11.chapter 3
11.chapter 3
11.chapter 3
COMPONENTS
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices,
replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts
in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments have produced LEDs for environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have led to new displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in
advanced communications technology. A typical LED is shown in Figure 3.1.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and
faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera
flashes, lighted wallpaper and medical devices. They are also significantly more
energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their
disposal.
Unlike a laser, the colour of light emitted from an LED is neither coherent nor
monochromatic, but the spectrum is narrow with respect to human vision, and for
most purposes the light from a simple diode element can be regarded as functionally
monochromatic.
3.3. Diode
A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for
current. It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current
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from flowing in the opposite direction. Diodes are also known as rectifiers because
they change alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated
according to their type, voltage, and current capacity. Diodes have polarity,
determined by an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative lead). Most diodes
allow current to flow only when positive voltage is applied to the anode. When a
diode allows current flow, it is forward-biased. When a diode is reverse-biased, it acts
as an insulator and does not permit current to flow. The diode symbol's arrow points
against the direction of electron flow. Reason: Engineers conceived the symbol, and
their schematics show current flowing from the positive (+) side of the voltage source
to the negative (-). It's the same convention used for semiconductor symbols include
arrows which points in the permitted direction of "conventional" flow, and against the
permitted direction of electron flow. Structure of a diode is shown in Figure 3.2.
Features:
1. Output Current in Excess of 1.5A
2. Output Adjustable between 1.2V and 37V
3. Internal Thermal Overload Protection
4. Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting Constant with Temperature
5. Output Transistor Safe−Area Compensation
6. Floating Operation for High Voltage Applications
7. Eliminates Stocking many Fixed Voltages
8. Available in Surface Mount D2PAK−3, and Standard 3−Lead Transistor
Package
9. NCV Prefix for Automotive and Other Applications Requiring Unique Site
and Control Change Requirements; AEC−Q10 Qualified and PPAP
Capable
10. These are Pb-Free Devices
This imposes the requirement for a minimum load current. If the load current
is less than this minimum, the output voltage will rise. Since the LM317 is a floating
regulator, it is only the voltage differential across the circuit which is important to
performance, and operation at high voltages with respect to ground is possible.
have a class. An output Stage for small signal levels which converts to class B in a
large signal mode.
This allows the amplifiers to both source and sinks large output currents.
Therefore both NPN and PNP external current boost transistors can be used to extend
the power capability of the basic amplifier. The output voltage needs to raise
approximately 1 diode drop above ground to bias the on-chip vertical PNP transistor
for output current sinking applications.
For ac applications, where the load is capacitive coupled to the output of the
amplifier, a resistor should be used, from the output of the amplifier to ground to
increase the class A bias current and prevent crossover distortion. Where the load is
directly coupled, as in dc applications, there is no crossover distortion.
Capacitive loads which are applied directly to the output of the amplifier
reduce the loop stability margin. Values of 50 pF can be accommodated using the
worst-case non-inverting unity gain connection. Large closed Loop gains or resistive
isolation should be used if larger load capacitance must be driven by the amplifier.
The bias network of the LM158 establishes a drain current which is
independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage over the range of 3V DC to
30V DC.
Output short circuits either to ground or to the positive power supply should
be of short time duration. Units can be destroyed, not as a result of the short circuit
current causing metal fusing, but rather due to the large increase in IC chip power
dissipation which will cause eventual failure due to excessive junction temperatures.
Putting direct short-circuits on more than one amplifier at a time will increase the total
IC power dissipation to destructive levels, if not properly protected with external
dissipation limiting resistors in series with the output leads of the amplifiers. The
larger value of output source current which is available at 25°C provides a larger
output current capability at elevated temperatures than a standard IC op amp.
Features:
1. Wide Supply Range of 3V to 36V (B Version)
2. Supply-Current of 300 μ A (B Version, Typical)
3. Unity-Gain Bandwidth of 1.2 MHz (B Version)
4. Common-Mode Input Voltage Range Includes Ground, Enabling Direct
Sensing Near Ground
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3.9. Capacitor
Capacitor are electronic components that store, filter regulate electrical energy
and current flow and are one of the essential passive components used in circuit
boards. Capacitors are primarily used for strong electrical changes, conducting
alternating current (AC), and blocking or separating different voltage levels of direct
current (DC) source.
While capacitors are one type of component, there are many types of
capacitors that are differentiated by the materials used in construction, each
providing unique features and benefits. Understanding basic capacitor construction
and how different materials can affect their characteristics will aid in choosing the
proper capacitor for a given application.
The unit of capacitance is the farad. For 1 farad of capacitance, 1coulomb of
charge is stored on the plates when 1volt is applied:
1farad = 1 coulomb /1volt
1coulomb represents~6x1019 electrons
Conductive
Parallel plates Electrical
charge
Q+ Q-
Dielectric
Symbol
Voltage Vc
1. the larger the plate area, the larger the capacitance value
2. the smaller distance between the plates, the larger capacitance value
3. the larger the dielectric constant of the insulating (dielectric) material,
the larger the capacitance
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3.10 . Resistor
Resistor is electrical or electronic components which resist the flow of current
across the resistor device. The resistance to current flow results in a voltage drop
across the resistor device. Resistors are used extensively throughout electrical and
electronic circuits. Resistor devices may provide a fixed, variable, or adjustable value
of resistance. Adjustable resistors are refers to as rheostats, or potentiometers.
Resistor values are expressed in Ohms, the electric resistance unit. Resistors are
incorporated within an electrical or electronic circuits create a known voltage drop or
current to voltage relationship. If the electrical current in a circuit is known (current is
measured in amperes), then a resistor can be used to create a known potential
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rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. The track
may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for
low resistances). Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and
catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic
track, and their physical size. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two
connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all
three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up
circuits which will not require further adjustment.
3.11. Relay
Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another
circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open (NO), there is
an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay contact is Normally
Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay is not energized.
In either case, applying electrical current to the contacts will change their
state. Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do
not usually control power consuming devices except for small motors and Solenoids
that draw low amps. Nonetheless, relays can "control" larger voltages and amperes by
having an amplifying effect because a small voltage applied to a relays coil can result
in a large voltage being switched by the contacts. Relay would eventually be used to
control the load from the wind turbine. It is a cost-effective, high-power 12V relay,
allowing up to 30A. Having a constant load on a wind turbine is necessary to avoid
damage. When the battery is at capacity, the relay will switch from the battery as a
load to dump load resistors. Figure 3.10 shows the structure of a relay.