.859 0.96861 1.39219 0.69574 1.43731 -0.15199 2,36080 0.42359
0.860 0.97000 1.39316 0.69626 1.43625 -0.15082 2.36316 0.42316
0.861 0.97139 1.39413 0.69677 1.43519 -0.14966 2.36553 0.42274
0.862 0.97279 1.39510 0.69729 1.43413 -0.14850 2.36789 0.42232
0.863 0.97418 1.39608 0.69780 1.43308 -0.14734 2.37026 0.42189
0.864 0.97558 1.39705 0.69831 1.43202 -0.14618 2.37263 0.42147
0*865 0.97698 1.39803 0.69882 1.43097 -0.14503 2.37501 0.42105
n.866 0.97838 1.39901 0.69934 1.42993 -0.14387 2.37738 0.42063
0.867 0.97978 1.39999 0.69985 1.42888 -0.14272 2.37976 0.42021
0.868 0.98118 1.40097 0.70036 1.42784 -0.14156 2.38214 0.41979
0.869 0.98258 1.40195 0.70087 1.42681 -0.14041 2.38453 0.41937
0.870 0.98398 1.40293 0.70137 1.42577 -0.13926 2.38691 0.41895
0.871 0.98538 1.40392 0.70188 1.42474 -0.13811 2.38930 0.41853
0.872 0.98679 1.40490 0.70239 1.42371 -0.13697 2.39169 0.41811
0.873 0.98819 1.40589 0.70290 1.42269 -0.13582 2.39408 0.41770
0.874 0.98960 1.40688 0.70340 1.42166 -0.13467 2.39648 0.41728
0.875 0.99101 1.40787 0.70391 1.42065 -0.13353 2.39888 0.41686
0.876 0.99242 1.40886 0.70441 1.41963 -0.13239 2.40128 0.41645
0.877 0.99382 1.40985 0.70491 1.41861 -0.13125 2.40368 0.41603
0.878 0.99523 1.41085 0.70542 1.41760 -0.13011 2.40608 0.41561
0.879 0.99665 1.41184 0.70592 1.41660 -0.12897 2.40849 0.41520
0.880 0.99806 1.41284 0.70642 1.41559 -0.12783 2.41090 0.41478
0.881 0.99947 1.41384 0.70692 1.41459 -0.12670 2.41331 0.41437
0.882 1.00089 1.41484 0.70742 1.41359 -0.12556 2.41573 0.41395
0.883 1.00230 1.41584 0.70792 1.41259 -0.12443 2.41814 0.41354
0.884 1.00372 1.41684 0.70842 1.41160 -0.12330 2.42056 0.41313
0.885 1.00514 1.41785 0.70892 1.41061 -0.12217 2.42298 0.41271
0*886 1.00655 1.41886 0.70941 1.40962 -0.12104 2.42541 0.41230
0.887 1.00797 1.41986 0.70991 1.40863 -0.11991 2.42784 0.41189
0.888 1.00939 1.42087 0.71040 1.40765 -0.11878 2.43026 0.41148
0.889 1.01081 1.42188 0.71090 1.40667 -0.11766 2.43270 0.41107
0.890 1.01224 1.42289 0.71139 1.40569 -0.11653 2.43513 0.41066
0.891 1.01366 1.42391 0.71189 1.40472 -0.11541 2.43757 0.41025
0.892 1.01508 1.42492 0.71238 1.40374 -0.11429 2.44000 0.40984
0.893 1.01651 1.42594 0.71287 1.40278 -0.11317 2.44245 0.40943
0.894 1.01794 1.42695 0.71336 1.40181 -0.11205 2.44489 0.40902
0.895 1.01936 1.42797 0.71385 1.40085 -0.11093 2.44734 0.40861
0.896 1.02079 1.42899 0.71434 1.39988 -0.10981 2.44978 0.40820
0.897 1.02222 1.43001 0.71483 1.39893 -0.10870 2.45224 0.40779
0.898 1.02365 1.43104 0.71532 1.39797 -0.10759 2.45469 0.40738
0.899 1.02508 1.43206 0.71581 1.397Q2 -0.10647 2.45714 0.40698
0.900 i. 02652 1.43309 0.71630 1.39607 -0.10536 2.45960 0.40657
sinh x cosh tanh x coth In x

sinh cosh x tanh coth x In x
.900 1.02652 1.43309 0.71630 L. 39607 -0.10536 2.45960 0.40657
.901 1.02795 1.43411 0.71678 L. 39512 -0.10425 2.46206 0.40616

.902 1.02938 1.43514 0.71727 L. 39417 -0.10314 2.46453 0.40576
.903 1.03082 1.43617 0.71776 L. 39323 -0.10203 2.46699 0.40535
.904 1.03226 1.43720 0.71824 L. 39229 -0.10093 2.46946 0.40495
.905 1.03370 1.43824 0.71872 L. 39136 -0.09982 2.47193 0.40454
.906 1.03513 1.43927 0.71921 L. 39042 -0.09872 2.47441 0.40414

.907 1.03657 1.44031 0.71969 1.38949 -0.09761 2.47688 0.40373
.908 1.03801 1.44134 0.72017 L. 38856 -0.09651 2.47936 0.40333
.909 1.03946 1.44238 0.72065 L. 38763 -0.09541 2.48184 0.40293
.910 1.04090 1.44342 0.72113 1.38671 -0.09431 2.48432 0.40252
.911 1.04234 1.44446 0.72161 L. 38579 -0.09321 2.48681 0.40212

.912 1.04379 1.44551 0.72209 ] L. 38487 -0.09212 2.48930 0.40172
.913 1.04523 1.44655 0.72257 1.38395 -0.09102 2.49179 0.40132
.914 1.04668 1.44760 0.72305 L. 38304 -0.08992 2.49428 0.40092
.915 1.04813 1.44865 0.72352 1.38213 -0.08883 2.49678 0.40052
.916 1.04958 1.44969 0.72400 L. 38122 -0.08774 2.49927 0.40012

.917 1.05103 1.45075 0.72448 L. 38031 -0.08665 2.50177 0.39972
.918 1.05248 1.45180 0.72495 L. 37941 -0.08556 2.50428 0.39932
.919 1.05393 1.45285 0.72542 L. 37850 -0.08447 2.50678 0.39892
.920 1.05539 1.45390 0.72590 L. 37761 -0.08338 2.50929 0.39852
.921 1.05684 1.45496 0.72637 1 1.37671 -0.08230 2.51180 0.39812

.922 1.05830 1.45602 0.72684 L. 37581 -0.08121 2.51431 0.39772
.923 1.05975 1.45708 0.72731 L. 37492 -0.08013 2.51683 0.39733
.924 1.06121 1.45814 0.72778 L. 37403 -0.07904 2.51935 0.39693
.925 1.06267 1.45920 0.72825 ] L. 37315 -0.07796 2.52187 0.39653
.926 1.06413 1.46026 0.72872 ] L. 37226 -0.07688 2.52439 0.39614

.927 1.06559 1.46133 0.72919 ] .37138 -0.07580 2.52692 0.39574
.928 1.06705 1.46239 0.72966 1 L. 37050 -0.07472 2.52945 0.39534
.929 1.06851 1.46346 0.73013 L. 36962 -0.07365 2.53198 0.39495
.930 1.06998 1.46453 0.73059 1 .36875 -0. 07257 2.53451 0.39455
.931 1.07144 1.46560 0.73106 1 .36788 -0.07150 2.53704 0.39416

.932 1.07291 1.46667 0.73152 1 .36701 -0.07042 2.53958 0.39377
.933 1.07438 1.46775 0.73199 ] .36614 -0.06935 2.54212 0.39337
.934 1.07584 1.46882 0.73245 1 .36527 -0.06828 2.54467 0.39298
.935 1.07731 1.46990 0.73292 ] .36441 -0.06721 2.54721 0.39259
.936 1.07878 1.47098 0.73338 L. 36355 -0.06614 2.54976 0.39219

.937 1.08026 1.47206 0.73384 L. 36269 -0.06507 2.55231 0.39180
.938 1.08173 1.47314 0.73430 L. 36184 -0.06401 2.55487 0.39141
.939 1.08320 1.47422 0.73476 ] L. 36098 -0.06294 2.55742 0.39102
.940 1.08468 1.47530 0.73522 ] L. 36013 -0.06188 2.55998 0.39063
.941 1.08615 1.47639 0.73568 1.35928 -0.06081 2.56254 0.39024

.942 1.08763 1.47748 0.73614 ] .35844 -0.05975 2.56511 0.38985
.943 1.08911 1.47857 0.73660 1 .35759 -0."5869 2.56767 0.38946
.944 1.09059 1.47966 0.73705 L. 35675 -0.^5763 2.57024 0.38907
.945 1.09207 1.48075 0.73751 L. 35591 -0.05657 2.57281 0.38868
.946 1.09355 1.48184 0.73797 L.35507 -0.05551 2.57539 0.38829

.947 1.09503 1.48293 0.73842 L.35424 -0.05446 2.57796 0.38790
.948 1.09651 1.48403 0.73888 L.35341 -0.05340 2.58054 0.38752
.949 1.09800 1.48513 0.73933 L.35258 -0.05235 2.58313 0.38713
.950 1.09948 1.48623 0.73978 1.35175 -0.05129 2.58571 0.38674

0.950 1.09948 1.48623 0.73978 1.35175 -0.05129 2.58571 0.38674
0.951 1.10097 1.48733 0.74024 1.35092 -0.05024 2.58830 0*38635

0.952 1.10246 1.48843 0.74069 1.35010 -0.04919 2.59089 0.38597
0.953 1.10395 1.48953 0.74114 1.34928 -0.04814 2.59348 0.38558
0.954 1.10544 1.49064 0.74159 1.34846 -0.04709 2.59607 0.38520
0.955 1.10693 1.49174 0.74204 1.34764 -0.04604 2.59867 0.38481
0.956 1.10842 1.49285 0.74249 1.34682 -0.04500 2.60127 0.38443
0.957 1.10991 1.49396 0.74294 1.34601 -0.04395 2.60387 0.38404
0*958 1.11141 1.49507 0.74338 1.34520 -0.04291 2.60648 0.38366
0.959 1.11291 1.49618 0.74383 1.34439 -0.04186 2.60909 0.38328
0.960 1.11440 1.49729 0.74428 1.34359 -0.04082 2.61170 0.38289
0.961 1.11590 1.49841 0.74472 1.34278 -0.03978 2.61431 0.38251
0.962 1.11740 1.49953 0.74517 1.34198 -0.03874 2.61693 0.38213
0.963 1.11890 1.50064 0.74561 1.34118 -0.03770 2.61954 0.38175
0*964 1.12040 1.50176 0.74606 1.34038 -0.03666 2.62216 0*38136
0.965 1.12190 1.50289 0.74650 1.33959 -0.03563 2.62479 0.38098
0.966 1.12341 1.50401 0.74694 1.33879 -0.03459 2.62741 0.38060
0.967 1.12491 1.50513 0.74738 1.33800 -0.03356 2.63004 0.38022
0.968 1.12642 1.50626 0.74782 1.33721 -0.03252 2.63267 0.37984
0.969 1.12792 1.50739 0.74826 1.33643 -0.03149 2.63531 0.37946
0.970 1.12943 1.50851 0.74870 1.33564 -0.03046 2.63794 0.37908
0.971 1.13094 1.50964 0.74914 1.33486 -0.02943 2.64058 0.37870
0.972 1.13245 1.51078 0.74958 1.33408 -0.02840 2.64323 0.37833
0.973 1.13396 1.51191 0.75002 1.33330 -0.02737 2.64587 0.37795
0.974 1.13547 1.51304 0.75046 1.33252 -0.02634 2.64852 0.37757
0.975 1.13699 1.51418 0.75089 1.33175 -0.02532 2.65117 0.37719
0.976 1.13850 1.51532 0.75133 1.33097 -0.02429 2.65382 0.37682
0.977 1.14002 1.51646 0.75176 1.33020 -0.02327 2.65647 0.37644
0.978 1.14154 1.51760 0.75220 1.32944 -0.02225 2.65913 0.37606
0.979 1.14305 1.51874 0.75263 1.32867 -0.02122 2.66179 0.37569
0.980 1.14457 1.51988 0.75307 1.32791 -0.02020 2.66446 0.37531
0.981 1.14609 1.52103 0.75350 1.32714 -0.01918 2.66712 0.37494
0.982 1.14761 1.52218 0.75393 1.32638 -0.01816 2.66979 0.37456
0.983 1.14914 1.52332 0.75436 1.32562 -0.01715 2.67246 0.37419
0.984 1.15066 1.52447 0.75479 1.32487 -0.01613 2.67514 0.37381
0.985 1.15219 1.52563 0.75522 1.32411 -0.01511 2.67781 0.37344
0.986 1.15371 1.52678 0.75565 1.32336 -0.01410 2.68049 0.37307
0.987 1.15524 1.52793 0.75608 1.32261 -0.01309 2.68317 0.37269
0.988 1.15677 1.52909 0.75651 1.32186 -0.01207 2.68586 0.37232
0.989 1.15830 1.53025 0.75694 1.32112 -0.01106 2.68854 0.37195
0.990 1.15983 1.53141 0.75736 1.32037 -0.01005 2.69123 0.37158
0.991 1.16136 1.53257 0.75779 1.31963 -0.00904 2.69393 0.37121
0.992 1.16289 1.53373 0.75821 1.31889 -0.00803 2.69662 0.37083
0.993 1.16443 1.53489 0.75864 1.31815 -0.00702 2.69932 0.37046
0.994 1.16596 1.53606 0.75906 1.31741 -0.00602 2.70202 0.37009
0.995 1.16750 1.53722 0.75949 1.31668 -0.00501 2.70472 0.36972
0.996 1.16904 1.53839 0.75991 1.31595 -0.00401 2.70743 36935
0.997 1.17058 1.53956 0.76033 1.31522 -0.P0300 2.71014 36898
0.998 1.17212 1.54073 0.76075 1.31449 -0.00200 2.71285 36862
0.999 1.17366 1.54191 0.76117 1.31376 -0.00100 2.71556 36825
1.000 1.17520 1.54308 0.76159 1.31304 0.00000 2.71828 36788
inh cosh x tanh coth In

sinh x cosh x forth x coth x
I. 000 1.17520 1*54308 0.76159 1.31304 .00000 2*71828 .36788
1.001 1.17674 1*54426 0.76201 1.31231 .00100 2.72100 .36751

1.002 1.17829 1.54543 0.76243 1.31159 .00200 2.72372 .36714
1.003 1.17984 1.54661 0.76285 1.31087 .00300 2.72645 .36678
1.004 1.18138 1.54779 0.76327 1.31015 00399 2.72918 .36641
1*005 1.18293 1.54898 0.76369 1.30944 .00499 2.73191 .36604
1.006 1.18448 1.55016 0.-76410 1.30872 .00598 2.73464 .36568

1.007 1.18603 1.55134 0.76452 1.30801 .00698 2.73738 36531
1.008 1.18758 1.55253 0.76493 1.30730 00797 2.74012 36495
1.009 1.18914 1.55372 0.76535 1.30660 o. 00896 2.74286 0. 36458
1*010 1.19069 1.55491 0.76576 1.30589 00995 2.74560 0. 36422
1.011 1.19225 1.55610 0.76618 1.30518 0. 01094 2.74835 0. 36385

1.012 1.19380 1.55729 0.76659 1.30448 01193 2.75110 36349
1.013 1.19536 1.55849 0.76700 1.30378 .01292 2.75385 .36313
1.014 1.19692 1.55969 0.76741 1.30308 .01390 2.75661 .36277
1.015 1.19848 1*56088 0.76782 1.30238 .01489 2.75936 .36240
1.016 1.20004 1.56208 0.76823 1.30169 ,01587 2.76212 0. 36204

1.017 1.20160 1.56328 0.76864 1.30100 01686 2.76489 o. 36168
1.018 1.20317 1.56449 0.76905 1.30030 0. 01784 2.76765 0. 36132
1.019 1.20473 1.56569 0.76946 1.29961 0< 01882 2.77042 o. 36096
1.020 1.20630 1*56689 0.76987 1.29893 0< 01980 2.77319 o. 36059
1.021 1.20787 1.56810 0.77027 1.29824 .02078 2.77597 o. 36023

1.022 1.20944 1.56931 0.77068 1.29756 02176 2.77875 o. 35987
1.023 1.21101 1.57052 0.77109 1.29687 02274 2.78153 0. 35951
1.024 1.21258 1.57173 0.77149 1.29619 02372 2.78431 0. 35916
1.025 1.21415 1.57295 0.77190 1.29551 02469 2.78710 0. 35880
1.026 1.21572 1.57416 0.77230 1.29484 02567 2.78988 o. 35844

1.027 1.21730 1.57538 0.77270 1.29416 02664 2.79268 0. 35808
1.028 1.21887 1.57660 0.77310 1.29349 02762 2.79547 0. 35772
1.029 1.22045 1.57782 0.77351 1.29281 02859 2.79827 o. 35736
1.030 1.22203 1.57904 0.77391 1.29214 02956 2.80107 0. 35701
1.031 1.22361 1.58026 0.77431 1.29147 .03053 2.80387 0. 35665

1.032 1.22519 1.58148 0.77471 1.29081 03150 2.80667 0. 35629
1.033 1.22677 1.58271 0.77511 1.29014 03247 2.80948 0. 35594
1.034 1.22836 1.58394 0.77551 1.28948 03343 2.81229 o. 35558
1.035 1.22994 1.58517 0.77591 1.28882 03440 2.81511 o. 35523
1.036 1.23153 1.58640 0.77630 1.28816 .03537 2.81792 .35487

1.037 1.23311 1.58763 0.77670 1.28750 .03633 2.82074 .35452
1.038 1.23470 1.58886 0.77710 1.28684 .03730 2.82356 .35416
1.039 1.23629 1.59010 0.77749 1.28619 .03826 2.82639 .35381
1.040 1.23788 1.59134 0.77789 1.28553 .03922 2.82922 .35345
1.041 1.23947 1.59257 0.77828 1.28488 .04018 2.83205 .35310

1.042 1.24107 1.59381 0.77868 1.28423 .04114 2.83488 .35275
1.043 1.24266 1.59506 0.77907 1.28358 .04210 2.83772 .35240
1.044 1.24426 1.59630 0.77946 1.28293 .04306 2.84056 .35204
1.045 1.24585 1.59755 0.77985 1*28229 .04402 2.84340 .35169
1.046 1.24745 1.59879 0.78025 1.28165 .04497 2.84624 .35134

1.047 1.24905 1.60004 0.78064 1.28100 .04593 2.84909 .35099
-1.048 1.25065 1.60129 0.78103 1.28036 .04688 2.85194 35064
1.049 1.25225 1.60254 0.78142 1.27973 .04784 2.85479 .35029
1.050 1.25386 1.60379 0.78181 1.27909 .04879 2.85765 .34994
sinh x cosh x tonh x coth x

"y
sinh cosh tanh x coth x
1.050 1.25386 1.60379 0.78181 1.27909 0.0*879 2.85765 0.34994

1.051 1.25546 1.60505 0.78219 1.27845 0.04974 2.86051 0.34959
1.052 1.25707 1.60631 0.78258 1.27782 0.05069 2.86337 0.34924
1.053 1.25867 1.60756 0.78297 1.27719 0.05164 2.86624 0.34889
1.054 1.26028 1. 60882 0.78336 1.27656 0.05259 2.86910 0.34854
1.055 1.26189 1.61008 0.78374 1.27593 0*05354 2.87198 0*34819
1.056 1.26350 1.61135 0.78413 1.27530 0.05449 2.87485 0.34784
1.057 1.26511 1.61261 0.78451 1.27468 0.05543 2.87772 0.34750
1.058 1.26673 1.61388 0.78490 1.27405 0.05638 2.88060 0.34715
1.059 1.26834 1.61514 0.78528 1.27343 0.05733 2.88349 0.34680
1.060 1.26996 1.61641 0.78566 1.27281 0.05827 2.88637 0.34646
1.061 1.27157 1.61768 0.78605 1.27219 0.05921 2.88926 0.34611
1.062 1.27319 1.61896 0.78643 1.27157 0.06015 2.89215 0.34576
1.063 1.27481 1.62023 0.78681 1.27096 0.06110 2.89504 0.34542
1.064 1.27643 1.62151 0.78719 1.27034 0.06204 2.89794 0.34507
1.065 1.27806 1.62278 0.78757 1.26973 0.06297 2.90084 0.34473
1.066 1.27968 1.62406 0.78795 1.26912 0.06391 2.90374 0.34438
1.067 1.28130 1.62534 0.78833 1.26851 0.06485 2.90665 0.34404
1.068 1.28293 1.62662 0.78871 1.26790 0.06579 2.90955 0.34370
1.069 1.28456 1.62791 0.78908 1.26729 0.06672 2.91247 0.34335
1.070 1.28619 1.62919 0.78946 1.26669 0.06766 2.91538 0.34301
1.071 1.28782 1.63048 0.78984 1.26608 0.06859 2.91830 0.34267
1.072 1.28945 1.63177 0.79021 1.26548 0.06953 2.92122 0.34232
1.073 1.29108 1.63306 0.79059 1.26488 0.07046 2.92414 0.34198
1.074 1.29271 1.63435 0.79096 1.26428 0.07139 2.92706 0.34164
1.075 1.29435 1.63565 0.79134 1.26368 0.07232 2.92999 0.34130
1.076 1.29598 1.63694 0.79171 1.26309 0.07325 2.93292 0.34096
1.077 1.29762 1.63824 0.79208 1.26249 0.07418 2.93586 0.34062
1.078 1.29926 1.63954 0.79246 1.26190 0.07511 2.93880 0.34028
1.079 1.30090 1.64084 0.79283 1.26131 0.07603 2.94174 0.33994
1.080 1*30254 1.64214 0.79320 1.26072 0.07696 2.94468 0.33960
1.081 1.30418 1.64344 0.79357 1.26013 0.07789 2.94763 0.33926
1.082 1.30583 1.64475 0.79394 1.25954 0.07881 2.95057 0.33892
1.083 1.30747 1.64605 0.79431 1.25896 0.07973 2.95353 0.33858
1.084 1.30912 1.64736 0.79468 1.25837 0.08066 2.95648 0.33824
1*085 1.31077 1.64867 0.79505 1.25779 0.08158 2.95944 0.33790
1.086 1.31242 1.64998 0.79541 1.25721 0.08250 2.96240 0.33756
1.087 1.31407 1.65130 0.79578 1.25663 0.08342 2.96536 0.33723
1.088 1.31572 1.65261 0.79615 1.25605 0.08434 2.96833 0.33689
1.089 1.31737 1.65393 0.79651 1.25547 0.0-8526 2.97130 0.33655
1.090 1.31903 1.65525 0*79688 1.25490 0.08618 2.97427 0.33622
1.091 1.32068 1.65657 0.79724 1.25432 0.08709 2.97725
1.092
0.33588
1.32234 1.65789 0.79761 1.25375 0.08801 2.98023 0.33554
1.093 1.32400 1.65921 0.79797 1.25318 0.08893 2.98321
1.094
0.33521
1.32566 1.66053 0.79833 1.25261 0.08984 2.98619 0*33487
1.095 1.32732 1.66L86 0.79870 1.25204 0*09073 2*98918 0.33454
1.096 1.32898 1.66319 0.79906 1.25147 0.09167 2.99217
1.097 0.33421
1.33065 1.66452 0.79942 1.25091 0.09258 2.99517 0*33387
1.098 1.33231 1.66585 0.79978 1.25034 0.09349 2.99816
1.099 0.33354
1.33398 1.66718 0.80014 1.24978 0.09440 3.00116 0.33320
1*100 1*33565 1*66852 0*80050 L2A922 0.09531 300417 0.33287
sinh x cosh tanh x coth x e-
sinh x cosh x tanh x colh x In x
1.66852 0.80050 1.2*922 0.09531 3.00417 0.33287

1.100 1.33565
1.33732 1.66986 0.80086 .24866 0. 09622 3.00717 0.

1.101 1
1.102 1.33899 1.67119 0.80122 1 .24810 0. 09713 3.01018 0.

1.103 1.34066 1.67253 0.80157 1 .2*755 0. 09803 3.01319 0.
1.34233 1.67387 0.80193 .2*699 0. 09894 3.01621 0.
1.104 1
1.105 1.34401 1.67522 0.80229 1 .24644 0. 09985 3.01922 0.
1.106 1.34568 1.67656 0.80264 1 .24588 0. 10075 3.02225 0.

1.107 1.34736 1.67791 0.80300 1 .24533 0. 10165 3.02527 0.
1.108 1.34904 1.67926 0.80335 ] .24478 0. 10256 3.02830 0.
1.109 1.35072 1.68061 0.80371 ] .24423 0. 10346 3.03133 0.
1*110 1.35240 1.66196 0.60406 1 .24368 0. 10436 3.03436 0.
1.35408 1.68331 0.80442 .24314 0. 10526 3.03739 0.

1.111 1
1.112 1.35577 1.68*67 0.80*77 ] .24259 0. 10616 3.04043 o.

1.113 1.357*5 1.68602 0.80512 ] .24205 0. 10706 3.04348 0.
1.114 1.3591* 1.68738 0.805*7 3 .24151 o. 10796 3.04652 o.
1.115 1.36083 1.68874 0.80582 1 .24097 o. 10885 3.04957 o.
1.116 1.36252 1.69010 0.80617 ] .24043 0. 10975 3.05262 o.

1.117 1.36*21 1.691*7 0.80652 1 .23989 0. 11065 3.05567 0.
1.118 1.36590 1.69283 0.80687 3 .23935 0. 11154 3.05873 0.
1.119 1.36759 1.69420 0.80722 3 .23882 0. 11244 3.06179 0.
1.120 1.36929 1.69557 0.80757 3 .23828 o. 11333 3.06485 0.
1.121 1.37098 1.6969* 0.80792 3 .23775 0. 11422 3106792 0.

1.122 1.37268 1.69831 0.80826 .23722 0. 11511 3.07099 0.
1.123 1.37*38 1.69968 0.80861 3 .23669 11600 3.07406 o.
1.124 1.37608 1.70106 0.80896 3 .23616 11689 3.07714 o.
1.125 1.37778 1.702*3 0.80930 3 .23563 o. 11778 3.08022 o.
1.126 1.379*9 1.70381 0.80965 1 .23511 0< 11867 3.08330 o.

1.127 1.38119 1.70519 0.80999 1 .23*58 11956 3.08638 0.
1.128 1.38290 1.70658 0.81033 3 .23*06 o. 12045 3.089*7 0.
1.129 1.38460 1.70796 0.81068 L.2335* 0. 32133 3.09.256 0.
1.130 1.38631 1.70934 0.81102 1 .23302 0. 12222 3.09566 0.
1.131 1.38802 1.71073 0.81136 1 .23250 0. 12310 3.09875 0.

1.132 1.38973 1.71212 0.81170 1 1.23198 12399 3.10185 o.
1.133 1.391*5 1.71351 0.8120* L. 231*6 12*87 3.10*96 0.
1.13* 1.39316 1.71*90 0.81238 1.23095 ,12575 3.10806 0.
1.135 1.39*88 1.71630 0.81272 1.230*3 12663 3.11117 0.
1.136 1.39659 1.71769 0.81306 1.22992 ,12751 3.11*29 o.

1.137 1.39831 1.71909 0.81340 1.229*1 ,12839 3.117*0 o.
1.138 l.*0003 1.720*9 0.81374 t. 22889 ,12927 3.12052 o.
1.139 l.*0175 1.72189 0.81408 1.22838 ,13015 3.1236* o.
1.140 i.*03*7 1.72329 0.814*1 1.22788 13103 3.12677 0*
1.141 l.*0520 1.72*70 0.81*75 L. 22737 13191 3.12990 0.

1.142 l.*0692 1.72610 0.81509 1.22686 ,13278 3.13303 0.
1.143 l.*0865 1.72751 0.815*2 L. 22636 ,13366 3.13616 0.
1.144 l.*1038 1.72892 0.81576 L. 22586 ,13*53 3.13930 0.
1.145 1.41211 1.73033 0.81609 1.22535 13540 3.14244 0.
1.146 1.4138* 1.73175 0.816*2 1.22485 13628 3.14559 0.

1.147 l.*1557 1.73316 0.81676 1.22435 ,13715 3.14873 0.
1*148 l.*1731 1.73458 0.81709 1.22385 .13802 3.15188 0.
1.1*9 l.*190* 1.73599 0.817*2 t. 22336 .13889 3.15504 0.
1.150 1.42078 1.73741 0.81775 L. 22286 .13976 3.15819 o.

cosh tonh coth x In x
1.150 1.42078 1.73741 0.61775 1.22286 0.13976 3.15819 0.31664
1.42252 1.73884 0.81809 1.22237 0.14063 3.16135 0.31632

1.42426 1.74026 0.81842 1.22187 0.14150 3.16452 0.31600
1.42600 1.74168 0.81875 1.22138 0.14237 3.16768 0.31569
1.42774 1.74311 0.81907 1.22089 0.14323 3.17085 0.31537
1.42948 1.74454 0.81940 1.22040 0.14410 3.17402 0.31506
1.43123 1.74597 0.81973 1.21991 0.14497 3.17720 0.31474
1.43297 1.74740 0.82006 1.21942 0.14583 3.18038 0.31443
1.43472 1.74884 0.82039 1.21894 0.14669 3.18356 0.31411
1.43647 1.75027 0.82071 1.21845 0.14756 3.18674 0.31380
1.43822 1.75171 0.82104 1.21797 0.14842 3.18993 0.31349
1.43998 1.75315 0.82137 1.21748 0.14928 3.19312 0.31317
1.44173 1.75459 0.82169 1.21700 0.15014 3.19632 0.31286
1.44349 1.75603 0.82202 1.21652 0.15100 3.19952 0.31255
1.44524 1.75748 0.82234 1.21604 0.15186 3.20272 0.31223
1.44700 1.75892 0.82266 1.21557 0.15272 3.20592 0.31192
1.44876 1.76037 0.82299 1.21509 0.15358 3.20913 0.31161
1.45052 1.76182 0.82331 1.21461 0.15444 3.21234 0.31130
1.45228 1.76327 0.82363 1.21414 0.15529 3.21556 0.31099
1.45405 1.76472 0.82395 1.21366 0.15615 3.21877 0.31068
1.45581 1.76618 0.82427 1.21319 0.15700 3.22199 0.31037
1.45758 1.76764 0.82459 1.21272 0.15786 3.22522 0.31006
1.45935 1.76909 0.82491 1.21225 0.15871 3.22844 0.30975
1.46112 1.77056 0.82523 1.21178 0.15956 3.23167 0.30944
1.46289 1.77202 0.82555 1.21131 0.16042 3.23491 0.30913
.1.46466 1.77346 0.82587 1.21085 0.16127 3.23814 0.30882
1.46644 1.77495 0.82619 1.21038 0.16212 3.24138 0.30851
1.46821 1.77641 0.82650 1.20992 0.16297 3.24463 0.30820
1.46999 1.77788 0.82682 1.20945 0.16382 3.24787 0.30789
1.47177 1.77935 0.82714 1.20899 0.16467 3.25112 0.30759
1.47355 1.78083 0.82745 1.20853 0.16551 3.25437 0.30728
1.47533 1.78230 0.82777 1.20807 0.16636 3.25763 0.30697
1.47711 1.78378 0.82808 1.20761 0.16721 3.26089 0.30666
1.47890 1.78526 0.82840 1.20715 0.16805 3.26415 0.30636
1.48068 1.78673 0.82871 1.20670 0.76890 3.26742 0.30605
1.48247 1.78822 0.82902 1.20624 0.16974 3.27069 0.30575
1.48426 1.78970 0.82933 1.20579 0.17059 3.27396 0.30544
1.48605 1.79119 0.82965 1.20533 0.17143 3.27723 0.30514
1.48784 1.79267 0.82996 1.20488 0.17227 3.28051 0.30483
1.48964 1.79416 0.83027 1.20443 0.17311 3.28380 0.30453
1.49143 1.79565 0.83058 1.20398 0.17395 3.28708 0.30422
1.49323 1.79714 0.83089 1.20353 0.17479 3.29037 0.30392
1.49502 1.79864 0.83120 1.20308 0.17563 3.29366 0.30361
1.49682 1.80013 0.83151 1.20264 0.17647 3.29696 0.30331
1.49862 1.80163 0.83182 1.20219 0.17731 3.30026 0.30301
1.50043 1.80313 0.83212 1.20175 0.17815 3.30356 0.30270
1.50223 1.80463 0.83243 1.20130 0.17898 3.30686 0.30240
1.50404 1.80614 0.83274 1.20086 0.17982 3.31017 0.30210
1.50584 1.80764 0.83304 1.20042 0.18065 3.31348 0.30180
1.50765 1.80915 0.83335 1.19998 0.18149 3.31680 0.30150
1.50946 1*81066 0.83365 1.19954 0.18232 3.32012 0.30119
sinh cosh x tanh x coth x in x e-

1.200 1.50946 1.81066 0.83365 1.19954 0.18232 3.32012
1.201 1.51127 1.81217 0.83396 1.19910 0.18315 3.32344

1.202 1.51309 1.81368 0.83426 1.19866 0.18399 3.32676
1.203 1.51490 1.81519 0.83457 1.19823 0.18482 3.33009
1.204 1.51672 1.81671 0.83487 1.19779 0.18565 3.33342
1.205 1.51853 1.81823 0.83517 1.19736 0.18648 3.33676
1.206 1.52035 1.81974 0.83548 1.19692 0.18731 3.34010

1.207 1.52217 1.82127 0.83578 1.19649 0.18814 3.34344
1.208 1.52400 1.82279 0.83608 1.19606 0.18897 3.34678
1.209 1.52582 1.82431 0.83638 1.19563 0.18979 3.35013
1.210 1.52764 1.82584 0.83668 1.19520 0.19062 3.35348
1.211 1.52947 1.82737 0.83698 1.19477 0.19145 3.35684

1.212 1.53130 1.82890 0.83728 1.19435 0.19227 3.36020
1.213 1.53313 1.83043 0.83758 1.19392 0.19310 3.36356
1.214 1.53496 1.83197 0.83788 1.19349 0.19392 3.36693
1.215 1.53679 1.83350 0.83817 1.19307 0.19474 3.37029
1.216 1.53863 1.83504 0.83847 1.1926S 0.19557 3.37367

1.217 1.54046 1.83658 0.83877 1.19223 0.19639 3.37704
1.218 1.54230 1.83812 0.83906 1.T9181 0.19721 3.38042
1.219 1.54414 1.83966 0.83936 1.19139 0.19803 3.38380
1.220 1.54598 1.84121 0.83965 1.19097 0.19885 3.38719
1.221 1.54782 1.84276 0.83995 1.19055 0.19967 3.39058

1.222 1.54966 1.84430 0.84024 1.19013 0.20049 3.39397
1.223 1.55151 1.84586 0.84054 1.18972 0.20131 3.39736
1.224 1.55336 1.84741 0.84083 1.18930 0.20212 3.40076
1.225 1.55520 1.84896 0.84112 1.18889 0.20294 3.40417
1.226 1.55705 1.85052 0.84142 1.18847 0.20376 3.40757

1.227 1.55891 1.85208 0.84171 1.18806 0.20457 3.41098
1.228 1.56076 1.85364 0.84200 1.18765 0.20539 3.41439
1.229 1.56261 1.85520 0.84229 1.18724 0.20620 3.41781
1.230 1.56447 1.85676 0.84258 1.18683 0.20701 3.42123
1.231 1.56633 1.85833 0.84287 1.18642 0.20783 3.42465

1.232 1.56819 1.85989 0.84316 1.18602 0.20864 3.42808
1.233 1.57005 1.86146 0.84345 1.18561 0.20945 3.43151
1.234 1.57191 1.86303 0.84374 1.18521 0.21026 3.43494
1.235 1.57377 1.86461 0.84402 1.18480 0.21107 3.43838
1.236 1.57564 1.86618 0.84431 1.18440 0.21188 3.44182

1.237 1.57750 1.8o776 0.84460 1.18400 0.21269 3.44526
1.238 1.57937 1.86934 0.84488 1.18359 0.21350 3.44871
1.239 1.58124 1.87092 0.84517 1.18319 0.21430 3.45216
1.240 1.58311 1.87250 0*84546 1.18279 0.21511 3.45561
1.241 1.58499 1.87408 0.84574 1.18240 0.21592 3.45907

1.242 1.58686 1.87567 0.84603 1.18200 0.21672 3.46253
1.243 1.58874 1.87726 0.84631 1.18160 0.21753 3.46600
1.244 1.59062 1.87885 0.84659 1.18121 0.21833 3.46946
1.245 1.59250 1.88044 0.84688 1.18081 0.21914 3.47293
1.246 1.59438 1.88203 0.84716 1.18042 0.21994 3.47641

1.247 1.59626 1.88363 0.84744 1.18002 0.22074 3.47989
1.248 1.59815 1.88522 0.84772 1.17963 0.22154 3.48337
1.249 1.60003 1.88682 0.84800 1.17924 0.22234 3.48685
1.250 1.60192 1.88842 0.84828 1.17885 0.22314 3.49034

1.250 1.60192 1.88842 0.84828 I. 17885 0.22314 3.49034 0.28650
1.251 1.60381 1.89003 0.84856 t. 17846 0.22394 3.49384 0.28622

1.252 1.60570 1.89163 0.84884 1.17807 0.22474 3.49733 0.28593
1.253 1.6C759 1.89324 0.84912 1.17769 0.22554 3.50083 0.28565
1.254 1.60949 1.89485 0.84940 L. 17730 0.22634 3.50433 0.28536
1.255 1.61138 1.89646 0.84968 1.17691 0.22714 3.50784 0.28508
1.256 1.61328 1.89807 0.84996 1.17653 0.22793 3.51135 0.28479

1.257 1.61518 1.89968 0.85023 1.17615 0.22873 3.51486 0.28451
1.258 1.61708 1.90130 0.85051 1.17576 0.22952 3.51838 0.28422
1.259 1.61898 1.90292 0.85079 1.17538 0.23032 3.52190 0.28394
1.260 1.62088 1.90454 0.85106 1.17500 0.23111 3.52542 0.28365
1.261 1.62279 1.90616 0.85134 t. 17462 0.23191 3.52895 0.28337

1.262 1.62470 1.90778 0.85161 L. 17424 0.23270 3.53248 0.28309
1.263 1.62660 1.90941 0.85189 1 .17386 0.23349 3.53601 0.28280
1.264 1.62851 1.91104 0.85216 1 .17348 0.23428 3.53955 0.28252
1.265 1.63043 1.91267 0.85244 1 L. 17311 0.23507 3.54309 0.28224
1.266 1.63234 1.91430 0.85271 ] .17273 0.23586 3.54664 0.28196

1.267 1.63426 1.91593 0.85298 1 .17236 0.23665 3.55019 0.28168
1.268 1.63617 1.91757 0.85325 .17198 0.23744 3.55374 0.28139
1.269 1.63809 1.91920 0.85353 : .17161 0.23823 3.55729 0.28111
1.270 1.64001 1.92084 0.85380 1 .17124 0.23902 3.56085 0*28083
1.271 1.64193 1.92248 0.85407 ] .17087 0.23980 3.56442 0.28055

1.272 1.64386 1.92413 0.85434 1 .17050 0.24059 3.56798 0.28027
1.273 1.64578 1.92577 0.85461 ] .17013 0.24138 3.57155 0.27999
1.274 1.64771 1.92742 0.85488 1 .16976 0.24216 3.57512 0.27971
1.275 1.64964 1.92907 0.85515 1 .16939 0.24295 3.57870 0.27943
1.276 1.65157 1.93072 0.85542 1 .16902 0.24373 3.58228 0.27915

1.277 1.65350 1.93237 0.85568 1 .16866 0.24451 3.585P7 0.27887
1.278 1.65543 1.93402 0.85595 ] .16829 0.24530 3.58945 0.27859
1.279 1.65736 1.93568 0.85622 1 .16793 0.24608 3.59304 0.27832
1.280 1.65930 1.93734 0.85648 1 .16756 0.24686 3.59664 0.27804
1.281 1.66124 1.93900 0.85675 1 .16720 0.24764 3.60024 0.27776

1.282 1.66318 1.94066 0.85702 .16684 0.24842 3.60384 0.27748
1.283 1.66512 1.94233 0.85728 1 .16648 0.24920 3.60745 0.27720
1.284 1.66706 1.94399 0.85755 .16612 0.24998 3.61106 0.27693
1.285 1.66901 1.94566 0.85781 .16576 0.25076 3.61467 0.27665
1.286 1.67096 1.94733 0.85808 .16540 0.25154 3.61828 0.27637

1.287 1.67290 1.94900 0.85834 .16504 0.25231 3.62190 0.27610
1.288 1.67485 1.95068 0.85860 .16468 0.25309 3.62553 0.27582
1.289 1.67680 1.95235 0.85886 .16433 0.25387 3.62916 0.27555
1.290 1.67876 1.95403 0.85913 .16397 0.25464 3.63279 0.27527
1.291 1.68071 1.95571 0.85939 .16362 0.25542 3.63642 0.27500

1.292 1.68267 1.95739 0.85965 t.16326 0.25619 3.64006 0.27472
1.293 1.68463 1.95907 0.85991 1.16291 0.25697 3.64370 0.27445
1.294 1.68659 1.96076 0.86017 1.16256 0.25774 3.64735 0.27417
1.295 1.68855 1.96245 0.86043 [.16221 0.25851 3.65100 0.27390
1.296 1.69051 1.96414 0.86069 1.16186 0.25928 3.65465 0.27362

1.297 1.69248 1.96583 0.86095 .16151 0.26005 3.65831 0.27335
1.298 1.69444 1.96752 0.86121 1.16116 0.26082 3.66197 0.27308
1.299 1.69641 1.96922 0.86147 1.16081 0.26159 3.66563 0.27280
1.300 1.69838 1.97091 0.86172 L. 16047 0.26236 3.66930 0.27253
33
linh x cosh x tanh x cotb x In x
1*300 1*69838 1.97Q91 0.86172 1.16047 0.26236 3.66930 0*27253
1.301 1.70035 1.97261 0.86198 1.16012 0.26313 3.67297

1.302 1.70233 1.97431 0.86224 1.15977 0.26390 3.67664
1.303 1.70430 1.97602 0.86249 1.15943 0.26467 3.68032
1.304 1.70628 1.97772 0*86275 1.15909 0.26544 3.68400
1.305 1.70826 1.97943 0.86300 1.15874 0.26620 3.68769
1.306 1.71024 1.98114 0.86326 1.15840 0.26697 3.69138

1.307 1.71222 1.98285 0.86351 1.15806 0.26773 3.69507
1.308 1.71420 1.98456 0.86377 1.15772 0.26850 3.69877
1.309 1.71619 1.98628 0.86402 1.15738 0.26926 3.70247
1.310 1.71818 1.98800 0.86428 1.15704 0.27003 3.70617
1.311 1.72017 1.98972 0.86453 1.15670 0.27079 3.70988
1.312 1.72216 1.99144 0.86478 1.15636 0.27155 3.71359
1.313 1.72415 1.99316 0.86503 1.15603 0.27231 3.71731
1.314 1.72614 1.99489 0.86528 1.15569 0.27308 3.72103
1.315 1.72814 1.99661 0.86554 1.15535 0.27384 3.72475
1.316 1.73014 1.99834 0.86579 1.15502 0.27460 3.72848

1.317 1.73214 2.00007 0.86604 1.15469 0.,2.7536 3.73221
1.318 1.73414 2.00181 0.86629 1.15435 0.27612 3.73594
1.319 1.73614 2.00354 0.86654 1.15402 0.27687 3.73968
1.320 1.73814 2.00528 0.86678 1.15369 0.27763 3.74342
1.321 1.74015 2.00702 0.86703 1.15336 0.27839 3.74717

1.322 1.74216 2.00876 0.86728 1.15303 0.27915 3.75092
1.323 1.74417 2.01050 0.86753 1.15270 0.27990 3.75467
1.324 1.74618 2.01225 0.86778 1.15237 0.28066 3.75843
1.325 1.74819 2.01399 0.86802 1.15204 0.28141 3.76219
1.326 1.75021 2.01574 0.86827 1.15172 0.28217 3.76595
1.327 1.75222 2.01749 0.86851 1.15139 0.28292 3.76972
1.328 1.75424 2.01925 0.86876 1.15107 0.28367 3.77349
1.329 1.75626 2.02100 0.86900 1.15074 0.78443 3.77726
1.330 1.75828 2.02276 0.86925 1.15042 0.28518 3.78104
1.331 1.76031 2.02452 0.86949 1.15009 0.28593 3.78483
1.332 1.76233 2.02628 0.86974 1.14977 0.28668 3.78861
1.333 1.76436 2.02804 0.86998 1.14945 0.28743 3.79240
1.334 1.76639 2.02981 0.87022 1.14913 0.28818 3.79620
1.335 1.76842 2.03158 0.87047 1.14881 0*28893 3.80000
1.336 1.77045 2.03335 0.87071 1.14849 0.28968 3.80380
1.337 1.77249 2.03512 0.87095 1.14817 0.29043 3.80760
1.338 1.77452 2.03689 0.87119 1.14785 0.29118 3.81141
1.339 1.77656 2.03867 0.87143 1.14754 0.29192 3.81523
1.340 1.77860 2.04044 0.87167 1.14722 0.29267 3.81904
1.341 1.78064 2.04222 0.87191 1.14690 0.29342 3.82286
1.342 1.78268 2.04401 0.87215 1.14659 0.29416 3.82669
1.343 1.78473 2.04579 0.87239 1.14628 0.29491 3.83052
1.344 1.78677 2.04758 0.87263 1.14596 0.29565 3.83435
1.345 1.78882 2.04936 0.87287 1.14565 0.29639 3.83819
1.346 1.79087 2.05115 0.87311 1.14534 0.29714 3.84203
1.347 1.79293 2.05294 0.87334 1.14503 0.29788 3.84587
1.348 1.79498 2.05474 0.87358 1.14471 0.29862 3.84972
1.349 1.79704 2.05653 0.37382 1.14440 0.29936 3.85357
1*350 1.79909 2.05833 0.87405 1.14410 0.30010 3.85743
sinh x cosh x tanh coth x In x

1.350 1.79909 2.05833 0.87405 ] .14410 .30010 3.85743 .25924
1.3S1 1.80115 2.06013 0.87429 ] .14379 0. .30085 3.86128 .25898

1.352 1.80321 2.06194 0.87452 ] .14348 o. 30158 3.86515 ,25872
1.353 1.80528 2.06374 0.87476 ] .14317 0. 30232 3.86902 25846
1.354 1.80734 2.06555 0.87499 ] I. 14286 o. 30306 3.87289 ,25821
1.355 1.80941 2.06735 0.87523 ] L. 14256 0..30380 3.87676 .2579.5
1.356 1.81148 2.06916 0.87546 1 .14225 0. 30454 3.88064 25769

1.357 1.81355 2.07098 0.87570 ] L. 14195 0. 30528 3.88452 25743
1.358 1.81562 2.07279 0.87593 1 1.14165 30601 3.88841 ,25717
1.359 1.81769 2.07461 0.87616 1 I. 14134 0. 10675 3.89230 .25692
1.360 1.81977 2.07643 0.87639 1 .14104 0. 30748 3.89619 0..25666
1.361 1.82184 2.07825 0.87662 1 .14074 o. 30822 3.90009 25640

1.362 1.82392 2.08007 0.87686 ] L. 14044 30895 3.90399 25615
1.363 1.82600 2.08190 0.87709 ] 1.14014 0. 30969 3.90790 25589
1.364 1.82809 2.08372 0.87732 ] .13984 0. 31042 3.91181 25564
1.365 1.83017 2.08555 0.87755 L. 13954 0. 31115 3.91572 0. 25538
1.366 1.83226 2.08738 0.87778 1.13924 .31189 3.91964 25513

1.367 1.83435 2.08922 0.87801 L. 13894 .31262 3.92356 25487
1.366 1.83644 2.09105 0.87824 1.13865 0. 31335 3.92749 .25462
1.369 1.83853 2.09289 6.87846 1 1.13835 .31408 3.93142 25436
1.370 1.84062 2.09473 0.87869 1.13805 .31481 3.93535 25411
1.371 1.84272 2.09657 0.87892 1.13776 .11554 3.93929 .25385

1.372 1.64482 2.09841 0.87915 1.13747 .31627 3.94323 .25360
1.373 1.84691 2.10026 0.87937 ] 1.13717 31700 3.94717 25335
1.37* 1.84902 2.10211 0.87960 1.13688 31773 3.95112 25309
1.375 1.85112 2.10396 0.87983 1.13659 31845 3.95508 25284
1.376 1.8.5322 2.10581 0.88005 1.13630 .31918 3.95903 .25259

1.377 1.85533 2.10766 0.88028 L. 13601 31991 3.96299 25233
1.378 1.85744 2.10952 0.88050 1.13571 32063 3.96696 .25208
1.379 1.85955 2.11138 0.88073 1.13543 ,32136 3.97093 .25183
1.380 1.86166 2.11324 0.88095 1.13514 .32208 3.97490 .25158
1.381 1.86378 2.11510 0.88117 1.13485 32281 3.97888 25133

1.382 1.86589 2.11697 0.88140 1.13456 .32353 3.98286 .25108
1.383 1.86801 2.11883 0.88162 1.13427 ,32426 3.98684 .25082
1.384 1.87013 2.12070 0.88184 1.13399 .32498 3.99083 25057
1*385 1.87225 2.12257 0.88207 1.13370 .32570 3.99483 .25032
1.386 1.87437 2.12445 0.88229 L.13342 .32642 3.99682 .25007

1.387 1.87650 2.12632 0.88251 1.13313 .32714 4.00282 .24982
1.388 1.87863 2.12820 0.88273 1.13285 .32786 4.00683 .24957
1.369 1.88076 2.13008 0.88295 1.13257 ,32858 4.01084 24932
1.390 1.88289 2.13196 0.88317 ] 1.13228 Oi 32930 4.01485 0. 24908
1.391 1.88502 2.13385 0.88339 1.13200 0. ,33002 4.01887 0. 24883

1.392 1.88716 2.13573 0.88361 1.13172 33074 4.02289 24858
1.393 1.88929 2.13762 0.88383 ] .13144 0. 33146 4.02691 24833
1.394 1.89143 2.13951 0.88405 ] 1.13116 0. 33218 4.03094 0. 24808
1.395 1.89357 2.14140 0.88427 1 1.13088 0< 33289 4.03497 0< 24783
1.396 1.89571 2.14330 0.88448 ]1.13060 ,33361 4.03901 o. 24759
1.397 1.89786 2.14520 0.88470 ] .13032 0. 33433 4.04305 o. 24734
1.398 1.90000 2.14709 0.88492 ] .13005 0 33504 4.04710 o. 24709
1.399 1.90215 2.14900 0.88514 ] .12977 0. 33576 4.05115 o. 24684
1.400 1.90430 2.15090 0.88535 ] .12949 o. 33647 4.05520 0 24660
sinh x cosh x tanh x coth x In x e*

sinh x cosh tanh x coth x In x
1.400 1.90430 2.15090 0.88535 1.12949 0.33647 4.05520 0.24660
L.401 1.90645 2.15280 0.88557 1.12922 0.33719 4.05926 0.24635

L.402 1.90861 2.15471 0.88578 1.12894 0.33790 4.06332 0.24610
L.403 1.91076 2.15662 0.88600 1.12867 0.33861 4.06738 0.24586
L.404 1.91292 2.15853 0.88621 1.12840 0.33933 4.07145 0.24561
L.405 1.91508 2.16045 0.88643 1.12812 0.34004 4.07553 0.24537
.406 1.91724 2.16236 0.88664 1.12785 0.34075 4.07960 0.24512
.407 1.91940 2.16428 0*88686 1.12758 0.34146 4.08369 0.24488
.408 1.92157 2.16620 0.88707 1.12731 0.34217 4.08777 0.24463
.409 1.92374 2.16812 0.88728 1.12704 0.34288 4.09186 0.24439
410 1.92591 2.17005 0.88749 1.12677 0.34359 4.09596 0.24414
.411 1.92808 2.17198 0.88771 1.12650 0.34430 4.10005 0.24390
.412 1.93025 2.17391 0.88792 1.12623 0.34501 4.10416 0.24366
.413 1.93242 2.17584 0.88813 1.12596 0.34572 4.10826 0.24341
.414 1.93460 2.17777 0.88834 1.12569 0.34642 4.11237 0.24317
.415 1.93678 2.17971 0.88855 1.12543 0.34713 4.11649 0.24293
.416 1.93896 2.18164 0*88876 1.12516 0.34784 4.12061 0.24268

.417 1.94114 2.18358 0.88897 1.12490 0.34854 4.12473 0.24244
.418 1.94333 2.18553 0.88918 1.12463 0.34925 4.12885 0.24220
.419 1.94551 2.18747 0.88939 1.12437 0.34995 4.13299 0.24196
.420 1.94770 2.18942 0.88960 1.12410 0.35066 4.13712 0.24171
.421 1.94989 2.19137 0.88981 1.12384 0.35136 4.14126 0.24147

422 1.95209 2.19332 0.89002 1.12358 0.35206 4.14540 0.24123
423 1.95428 2.19527 0.89022 1.12331 0.35277 4.14955 0.24099
.424 1.95648 2.19723 0.89043 1.12305 0.35347 4.15370 0.24075
.425 1.95867 2.19918 0.89064 1.12279 0.35417 4.15786 0.24051
.426 1.96087 2.20114 0.89084 1.12253 0.35487 4.16202 0*24027

.427 1.96308 2.20310 0.89105 1.12227 0.35557 4.16618 0.24003
.428 1.96528 2.20507 0.89126 1.12201 0.35627 4.17035 0.23979
.429 1.96749 2.20704 0*89146 1.12175 0.35697 4.17452 0.23955
.430 1.96970 2.20900 0.89167 1.12150 0.35767 4.17870 0.23931
.431 1.97191 2.21097 0.89187 1.12124 0.35837 4.18288 0.23907

.432 1.97412 2.21295 0.89208 1.12098 0.35907 4.18706 0.23883
.433 1.97633 2.21492 0.89228 1.12072 0.35977 4.19125 0.23859
.434 1.97855 2.21690 0.89248 1.12047 0.36047 4.19545 0.23835
.435 1.98076 2.21888 0.89269 1.12021 0.36116 4.19965 0.23812
.436 1.98298 2.22086 0.89289 1.11996 0.36186 4.20385 0.23788

.437 1.98521 2.22285 0.89309 1.11971 0.36256 4.20805 0.23764
.438 1.98743 2.22483 0.89329 1.11945 0.36325 4.21226 0.23740
.439 1.98966 2.22682 0.89350 1.11920 0.36395 4.21648 0.23716
.440 1.99188 2.22881 0.89370 1.11895 0.36464 4.22070 0*23693
.441 1.99411 2.23080 0.89390 1.11869 0.36534 4.22492 0.23669
442 1.99635 2.23280 0.89410 1.11844 0.36603 4.22915 0.23645
.443 1.99858 2.23480 0.89430 1.11819 0.36672 4.23338 0.23622
.444 2.00082 2.23680 0.89450 1.11794 0.36742 4.23761 0.23598
445 2.00305 2.23880 0.89470 1.11769 0.36811 4.24185 0.23575
.446 2.00529 2.24080 0.89490 1.11744 0*36880 4.24610 0.23551
447 2.00753 2.24281 0.89510 1.11720 0.36949 4.25034 0.23528
448 2.00978 2.24482 0.89530 1.11695 0.37018 4.25460 0.23504
449 2.01202 2.24683 0.89549 1.11670 0.37087 4.25885 0.23480
450 2.01427 2.24884 0.89569 1.11645 0.37156 4.26311 0.23457

sinh cosh x tanh x eoth x In x
2.01427 2.24884 0.89569 1.11645 0.37156 4.26311 0.23457

1.450
1.451 2.01652 2.25086 0.89589 1.11621 0.37225 4.26738 0.23434

1.452 2.01877 2.25288 0.89609 1.11596 0.37294 4.27165 0.23410
1.453 2.02103 2.25490 0.89628 1.11572 0.37363 4.27592 0.23387
1.454 2.02328 2.25692 0.89648 1.11547 0.37432 4.28020 0.23363
1.455 2.02554 2.25894 0.89668 1.11523 0.37501 4.28448 0.23340
1.456 2.02780 2.26097 0.89687 1.11499 0.37569 4.28877 0.23317

1.457 2.03006 2.26300 0.89707 1 . 1 1 4 74 0.37638 4.29306 0.23293
1.458 2.03233 2.26503 0.89726 1.11450 0.37707 4.29736 0.23270
1.459 2.03459 2.26706 0.89746 1.11426 0.37775 4.30166 0.23247
1.460 2.03686 2.26910 0.89765 1.11402 0.37844 4.30596 0.23224
1.461 2.03913 2.27114 0.89785 1.11378 0.37912 4.31027 0.23200

1.462 2.04140 2.27318 0.89804 1.11354 0.37981 4.31458 0.23177
1.463 2.04368 2.27522 0.89823 1.113 30 0.38049 4.31890 0.23154
1.464 2.04595 2.27726 0.89843 1.11306 0.38117 4.32322 0.23131
1.465 2.04823 2.27931 0.89862 1.11282 0.38186 4.32754 0.23108
1.466 2.05051 2.28136 0.89881 1.11258 0.38254 4.33187 0.23085

1.467 2.05280 2.28341 0.89900 1.11234 0.38322 4.33621 0.23062
1.468 2.05508 2.28547 0.89920 1.11211 0.38390 4.34055 0.23039
1.469 2.05737 2.28752 0.89939 1.11187 0.38458 A, 34489 0.23016
i.470 2.05965 2.28958 0.89958 1.11163 0.38526 4^34924 0.22993
1.471 2.06195 2.29164 0.89977 1.11140 0.38594 4.35359 0.22970

1.472 2.06424 2.29370 0.89996 1.11116 0.38662 4.35794 0.22947
1.473 2.06653 2.29577 0.90015 1.11093 0.38730 4.36230 0.22924
1.474 2.06883 2.29784 0.90034 1.11069 0.38798 4.36667 0.22901
1.475 2.07113 2.29991 0.90053 1.11046 0.38866 4.37104 0.22878
1.476 2.07343 2.30198 0.90072 1.11023 0.38934 4.37541 0.22855

1.477 2.07573 2.304C5 0.90090 1.11000 0.39001 4.37979 0.22832
1.478 2.07804 2.30613 0.90109 1.10976 0.39069 4.38417 0.22809
1.479 2.08034 2.30821 0.90128 1.10953 0.39137 4.38855 0.22787
1*480 2.08265 2.31029 0.90147 1.10930 0.39204 4.39295 0.22764
1.481 2.08497 2.31238 0.90166 1.10907 0.39272 4.39734 0.22741

1.482 2.08728 2.31446 0.90184 1.10884 0.39339 4.40174 0.22718
1.483 2.06959 2.31655 0.90203 1.10861 0.39407 4.40614 0.22696
1.484 2.09191 2.31864 0.90221 1.10836 0.39474 4.41055 0.22673
1.485 2.09423 2.32073 0.90240 1.10816 0.39541 4.41497 0.22650
1.486 2.09655 2.32283 0.90259 1.10793 0.39609 4.41938 0.22628

1.487 2.09888 2.32493 0.90277 1.10770 0.39676 4.42380 0.22605
1.488 2.10120 2.32703 0.90296 1.10747 0.39743 4.42823 0.22582
1.489 2.10353 2.32913 0.90314 1.10725 0.39810 4.43266 0.22560
1.490 2.10586 2.33123 0.90332 1.10702 0.39878 4.43710 0.22537
1.491 2.10819 2.33334 0.90351 1.10680 0.39945 4.44153 0.22515

1.492 2.11053 2.33545 0.90369 1.10657 0.40012 4.44598 0.22492
1.493 2.11286 2.33756 0.90388 1.10635 0.40079 4.45043 0.22470
1.494 2.11520 2.33968 0.90406 1.10612 0.40146 4.45488 0.22447
1.495 2.11754 2.34179 0.90424 1.10590 0.40213 4.45934 0.22425
1.496 2.11989 2.34391 0.90442 1.10568 0.40279 4.46380 0.22402

1.497 2.12223 2.34603 0.90460 1.10546 0.40346 4.46826 0.22380
1.498 2.12458 2.34816 0.90479 1.10523 0.40413 4.47273 0.22358
1.499 2.12693 2.35028 0.90497 1.10501 0.40480 4.47721 0.22335
1.500 2.12928 2.35241 0.90515 1.10479 0.40547 4.48169 0.22313
sinh ; cosh tanh x coth x In x

.500 2.12928 2.35241 0.90515 1.10479 0.40547 4.48169
.501 2.13163 2.35454 0.90533 1.10457 0.40613 4.48617

.502 2.13399 2.35667 0.90551 1.10435 0.40680 4.49066
.503 2.13635 2.35881 0.90569 1.10413 0.40746 4.49515
504 2.13871 2.36095 0.90587 1.10391 0.40813 4.49965
.505 2.14107 2.36309 0.90605 1.10369 0.40879 4.50415
.506 2.14343 2.36523 0.90623 1.10348 0.40946 4.50866

.507 2.14580 2.36737 0.90641 1.10326 0.41012 4.51317
.508 2.14817 2.36952 0.90658 1.10304 0.41078 4.51769
.509 2.15054 2.37167 0.90676 1.10283 0*41145 4.52221
510 2.15291 2.37382 0.90694 1.10261 0.41211 4,52673
511 2.15529 2.37597 0.90712 1.10239 0.41277 4.53126

.512 2.15766 2.37813 0.90729 1.10218 0.41343 4.53579
.513 2.16004 2.38029 0.90747 1.10196 0.41409 4.54033
.514 2.16242 2.38245 0.90765 1.10175 0*41476 4.54487
515 2.16481 2.38461 0.90782 1.10154 0.41542 4.54942
.516 2.16719 2.38678 0.90800 1.10132 0.41608 4.55397

.517 2.16958 2.38895 0.90817 1.10111 0.41673 4.55853
.518 2.17197 2.39112 0.90835 1.10090 0.41739 4.56309
.519 2.17436 2.39329 0.90852 1.10069 0.41805 4.56766
.520 2.17676 2.39547 0.90870 1.10048 0.41871 4.57223
.521 2.17915 2.39765 0.90887 1.10027 0.41937 4.57680

522 2.18155 2.39983 0.90905 1.10005 0.42003 4.58138
.523 2.18395 2.40201 0.9092 2 1.09984 0*42068 4.58596
.524 2.18636 2.40419 0.90939 1.09964 0*42134 4.59055
.525 2.18876 2.40638 0.90957 1.09943 0.42199 4.59514
526 2.19117 2.40857 0.90974 1.09922 0.42265 4.59974

.527 2.19358 2.41076 0.90991 1.09901 0.42331 4.60434
.528 2.19599 2.41296 0.91008 1.09880 0.42396 4.60895
.529 2.19840 2.41516 0.91025 1.09860 0.42461 4.61356
530 2.20082 2.41736 0.91042 1.09839 0.42527 4.61818
.531 2.20324 2.41956 0.91060 1.09818 0.42592 4.62280

.532 2.20566 2.42176 0.91077 1.09798 0.42657 4.62742
.533 2.20808 2.42397 0.91094 1.09777 0*42723 4.63205
.534 2.21051 2.42618 0.91111 1.09757 0.42788 4.63669
535 2.21293 2.42839 0.91128 1.09736 0*42853 4.64133
.536 2.21536 2.43060 0.91145 1.09716 0*42918 4.64597

.537 2.21780 2.43282 0.91161 1.09695 0.42983 4.65062
.538 2.22023 2.43504 0.91178 1.09675 0*43048 4.65527
.539 2.22267 2.43726 0.91195 1.09655 0.43113 A. 65993
.540 2.22510 2.43949 0.91212 1.09635 0.43178 4.66459
541 2.22755 2.44171 0.91229 1.09614 0.43243 4.66926

.542 2.22999 2.44394 0.91246 1.09594 0.43308 4.67393
.543 2.23243 2.44617 0.91262 1.09574 0.43373 4.67861
544 2.23488 2.44841 0.91279 1.09554 0.43438 4.68329
.545 2.23733 2.45064 0.91296 1.09534 0*43502 4.68797
.546 2.23978 2.45288 0.91312 1.09514 0*43567 4.69266

.547 2.24224 2.45512 0.91329 1.09494 0.43632 4.69736
548 2.24*69 2.45736 0.91345 1.09474 0.43696 4.70206
.549 2.24713 2.45961 0.91362 1.09455 0.43761 4.70676
550 2.24961 2.46186 0.91379 1.09435 0.43825 4.71147

1.550 2.24961 2.46186 0.91379 1 .09435 0.43825 4.71147 .21225
1.551 2.25207 2.46411 0.91395 1 .09415 0.43890 4.71618 .21204

1.552 2.25454 2.46636 0.91411 1 .09395 0.43954 4.72090 .21182
1.553 2.25701 2.46862 0.91428 1 .09376 0.44019 4.72563 .21161
1.554 2.25948 2.47088 0.91444 1 .09356 0.44083 4.73035 .21140
1.555 2.26195 2.47314 0.91461 1 .09337 0.44148 4.73509 .21119
1.556 2.26442 2.47540 0.91477 1 .09317 0.44212 4.73982 .21098

1.557 2.26690 2.47767 0.91493 1 .09298 0.44276 4.74457 .21077
1.558 2.26938 2.47993 0.91510 L. 09278 0.44340 4.74931 .21056
1.559 2.27186 2.48221 0.91526 I. 09259 0.44404 4.75406 .21035
1.560 2.27434 2.48448 0.91542 1.09239 0.44469 4.75882 .21014
1.561 2.27683 2.48675 0.91558 1 L. 09220 0.44533 4.76358 .20993

1.562 2.27932 2.48903 0.91574 1.09201 0.44597 4,76835 .20972
1.563 2.28181 2.49131 0.91591 1.09182 0.44661 4.77312 .20951
1.564 2.28430 2.49360 0.91607 L. 09162 0.44725 4.77789 .20930
1.565 2.28679 2.49588 0.91623 1.09143 0.44789 4.78267 .20909
1.566 2.28929 2.49817 0.91639 L. 09124 0.44852 4.78746 .20888

1.567 2.29179 2.50046 0.91655 L. 09105 0.44916 4.79225 .20867
1.568 2.29429 2.50275 0.91671 L. 09086 0.44980 4.79704 .20846
1.569 2.29680 2.50505 0.91687 L. 09067 0.45044 4.80184 .20825-
1.570 2.29930 2.50735 0.91703 L.0904JB 0.45108 4.80665 .20805
1.571 2.30181 2.50965 0.91718 1.09029 0.45171 4.81146 .20784

1.572 2.30432 2.51195 0.91734 L. 09010 0.45235 4.81627 .20763
1.573 2.30683 2.51426 0.91750 1.08992 0.45298 4.82109 20742
1.574 2.30935 2.51656 0.91766 L. 08973 0.45362 4.82591 .20721
1.575 2.31187 2.51887 0.91782 I. 08954 0.45426 4.83074 0. 20701
1.576 2.31439 2.52119 0.91797 L. 08935 0*45489 4.83557 .20680

1.577 2.31691 2.52350 0.91813 t. 08917 0.45552 4.84041 .20659
1.578 2.31943 2.52582 0.91829 L. 08898 0.45616 4.84526 0. 20639
1.579 2.32196 2.52814 0.91845 L. 08880 0.45679 4.85010 20618
1.580 2.32449 2.53047 0.91860 L. 08861 0.45742 4.85496 0. 20598
1.581 2.32702 2.53279 0.91876 1.08843 0.45806 4.85981 0. 20577

1.582 2.32956 2.53512 0.91891 t. 08824 0.45869 4.86468 0. 20556
1.583 2.33209 2.537^5 0.91907 1.08806 0.45912 4.86954 0. 20536
1.584 2.33463 2.53978 0.91922 L. 08787 0.45995 4.8 7441 0. 20515
1.585 2.33717 2.54212 0.91938 L. 08769 0.46058 4.87929 o. 20495
1.586 2.33972 2.54446 0.91953 1.08751 0.&6122 4.88417 20474

1.587 2.34226 2.5*680 0.91969 L. 08733 0.46185 4.88906 20454
1.588 2.34481 2.54914 0.91984 1.08714 0.46248 4.89395 o. 20433
1.589 2.34736 2.55149 0.92000 L. 08696 0*46310 4.89885 o. 20413
1.590 2.34991 2.55384 0.92015 L. 08678 0.46373 4.90375 o. 20393
1.591 2.35247 2.55619 0.92030 t. 08660 0.46436 4.90866 0. 20372

1.592 2.35502 2.55854 0.92046 L. 08642 0.&6499 4.91357 0. 20352
1.593 2.35758 2.56090 0.92061 1.08624 0.46562 4.91848 0. 20331
1.594 2.36015 2.56326 0.92076 .08606 0.46625 4.92340 0. 20311
1.595 2.36271 2.5656? 0.92091 L. 08588 0.46687 4.92833 0. 20291
1.596 2.36528 2.56798 0.92106 L.08570 0.46750 4.93326 0. 20271

1.597 2.36785 2.57035 0.92122 .08552 0.46813 4.93820 0. 20250
1.598 2.37042 2.57272 0.92137 .08534 0.46875 4.94314 o. 20230
1.599 2.37299 2.57509 0.92152 .08517 0.46938 4.94808 0. 20210
1.600 2.37557 2.57746 0.92167 .08499 0.47000 4.95303 0. 20190
sinh cosh tonh coth x In x

cosh tanh coth
1*600 2.37557 2.57746 0.92167 1.08499 0.47000 4.95303 0.
1*601 2.37815 2.57984 0.92182 1.08481 0.47063 4.95799 0.

1.602 2.38073 2.58222 0.92197 I. 08464 0.47125 4.96295 0.
1.603 2.38331 2.58460 0.92212 L. 08446 0.47188 4.96791 0.
1.604 2.38590 2.58699 0.92227 L. 08428 0.47250 4.97288 0.
1*605 2.38849 2.58937 0.92242 L. 08411 0.47312 4.97786 0.
1*606 2.39108 2.59176 0.92257 1.08393 0.47375 4.98284 0.

1.607 2.39367 2.59416 0.92272 .08376 0.47437 4.98783 0.
1*608 2.39626 2.59655 0.92286 .08358 0.47499 4.99282 0.
1*609 2.39886 2.59895 0.92301 ] .08341 0.47561 4.99781 o.
1*610 2.40146 2.60135 0.92316 1.08324 0.47623 5.00281 0.
1.611 2.40406 2.60375 0.92331 1 .08306 0.47686 5.00782 0.

1.612 2.40667 2.60616 0.92346 ] .08289 0.47748 5.01283 0.
1.613 2.40928 2.60857 0.92360 .08272 0.47810 5.01784 o.
1.614 2.41189 2.61098 0.92375 .08255 0.47872 5.02286 0.
1.615 2.41450 2.61339 0.92390 1.08237 0.47933 5.02789 0.
1*616 2.41711 2.61581 0.92404 1 .08220 0.47995 5.03292 0.

1.617 2.41973 2.61822 0.92419 .08203 0.48057 5.03795 0.
1.618 2.42235 2.62064 0.92433 .08186 0.48119 5.04299 0.
1.619 2.42497 2.62307 0.92448 .08169 0.48181 5.04804 0.
1.620 2.42760 2.62549 0.92462 ] L. 08152 0.48243 5.05309 0.
1.621 2.43022 2.62792 0.92477 1 t.08135 0.48304 5.05815 0.

1.622 2.43285 2.63035 0.92491 .08118 0.48366 5.06321 0.
1.623 2.43548 2.63279 0.92506 L.08101 0.48428 5.06827 0.
1.624 2.43812 2.63523 0.92520 .08084 0.48489 5.07334 0.
1.625 2.44075 2.63767 0.92535 .08068 0.48551 5.07842 o.
1.626 2.44339 2.64011 0.92549 1 .08051 0.48612 5.08350 0.

1.627 2.44603 2.64255 0.92563 I. 08034 0.48674 5.08859 0.
1.628 2.44868 2.64500 0.92578 1.08017 0.48735 5.09368 0.
1.629 2.45132 2.64745 0.92592 L. 08001 0.48797 5.09877 0.
1.630 2.45397 2.64990 0.92606 .07984 0.48858 5.10387 0.
1*631 2.45662 2.65236 0.92620 .07968 0.48919 5.10898 o.

1.632 2.45928 2.65482 0.92635 .07951 0.48981 5.11409 0.
1.633 2.46193 2.65728 0.92649 1.07935 0.49042 5.11921 0.
1.634 2.46459 2.65974 0.92663 .07918 0.49103 5.12433 0.
1.635 2.46725 2.66221 0.92677 .07902 0.49164 5.12946 0.
1.636 2.46992 2.66467 0.92691 .07885 0.49225 5.13459 0.

1.637 2.47258 2.66715 0.92705 .07869 0.49287 5.13973 0.
1.638 2.47525 2.66962 0.92719 .07852 0.49348 5.14487 0.
1.639 2.47792 2.67210 0.92733 .07836 0.49409 5.15002 0.
1*640 2.48059 2.67457 0.92747 .07820 0.49470 5.15517 0*
1.641 2.48327 2.67706 0.92761 ] .07804 0.49531 5.16033 0.

1.642 2.48595 2.67954 0.92775 ] .07787 0.49592 5.16549 0.
1.643 2.48863 2.68203 0.92789 ] .07771 0.49652 5.17066 0*]
1.644 2.49131 2.6845? 0.92803 1 .07755 0.49713 5.17583 0*1
1.645 2.49400 2.68701 0.92817 ] .07739 0.49774 5.18101 0.1
1.646 2.49669 2.68951 0.92831 1 .07723 0.49835 5.18619 0.

1.647 2.49938 2.69200 0.92844 1 .07707 0.49896 5.19138 0.1
1.648 2.50207 2.69451 0.92858 1 .07691 0.^9956 5.19658 0.1
1.649 2.50477 2.69701 0.92872 1 .07675 0.S0017 5.20178 0.1
1.650 2.50746 2.69951 0.92886 1 .07659 0. e.0078 5.20698 0.1
sinh x cosh tanh x coth x e-

TABLE 5
Degrees in terms of radians
Range: <j> = 0 to
<f>
= 90
sin ton v cot <p
00 00 0*0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.5708 00 90
06 0.0017 0.0017 1.0000 0.0017 572.96 1.5691 54

12 0.0035 0.0035 1.0000 0.0035 286.48 1.5673 48
18 0.0052 0.0092 1.0000 0.0052 190.98 1.5656 42
24 0.0070 0.0070 1.0000 0.0070 143.24 1.5636 36
30 0.0087 0.0087 1.0000 0.0087 114.59 1.5621 30
36 0.0105 0.0105 0.9999 0.0105 95.49 1.5603 24

42 0.0122 0.0122 0.9999 0.0122 81.85 1.5586 18
48 0.0140 0.0140 0.9999 0.0140 71.62 1.5568 12
54 0.0157 0.0157 0.9999 0.0157 63.66 1.5551 06
01 00 0.0175 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.29 1.5533 00 89
06 0.0192 0.0192 0.9998 0.0192 52.08 1.5516 54

12 0.0209 0.0209 0.9998 0.0209 47.74 1.5499 48
18 0.0227 0.0227 0.9997 0.0227 44.07 1.5481 42
24 0.0244 0.0244 0.9997 0.0244 40.92 1.5464 36
30 0.0262 0.0262 0.9997 0.0262 38.19 1.5446 30
36 0.0279 0.0279 0.9996 0.0279 35.80 1.5429 24

42 0.0297 0.0297 0.9996 0.0297 33.69 1.5411 18
46 0.0314 0.0314 0.9995 0.0314 31.82 1.5394 12
54 0.0332 0.0332 0.9995 0.0332 30.14 1.5376 06
02 00 0.0349 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 28.64 1.5359 00 88
06 0.0367 0.0366 0.9993 0.0367 27.27 1.5341 54

12 O.0384 0.0384 0.9993 0.0384 26.03 1.5324 48
18 0.0401 0.0401 0.9992 0.0402 24.90 1.5307 42
24 0.0419 0.0419 0.9991 0.0419 23.86 1.5289 36
30 0.0436 0.0436 0.9990 0.0437 22.90 1.5272 30
36 0.0454 0.0454 0.9990 0.0454 22.02 1.5254 24

42 0.0471 0.0471 0.9989 0.0472 21.20 1.5237 18
48 0.0489 0.0488 0.9988 0.0489 20.45 1.5219 12
54 0.0506 0.0506 0.9987 0.0507 19.74 1.5202 06
03 00 0.0524 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 19.08 1.5184 00 87
06 0.0541 0.0541 0.9985 0.0542 18.46 1.5167 54

12 0.0559 0.0558 0.9984 0.0559 17.89 1.5149 48
18 0.0576 0.0576 0.9983 0.0577 17.34 1.5132 42
24 0.0593 0.0593 0.9982 0.0594 16.83 1.5115 36
30 0.0611 0.0610 0.9981 0.0612 16.35 1.5097 30
36 0.0628 0.0628 0.9980 0.0629 15.89 1.5080 24

42 0.0646 0.0645 0.9979 0.0647 15.46 1.5062 18
48 0.0663 0.0663 0.9978 0.0664 15.06 1.5045 12
54 0.0681 0.0680 0.9977 0.0682 14.67 1.5027 06
04 00 0.0698 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 14.30 1.5010 00 86
06 0.0716 0.0715 0.9974 0.0717 13.95 1.4992 54

12 0.0733 0.0732 0.9973 0.0734 13.62 1.4975 48
18 0.0750 0.0750 0.9972 0.0752 13.30 1.4957 42
24 0.0768 0.0767 0.9971 0.0769 13.00 1.4940 36
30 0.0785 0.0785 0.9969 0.0787 12.71 1.4923 30
36 0.0803 0.0802 0.9968 0.0805 12.43 1.4905 24

42 0.0820 0.0819 0.9966 0.0822 12.16 1.4888 18
48 0.0838 0.0837 0.9965 0.0840 11.91 1.4870 12
54 0.0855 0.0854 0.9963 0.0857 11.66 1.4853 06
05 00 0.0873 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.43 1.4835 00 85
COS <p sin <p cot 9 tan <p

sin 9 cos 9 tan 9 cot?*
OS 00 0.0873 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.430 1.4835 00 85
06 0.0890 0.0889 0.9960 0.0892 11.205 1.4818 54

12 0.0906 0.0906 0.9959 0.0910 10.988 1.4800 48
18 0.0925 0.0924 0.9957 0.0928 10.780 1.4783 42
24 0.0942 0.O941 0.9956 0.0945 10.579 1.4763 36
30 0.0960 0.0958 0.9954 0.0963 10.385 1.4748 30
36 0.0977 0.0976 0.9952 0.0981 10.199 1.4731 24

42 0.0995 0.0993 0.9951 0.0998 10.019 1.4713 18
48 0.1012 0.1011 0.9949 0.1016 9.845 1.4696 12
54 0*1030 0.1028 0.9947 0.1033 9.677 1.4678 06
06 00 0.1047 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 9.514 1.4661 00 84
06 0.1065 0.1063 0.9943 0.1069 9.357 1.4643 54

12 0.1082 0.1080 0.9942 0.1086 9.205 1.4626 48
18 0.1100 0.1097 0.9940 0.1104 9.058 1.4608 42
24 0.1117 0.1115 0.9938 0.1122 8.915 1.4591 36
30 0.1134 0.1132 0.9936 0.1139 8.777 1.4573 30
36 0.1152 0.1149 0.9934 0.1157 8.643 1.4556 24

42 0.1169 0.1167 0.9932 0.1175 8.513 1.4539 18
48 0.1187 0.1184 0.9930 0.1192 8.386 1.4521 12
54 0.1204 0.1201 0.9928 0.1210 8.264 1.4504 06
07 00 0.1222 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228 8.144 1.4486 00 83
06 0.1239 0.1236 0.9923 0.1246 8.028 1.4469 54

12 0.1257 0.1253 0.9921 0.1263 7.916 1.4451 48
18 0.1274 0.1271 0.9919 0.1281 7.806 1.4434 42
24 0.1292 0.1288 0.9917 0.1299 7.700 1.4416 36
30 0.1309 0.1305 0.9914 0.1317 7.596 1.4399 30
36 0.1326 0.1323 0.9912 0.1334 7.495 1.4382 24

42 0.1344 0.1340 0.9910 0.1352 7.396 1.4364 18
48 0.1361 0.1357 0.9907 0.1370 7.300 1.4347 12
54 0.1379 0.1374 0.9905 0.1388 7.207 1.4329 06
06 00 0.1396 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 7.115 1.4312 00 82
06 0.1414 0.1409 0.9900 0.1423 7.026 1.4294 54

12 0.1431 0.1426 0.9898 0.1441 6.940 1.4277 48
18 0.1449 0.1444 0.9895 0.1459 6.855 1.4259 42
24 0.1466 0.1461 0.9893 0.1477 6.772 1.4242 36
30 0.1484 0.1478 0.9690 0.1495 6.691 1.4224 30
36 0.1501 0.1495 0.9888 0.1512 6.612 1.4207 24

42 0.1518 0.1513 0.9885 0.1530 6.535 1.4190 18
48 0.1536 0.1530 0.9882 0.1548 6.460 1.4172 12
54 0.1553 0.1547 0.9880 0.1566 6.386 1.4155 06
09 00 0.1571 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 6.314 1.4137 00 81
06 0.1588 0.1582 0.9874 0.1602 6.243 1.4120 54

12 0.1606 0.1599 0.9871 0.1620 6.174 1.4102 48
18 0.1623 0.1616 0.9869 0.1638 6.107 1.4085 42
24 0.1641 0.1633 0.9866 0.1655 6.041 1.4067 36
30 0.1658 0.1650 0.9863 0.1673 5.976 1.4050 30
36 0.1676 0.1668 0.9860 0.1691 5.912 1.4032 24

42 0.1693 0.1685 0.9857 0.1709 5.850 1.4015 18
48 0.1710 0.1702 0.9854 0.1727 5.789 1.3998 12
54 0.1728 0.1719 0.9851 0.1745 5.730 1.3980 06
10 00 0.1745 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 5.671 1.3963 00 80
COS 9 Sin 9 cot 9 tan 9

tan <p COtfl
10 00 0*1745 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 5.671 1.3963 00 80
06 0.1763 0.1754 0.9845 0.1781 5.614 1.3945 54

12 0.1780 0.1771 0.9842 0.1799 5.558 1.3928 48
18 0.1798 0.1788 0.9839 0.1817 5.503 1.3910 42
24 0.1815 0.1805 0.9836 0.1835 5.449 1.3893 36
30 0*1833 0.1822 0.9833 0.1853 5.396 1.3875 30
36 0.1850 0.1840 0.9829 0.1871 5.343 1.3858 24

42 0.1868 0.1857 0.9826 0.1890 5.292 1.3840 18
48 0.1885 0.1874 0.9823 0.1908 5.242 1.3823 12
54 0.1902 0.1891 0.9820 0.1926 5.193 1.3806 06
11 00 0.1920 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 5.145 1.3788 00 79
06 0.1937 0.1925 0.9813 0.1962 5.097 1.3771 54

12 0.1955 0.1942 0.9810 0.1980 5.050 1.3753 48
18 0.1972 0.1959 0.9806 0.1998 5.005 1.3736 42
24 0.1990 0.1977 0.9803 0.2016 4.959 1.3718 36
30 0.2007 0.1994 0.9799 0.2035 4.915 1.3701 30
36 0.2025 0.2011 0.9796 0.2053 4.872 1.3683 24

42 0.2042 0.2028 0.9792 0.2071 4.829 1.3666 18
48 0.2059 0.2045 0.9789 0.2089 4.787 1.3648 12
54 0.2077 0.2062 0.9785 0.2107 4.745 1.3631 06
12 00 0.2094 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 4.705 1.3614 00 78
06 0.2112 0.2096 0.9778 0.2144 4.665 1.3596 54

12 0.2129 0.2113 0.9774 0.2162 4.625 1.3579 48
18 0.2147 0.2130 0.9770 0.2180 4.586 1.3561 42
24 0.2164 0.2147 0.9767 0.2199 4.548 1.3544 36
30 0.2182 0.2164 0.9763 0.2217 4.511 1.3526 30
36 0.2199 0.2181 0.9759 0.2235 4.474 1.3509 24

42 0.2217 0.2198 0.9755 0.2254 4.437 1.3491 18
48 0.2234 0.2215 0.9751 0.2272 4.402 1.3474 12
54 0.2251 0.2233 0.9748 0.2290 4.366 1.3456 06
13 00 0.2269 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 4.331 1.3439 00 77
06 0.2286 0.2267 0.9740 0.2327 4.297 1.3422 54

12 0.2304 0.2284 0.9736 0.2345 4.264 1.3404 48
18 0.2321 0.2300 0.9732 0.2364 4.230 1.3387 42
24 0.2339 0.2317 0.9728 0.2382 4.198 1.3369 36
30 0.2356 0.2334 0.9724 0.2401 4.163 1.3352 30
36 0.2374 0.2351 0.9720 0.2419 4.134 1.3334 24

42 0.2391 0.2368 0.9715 0.2438 4.102 1.3317 18
48 0.2409 0.2385 0.9711 0.2456 4.071 1.3299 12
54 0.2426 0.2402 0.9707 0.2475 4.041 1.3282 06
14 00 0.2443 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 4.011 1.3265 00 76
06 0.2461 0.2436 0.9699 0.2512 3.981 1.3247 54

12 0.2478 0.2453 0.9694 0.2530 3.952 1.3230 48
18 0.2496 0.2470 0.9690 0.2549 3.923 1.3212 42
24 0.2513 0.2487 0.9686 0.2568 3.895 1.3195 36
30 0.2531 0.2504 0.9681 0.2586 3*867 1.3177 30
36 0.2548 0.2521 0.9677 0.2605 3.839 1.3160 24

42 0.2566 0.2538 0.9673 0.2623 3.812 1.3142 18
48 0.2583 0.2554 0.9668 0.2642 3.785 1.3125 12
54 0.2601 0.2571 0.9664 0.2661 3.758 1.3107 06
15 00 0.2618 0.2583 0.9659 0.2679 3.732 1.3090 00 75
cot <p tan <p

sin <p cos <p tan <p cot <p
15 00 0*2618 0.2588 0.9659 0*2679 3.732 1.3090 00 75
06 0.2635 0.2605 0.9655 0.2698 3.706 1.3073 54

12 0.2653 0.2622 0.9650 0.2717 3.681 1.3055 48
18 0.2670 0.2639 0.9646 0.2736 3.655 1.3038 42
24 0.2688 0.2656 0.9641 0.2754 3.630 1.3020 36
30 0.2705 0.2672 0.9636 0.2773 3.606 1.3003 3A
36 0.2723 0.2689 0.9632 0.2792 3.582 1.2985 24

42 0.2740 0.2706 0.9627 0.2811 3.558 1.2968 18
48 0.2758 0.2723 0.9622 0.2630 3.534 1.2950 12
54 0.2775 0.2740 0.9617 0.2849 3.511 1.2933 06
16 00 0.2793 0.2756 0.9613 0.2867 3.487 1.2915 00 74
06 0.2810 0.2773 0.9608 0.2886 3.465 1.2898 54

12 0.2827 0.2790 0.9603 0.2905 3.442 1.2881 48
18 0.2845 0.2807 0.9598 0.2924 3.420 1.2863 42
24 0.2862 0.2823 0.9593 0.2943 3.398 1.2846 36
30 0.2880 0.2840 0.9588 0.2962 3.376 1.2828 30
36 0.2897 0.2857 0.9583 0.2981 3.354 1.2811 24

42 0.2915 0.2874 0.9578 0.3000 3.333 1.2793 18
48 0.2932 0.2890 0.9573 0.3019 3.312 1.2776 12
54 0.2950 0.2907 0.9568 0.3038 3.291 1.2758 06
17 00 0.2967 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 3.271 1.2741 00 73
06 0.2985 0.29*0 0.9558 0.3076 3.251 1.2723 54

12 0.3002 0.2957 0.9553 0.3096 3.230 1.2706 48
18 0.3019 0.2974 0.9548 0.3115 3.211 1.2689 42
24 0.3037 0.2990 0.9542 0.3134 3.191 1.2671 36
30 0.3054 0.3007 0.9537 0.3153 3.172 1.2654 30
36 0.3072 0.3024 0.9532 0.3172 3.152 1.2636 24

42 0.3089 0.3040 0.9527 0.3191 3.133 1.2619 18
48 0.3107 0.3057 0.9521 0.3211 3.115 1.2601 12
54 0.3124 0.3074 0.9516 0.3230 3.096 1.2584 06
18 00 0.3142 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 3.078 1.2566 00 72
06 0.3159 0.3107 0.9505 0.3269 3.060 1.2549 54

12 0.3176 0.3123 0.9500 0.3288 3.042 1.2531 48
18 0.3194 0.3140 0.9494 0.3307 3.024 1.2514 42
24 0.3211 0.3156 0.9489 0.3327 3.006 1.2497 36
30 0.3229 0.3173 0.9483 0.3346 2.989 1.2479 30
36 6.3246 0.3190 0.9478 0.3365 2.971 1.2462 24
42 0.3264 0.3206 0.9472 0.3385 2.954 1.2444 18
48 0.3261 0.3223 0.9466 0.3404 2.937 1.2427 12
54 0.3299 0.3239 0.9461 0.3424 2.921 1.2409 06
19 00 0.3316 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 2.904 1.2392 00 71
06 0.3334 0.3272 0.9449 0.3463 2.888 1.2374 54

12 0.3351 0.3289 0.9444 0.3482 2.872 1.2357 48
18 0.3368 0.3305 0.9438 0.3502 2.856 1.2339 42
24 0.3386' 0.3322 0.9432 0.3522 2.840 1.2322 36
30 0.3403 0.3338 0.9426 0.3541 2.824 1.2305 30
36 0.3421 0.3355 0.9421 0.3561 2.808 1.2287 24
42 0.3438 0.3371 0.9415 0.3561 2.793 1.2270 18
48 0.3456 0.3387 0.9409 0.3600 2.778 1.2252 12
54 0.3473 0.3404 0.9403 0.3620 2.762 1.2235 06
20 00 0.3491 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.747 1.2217 00 70
COS If sin <p cot <p tan <f

sin p cos v ton v cot v
20 00 0*3491 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.7475 1.2217 00 70
06 0.3508 0.3437 0.9391 0.3659 2.7326 1.2200

12 0.3526 0.3453 0.9385 0.3679 2.7179 1.2182
18 0.3543 0.3469 0.9379 0.3699 2.7034 1.2165
24 0.3560 0.3486 0.9373 0.3719 2.6889 1.2147
30 0.3578 0.3502 0.9367 0.3739 2.6746 1.2130
36 0.3595 0.3518 0.9361 0.3759 2.6605 1.2113

42 0.3613 0.3535 0.9354 0.3779 2.6464 1.2095
48 0.3630 0.3551 0.9348 0.3799 2.6325 1.2078
54 0.3648 0.3567 0.9342 0.3819 2.6187 1.2060
21 00 0.3665 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 2.6051 1.2043
06 0.3683 0.3600 0.9330 0.3859 2.5916 1.2025

12 0.3700 0.3616 0.9323 0.3879 2.5782 1.2008
18 0.3718 0.3633 0.9317 0.3899 2.5649 1.1990
24 0.3735 0.3649 0.9311 0.3919 2.5517 1.1973
30 0.3752 0.3665 0.9304 0.3939 2.5386 1.1956
36 0.3770 0.3681 0.9298 0.3959 2.5257 1.1938

42 0.3787 0.3697 0.9291 0.3979 2.5129 1.1921
48 0.3805 0.3714 0.9285 0.4000 2.5002 1.1903
54 0.3822 0.3730 0.9278 0.4020 2.4876 1.1886
22 00 0.3840 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 2.4751 1.1868
06 0.3857 0.3762 0.9265 0*4061 2.4627 1.1851

12 0.3875 0.3778 0.9259 0.<081 2.4504 1.1833
16 0.3892 0.3795 0.9252 0.4101 2.4383 1.1816
24 0.3910 0.3811 0.9245 0.4122 2.4262 1.1798
30 0.3927 0.3827 0.9239 0.4142 2.4142 1.1781
36 0.3944 0.38<3 0.9232 0.O163 2.4023 U1764

42 0.3962 0.3859 0.9225 0.4183 2.3906 1.1746
48 0.3979 0.3875 0.9219 0.4204 2.3789 1.1729
54 0.3997 0.3891 0.9212 0.224 2.3673 1.1711
23 00 0.4014 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 2.3559 1.1694
06 0.4032 0.3923 0.9198 0.4265 2.3*45 1.1676

12 0.4049 0.3939 0.9191 0.4286 2.3332 1.1659
18 0.4067 0.3955 0.9184 0.4307 2.3220 1.1641
24 0.4084 0.3971 0.9178 0.4327 2.3109 1.1624
30 0.4102 0.3987 0.9171 0.4348 2.2998 1*1606
36 0.4119 0.4003 0.9164 0.4369 2.2889 1.1589

42 0.4136 0.4019 0.9157 0.4390 2.2781 1.1572
48 0.4154 0.4035 0.9150 0.4411 2.2673 1.1554
54 0.4171 0.4051 0.9143 0.4431 2.2566 1.1537
24 00 0.4189 0.4067 0.9135 0.4452 2.2460 r.1519
06 0.4206 0.4083 0.9128 0.4473 2.2355 1.1502

12 0.4224 0.4099 0.9121 0.4494 2.2251 1.1484
18 0.4241 0.4115 0.9114 0.4515 2.2148 1.1467
24 0.4259 0.4131 0.9107 0.4536 2.2045 1.1449
30 0.4276 0.4147 0.9100 0.4557 2.1943 1*1432
36 0.4294 0.4163 0.9092 0.4578 2.1842 1.1414

42 0.4311 0.4179 0.9085 0.4599 2.1742 1.1397
48 0.4328 0.4195 0.9078 0.4621 2.1642 1.1380
54 0.4346 0.4210 0.9070 0.4642 2.1543 1.1362
25 00 0.4363 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.1445 1.1345
cos <p cot 9 fan <p

sin f tan <p cor <p
25 00 0*4363 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.1445 1.1345 00 65
06 0.4381 0.4242 0.9056 0*4684 2.1348 1.1327 54

12 0.4398 0.4258 0.9048 0.4706 2.1251 1.1310 48
IS 0.4416 0.4274 0.9041 0.4727 2.1155 1.1292 42
24 0.4433 0.4289 0.9033 0.4748 2.1060 1.1275 36
30 0.4451 0.4305 0.9026 0.4770 2.0965 1.1257 30
36 0.4468 0.4321 0.9018 0.4791 2.0872 1.1240 24

42 0.4485 0.4337 0.9011 0.4813 2.0778 1.1222 18
48 0.4503 0.4352 0.9003 0.4834 2.0686 1.1205 12
54 0.4520 0.4368 0.8996 0.4856 2.0594 1.1188 06
26 00 0.4538 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 2.0503 1.1170 00 64
06 0.4555 0.4399 0*8980 0.4899 2.0413 1.1153 54

12 0.4573 0.4415 0.8973 0.4921 2.0323 1.1135 48
18 0.4590 0.4431 0.8965 0.4942 2.0233 1.1118 42
24 0.4608 0.4446 0.8957 0.4964 2.0145 1.1100 36
30 0.4625 0.4462 0.8949 0.4986 2.0057 1.1083 30
36 0.4643 0.4478 0.8942 0.5008 1.9970 1.1065 24

42 0.4660 0.4493 0.8934 0.5029 1.9883 1.1048 18
48 0.4677 0.4509 0.8926 0.5051 1.9797 1.1030 12
54 0.4695 0.4524 0.8918 0.5073 1.9711 1.1013 06
27 00 0.4712 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 1.9626 1.0996 00 63
06 0.4730 0.4555 0.8902 0.5117 1.9542 1.0978 54

12 0.4747 0.4571 0.8894 0.5139 1.9458 1.0961 48
18 0.4765 0.4586 0.8886 0.5161 1.9375 1.0943 42
24 0.4782 0.4602 0.8878 0.5184 1.9292 1.0926 36
30 0.4800 0.4617 0.8870 0.5206 1.9210 1.0908 30
36 0.4817 0.4633 0.8862 0.5228 1.9128 1.0891 24

42 0.4835 0.4648 0.8854 0.5250 1.9047 1.0873 18
48 0.4852 0.4664 0.8846 0.5272 1.8967 1.0856 12
54 0.4869 0.4679 0.8838 0.5295 1.8887 1.0838 06
28 00 0.4887 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 1.880' 1.0821 00 62
06 0.4904 0.4710 0.882) 0.5340 1.8728 1.0804 54

12 0.4922 0.4726 0.8813 0.5362 1.8650 1.0786 48
18 0.4939 0.4741 0.8805 0.5384 1.8572 1.0769 42
24 0.4957 0.4756 0.8796 0.5407 1.8495 1.0751 36
30 0.4974 0.4772 0.8788 0.5430 1.8418 1.0734 30
36 0.4992 0.4787 0.6780 0.5452 1.8341 1.0716 24

42 0.5009 0.4802 0.8771 0.5475 1.8265 1.0699 18
48 0.5027 0.4818 0.8763 0.5498 1.8190 1.0681 12
54 0.5044 0.4833 0.8755 0.5520 1.8115 1.0664 06
29 00 0.5061 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543 1.8040 1.0647 00 61
06 0.5079 0.4863 0.8738 0.5566 1.7966 1.0629 54

12 0.5096 0.4879 0.8729 0.5589 1.7893 1.0612 48
18 0.5114 0.4894 0.8721 0.5612 1.7820 1.0594 42
24 0.5131 0.4909 0.8712 0.5635 1.7747 1.0577 36
30 0.5149 0.4924 0.8704 0.5658 1.7675 1.0559 30
36 0.5166 0.4939 0.8695 0.5681 1.7603 1.0542 24
42 0.5184 0.4955 0.6686 0.5704 1.7532 1.0524 18
48 0.5201 0.4970 0.8678 0.5727 1.7461 1.0507 12
54 0.5219 0.4985 0.8669 0.5750 1.7391 1.0489 06
30 00 0*5236 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 1.7321 1.0472 00 60
cos <p COt 9 tan <p

COS 9 tan 9 cot*
30 00* 0.5236 0.5000 0.6660 0.577* 1.7321 1.0*72 QO 60
06 0.5253 0.5015 0.8652 0.5797 1.7251 1.0455 54

12 0.5271 0.5030 0.8643 0.5820 1,7182 1.0437 48
18 0.5288 0.5045 0.8634 0.5844 1.7113 1.0420 42
24 0.5306 0.5060 0.8625 0.5867 1.7045 1.0402 36
30 0.5323 0.5075 0.8616 0.5890 1.6977 1.0385 30
36 0.5341 0.5090 0.8607 0.5914 1.6909 1.0367 24

42 0.5358 0.5105 0.8599 0.5938 1.6842 1.0350 18
48 0.5376 0.5120 0.8590 0.5961 1.6775 1.0332 12
54 0.5393 0.5135 0.8581 0.5985 1.6709 1.0315 06
31 00 0.5411 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 1.6643 1.0297 00 59
06 0.5428 0.5165 0.8563 0.6032 1.6577 1.0280 54

12 0.5445 0.5180 0.8554 0.6056 1.6512 1.0263 48
18 0.5463 0.5195 0.8545 0.6080 1.6447 1.0245 42
24 0.5480 0.5210 0.8536 0.6104 1.6383 1.0228 36
30 0.5498 0.5225 0.8526 0.6128 1.6319 1.0210 30
36 0.5515 0.5240 0.8517 0.6152 1.6255 1.0193 24

42 0.5533 0.5255 0.8508 0.6176 1.6191 1.0175 18
48 0.5550 0.5270 0.8499 0.6200 1.6128 1.0158 12
54 0.5568 0.5284 0.8490 0.6224 1.6066 1.0140 06
32 00 0.5585 0.5299 0.8480 0.6249 1.6003 1.0123 00 58
06 0.5603 0.5314 0.8471 0.6273 1.5941 1.0105 54

12 0.5620 0.5329 0.8462 0.6297 1.5880 1.0088 48
18 0.5637 0.5344 0.8453 0.6322 1.5818 1.007*1 42
24 0.5655 0.5358 0.8443 0*6346 1.5757 1.0053 36
30 0.5672 0.5373 0.6434 0.6371 1.5697 1.0036 30
36 0.5690 0.5388 0.8425 0.6395 1.5637 1.0018 24

42 0.5707 0.5402 0.8415 0.6420 1.5577 1.0001 18
48 0.5725 0.5417 0.8406 0.6445 1.5517 0.9983 12
54 0.5T/42 3.5432 0.8396 0.6469 1.5458 0.9966 06
33 00 0.5760 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 1.5399 0.9948 00 57
06 0.5777 0.5461 0.8377 0.6519 1.5340 0.9931 54

12 0.5794 0.5476 0.8368 0.6544 1.5282 0.9913 48
18 0.5812 0.5490 0.8358 0.6569 1.5224 0.9896 42
24 0.5829 0.5505 0.8348 0.6594 1.5166 0.9879 36
30 0.58,47 0.5519 0.8339 0.6619 1.5108 0.9861 30
36 0.5864 0.5534 0.8329 0.6644 1.5051 0.9844 24

42 0.5882 0.5548 0.8320 0.6669 1.4994 0.9826 18
48 0.5899 0.5563 0.8310 0.6694 1.4938 0.9809 12
54 0.5917 0.5577 0.8300 0.6720 1.4882 0.9791 06
34 00 0.5934 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 1.4826 0.9774 00 56
06 0.5952 0.5606 0.8281 0.6771 1.4770 0.9756 54

12 0.5969 0.5621 0.8271 0.6796 1.4715 0.9739 48
18 0.5986 0.5635 0.8261 0.6822 1.4659 0.9721 42
24 0.6004 0.5650 0.8251 0.6847 1.4605 0.9704 36
30 0.6021 0.5664 0.8241 0.6873 1.4550 0.9687 30
36 0.6039 0.5678 0.8231 0.6899 1.4496 0.9669 24

42 0.6056 0.5693 0.8221 0.6924 1.4442 0.9652 18
48 0.6074 0.5707 0.8211 0.6950 1.4388 0.9634 12
54 0.6091 0.5721 0.8202 0.6976 1.4335 0.9617 06
35 00 0*6109 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.4281 0.9599 00 55
COS <p tan <f

$411 <p COS 9 tan 9 cot 9
35 00 0.6109 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.4281 0.9599 00 55
06 0.6126 0.5750 0.8181 0.7028 1.4229 0.9582 54

12 0.6144 0.5764 0.8171 0.7054 1.4176 0.9564 48
18 0.6161 0.5779 0.8161 0..7080 1.4124 0.9547 42
24 0.6178 0.5793 0.8151 0.7107 1.4071 0.9529 36
30 0.6196 0.5807 0.8141 0.7133 1.4019 0.9512 30
36 0.6213 0.5821 0.8131 0.7159 1.3968 0.9495 24

42 0.6231 0.5835 0.8121 0.7186 1.3916 0.9477 18
48 0.6248 0.5850 0.8111 0.7212 1.3865 0.9460 12
54 0.6266 0.5864 0.8100 0.7239 1.3814 0.9442 06
36 00 0.6283 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 1.3764 0.9425 00 54
06 0.6301 0.5892 0.8080 0.7292 1.3713 0.9407 54

12 0.6318 0.5906 0.8070 0.7319 1.3663 0.9390 48
18 0.6336 0.5920 0.8059 0.7346 1.3613 0.9372 42
24 0.6353 0.5934 0.8049 0.7373 1.3564 0.9355 36
30 0.6370 0.5948 0.8039 0.7400 1.3514 0.9338 30
36 0.6388 0.5962 0.8028 0.7427 1.3465 0.9320 24

42 0.6405 0.5976 0.8018 0.7454 1.3416 0.9303 18
48 0.6423 0.5990 0.8007 0.7481 1.3367 0.9285 12
54 0.6440 0.6004 0.7997 0.7508 1.3319 0.9268 06
37 00 0.6458 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 1.3270 0.9250 00 53
06 0.6475 0.6032 0.7976 0.7563 1.3222 0.9233 54

12 0.6493 0.6046 0.7965 0.7590 1.3175 0.9215 48
18 0.6510 0.6060 0.7955 0.7618 1.3127 0.9198 42
24 0.6528 0.6074 0.7944 0.7646 1.3079 0.9180 36
30 0.6545 0.6088 0.7934 0.7673 1.3032 0.9163 30
36 0.6562 0.6101 0.7923 0.7701 1.2985 0.9146 24

42 0.6580 0.6115 0.7912 0.7729 1.2938 0.9128 18
48 0.6597 0.6129 0.7902 0.7757 1.2892 0.9111 12
54 0.6615 0.6143 0.7891 0.7785 1.2846 0.9093 06
38 00 0.6632 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 1.2799 0.9076 00 52
06 0.6650 0.6170 0.7869 0.7841 1.2753 0.9058 54

12 0.6667 0.6184 0.7859 0.7869 1.2708 0.9041 48
18 0.6685 0.6198 0.7848 0.7898 1.2662 0.9023 42
24 0.6702 0.6211 0.7837 0.7926 1.2617 0.9006 36
30 0.6720 0.6225 0.7826 0.7954 1.2572 0.8988 30
36 0.6737 0.6239 0.7815 0.7983 1.2527 0.8971 24

42 0.6754 0.6252 0.7804 0.8012 1.2482 0.8954 18
48 0.6772 0.6266 0.7793 0.8040 1.2437 0.8936 12
54 0.6789 0.6280 0.7782 0.8069 1.2393 0.8919 06
39 00 0.6807 0.6293 0.7771 0.8098 1.2349 0.8901 00 51
06 0.6824 0.6307 0.7760 0.8127 1.2305 0.8884 54

12 0.6842 0.6320 0.7749 0*8156 1.2261 0.8866 48
18 0.6859 0.6334 0.7738. 0.8185 1.2218 0.8849 42
24 0.6877 0.6347 0.7727 0.8214 1.2174 0.8831 36
30 0.6894 0.6361 0.7716 0*8243 1.2131 0.8814 30
36 0.6912 0.6374 0.7705 0.8273 1.2088 0.8796 24

42 0.6929 0.6388 0.7694 0.3302 1.2045 0.8779 18
48 0.6946 0.6401 0.7683 0.8332 1.2002 0.8762 12
54 0.6964 0.6414 0.7672 0.8361 1.1960 0.8744 06
40 00 0.6981 0.6428 0.7660 0.8 391 1.1918 0.8727 00 50
cos 9 cot <f tan <p

sin 9 cos 9 tan 9 cot 9
40 00 0.6981 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 1.1918 0.8727 00 SO

06 0.6999 0.6441 0.7649 0.8421 1.1875 0.8709 54
12 0.7016 0.6455 0.7638 0.8451 1.1833 0.8692 48
18 0.7034 0.6468 0.7627 0.8481 1.1792 0.8674 42
24 0.7051 0.6481 0.7615 0.8511 1.1750 0.8657 36
30 0.7069 0.6494 0.7604 0*8541 1.1708 0.8639 30
36 0.7086 0.6508 0.7593 0.8571 1.1667 0.8622 24
42 0.7103 0.6521 0.7581 0.8601 1.1626 0.8604 18
48 0.7121 0.6534 0.7570 0.8632 1.1585 0.8587 12
54 0.7138 0.6547 0.7559 0.8662 1.1544 0.8570 06
41 00 0.7156 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 1.1504 0.8552 00 49
06 0.7173 0.6574 0.7536 0.8724 1.1463 0.8535 54
12 0.7191 0.6587 0.7524 0.8754 1.1423 0.8517 48
18 0.7208 0.6600 0.7513 0.8785 1.1383 0.8500 42
24 0.7226 0.6613 0.7501 0.8816 1.1343 0.8482 36
30 0.7243 0.6626 0.7490 0.8847 1.1303 0.8465 30
36 0.7261 0.6639 0.7478 0.8878 1.1263 0.8447 24
42 0.7278 0.6652 0.7466 0.8910 1.1224 0.8430 18
48 0.7295 0.6665 0.7455 0.8941 1.1184 0.8412 12
54 0.7313 0.6678 0.7443 0.8972 1.1145 0.8395 06
42 00 0.7330 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 1.1106 0.8378 00 48
06 0.7348 0.6704 0.7420 0.9036 1.1067 0.8360 54
12 0.7365 0.6717 0.7408 0.9067 1.1028 0.8343 48
18 0.7383 0.6730 0.7396 0.9099 1.0990 0.8325 42
24 0.7400 0.6743 0.7385 0.9131 1.0951 0.6308 36
30 0.7418 0.6756 0.7373 0.9163 1.0913 0.8290 30
36 0.7435 0.6769 0.7361 0.9195 1.0875 0.8273 24
42 0.7453 0.6782 0.7349 0.9228 1.0837 0.8255 18
48 0.7470 0.6794 0.7337 0.9260 1.0799 0.8238 12
54 0.7487 0.6807 0.7325 0.9293 1.0761 0.6221 06
43 00 0.7505 0.6820 0.7314 0.9325 1.0724 0.8203 00 47
06 0.7522 0.6833 0.7302 0.9358 1.0686 0.8186 54
12 0.7540 0.6845 0.7290 0.9391 1.0649 0.8168 48
18 0.7557 0.6858 0.7278 0.9424 1.0612 0.8151 42
24 0.7575 0.6871 0.7266 0.9457 1.0575 0.8133 36
30 0.7592 0.6884 0.7254 0.9490 1.0538 0.8116 30
36 0.7610 0.6896 0.7242 0.9523 1.0501 0.8098 24
42 0.7627 0.6909 0.7230 0.9556 1.0464 0.8081 18
48 0.7645 0.6921 0.7218 0.9590 1.0428 0.8063 12
54 0.7662 0.6934 0.7206 0.9623 1.0392 0.8046 06
44 00 0.7679 0.6947 0.7193 0.9657 1.0355 0.8029 00 46
06 0.7697 0.6959 0.7181 0.9691 1.0319 0.8011 54
12 0.7714 0.6972 0.7169 0.9725 1.0283 0.7994 48
18 0.7732 0.6984 0.7157 0.9759 1.0247 0.7976 42
24 0.7749 0.6997 0.7145 0.9793 1.0212 0.7959 36
30 0.7767 0.7009 0.713 0.9827 1.0176 0.7941 30
36 0.7784 0.7022 0.7120 0.9861 1.0141 0.7924 24
42 0.7802 0.7034 0.7108 0.9896 1.0105 0.7906 18
48 0.7819 0.7046 0.7096 0.9930 1.0070 0.7889 12
54 6.7837 0.7059 0.7083 0.9965 1.0035 0.7871 06
45 00 0.7854 0.7071 0.7071 1.0000 1.0000 0.7854 00 45
cos 9 cot v tan <p

TABLE OF
PROPORTIONAL PARTS
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0-1 0-2 0-3 0-4 0-5 0-6 0-7 0-8 0-9 1-0 11 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5
0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 1-0 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-8 2-0 2-2 2-4 2-6 2-8 30
0-3 0-6 0-9 1-2 1-5 1-8 2-1 2-4 2-7 3-0 3-3 3-6 3-9 4-2 4-5
0-4 0-8 1-2 1-6 2-0 2-4 2-8 3-2 3-6 40 4-4 4-8 5-2 5-6 60
0-5 1-0 1-5 20 2-5 3-0 3-5 4-0 4-5 5-0 5-5 6-0 6-5 7-0 7-5
0-6 1-2 1-8 2-4 3-0 3-6 4-2 4-8 5-4 60 6-6 7-2 7-8 8-4 90
0-7 1-4 2*1 2-8 3-5 4-2 4-9 5-6 6-3 7-0 7-7 8-4 91 9-8 10-5
0-8 1-6 2-4 3-2 4-0 4-8 5-6 6-4 7-2 80 8-8 9-6 10-4 tl-2 12-0
0-9 1-8 2-7 3-6 4-5 5-4 6-3 7-2 8-1 90 9-9 10-8 11-7 12-6 13-5
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 2-0 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 3-0
3; 2 3-4 3-6 3-8 4-0 4-2 4-4 4-6 4-8 5-0 5-2 5-4 5-6 5-8 60
4-8 51 5-4 5-7 60 6-3 6-6 6-9 7-2 7-5 7-8 8-1 8-4 8-7 90
6-4 6-8 7-2 7-6 80 8-4 8-8 9-2 9-6 10-0 10-4 10-8 11-2 11-6 120
8-0 8-5 90 9-5 10-0 10-5 11-0 11-5 12-0 12-5 13-0 13-5 14-0 14-5 15-0
9-6 10-2 10-8 11-4 12-0 12-6 13-2 13-8 14-4 15-0 15-6 16-2 16-8 17-4 18-0
11-2 11-9 12-6 13-3 14-0 14-7 15-4 16-1 16-8 17-5 18-2 18-9 19-6 20-3 21-0
12-8 13-6 14-4 15-2 16-0 16-8 17-6 18-4 19-2 20-0 20-3 21-6 22-4 23-2 24-0
14-4 15-3 16-2 17-1 18-0 18-9 19-8 20-7 21-6 22-5 23-4 24-3 25-2 26-1 270
31 32 33 34 33 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
3-1 3-2
3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 4-0 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5
6-2 6-4
6-6 6-8 7-0 7-2 7-4 7-6 7-8 8-0 8-2 8-4 8-6 8-8 9-0
9-3 9-6 9-9 10-2 10-5 10-8 11-1 11-4 11-7 12-0 12-3 12-6 12-9 13-2 13-5
12-4 12-8 13-2 13-6 140 14-4 14-8 15-2 15-6 160 16-4 16-8 17-2 17-6 180
15-5 160 16-5 17-0 17-5 18-0 18-5 190 19-5 20-0 20-5 21-0 21-5 22-0 22-5
18-6 19-2 19-8 20-4 21-0 21-6 22-2 22-8 23-4 240 24-6 25-2 25-8 26-4 27-0
21-7 22-4 23-1 23-8 24-5 25-2 25-9 26-6 27-3 28-0 28-7 29-4 30-1 30-8 31-5
24-8 25-6 26-4 27-2 280 28-8 29-6 30-4 31-2 320 32-8 33-6 34-4 35-2 36-0
27-9 28-8 29-7 30-6 31-5 32-4 33-3 34-2 35-1 360 36-9 37-8 38-7 39-6 40-5
46 47 48 49 50 51 32 53 54 S3 56 57 58 59 60
4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 5-0 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 60
9-2 9-4 9-6 9-8 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 110 11-2 U-4 11-6 11-8 12-0
13-8 14-1 14-4 14-7 150 15-3 15-6 15-9 16-2 16-5 16-8 17-1 17-4 17-7 18-0
18-4 18-8 19-2 19-6 20-0 20-4 20-8 21-2 21-6 22-0 22-4 22-8 23-2 23-6 24-0
23-0 23-5 24-0 24-5 25-0 25-5 26-0 26-5 27-0 27-5 28-0 28-5 390 29-5 30
27-6 28-2 28-8 29-4 30-0 30-6 31-2 31-8 32-4 33-0 33-6 34-2 34-8 35-4 36-0
32-2 32-9 33-6 34-3 350 35-7 36-4 37-1 37-8 38-5 39-2 39-9 40-6 41-3 42-0
36-8 37-6 38-4 39-2 40-0 40-8 41-6 42-4 43-2 44-0 44-8 45-6 46-4 47-2 480
41-4 42-3 43-2 44-1 45-0 45-9 46-8 47-7 48-6 49-5 50-4 51-3 52-2 53-1 540
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8 6-9 7-0 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5
12-2 12-4 12-6 12-8 13-0 13-2 13-4 13-6 13-8 14-0 14-2 14-4 14-6 14-8 15-0
18-3 18-6 18-9 19-2 19-5 19-8 20-1 20-4 20-7 21-0 21-3 21-6 21-9 22-2 22-5
24-4 24-8 25-2 25-6 26-0 26-4 26-8 27-2 27-6 28-0 28-4 28-8 29-2 29-6 300
30-5 31-0 31-5 32-0 32-5 33-0 33-5 34-0 34-5 35-0 35-5 360 36-5 37-0 37-5
36-6 37-2 37-8 38-4 39-0 39-6 40-2 40-8 41-4 42-0 42-6 43-2 43-8 44-4 450
42-7 43-4 44-1 44-8 45-5 46-2 46-9 47-6 48-3 49-0 49-7 50-4 51-1 51-8 52-5
48-8 49-6 50-4 51-2 52-0 52-8 53-6 54-4 55-2 56-0 56-8 57-6 58-4 59-2 600
54-9 55-8 56*7 57-6 58-5 59-4 60-3 61-2 62-1 63-0 63-9 64-8 65-7 66-6 67-5
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88
76
7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 8-0 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6 8-7 88
15-6 15-8 160 16-2 16-4 16-6 16-8 17-0 17-2 17-4 17-6
15-2 15-4
22-8 231 23-4 23:7 240 24-3 24-6 24-9 25-2 25-5 261 26-4
25-8
304 30-8 31-2 31-6 32-0 32-4 32-8 33-2 33-6 340 348 352
34-4
390 39-5 400 40-5 41-0 41-5 42-0 42-5 430 43-5 440
380 38-5
45-6 46-2 46-8 47-4 48-0 48-6 49-2 49-8 50-4 51-0 51-6 52-2 52-8
53-2 53-9 54-6 55-3 56-0 56-7 57-4 581 58-8 59-5 60-2 609 61-6
60-8 61-6 62-4 63-2 640 64-8 65-6 66-4 67-2 680 68-8 69-6 70-4
720 72-9 73-8 74-7 75-6 76-5 77-4 78-3 79-2
684 693 70-2 71-1
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101
8-9 90 91 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7 9-8 9-9 100 101
17-8 180 18-2 18-4 18-6 18-8 190 19-2 19-4 19-6 19-8 200 20-2
26-7 27- 27-3 27-6 27-9 28-2 28-5 28-8 29-1 29-4 29-7 300 30-3
35-6 360 36-4 36-8 37-2 37-6 380 38-4 38-8 39-2 39-6 400 40-4
44-5 450 45-5 46-0 46-5 47-0 47-5 48-0 48-5 490 49-5 500 50-5
53-4 54-0 54-6 55-2 55-8 56-4 57-0 57-6 58-2 58-8 59-4 60-0 60-6
62-3 630 63-7 64-4 651 65-8 66-5 67-2 67-9 68-6 69-3 700 70-7
71-2 720 72-8 73-6 74-4 72-2 76-0 76-8 77-6 78-4 79-2 800 80-8
80-1 81-0 81-9 82-8 83-7 84-6 85-5 86-4 87-3 88-2 89-1 900 90-9
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114
10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 110 11-1 11-2 11-3 11-4
20-4 20-6 20-8 21-0 21-2 21-4 21-6 21-8 220 22-2 22-4 22-6 22-8
30-6 30-9 31-2 31-5 31-8 32-1 32-4 32-7 330 33-3 33-6 33-9 34-2
40-8 41-2 41-6 42-0 42-4 42-8 43-2 43-6 44- 44-4 44-8 45-2 45-6
510 51-5 520 52-5 53-0 53-5 540 54-5 550 55-5 56-0 56-5 570
61-2 61-8 62-4 63-0 63-6 64-2 64-8 65-4 66-0 66-6 67-2 67-8 68-4
71-4 72-1 72-8 73-5 74-2 74-9 75-6 76-3 77-0 77-7 78-4 79-1 79-8
81-6 82-4 83-2 840 84-8 85-6 86-4 87-2 88-0 88-8 89-6 90-4 91-2
91-8 92-7 93-6 94-5 95-4 96-3 97-2 98-1 99-0 99-9 100-8 101-7 102-6
115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127
11-5 11-6 11-7 11-8 11-9 120 12-1 12-2 12-3 12-4 12-5 12-6 12-7
230 23-2 23-4 23-6 23-8 24-0 24-2 24-4 24-6 24-8 250 25-2 25-4
34-5 34-8 351 35-4 35-7 36-0 36-3 36-6 36-9 37-2 37-5 37-8 381
46-0 46-4 46-8 47-2 47-6 480 48-4 48-8 49-2 49-6 50-0 50-4 50-8
57-5 580 58-5 590 59-5 60-0 60-5 61-0 61-5 62-0 62-5 63-0 63-5
69-0 69-6 70-2 70-8 71-4 720 72-6 73-2 73-8 74-4 75-0 75-6 76-2
80-5 81-2 81-9 82-6 83-3 84-0 84-7 85-4 86-1 86-8 87-5 88-2 88-9
92-0 92-8 93-6 94-4 95-2 96- 96-8 97-6 98-4 99-2 1000 100-8 101-6
103-5 104-4 105-3 106-2 107 1 108-0 108-9 109-8 110-7 111-6 112-5 113-4 114-3
128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
12-8 12-9 13-0 131 13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5 13-6 13-7 13-8 13-9 14-0
256 25-8 26-0 26-2 26-4 26-6 26-8 27-0 27-2 27-4 27-6 27-8 28-0
38-4 38-7 39-0 39-3 39-6 39-9 40-2 40-5 40-8 411 41-4 41-7 420
51-2 51-6 52-0 52-4 52-8 53-2 53-6 54-0 54-4 54-8 55-2 55-6 560
64-0 64-5 65-0 65-5 660 66-5 67-0 67-5 680 68-5 69-0 69-5 700
76-8 77-4 78-0 78-6 79-2 79-8 80-4 81-0 81-6 82-2 82-8 83-4 84-0
89-6 90-3 91-0 91-7 92-4 93-1 93-8 94-5 95-2 95-9 96-6 97-3 980
102-4 103-2 104-0 104-8 105-6 106-4 107-2 108-0 108-8 109-6 110-4 111-2 112-0
115-2 116-1 1170 117-9 118-8 119-7 120-6 121-5 122-4 123-3 124-2 1251 1260
EXPLANATIONS OF USE OF TABLES
A. Method of linear interpolation
If, for the sake of greater accuracy in calculation, intermediary
values must be found lying between the tabulated values,
linear interpolation is usually used. The interval between two
values given is divided into equal parts (usually 10), intermediary
values of the function tabulated being obtained corresponding to
the points of division (see Fig.).
Curve Y- vz
!'
J^Ssî
^
1
o
> **

1.
t
CO cp
TO
" a a >
c\ 013
u, 10
Geometrically, this means that the chord between the two

known values is used as an approximation to the actual segment
of the curve corresponding to the given function between these
points. The ordinate corresponding to the required value of the
function then extends up to the chord instead of to the curve.
The error A d is then markedly dependent on the form of the
function and, for curves which depart considerably from linearity,
can be so large as to render such interpolation impermissible.
An idea of the error attending an interpolation procedure can
best be obtained by plotting three or four points of the function
concerned. For large deviations, the intermediary values can be
more accurately obtained by graphical than by numerical inter-
polation. The error is further dependent on the distance apart
706
of the values tabulated. Accordingly it must be kept in mind that

interpolation should not be used where there are large differences
D (often at the beginnings of tables). But usually the error is so
small that it is contained within the uncertainty occasioned by
rounding off the last place.
Example:
Given x =3-284, to find Vx =
V3-284. The root cannot be
taken directly from Table I. If we had a Table in which the x- values
were given at intervals of 0-001 instead of 0-01, we could extract
the following values from it:
x Vx
3-2801 1-8111
= 4 d = 11
3-284 1-8122]
10 Y D= 27.
3-290 1-8138
In the problem we have
x = 3-28, ^^28 = 1-8111;
x = 3-29, ^3-29 = 1-8138;
x = 3-284, V3-284 required;

n = 4 (more correctly, 3-284 3-280 = 0-004);
D = 27 (more correctly, 1-8138 - 1-8111 = 0-0027);

n:10 = d:D.
These values yield d and hence the required value V3-284. For
the sake of simplicity we use only digits in the last two decimal
places (in the example, 4, 10, 11, 27). Since n: 10 = d: D, we have
D
n.
10
707
Thus in the example
27 108
</=ttX4
10 "
= -rr- = 10-8, or 11 after rounding-off.
10
3-284 is thus 1-8111

+ 11
1-8122.
This value coincides with the value which would have been
obtained from a more refined tabulation.
An inverse procedure is necessary if we have to start out from
the table-values, i.e. if we have to determine an argument corre-
sponding to a given function-value.
Thus in our example, suppose the root-value, namely 1-8122,
is given and the radicand (3-284) is to be found. In this case the
equation : 10 =
d: D must be solved for n:
n =
zyio
In the example
11 110
n ~~
27/10
~ 27
4;
thus the radicand is
3 280
+ 4
3-284.
To simplify the calculation we frequently use a table of

proportional parts.
B. Table of Proportional Parts

From such a table (see p. 704) can be read off directly the
value D n = d corresponding to D, or the value

d
. _ =n corre-
sponding to d. The table is so arranged that D is found in the
708
horizontal border, n in the perpendicular border and d in the

table itself. Thus in our example, for 27 and n 4, D= =
d= 10-8 11.
C. Hints for Individual Tables

Table 1, p. 601
This table may be used for more purposes than appear at first
sight.
(a) Powers ofx.
Proceeding from the jc-column to x2 x3 and - yields squares, ,
cubes and reciprocals of x.
E.g. x = 1-28 -> x2 = 1-6384, Xs = 2-097, - = 0-78125.
But we can also obtain squares and cubes by proceeding from

the Vx- and -^x-columns to the x-columns;
e.g. x =
1-2207 (found in the Vx-column) gives x2 1-49 =
(found in the x-column) x ; =
2-0793 (found in the column
^x-column) gives x3 = 8-99 (found in the x-column).
If operate with the columns jc2 , x3 , Vx,

we we can obtain ^x
powers with fractional exponents, powers of roots or roots of
powers.
E.g. semi-cubical parabolay = 372 for x (found

jc : in the
x2 -column) we y
find = /2
x? in the ^-column.
x= 1-96-^j = 2-744.
The column for VlOx extends the range [1-00-10-00] to
[10-00-100-0];
e.g. V79-9: x = 7-99 -> VlO x 7-99 = VT^ = 8-939.
(b) Roots ofx

Square- and cube-roots are in general obtained by passing
from the x-column to the columns for Vx and Vx;
e.g. x = 3-41 - Vx = 1-8466, Vx = 1-5052.

709
; ;
But the roots can also be obtained by passing from the x2- and
.^-columns to the x-column.
E.g. x = 2-1316 (found in the jt*-column) - Vx = 1-46

(found in the ^-column)
x =
42-144 (found in the ^-column) - tyx = 3-48
(found in the jc-column).
In obtaining values corresponding to numbers outside the

range given in the table, careful attention must be paid to rules
for moving the decimal point (a preliminary estimate of the
position of the decimal point is always advisable).
Examples:
1. If a value n is given which is 10 times as large as the available
value in the jc-column, we make the following modifications in

arriving at
2 : multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the

x2 -column by 100;
n3 : multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the

j^-column by 1,000;
Vn: look for the value corresponding to x in the 1 Ox-column;
Vn: look for the value n in the ^-column corresponding to x?

such that Vn appears in the ^-column
-: multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the
column for - by 0-1.
Numerical example: n = 14-5; to find n 2 , 3 , Vn, Vn,
n2 : x = 1-45 - x = 2-1025 -> n = 210-25;

2 2
n3 : x = 1-45 - x? = 3-049 -* = 3049 3

;
Vn: x = 1-45 -* Violc = 3-808 = Vn.
710
;; ;
Intermediary values can be found by interpolation provided D is

not too large:
Vn: x3 = 14-349-** = 2-43 D = 178 _ 151 . 10

x3 = 14-527 ->x= 2-44 d= 151 n ~ 178
x3 = 14-5 -> x = 2-438 = Vn.
-: x = 1-45 -* i = 0-68966 i = 0-068966.

n x
2. If on the other hand we have a value n which is one-tenth

of some value in the x-column, we obtain
2 : by multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the

x2 -column by 0-01
n3 : by multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the
x^column by 0-001
-: by multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the
- column by 10;
Vn: by multiplication of the value corresponding to x in the

1 Ox-column by 0-1
Vn: by looking up lOOOn in the ^-column and then multi-

plying the associated value in the x-column by 0-1.
Numerical example: n = 0-343; to find n2 , n3 , -, Vn, Vn;
n2 : x = 3-43 ->x2 = 1-7649 ->na = 0-117,649;

1
3
: x = 3-43 - x3 = 40-354 -> 3 = 0-040,354;
-: x = 3-43 ->- = 0-29155 -> - = 2-9155;

n x n
Vn: x = 3-43 -> Vita = 5-857 -+Vn = 0-5857;

^ : x3 = 343 - x = 7 = 0-7. ^
711
Table 2, p. 621
The logarithms in this table are taken with respect to base 10,
i.e. are Briggsian or common logarithms. The logarithms of a
number occurs in two parts, the characteristic and the mantissa;
e.g. log 38 = 1-57978 1 = characteristic 57978 = mantissa.

With respect to base 10, the logarithms of numbers with the same
digits (e.g.: 240; 24, 2-4; 0-24) are distinguished only by the
characteristic
they each have the same mantissa (38021). Since
the characteristic is easily determined, it is sufficient in Table 2
to give mantissas. These are given to 5 places. To save space, the
firsttwo figures are omitted from all but the first column. Where
the second figure changes within a row, this is indicated by an
asterisk (*). Thus from the number indicated onwards the initial
2 figures from the next row are to be used.
Determination of the characteristic

If a number is expressed as a power of ten, the exponent of the
power is equal to the logarithm of the number;
log 100 = 2-000,00 since 10 2 = 100,
log 38 = 1-579,78 since 10 1 ' 579 . 78

= 38.
The characteristic indicates how many

times 10 or an integral
(positive or negative) contained in the number
power of ten is
concerned. For this reason it is useful, in determining the

characteristic, to split up the numbers occurring as follows:
Factorisation Characteristic Logarithm
3-15 = 3-15 . 10 0-49831

31-5 =315. 10 1 1 1-49831
315 = 3-15 . 10 2 2 2-49831
etc.
0-315 = 3-15 .
10-1 -1 0-49831 - 1
0-0315 =315. 10-2 -2 0-49831 -2

0-00315 = 3-15 .
10-3 -3 0-49831 -3.
712
Negative characteristics are written either after the mantissa, or

in front of the mantissa with a bar above to indicate the negative
sign. E.g. log 0-0315 0-49831 2 = 2-49831. - =
Rules to note
1. (a) The characteristic of the logarithm of a number greater
than 1 is 1 less than the number of digits to the left of the decimal
point:
e.g. log 1000 has characteristic41 = 3;
log 10 has characteristic 21 = 1.
(b) Conversely, a number always has one more digit to the

left of its decimal point than the characteristic of its logarithm
gives.
E.g. 3-55023 is the log of 3550; 1-49831 is the log of 31-5.
2. (a) The characteristic of the logarithm of a number less

than 1 is negative and absolute value is one greater than the
its
number of zeros immediately following the decimal point.
E.g. log 0-315, characteristic 1;

log 0-00315, characteristic 3.
(b) Conversely, anumber has one less zero immediately after

its decimal point than the characteristic of its logarithm.
E.g. 3-49831 is the log of 0-00315;
0-49831 - 1 is the log of 0-315.
Rules for calculating

To multiply numbers, their logarithms are added.
To divide numbers, their logarithms are subtracted.
To take the power of a number, its logarithm is multiplied by
the exponent.
To take the root of a number, its logarithm is divided by the
index of the root.
Conversion of common logarithms to natural logarithms (base

e =
2-71828...):
log x = log e x In x, log x = 0-43429 x In x,

In jc = 2-3026 x log x.
713
Table 3, p. 641
This table has as argument the angle x measured in radians
(arc-length of the unit circle). Corresponding values in degrees
are given in the second column, sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x are the
abbreviations for sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent, the
trigonometric functions.
Table 4, p. 660
In the In x column we have the natural logarithms of numbers
appearing under x. Natural logarithms are based on the number
e = 2-71828. and are abbreviated as In.
. .
Powers of e are to be found in the e x and e~x columns.
Conversion of natural logarithms to common logarithms:
log x = log e X In x log x = 0-43429 X In x
log e = 0-43429
In x = ~! In * = 2-3026 X log
jc.
log e
Table 5, p. 694
This table has as argument the angle <j> measured in degrees.
Corresponding arc-lengths of the unit circle (^ in radians) are
given in the x-column and values of the four principal trigono-
metric functions in the remaining columns.
Since sin (90 <f>)
=
cos <f>, tan (90 <f>)
=
cot <f> and con-
versely cos (90 4>) =
sin <f>, cot (90 <f>)
=
tan <f>, <f> runs on
the left side of the table (reading from top to bottom) from 0 to
45 and on the right side of the table (reading from bottom to
top) from 45 to 90. Similarly with x. For angles between 0
and 45 the designations at the head of the table are the relevant
ones, for angles between 45 and 90 those in the lower border.
E.g.: sin 33 = 0-5446 = cos 57,

sin 78 = 0-9781 = cos 12.
Functions of angles greater than 90 can also be obtained
by observing the following rules:
directly,
714
sin (90 =F <f>)

*= cos <f>
= sin sin (180 =F <f>) (f>
cos (90 =F = sin

<) cos (180 T
< = - cos <) <
tan (90 =F = cot

<) tan (180 =F
< = T tan <) <f>
cot (90 T = tan

<f>)
cot (180 T
< = ^ cot <f>) <f>
e.g. tan 131 = tan (90 + 41) = - cot 41 = -1-1504
cos 168 = cos (180 - 12) = - cos 12 = -0-9781
sin 253 = sin (180 + 73) = - sin 73 = -0-9563
cot 210 = cot (180 + 30) = + cot 30 = +1-7321.
The trigonometrical functions of angles between 720 and 360

are obtained by referring to values <f>

360 in the table, since
the trigonometrical functions repeat themselves after 360; and
so on.
The radian-measure of angles greater than 90 can easily be
obtained by taking ? & 1-5708 for each 90 contained in the
angle, reading off the residual angle from the table, and adding;
e.g. <f>
= =3*
288 90 + 18,
and so x = 3 X 1-5708 + 0-3142 = 5-0266
A Tr .
'"
~'OM PI"
::
""i?A^'^
715
GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD
London: 40 Museum Street, W.C.I
Auckland: 24 Wyndham Street
Bombay: 15 Graham Road, Ballard Estate, Bombay 1
Bridgetown: P.O. Box 222

Buenos Aires: Escritorio 454-459, Florida 165
Calcutta: 17 Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta 13
Cape Town: 109 Long Street
Hong Kong: 44 Mody Road, Kowloon
Ibadan: P.O. Box 62
Karachi: Karachi Chambers, McLeod Road
Madras: Mohan Mansions, 38c Mount Road, Madras 6
Mexico: Villalongin 32-10, Piso, Mexico 5, D.F.
Nairobi: P.O. Box 4536
New Delhi: 13-14 AsafAli Road, New Delhi 1
Sao Paulo: Avenida 9 de Julho 1138-Ap. 51

Singapore: 36c Prinsep Street, Singapore 7
Sydney, N.S.W.: Bradbury House, 55 ForA: SfreeJ
Tokyo: 10 Kanda-Ogawamachi, 3-Chome, Chiyoda-Ku
Toronto: 91 Wellington Street West, Toronto 1
Jifsirrv
ATMSMATICS
george allen
and unwin
&m

TheUniversalEncyclopediaOfMathematics Text

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TheUniversalEncyclopediaOfMathematics Text

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TheUniversalEncyclopediaOfMathematics Text

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GEORGE ALIEN

ATHERTON PU3LIC LIBRARY

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention.

This English version George Allen & Unwln Ltd, 1964

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

ALPHABETICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA UNDER SUBJECTS 11

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE 492

II. Algebra 499

in. Applications 507

iv. Geometry and Trigonometry 513

v. Analytical Geometry 536

vi. Special Functions 557

vn. Series and Expansions in Series 572

viil Differentia! Calculus 582

ix. Integral Calculus 587

MATHEMATICAL TABLES 599

Explanations of Use of Tables 706

Curiously enough, despite the immense growth in popularity of

standard works; also, there has been an outpouring of self-help and

ward, unencumbered definition is usually followed by a more detailed

assumed to be reasonably conversant with the fundamentals of analyti-

retains a flickering interest in

ATHEftTON puuLIC LIBRARY

is reckoned as z = Va + b2 In the Argand diagram (see below),

the absolute value (modulus) of a complex number is the distance

Addition of literal numbers

|+2| = 2. The absolute value of a complex number z = a + ib

the absolute value (modulus) of a complex number is the distance

Addition of literal numbers

ADDITION THEOREMS FOR TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Summands may be interchanged {commutative law)',

a + b +c= (a + b) +c=a+ (b + c).

Addition of directed numbers

a + (+b) = a + b, 5 + (+3) =5+3= 8.

To add one negative number to another, its absolute value is

a + (-b) = a-b, (-a) + (-b) = -(a + b);

Addition of powers and surds

3V2 + 5V3 + V2 = 4V2 + 5V3.

Addition of complex numbers

(5 + 3/) + (17 - = 22 + 2i.

Addition theorems for trigonometric functions

II. sin (a /0 = sin a cos cos a sin ($

III. cos (a + ft)

IV. cos (a. ft)

OD = cos DE = OD sin a = sin a cos

OE = OD cos a, Zd = sin C^ = AD sin a. ft,

Further, ^4C = AD cos a = sin ft cos a.

that is, sin (a + ft)

cos (a + ) = = OB=OE-BE=OE- ~CD,

that is, cos (a + ft)

y4D = sin DE = AD cos a = cos a sin

OD = cos DC = OZ) sin a = cos sin a,

0C = OX) cos a = cos cos a, ft

-4.E = /4D sin a = sin sin a. j8

ADDITION THEOREMS FOR TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Then sin (a - /?) = AB = EC = DC - DE = sin a cos /?

and cos (a /?) = OB = OC + CB == OC + EA =

Formulae V-VIII are obtained immediately from the relations

<p = -zzn anc*

Trigonometric functions of double angles

A = i[i02 - )>z) + 2(>3 - Ji) + *z(yi - Ja)]-