INIIERE IN REALIZAREA PRACTIC A

SCHEMELOR ELECTRONICE (IRPSE)

IRPSE 3
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 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are two-lead devices that
are similar to pn-junction diodes, except that they are
designed to emit visible or infrared light. When a
LEDs anode lead is made more positive in voltage
than its cathode lead (by at least 0.6 to 4.1 V), current
flows through the device and light is emitted.
However, if the polarities are reversed (anode is made
more negative than the cathode), the LED will not
conduct, and hence it will not emit light.
The symbol of a LED is shown in following picture: Different type of LEDs

Electric drawing symbols for LEDs

Classic "5mm LED" and SMD power LED

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LED Structure

In conventional package
the LED is cylindrical with
a hemispherical top that
acts as a lens. The leads
are relatively thick, to
conduct heat away from
the component.
The cathode leadframe
has highly reflective metal
(like silver) deposit on the
contact surface with
semiconductor chip, to
form a reflective cavity.
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Current-Voltage characteristics of the LED

Current-Voltage characteristics of the LED is very important for LED applications.

The I-V characteristic of LED is from a typical semiconductor diode.
It shows that current increases exponentially as voltage increases. I-V
characteristics of different colors of LED are given in the graph, where can be
seen different forward voltages according to the color of the LED.

The reverse breakdown voltage of rectifier diodes is usually very high, for instance
for 1N4002 this is 200 V and for 1N4007 1000 V.
LEDs have usually very low reverse breakdown voltage (Vbr ~5 V)! 4
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LED operation
When a LED is to be connected to a power supply it should be current limited
using a series resistor to protect it from excessive current flow. The amount of
current that flows through an LED must not exceed the value of IF as stated on the
LED datasheet.
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed
almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out!
From the picture above we can observe that each LED has its own forward voltage
drop across the PN junction
In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, a battery, with a
series resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe value from say IF=10
mA for a simple LED indicator.
LED Series Resistance
The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply
using Ohm's Law, by knowing the required forward
current IF of the LED, the supply voltage VS across
the circuit and the expected forward voltage drop of
the LED, VF at the required current level.
The current limiting resistor is calculated as:
VS VF
RS =
IF 5
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Light Emitting Diode Example
A blue coloured LED with a forward volt drop of 3.5 volts is to be connected to a
5.0V stabilised DC power supply. Calculate the value of the series resistor
required to limit the forward current to less than 10mA.
Also calculate the current flowing through the diode if a 100 series resistor is
used instead of the calculated first.

1. series resistor required at 10mA.

VS VF 5V 3.5V 1.5
RS = = = 3
= 150
IF 10mA 10 10

2. with a 100 series resistor.

VS VF 5V 3.5V 1.5
IF = = = = 15 mA
RS 100 100

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Electric circuit and electronic componens mounted on a
breadboard

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Electric circuit and electronic componens mounted on
a breadboard and perfoboard
Breadboard is not PCB, but
can be easily used for
prototypes.

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Modul de comand (control) n curent
Comanda n curent constant se poate face prin conectarea unui stabilizator
(regulator) de tensiune ca o surs de curent (v. figura), cu o bucl de control care s
menin la bornele rezistenei R o tensiune de aproximativ 1,25 V.
Pentru aceasta, circuitul i va regla ieirea astfel nct curentul prin rezistorul serie i
prin LEDuri s fie constant i egal cu: i = 1.25 / RRegulation
Circuitul are multiple avantaje:
are un cost relativ sczut (cteva zeci de euro-ceni pentru controlul unei puteri de
civa Watt),
este simplu, necesit puine componente, un stabilizator, un rezistor i uneori un
condensator suplimentar;
este precis, are o abatere de cteva procente fa de curentul dorit;
este stabil (stabil la variaia temperaturii i a tensiunii de intrare.

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Principalul dezavantaj al circuitului const n consumul de putere, care poate fi
neconvenabil. Dac tensiunea de intrare are o valoare prea mare fa de cderea
de tensiune pe LED-uri corespunztoare curentului ales, atunci diferena de
tensiune va conduce la o disipaie mare n elementul regulator, suplimentar faa de
cea n rezistor. Tensiunea de intrare nu poate fi nici prea mic, circuitul
stabilizator (regulator) are nevoie de o tensiune de intrare care depete uneori
1,5 -2 V iar dac se ine seama i de cderea de tensiune pe rezistor, este nevoie
de o tensiune cel puin cu 3 V mai mare dect tensiunea la bornele LED-urilor
astfel ca circuitul s funcioneze corespunztor.

O situaie care apare n practic este alimentarea de la o tensiune cu o valoare

uzual de 12V a unei conexiuni serie cu trei LED-uri albe. Dac se dorete
comanda n curent cu circuitul din figur, innd seama c la curentul nominal
cele trei LED-uri necesit 3x3,1V, la care se adaug cderea de tensiune pe
rezistor de 1,25V i de cel puin 1,5-2V pe circuitul stabilizator, se constat c se
depete tensiunea disponibil de 12V.
Exist ns unele stabilizatoare numite low dropout LDO care au o cdere de
tensiune mai mic de 0,5-0,7 V, care n acest caz pot realiza comanda
corespunztoare a celor trei diode LED albe.

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 Solid-State Lighting - SSL
SSL is an emerging and promising technology that brings benefit over classic
incandescent (tungsten) lighting. Some of them are listed below:

1. Energy efficiency: It is energy-efficient; it provides much higher energy conversion

efficiency than incandescent lamps which are known to transform only 5% of the
consumed energy into visible light, and fluorescent tube lights that are able to change
25% of the energy.
2. Low heat generation: LED lamps are cold devices, producing and radiating less heat
into the illuminated regions than bulbs or fluorescent tubes, without any infrared content.
3. Can be used to produce light of an intended color without using color filters: LEDs
producing lights of disparate colors are fabricated from different semiconductor
materials. Thus, light of each color requires a different LED.
4. Possibility of low voltage, safe battery-driven operation: LED operation does not
require high voltages. Low voltages are very safe for users. LED-based lighting may be
implemented without the mains supply concerns.
5. Environment friendliness: SSL is pollution-free lighting so that it protects the
environment and the climate. It is essentially environment friendly and responsible
lighting. It is a green light source, free of hazardous substances found in conventional
lamp technologies, for example, each fluorescent tube contains 35 mg of mercury,
which is released into the environment when its glass cover breaks.

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LED Packaging (1)
(a)

(b) (c) (d)

LED packages have evolved from the 5mm circular package (a) to "Piranha"
(b) and (c) to LEDs with "thermal pad" (d) 15
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LED Packaging (2)

The actual packages for high power LEDs have the construction based on
ceramic, having on top a protection resin or a silicone material (dome). For the
white LEDs, the silicone dome represents a conversion layer, that transforms the
blue light into white light.

A very new package for high power LED is the so called COB (Chip On Board).
Different from other package styles, it leaves to user the contacting method to 16
the circuit (PCB). 16
LEDs thermal management
One important issue in LED technology is that the emitted light flux is temperature
sensitive, as can be seen in the picture.

There are studies to minimize the supplemental costs associated with thermal
control in LED lamps.

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 Circuit electronic astabil cu 2 LED-uri realizat pe PCB
tehnologie THT
Introducere schem n programul Orcad Realizare circuit imprimat virtual (layout)
n Orcad

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 Circuit electronic astabil cu 2 LED-uri si CI realizat pe PCB tehnologie SMD
Rezistor
Condensator electrolitic

LED
Circuit integrat

Reper (marker) fiducial

Structur de interconectare PCB (traseu)

Nr.
crt
Nume Componenta Valoare Alternativa Pad

100k-1M,
1 R1 Rezistor 1M, 0603
0603
100k,
2 R2 Rezistor
0603
3 R3 Rezistor 1k, 0603
4 R4 Rezistor 0 , 1210
5 C1, C2 Condensator 4.7F, 3216 3.3 - 10F, 3216
6 D1 LED SMD, 0805
7 U1 CI CD4001 CD4011
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 Circuite imprimate i
contactare prin lipire a
componentelor electronice

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Comparaie ntre FR2, FR4 i CEM1 (Composite Epoxy Material)

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 2. Folie metalic

Cupru (Cu) de nalt puritate mai bun de 99%;

Grosimea foliei de Cu pentru tehnologia substractiv: 9m,

17m (0.5 oz.), 35m (1 oz.), 70 m (2 oz.) i 105 m.

Foarte rar sunt utilizate alte materiale metalice sau aliaje ale
acestora:
Ag, Al, Sn, Au, Ag Pd

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Instalaie pentru realizarea foliei
de cupru prin roluire

Instalaie pentru
realizarea foliei de
cupru prin depunere
electrochimic

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Acoperirea de protecie a conductorului
(Conductor Finishes)

n mod uzual cuprul este acoperit cu Sn, Sn-Pb, Au,

Ag, Pd (cu grosimi mici, ~ m)

HASL (Hot Air Solder Leveling) solderabilitate excellent,

probleme de planeitate i pentru fine pitch;

OSP (Organic Solder Protection) solderabilitate bun, fr

probleme de planeitate, protecie pe durat limitat, se poate
aplica pe toate substraturile;

Ag-electroless (Ag chimic, depunere fr curent)-

solderabilitate bun, nu sunt probleme de planeitate;

Ni i Ni-Sn i-sau Ni-Au solderabilitate bun, rezisten la

uzur; (ex: ENIG- Electroless Nickel Imerssion Gold)
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 Tehnologii de fabricaie

Tehnologii de fabricaie:
1. substractive;
2. aditive;

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Tehnologia substractiv Tehnologia aditiv

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 Tehnologia substractiv
Tehnologia substractiv este cel mai mult utilizat
pentru fabricaia PCB standard pe substrat rigid.
Este bazat pe gravare, corodare (etching) i pe
noiunea de gaur metalizat, plated through hole.

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 Tehnologia plcilor de circuit imprimat simpl fa

PCB 1 Strat (SL-PCB, single-layer PCB) fr via, non-plated through holes (non-
PTH)

Dou metode principale:

Fabricarea pe baza Fabricarea pe baza

imaginii pozitive imaginii negative
1. Tiere
1. Tiere
2. Gurire, frezare
2. Gurire, frezare
3. Periere
3. Periere
4. Pregtire suprafa 4. Pregtire suprafa
5. Transferul imaginii pozitive 5. Transferul imaginii
(serigrafie, foto, offset) negative (serigrafie, foto,
offset)
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6. Corodare (Etching) 6. Depunere galvanic a unui strat
7. Decontaminare (etching + metalic sau aliaj rezistent la
decontamination agents ) corodare (Ag, Au, Zn-Pb, Sn-Pb)
8. ndeprtarea cernelei de 7. ndeprtarea cernelei de
protecie sau a fotorezistului protecie sau a fotorezistului, splare
splare 8. Corodare
9. Depunere Solder-mask, silk- 9. Decontaminare
mask 10. Depunere Solder-mask, silk-mask

OBS. La fabricarea pe baza imaginii negative rolul de mascare la corodare

revine unui strat metalic (depunere) i nu fotorezistului.

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 Exemplu: Operaii practice la fabricarea 1L-PCB
1. Film preparation 13. Control
2. Drill file preparation 14. Selective gold plating &
3. Cutting testing of Au deposition
4. Drilling 15. Thermal Sn-Pb deposition
5. Optional milling into board area 16. Silkmask (ink/photo)
6. Control 17. Control
7. Circuit image transfer (based 18. Cutting boards to final
on ink or photo-resist) dimensions
8. Control 19. Final control
9. Etching 20. Numbering, packing
10. Stripping ink or photo-resist
11. Control
12. Soldermask (ink/photo)

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 Tehnologia plcilor de circuit imprimat simpl fa
Material de baz: substrat dielectric acoperit cu folie de cupru
Cupru

Masc pozitiv Masc negativ

(fotorezist, screen printing) (fotorezist, screen printing)
Fotorezist

Masc pozitiv metalic (Sn, Sn/Pb)

Corodare

ndeprtare masc

Subcorodare- Efectul de
Corodare
(Undercutting) ciuperc

[ndeprtare masc metal (orange effect)]

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 Tehnologia plcilor de circuit imprimat simpl fa
Soldermask

traseu pad

Pentru a mbunti solderabilitatea :

(a se vedea slide-ul 9)
hot air leveling (acoperire cu eutectic Sn/Pb sau SAC )
electroless Ni + Au
immersion Sn
immersion Ag
depuneri de pelicule organice (OSP)

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2L-PCB (DL-PCB, double-layer PCB) cu guri metalizate
(PTHs)

De ce guri metalizate?
Asigurarea unui contact electric ntre straturi;
Lipire de calitate a componentelor electronice;
Fixare foarte bun a terminalelor;
Funcionare cu performane superioare a PCB, pe
baza numrului mai mare de staturi (planuri de
mas, decuplri);

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 Fluxul de operaii la fabricaia 2L-PCB

Tierea laminatului PCB 2L;

Gurire i curarea gurilor;
Acoperire global a suprafeelor i gurilor cu catalizator;
Depunerea chimic cupru;
Transferul imaginii circuitului pe baza filmelor de fabricaie
(cerneal serigrafic, procedeu foto);
Depunere electro-chimic cupru pentru mrirea grosimii cuprului
(depus chimic);
Depunere electro-chimic a stratului de protecie (Sn-Pb, Zn-Pb,
etc.);
ndeprtarea cernelii sau a foto-rezistului;
Corodare;
ndeprtarea stratului de protecie;
Gurire (guri ne-metalizate) i frezare arii (decupaje);
Aplicare masc de lipire (solder-mask), masc de inscripionare
(silk-mask);

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 Flux tehnologic circuite imprimate dublu strat cu guri
metalizate
Laminat dublu strat

Gurire Depunere galvanic strat

rezistent la corodare (Sn-
Pb, Sn, Ag, Au)
Activare; Depunere
chimic Cu
ndeprtare fotorezist

Aplicare fotorezist
Corodare Cu

ndeprtare strat protector

Developare fotorezist
corodare

Imprimare masc lipire

Depunere galvanic Cu (solder mask)
(ngroare)
Acoperire protecie final
(Sn, OSP, Au-Ni)

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Solder Mask
Majoritatea circuitelor imprimate sunt acoperite cu ceea ce
numim Solder Mask.
Masca de lipire este un material care este folosit pentru a
acoperi placa de circuit imprimat pentru protecie n etapa de
lipire a componentelor electronice pe linia de asamblare i,
dup asamblare, ca protecie electric, mecanic i climatic.

Numele acoperirii sugereaz i rolul/scopul primar: evitarea

punilor de lipire (solder bridge-urilor).

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