CHAPTER 4

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

A NSWERS TO Q UESTIONS
4.1 The twisting of the individual pairs reduces electromagnetic interference. For
example, it reduces crosstalk between wire pairs bundled into a cable.

4.2 Twisted pair wire is subject to interference, limited in distance, bandwidth, and
data rate.

4.3 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is ordinary telephone wire, with no form of
electromagnetic shielding around the wire. Shielded twisted pair (STP) surrounds
the wire with a metallic braid or sheathing that reduces interference.

4.4 Optical fiber consists of a column of glass or plastic surrounded by an opaque outer
jacket. The glass or plastic itself consists of two concentric columns. The inner
column called the core has a higher index of refraction than the outer column called
the cladding.

4.5 Point-to-point microwave transmission has a high data rate and less attenuation
than twisted pair or coaxial cable. It is affected by rainfall, however, especially
above 10 GHz. It is also requires line of sight and is subject to interference from
other microwave transmission, which can be intense in some places.

4.6 Direct broadcast transmission is a technique in which satellite video signals are
transmitted directly to the home for continuous operation.

4.7 A satellite must use different uplink and downlink frequencies for continuous
operation in order to avoid interference.

4.8 Broadcast is omnidirectional, does not require dish shaped antennas, and the
antennas do not have to be rigidly mounted in precise alignment.

4.9 The two functions of an antenna are: (1) For transmission of a signal, radio-
frequency electrical energy from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic
energy by the antenna and radiated into the surrounding environment (atmosphere,
space, water); (2) for reception of a signal, electromagnetic energy impinging on the
antenna is converted into radio-frequency electrical energy and fed into the receiver.

4.10 An isotropic antenna is a point in space that radiates power in all directions
equally.

4.11 A parabolic antenna creates, in theory, a parallel beam without dispersion. In

practice, there will be some beam spread. Nevertheless, it produces a highly
focused, directional beam.

4.12 Effective area and wavelength.

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4.13 Free space loss.

4.14 Refraction is the bending of a radio beam caused by changes in the speed of
propagation at a point of change in the medium.

4.15 Diffraction occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to
the wavelength of the radio wave. The edge in effect become a source and waves
radiate in different directions from the edge, allowing a beam to bend around an
obstacle. If the size of an obstacle is on the order of the wavelength of the signal or
less, scattering occurs. An incoming signal is scattered into several weaker
outgoing signals in unpredictable directions.

A NSWERS TO PROBLEMS
4.1 Elapsed time = (5000 km)/(1000 km/hr) = 5 hours = 18,000 seconds
Amount of data per diskette = 1.4 × 10242 × 8 = 11.74 × 106 bits/diskette

Number of diskettes = (107 g)/(30 g/diskette) = 333333 diskettes

Data transfer rate =

(11.74 × 106 bits diskette) × (333333 diskettes)
= 217 Mbps
18, 000 seconds

4.2 10 log (Po/P i ) = –20dB; Therefore, Po/P i = 0.01

For Pi = 0.5 Watt, Po = 0.005 Watt

SNR = 0.005/(4.5 × 10-6) = 1.11× 103

SNRdB = 10 log (1.11 × 10 3) = 30 dB

4.3 The allowable power loss is 10 × log 100 = 20 dB

a. From Figure 4.3, the attenuation is about 13 dB per km.
Length = (20 dB)/(13 dB per km) = 1.5 km
b. Length = (20 dB)/(20 dB per km) = 1 km
c. Length = (20 dB)/(2.5 dB per km) = 8 km
d. Length = (20 dB)/(10 dB per km) = 2 km
e. Length = (20 dB)/(0.2 dB per km) = 100 km

4.4 An electromagnetic wave cannot penetrate an enclosing conductor. If the outer

conductor of a coaxial cable is everywhere held at ground potential, no external
disturbance can reach the inner, signal-carrying, conductor.

4.5 From Equation 4,2, the ratio of transmitted power to received power is
Pt/P r = (4πd/λ) 2
If we double the frequency, we halve λ, or if we double the distance, we double d,
so the new ratio for either of these events is:
Pt/P r2 = (8πd/λ) 2
Therefore:

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 10 log (Pr /P r2) = 10 log (22 ) = 6 dB

4.6 We have λf = c; in this case λ × 30 = 3 × 108 m/sec, which yields a wavelength of

10,000 km. Half of that is 5,000 km which is comparable to the east-to-west
dimension of the continental U.S. While an antenna this size is impractical, the U.S.
Defense Department has considered using large parts of Wisconsin and Michigan
to make an antenna many kilometers in diameter.

4.7 a. Using λf = c, we have λ = (3 × 10 8 m/sec)/(300 Hz) = 1,000 km, so that

λ/2 = 500 km.
b. The carrier frequency corresponding to λ/2 = 1 m is given by:
f = c/λ = (3 × 108 m/sec)/(2 m) = 150 MHz.

4.8 λ = 2 × 2.5 × 10 –3 m = 5 × 10–3 m

f = c/λ = (3 × 108 m/sec)/( 5 × 10-3 m) = 6 × 1010 Hz = 60 GHz

4.9 The received signal is, essentially, the same. The received power will increase by a
factor of 4

4.10 Signal loss is proportional to the square of the frequency. Thus, the higher the
frequency, the higher power is needed to obtain a given SNR. Power is much more
readily available at earth stations than at satellites. Therefore, it makes more sense
to put the higher power requirements on the earth stations than on the satellites.

4.11
Distance (km) Radio (dB) Wire (dB)
1 –6 –3
2 –12 –6
4 –18 –12
8 –24 –24
16 –30 –28

4.12 a. First, take the derivative of both sides of the equation y2 = 2px:

dy 2 dy dy dy p
y = (2 px ); 2y = 2 p; =
dx dx dx dx y

Therefore tan β = (p/y1 ).

b. The slope of PF is (y1 – 0)/(x1 – (p/2)). Therefore:

y1 p
−
p y1 1
x1 − y12 − px1 + p 2
tan α = 2 2
y1 p = 1
1+ p y1 x1 y1 − 2 py1 + py1
x1 −
2
2
Because y1 = 2 px1 , this simplifies to tan α = (p/y1 ).
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4.13 LdB = 20 log(fMHz ) + 120 +20 log (dkm) + 60 – 147.56
= 20 log(fMHz ) +20 log (dkm) + 32.44

4.14 a. From Appendix 3A, PowerdBW = 10 log (PowerW) = 10 log (50) = 17 dBW
PowerdBm = 10 log (PowermW) = 10 log (50,000) = 47 dBm
b. Using Equation (4.3),
LdB = 20 log(900 × 10 6 ) +20 log (100) – 147.56 = 120 + 59.08 +40 – 147.56 = 71.52
Therefore, received power in dBm = 47 – 71.52 = –24.52 dBm
c LdB = 120 + 59.08 +80 – 147.56 =111.52; Pr,dBm = 47 – 111.52 = –64.52 dBm
d The antenna gain results in an increase of 3 dB, so that Pr,dBm = –61.52 dBm
Source: [RAPP96]

4.15 a. G = 7A/λ 2 = 7Af2 /c 2 = (7 × π × (0.6) 2 × (2×109 )2 ]/(3 × 108 )2 = 351.85

GdB = 25.46 dB
b. 0.1 W x 351.85 = 35.185 W
c. Use LdB = 20 log (4π) + 20 log (d) + 20 log (f) – 20 log (c) – 10 log(G r ) – 10 log (G t)
LdB = 21.98 + 87.6 + 186.02 – 169.54 – 25.46 – 25.46 = 75.14 dB
The transmitter power, in dBm is 10 log (100) = 20.
The available received signal power is 20 – 75.14 = –55.14 dBm

4.16

By the Pythagorean theorem: d2 + r2 = (r + h)2

Or, d2 = 2rh + h2 . The h2 term is negligible with respect to 2rh, so we use d2 = 2rh.

Then, d km = 2rkm hkm = 2rkm hm /1000 = 2 × 6.37 × hm = 3.57 hm

4.17 For radio line of sight, we use d = 3.57 Kh , with K = 4/3, we have
802 = (3.57)2 × 1.33 × h. Solving for h, we get h = 378 m.

4.18 Let RI = refractive index, α = angle of incidence, β = angle of refraction

(sin α)/sin β) = RIair/RIwater = 1.0003/(4/3) = 0.75

sin β = 0.5/0.75 = 0.66; β = 41.8°
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 CHAPTER 5
SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES

A NSWERS TO Q UESTIONS
5.1 Signal spectrum: A lack of high-frequency components means that less bandwidth
is required for transmission. In addition, lack of a direct-current (dc) component
means that ac coupling via transformer is possible. The magnitude of the effects of
signal distortion and interference depend on the spectral properties of the
transmitted signal. Clocking: Encoding can be used to synchronize the transmitter
and receiver. Error detection: It is useful to have some error detection capability
built into the physical signaling encoding scheme. Signal interference and noise
immunity: Certain codes exhibit superior performance in the presence of noise.
Cost and complexity: The higher the signaling rate to achieve a given data rate, the
greater the cost. Some codes require a signaling rate that is in fact greater than the
actual data rate.

5.2 In differential encoding, the signal is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent
signal elements rather than determining the absolute value of a signal element.

5.3 Non return-to-zero-level (NRZ-L) is a data encoding scheme in which a negative

voltage is used to represent binary one and a positive voltage is used to represent
binary zero. As with NRZ-L, NRZI maintains a constant voltage pulse for the
duration of a bit time. The data themselves are encoded as the presence or absence
of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit time. A transition (low to high or
high to low) at the beginning of a bit time denotes a binary 1 for that bit time; no
transition indicates a binary 0.

5.4 For bipolar-AMI scheme, a binary 0 is represented by no line signal, and a binary 1
is represented by a positive or negative pulse. The binary 1 pulses must alternate in
polarity. For pseudoternary, a binary 1 a is represented by the absence of a line
signal, and a binary 0 by alternating positive and negative pulses.

5.5 A biphase scheme requires at least one transition per bit time and may have as
many as two transitions. In the Manchester code, there is a transition at the middle
of each bit period; a low-to-high transition represents a 1, and a high-to-low
transition represents a 0. In differential Manchester, the midbit transition is used
only to provide clocking. The encoding of a 0 is represented by the presence of a
transition at the beginning of a bit period, and a 1 is represented by the absence of a
transition at the beginning of a bit period.

5.6 In a scrambling technique, sequences that would result in a constant voltage level
on the line are replaced by filling sequences that will provide sufficient transitions
for the receiver's clock to maintain synchronization. The filling sequence must be
recognized by the receiver and replaced with the original data sequence. The filling
sequence is the same length as the original sequence, so there is no data rate
penalty.

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 5.7 A modem converts digital information into an analog signal, and conversely.

5.8 With amplitude-shift keying, binary values are represented by two different
amplitudes of carrier frequencies. This approach is susceptible to sudden gain
changes and is rather inefficient.

5.9 The difference is that offset QPSK introduces a delay of one bit time in the Q stream

5.10 QAM takes advantage of the fact that it is possible to send two different signals
simultaneously on the same carrier frequency, by using two copies of the carrier
frequency, one shifted by 90˚ with respect to the other. For QAM, each carrier is
ASK modulated.

5.11 The sampling rate must be higher than twice the highest signal frequency.

5.12 Frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) are special cases of angle
modulation. For PM, the phase is proportional to the modulating signal. For FM,
the derivative of the phase is proportional to the modulating signal.

A NSWERS TO PROBLEMS
5.1 NRZI, Differential Manchester

5.2 NRZ-L produces a high level for binary 0 and a low level for binary 1. Map this
level as indicated by the definition for 1 and 0 for each of the other codes.

5.3 First, E-NRZ provides a minimum transition rate that reduces the dc component.
Second, under worst case, E-NRZ provides a minimum of one transition for every
14 bits, reducing the synchronization problem. Third, the parity bit provides an
error check. The disadvantages of E-NRZ are added complexity and the overhead
of the extra parity bit.
  
5.4

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 In this diagram, a dashed arrow represents a binary 0 and a solid arrow represents
a binary 1. The labels –, 0, and + are used to indicate the line voltages: negative,
zero, and positive, respectively.

5.5 a. cm = bm – b m–1 = (am + bm–1) – b m–1 = am

b. Bipolar-AMI

5.6

5.7 With Manchester, there is always a transition in the middle of a bit period.

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

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5.8

5.9 The error is at bit position 7, where there is a negative pulse. For AMI, positive and
negative pulses are used alternately for binary 1. The pulse in position 1 represents
the third binary 1 in the data stream and should have a positive value.

5.10
+–0+–0–+

BPV
could have been produced by either

+–0+–+–+
error: converted to 0
+–0+–0–+

or

+–0+00–+
error: converted to –
+–0+–0–+

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5.11

0 1 1 0 0

ASK

BFSK

BPSK

5.12 Ts = signal element period; Tb = bit period; A = amplitude = 0.005

a. Ts = T b = 10-5 sec

T
1 s 2 A2
P= s ( t )
Ts ∫0
=
2

A2
Eb = P × Tb = P × Ts = × Ts ; N 0 = 2.5 × 10 −8 × Ts
2
Eb
=
(
A2 2 × Ts ) = 500 ; (Eb N0 )dB = 10 log 500 = 27 dB
N0 2.5 × 10−8 × Ts
b.
Ts T
Tb = ; Eb = P × s ; N 0 = 2.5 × 10 −8 × Ts
2 2
(Eb N 0 ) = 250; (Eb N 0 )dB = 10log 250 = 24dB
5.13 Each signal element conveys two bits. First consider NRZ-L. It should be clear
that in this case, D = R/2. For the remaining codes, one must first determine the
average number of pulses per bit. For example, for Biphase-M, there is an average
of 1.5 pulses per bit. We have a pulse rate of P, which yields a data rate of
R = P/1.5
D = P/2 = (1.5 x R)/2 = 0.75 × R

5.14 Eb /N0 = (S/N) (B/R)

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 S/N = (R/B) (Eb /N0) = 1 × (Eb /N0)
(S/N) dB = (E b /N0)dB

For FSK and ASK, from Figure 5.4, (Eb /N0)dB = 13.5 dB
(S/N) dB = 13.5 dB

For PSK, from Figure 5.4, (Eb /N0)dB = 10.5

(S/N) dB = 10.5 dB

For QPSK, the effective bandwidth is halved, so that

(R/B) = 2
(R/B) dB = 3
(S/N) dB = 3 + 10.5 = 13.5 dB

5.15 For ASK, BT = (1 + r)R = (1.5)2400 = 3600 Hz

For FSK, BT = 2 Δ F + (1 + r)R = 2(2.5 x 103 ) + (1.5)2400 = 8600 Hz

5.16 For multilevel signaling BT = [(1 + r)/log2 L]R

For 2400 bps QPSK, log2 L = log2 4 = 2

BT = (2/2)2400 = 2400 Hz, which just fits the available bandwidth

For 8-level 4800 bps signaling, log2 L = log2 8 = 3

BT = (2/3)(4800) = 3200 Hz, which exceeds the available bandwidth

5.17 s(t) = d 1 (t)cos wct + d 2 (t)sin wct

Use the following identities: cos2α = 2cos2 α – 1; sin2α = 2sinα cosα

s(t) coswct = d 1 (t)cos2 wct + d 2 (t)sinwct coswct

= (1/2)d1 (t) + (1/2)d1 (t) cos2wct + (1/2)d2 (t) sin2wct

Use the following identities: cos2α = 1 – 2 sin 2 α; sin2α = 2sinα cosα

s(t) sinw ct = d 1 (t) coswct sinwct + d 2 (t)sin2 wct

= (1/2)d1 (t) sin2wct + (1/2)d2 (t) - (1/2)d2 (t) cos2wct

All terms at 2wc are filtered out by the low-pass filter, yielding:

y1 (t) = (1/2)d1 (t); y 2 (t) = (1/2)d2 (t)

5.18 As was mentioned in the text, analog signals in the voice band that represent
digital data have more high frequency components than analog voice signals.
These higher components cause the signal to change more rapidly over time.
Hence, DM will suffer from a high level of slope overload noise. PCM, on the
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 other hand, does not estimate changes in signals, but rather the absolute value of
the signal, and is less affected than DM.

5.19 No. The demodulator portion of a modem expects to receive a very specific type of
waveform (e.g., ASK) and would not produce meaningful output with voice input.
Thus, it would not function as the coder portion of a codec. The case against using
a codec in place of a modem is less easily explained, but the following intuitive
argument is offered. If the decoder portion of a codec is used in place of the
modulator portion of a modem, it must accept an arbitrary bit pattern, interpret
groups of bits as a sample, and produce an analog output. Some very wide value
swings are to be expected, resulting in a strange-looking waveform. Given the
effects of noise and attenuation, the digital output produced at the receiving end
by the coder portion of the codec will probably contain many errors.

5.20 From the text, (SNR)db = 6.02 n + 1.76, where n is the number of bits used for
quantization. In this case, (SNR)db = 60.2 + 1.76 = 61.96 dB.

5.21 a. (SNR)db = 6.02 n + 1.76 = 30 dB

n = (30 – 1.76)/6.02 = 4.69
Rounded off, n = 5 bits
This yields 25 = 32 quantization levels
b. R = 7000 samples/s × 5 bits/sample = 35 Kbps

5.22 The maximum slope that can be generated by a DM system is δ/T s = δ fs

where T s = period of sampling; fs = frequency of sampling
Consider that the maximum frequency component of the signal is

w(t) = A sin2πfa t

The slope of this component is dw(t)/dt = A2 π f a cos2 π f a t

and the maximum slope is A2 π fa . To avoid slope overload, we require that

2πf a A
δ fs > A2 π fa or δ >
fs

5.23 a. A total of 28 quantization levels are possible, so the normalized step size is 2 –8
= 0.003906.
b. The actual step size, in volts, is: 0.003906 × 10V = 0.03906V

c. The maximum normalized quantized voltage is 1 – 2–8 = 0.9961. Thus the

actual maximum quantized voltage is:
0.9961 × 10V = 9.961V

d. The normalized step size is 2–8. The maximum error that can occur is one-half
the step size. Therefore, the normalized resolution is:
+ 1/2 × 2 –8 = 0.001953
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