Industrial Training Report

ON

Optical fiber communication

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

THE FOLLOWING TRAINING REPORT IS THE OUTCOME NOT ONLY OF MY

HARD WORK. BUT ALSO KIND AND READY CO-OPERATION OF SEVERAL OTHER
STAFF OF BSNL, KANPUR.

I AM EXTREMLY GRATEFUL TO RESPECTED ER. B. K.TRIPATHI (SDE. OFC.

KANPUR), WHO HAS GUIDED ME THROUGH THE START OF MY TRAINING
PERIOD UNTIL ITS END.

I AM HIGHLY THANFUL TO RESPECTED ER. U. K. TRIPATHI (SDE.

MICROWAE KANPUR). WHO INSPIRED AND TEACH MANY THINGS IN MICROWAE
DIVISION.

IN ADDITION TO I HEARTLY THANFUL ALL THE EMPLOYEES OF BSNL

KANPUR WHOSE NAMES ARE NOT POSSIBLE TO MENTIONED HERE , UNVEILED
THE INTRICACIES OF WORKING OF SYSTEM AND TELECOMMUNICATION
CONCEPT TO ME. THEY ALWAYS SUPPORTED MY WORK AND MY
INQUISTIVENESS NEVER MADE THEM UNCOMFORTABLE.

Kuldeep Mishra
 PREFACE

This Industrial interaction is meant to representing your technical views. The

training is aimed at bringing the scheme with details of technical requirements.

For preparation of this training report different information’s have been

collected from available sources with an intension to abide by the rules, standard
practices and care as per the comprehensive power of our brains is taken to
insure that this report is free from errors and omission, but with in a short
period of time, it is well nigh impossible to expect to complete accuracy in the
job.

The ambition behind the commencement of this industrial interaction is to

provide a detailed description to a topic as prescribed in U.P.T.U. syllabus.

In the last, through every care has been undertaken to elucidate the
minutest detail of the problem arising there into, yet we anticipate some errors or
short comings may have crept into the task done. We shall be highly obliged if
the same or pointed out to us for, which we shall remain grateful.
 INDEX

1. Introduction of BSNL

2. Introduction of Fiber Optics

3. Plesiochrnous Digital Hierarchy(PDH)

4. Siochrnous Digital Hierarchy System(SDH)

5. Synchronous Transport Module( 4 & 16 )

6. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing(DWDM)

7. Signaling System
 I NTRODUCTION OF BSNL

BSNL is largest telecom operator in India and is known to every body

for telephony service for over 100 year. Presently the plain oil, countrywide
telephone service is bieng provided through 32,000 electronic exchanges, 326
digital trunk automatic exchange (TAX). All public switched Telephone network
(PSTN) Are Digitally Interlinked by Over 2.4 lakh km. Optical Fiber Cable with
a host of phone Plus alue additions to our valued customers. BSNL`s telephony
network expands throughout the vast expanses of the country reaching to the
remotest part of the country.
On October 1st, 2000 the Department of Telecom Operation, government
of India become a corporation and was christened Bharat Sanchar Nigam
Limited (BSNL). Today, BSNL is the no. 1 Telecommunication Company and
the largest public Sector Undertaking of India and its responsibilities include
improvement of the already impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of
telecom network , introduction of new telecom services in all villages and
instilling confidence among its customers.
Responsibilities that BSNL has managed to shoulder remarkably. Today
with a 43 million line capacity 99.9% of its exchanges digital nation wide
network Management and Surveillance System (NMSS) to control Telecom
Traffic and nearly 3,55,632 Km. Route of OFC network. Bharat Sanchar Nigam
Ltd. Is a name of reckon with in the world of connectivity. Along with its vast
customer base, BSNL`s financial and asset bases too are vast and strong.
Consider the figures,as they speak volumes on BSNL`s standing.
Access to telecommunication is of at most importance for achievement of
the country’s social and economic goals. Availability of affordable and effective
communications for the citizens is at the core of 5the vision and goal of the new
Telecom Policy 1999.
Strive to provide a balance between the provision of universal service to all
uncovered areas, including the rural areas and then provision of high level
services capable of meeting the needs of the country’s economy.
Encourage development of telecommunication facilities in remote, hilly
and tribal areas of the country.
Transform in a time bound manner, the telecommunications sector to a
greater competitive environment in both urban and rural areas providing equal
opportunities and level playing field for all players.
 Introduction to Fiber Optics
FIBRE OPTICS
Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is
Transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the
Transmission sequence give below:
 Information is encoded into electrical signals.
 Electrical signals are converted into light signals.
 Light travels down the fiber.
 A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals.
 Electrical signals are decoded into information.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS

 Optical Fibers are non conductive (Dielectrics)
 Electromagnetic Immunity :
 Large Bandwidth (> 5.0 GHz for 1 km length)
 Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)
 Specified bandwidth long, unrepeated links (>70km is operation).
 Small, Light weight cables.
 Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)
 Security
 Be received by a nearby antenna.
 Security - Being a dielectric.
 Universal medium

APPLICATION OFFIBRE OPTICS IN

COMMUNICATIONS
 Common carrier nationwide networks.
 Telephone Inter-office Trunk lines.
 Customer premise communication networks.
 Undersea cables.
 High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).
 Factory communication/ Automation.
 Control systems.
 Expensive environments.
 High lightening areas.
  Military applications.
 Classified (secure) communications.

Transmission Sequence
 Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
 Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
 Light Travels down the Fiber.
 A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
 Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.

FIBRE TYPES
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core
and cladding. Two main relationships exists.

 Step Index
 Graded Index

The step index fiber has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile
how’s a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the
graded index has a non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and
gradually decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp
break in indices between the core and the cladding.

By this classification there are three types of fibers

  Multimode Step Index fiber (Step Index fiber)
 Multimode graded Index fiber (Graded Index fiber)
Single- Mode Step Index fiber (Single Mode Fiber

CABLE CONSTRUCTION
Cabling is an outer protective structure surrounding one or more fibers.
Cabling protects fibers environmentally and mechanically from being damaged
or degraded in performance. Important considerations in any cable are tensile
strength, ruggedness, durability, flexibility, environmental resistance,
temperature extremes and even appearance. Evaluation of these considerations
depends on the application.

Fiber Optic Cables have the following parts in common

 Optical Fiber
 Buffer
 Strength member
 Jacket

Loose Tube Buffering

One way of isolating the Optical Fiber from External Forces is to Place an
Excess Fiber Length within on Oversized "Buffer" Tube. Siecor/ Optical Cable
fills these tubes with a Jollylike Compound to Provide Additional Cushioning
and Prevent the incursion of Moisture. It is the plastic coating applied to the
coating. It protects fiber from outside stress.
The cable buffer is one of two types.
 Loose Buffer
 Tight Buffer
The loose buffer uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several
times that of the fiber. One or more fibers lie within the buffer tube. As the cable
expands and shrinks with temperature changes, it does not affect the fiber as
much. The fiber in the tube is slightly longer than the tube itself. Thus the cable
can expand and contract without stressing the fiber. The buffer becomes the
load bearing member. The tight buffer has a plastic directly applied over the
coating. This construction provides crush and impact resistance. It is more
flexible and allows tighter turn radius. It is useful for indoor applications where
temperature variations
are minimum and the ability to make tight turns inside walls is desired.
Types of Fiber Buffering
 LOOSE BUFFER JACKET

MULTIFIBRE CABLE :-It often contain several loose buffer tubes, each
containing one or more fibers. The use of several tubes allows identification of
fiber by tube, since both tubes and fibers can be colour coded. These tubes are
stranded around a central Strength member of steel or fiber glass rod. The
stranding provides strain relief for the fibers when the cable is bent.
Description:-
1 - Blue
2 - Orange
3 - Green
4 - Brown
5 - Slate
6 - White
7 - Red
8 - Black
9 - Yellow
10 - Violet
11 - Blue/ Black
12 - Orange/ Black

OFC Splicing
Splices
Splices are permanent connection between two fibers. The splicing involves
cutting of the edges of the two fibers to be spliced.

Splicing Methods
The following three types are widely used :
1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
2. Mechanical splicing.
3. Fusion splicing.

1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fiber splicing. After fiber
end preparation, it is axially aligned in a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or
another kind of reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment
of fiber end, a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the
core material is set between and around the fiber ends. A two component epoxy
or an UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent. The splice loss of this
type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing technique is
more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used.
 2. Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of
emergency repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring
instruments to bare fibers for taking various measurements. A very good
mechanical splice for M.M. Fibers can have an optical performance as good as
fusion spliced fiber or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fiber, this type of
splice cannot have stability of loss
The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components:-
(i) An alignment surface for mating fiber ends.
(ii) A retainer
(iii) An index matching material.
(iv) A protective housing

Single–Fiber Mechanical Splicing:-

 Single Fiber Capillary
 Aligns two fiber ends to a common centerline, thereby aligning cores.
 Clean, cleaved fibers are butted together and index matched.
 Permanently secured with epoxy or adhesive.
.

3. Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for
achieving very low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through
electrical arc or through gas flame. The process involves cutting of the fibers
and fixing them in micro–petitioners on the fusion splicing machine. The fibers
are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning (in case of S.M.
fiber) process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of
the fibers to a specified distance, preheating of the fiber ends through electric
arc and bringing together of the fiber ends in a position and splicing through
high temperature fusion. If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per
schedule, then the splicing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After
fusion splicing, the splicing joint should be provided with a proper protector to
have following protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b) Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy
resins protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the
joint. Now a days, the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are
fixed on the joints by the fusion tools.
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for
achieving very low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fiber for
use in long haul network brought with it fiber construction and cable design
different from those of multimode fibers.
The splicing machines imported by BSNL begins to the core profile
alignment system, the main functions of which are :
 Auto active alignment of the core.
 Auto arc fusion.
 Video display of the entire process.
 Indication of the estimated splice loss.
The two fibers ends to be spliced are cleaved and then clamped in
accurately machined v–grooves. When the optimum alignment is achieved, the
fibers are fused under the microprocessor control, the machine then measures
the radial and angular off–sets of the fibers and uses these figures to calculate a
splice loss. The operation of the machine observes the alignment and fusion
processes on a video screens showing horizontal and vertical projection of the
fibers and then decides the quality of the splice.
The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a final
value as it is only an estimated loss and so after every splicing is over, the splice
loss measurement is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer). The manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the
fibers. For cleaning the fibers, Dichlorine Methyl or Acetone or Alcohol is used
to remove primary coating. With the special fiber cleaver or cutter, the cleaned
fiber is cut. The cut has to be so precise that it produces an end angle of less
than 0.5 degree on a prepared fiber. If the cut is bad, the splicing loss will
increase or machine will not accept for splicing. The shape of the cut can be
monitored on the video screen, some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed
below :
(i) Broken ends. (ii) Ripped ends. (iii) Slanting cuts. (iv) Unclean ends.
 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in
telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital
transport equipment such as fibre optic and microwave radio systems. The term
plesiochronous is derived from Greek plesio, meaning near, and chronos, time,
and refers to the fact that PDH networks run in a state where different parts of
the network are nearly, but not quite perfectly, synchronised.

PDH is now being replaced by Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) equipment

in most telecommunications networks.

PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the
same rate, but allowing some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. By
analogy, any two watches are nominally running at the same rate, clocking up
60 seconds every minute. However, there is no link between watches to
guarantee they run at exactly the same rate, and it is highly likely that one is
running slightly faster than the other.

Implementation
The European and American versions of the PDH system differ slightly in
the detail of their working, but the principles are the same. The European
E-carrier system is described below.

The basic data transfer rate is a data stream of 2048 kilobits/s (kilobits/second).

For speech transmission, this is broken down into thirty 64 kbit/s
(kilobits/second) channels plus two 64 kbit/s channels used for signalling and
synchronisation. Alternatively, the whole 2 Mbit/s (megabits/second) may be
used for non speech purposes, for example, data transmission.

The exact data rate of the 2 Mbit/s data stream is controlled by a clock in the
equipment generating the data. The exact rate is allowed to vary some
percentage (+/- 50 ppm) on either side of an exact 2.048 Mbit/s. This means that
different 2 Mbit/s data streams can be (probably are) running at slightly
different rates to one another.

In order to move multiple 2 Mbit/s data streams from one place to another, they
are combined together, or "multiplexed" in groups of four. This is done by
taking 1 bit from stream #1, followed by 1 bit from stream #2, then #3, then #4.
The transmitting multiplexer also adds additional bits in order to allow the far
end receiving multiplexer to decode which bits belong to which 2-Meg data
stream, and so correctly reconstitute the original data streams. These additional
bits are called "justification" or "stuffing" bits.

Because each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams is not necessarily running at the
same rate, some compensation has to be made. The transmitting multiplexer
combines the four data streams assuming that they are running at their
maximum allowed rate. This means that occasionally, (unless the 2 Mbit/s really
is running at the maximum rate) the multiplexer will look for the next bit but it
will not have arrived. In this case, the multiplexer signals to the receiving
multiplexer that a bit is "missing". This allows the receiving multiplexer to
correctly reconstruct the original data for each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams,
and at the correct, different, plesiochronous rates.

The resulting data stream from the above process runs at 8,448 kbit/s (about
8 Mbit/s). Similar techniques are used to combine four x 8 Mbit/s together,
giving 34 Mbit/s. Four x 34 Mbit/s, gives 140. Four x 140 gives 565.

565 Mbit/s is the rate typically used to transmit data over a fibre optic system for
long distance transport. Recently, telecommunications companies have been
replacing their PDH equipment with SDH equipment capable of much higher
transmission rates.
 SDH Concepts And Principle
Introduction
It is an international standard networking principle and a multiplexing method.
The name of hierarchy has been taken from the multiplexing method hitch is
synchronous by nature. The evolution of this system will assist in improving the
economy of operability and reliability of a digital network.

Historical Overview
In February 1988, an agreement was reached at CCITT (now ITU-
TS) study group XVIII in Seoul, on set of recommendations, for a synchronous
digital hierarchy representing a single world wide standard for transporting the
digital signal. These recommendations G-707, G-708, G-709 cover the functional
characteristic of the network node interface, i.e. the bit rates and format of the
signal passing over the Network Node Interface (NNI). For smooth
transformation from existing PDH, it has to accommodate the three different
country standards of PDH developed over a time period. The different standards
of PDH are given in Fig.1. The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical
Transmission started in U.S.A. as SONET (Synchronous Optical Network). The
aim of these standards was to simplify interconnection between network
operators by allowing interconnection of equipment from different vendors to
the extent that compatibility could be achieved. It was achieved by SDH in 1990,
when the CCITT accepted the recommendations for physical layer network
interface. The SONET hierarchy from 52 Mbit per second rate onwards was
accepted for SDH hierarchy.

Merits of SDH
 Simplified multiplexing/demultiplexing techniques.
 Direct access to lower speed tributaries, without need to
multiplex/demultiplex the entire high speed signal.
 Enhanced operations, Administration, Maintenance and provisioning
capabilities.
 Easy growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of transmission
technology.
 Capable of transporting existing PDH signals.
 Capable of transporting future broadband (ATM) channel bit rates.
  Capable of operating in a multi-vendor and multi-operator environment.

Advantages
 Multi-vendor environment (mid span meet) : Prior to 1988 international
agreement
 on SDH all vendors used proprietary nonstandard techniques for
transporting
information on fiber. The only way to interconnect was to convert to the
copper
 transmission standards (G702/703/704). The cost and complexity levels
were
very high.
 Synchronous networking : SDH supports multi-point or hub
configurations whereas, asynchronous networking only supports point-to-
point configurations.
 Enhanced OAM&P : The telecoms need the ability to administer, surveil,
provision, and control the network from a central location.
 Positioning the network for transport on new services : LAN to LAN,
HDTV, interactive multimedia, video conferencing.
 HUB : A hub is an intermediate site from which traffic is distributed to 3
or more spur. It allows the nodes to communicate as an angle network,
thus reducing the back-to-back multiplexing and demultiplexing.

S.D.H. Evolution
S.D.H. evolution is possible because of the following factors :-
 Fiber Optic Bandwidth
 Technical Sophistication
 Intelligence
 Customer Service Needs

S.D.H. Standards
The S.D.H. standards exploit one common characteristic of all PDH networks
namely 125 micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals (time for
1 byte in 64 k bit per second). This is the time for one frame of SDH. The frame
structure of the SDH is represented using matrix of rows in byte units as shown
in Figs. 2 and 3. As the speed increases, the number of bits increases and the
single line is insufficient to show the information on Frame structure.
Therefore, this representation method is adopted. How the bits are transmitted
on the line is indicated on the top of Fig.2.

The Frame structure contains 9 rows and number of columns depending upon
synchronous transfer mode level (STM). In STM-1, there are 9 rows and 270
columns. The reason for 9 rows arranged in every 125 micro seconds is as
follows : For 1.544 Mbit PDH signal (North America and Japan Standard),
there are 25 bytes in 125 micro second and for 2.048 Mbit per second signal,
there are 32 bytes in 125 micro second. Taking some additional bytes for
supervisory purposes, 27 bytes can be allotted for holding 1.544 Mbit per second
signal, i.e. 9 rows x 3 columns. Similarly, for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, 36
bytes are allotted in 125 micro seconds, i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns. Therefore, it
could be said9 rows are matched to both hierarchies.

Basic Definitions

(i) Synchronous Transport Module

This is the information structure used to support information pay load and over
head information field organized in a block frame structure which repeats every
125 micro seconds.
(ii) Container
The first entry point of the PDH signal is the container in which the signal is
prepared so that it can enter into the next stage, i.e. virtual container. In
container (container-I) the signal speed is increased from 32 bytes to 34 bytes in
the case of 2.048 Mbit/s signal. The additional bytes added are fixed stuff bytes
(R), Justification Control Bytes (CC and C’), Justification Opportunity bytes (s).
In container-3, 34.368 Mbit/s signal (i.e., 534 bytes in 125 _ seconds) is
increased to 756 bytes in 125 _ seconds adding fixed stuff bits(R). Justification
control bits (C-1, C-2) and Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2). Detail
follows : 756 bytes are in 9 x 84 bytes/125 _ seconds frame. They are further
subdivided into 3 sub frames 3 x 84 (252 bytes or 2016 bits). Out of this 1431
information bits (I), 10 bits (two sets) (C-1, C-2) 2 Justification opportunity bits
(S-1, S-2) 573 (fixed bits) In container-4, 139.264 Mbit/s signal (2176 bytes in
125 _ seconds) is increased to 9 x 260 bytes. Details as follows : 9 x 260 bytes are
partitioned into 20 blocks consisting of 13 bytes each. In each row one
justification opportunity bit(s) and five justification control bit(s) are provided.
The first byte of each block consists of either eight information bit (I) or eight
fixed stuff bits (R) or One justification control bit (C) plus five fixed stuff bits (R)
plus two overhead bits (o). or Six information bits (I) plus one justification
opportunity bit (s) plus one fixed stuff bit (R). The last 12 bytes of one block
consists of information bits (I).

(iii) Virtual Container

In Virtual container the path over head (POH) fields are organized in a block
frame structure either 125 _ seconds or 500 _ seconds. The POH information
consists of only 1 byte in VC-1 for 125 _ seconds frame. In VC-3, POH is 1
column of 9 bytes. In VC-4 also POH 1 column of 9 bytes. The types of virtual
container identified are lower orders VCs VC-1 and VC-2 and higher order VC-
3 and VC-4.

(iv) Tributary Unit

A tributary unit is a information structure which provides adaptation between
the lower order path layer and the higher order path layer. It consists of a
information pay load (lower order virtual container) and a tributary unit pointer
which indicates the offset of the pay load frame start relating to the higher order
VC frame start. Tributary unit 1 for VC-1 and Tributary unit 2 is for VC-2 and
Tributary unit 3 is for VC-3, when it is mapped for VC-4 through tributary
group- 3. TU-3 pointer consists of 3 bytes out of 9 bytes. Three bytes are H1, H2,
H3 and remaining bytes are fixed bytes. TU-1 pointers are one byte interleaved
in the TUG-2.

(v) Tributary Unit Group

One or more tributaries are contained in tributary unit group. A TUG-2 list of
homogenous assembly of identical TU-1s or TU-2. TUG-3 consists of
homogenous assembly of TUG-2s or TU-3. TUG-2 consists of 3 TU-12s (For .
048 Mbit/sec). TUG-3 consists of either 7 TUG-2 or one TU-3.

(vi) Network Node Interface (NNI)

The interface at a network node which is used to interconnect with no other
network .

(vii) Pointer
An indicator whose value defines frame offset of a VC with respect to thee frame
reference of transport entity, on which it is supported.

(viii) Administrative Unit

It is the information structure which provides adaptation between the higher
order path layer and the multiplex section layer. It consists of information pay
load and a A.U. pointer which indicates the offset of the pay load frame start
relating to the multiplex section frame start. Two AUs are defined (i) AU-4
consisting VC-4 plus an A.U. pointer indicating phase alignment of VC-4 with
respect to STM-N frame, (ii) AU-3 consisting of VC-3 plus A.U. pointer
indicating phase alignment of VC-3 with respect to STM-N frame. A.U. location
is fixed with respect to STM-N frame.

(ix) Administrative Group

AUG consists of a homogenous assembly of AU-3s or an AU-4.

(x) Concatenation
The procedure with which the multiple virtual container are associated with one
another, with the result their combined capacity could be used as a single
container across which bit sequence integrity is maintained.
Network Elements in SDH
Before the evolution of the standards covering synchronous transmission
systems, networks had to be built up from separate multiplex and line terminal
equipment. These are characterized by defined formats and electrical interfaces
at each level of the transmission hierarchy; whereas optical interfaces were
entirely proprietary. This gave rise to large amounts of multiplex and separate
optical line equipment.
On the other hand in SDH, multiplexers performs both
multiplexing and line terminating functions. Synchronous multiplexers can
accept a wide range of tributaries and offer a number of possible output data
rates. Though the regeneration of signal at repeaters is similar to PDH, there
are some additional equipment in SDH to perform function like cross–
connection and OA&M functions as explained in following sections.

Terminal Multiplexers
Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous
input signals into higher bit rate STM–N signals as shown in Fig.13 below. On
the tributary side, all current plesiochronous bit rates can be accommodated. On
the aggregate, or line side we have higher bit rate STM–N signals.

Terminal Multiplexer

Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM)

Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or
inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature
makes it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that
automatic back–up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in the
event of a fault.
 Add/Drop Multiplexers

Digital Cross–Connects (DXC)

Cross connection is a synchronous network involves setting up semi– permanent
interconnections between different channels enabling routing to be performed
down to a VC level. This network element can have widest range of functions
such as mapping of PDH tributary signals into virtual containers and switching
of various containers up to and including VC–4.

Synchroniation
The role of synchronization plan is to determine the distribution of
synchronization in a network and to select the level of clocks and facilities to be
used to time the network. This involves the selection and location of master
clocks for a network, the distribution of primary and secondary timing through
out the network and an analysis of the network to ensure that acceptable
performance levels are achieved. Improper synchronization planning or the lack
of planning can cause severe performance problems resulting in excessive slips,
long periods of network downtime, elusive maintenance problems or high
transmission error rates. Hence, a proper synchronization plan which optimizes
the performance, is a must for the entire digital network. The status of
synchronization in the BSNL network is as follows : 3 nos. of cesium clocks at
VSNL Bombay provide the Master National Reference Clock (MNRC). The back
up NRC is available at Delhi. The MNRC feeds the reference signal to the VSNL
GDS at Mumbai and from the GDS both the new technology

TAXs at Mumbai are synchronized. From these two TAXs at Mumbai, all the
other TAXs are to be synchronized. Part of this work has already been done.
However, all the Level–I TAXs are yet to be synchronized. A direct
synchronization link is also available between GDS Mumbai and Karol Bagh
TAX at Delhi. For synchronization of the SDH network, it has been decided to
use the clock source available through the TAXs at the major stations. The
synchronization plan is based upon provision of Synchronization Supply Units
(SSUs) which will be deployed as an essential component of the synchronization
network which will support synchronized operation of the SDH network. The
architecture employed in the SDH requires that the timing of all the network
clocks be traceable to Primary Reference Clock (PRC) specified in accordance
with ITU Rec.G.811. The classical method of synchronizing network element
clocks is the hierarchical method (master–slave synchronization) which is
already adopted in the BSNL network for the TAXs. This master–slave

synchronization uses a hierarchy of clocks in which each level of the hierarchy

is synchronized with reference to a higher level, the highest level being the PRC.

The hierarchical level of clocks are defined by ITU as follows :

 P.R.C.
 Slave Clock (Transit Node)
 Slave Clock (Local Node)
 SDH Network Element Clock.

Each node is associated with a particular hierarchical level of clock prescribed

above and is referred to as a nodal clock. The SSU is an important component of
this hierarchical master–slave synchronization network scheme and of a slave
clock

belonging to the transit node level or the local node level as defined in ITU Rec.
G.812. 4.4 The BSNL, therefore, has decided to go in for 10–20 nos. of SSUs to
provide a clean reference primary source for other stations. These SSUs are
basically high stability filter clocks which eliminate phase transients, jitter and
wander and provide the exact sync. signal needed for every network element
T0: System Clock
T1: Line clock Recovered from STM-N input
T2: tributary clock Recovered from tributary input
T3: external G.703 synchronization input.
Synchronous Transport Module( 4 & 16 )

The STM-1, VCL100MC-1 (upto 63 E1 / DS3) is a compact, modular and cost

effective STM-1 SDH multiplexer equipment designed to manage bandwidth and
provide E1 or fractional E1, voice and data access service over STM Networks.
The system has two STM-1 optical / electrical interfaces in the aggrate side and
allows upto 3 tributary add-on cards.
2xSTM-1 electrical / 140Mbps tributary interfaces (software configurable)
The STM-1 / STM-4, VCL100 STM-1/4 (upto 252 E1) is a modular and cost
effective STM-1/4 SDH multiplexer equipment designed to manage bandwidth
and voice & data access services over STM networks. The products are designed
to support end-to-end provisioning and management of services across all
segments of the optical network. It combines innovative optical networking
software with the intelligence of SONET / SDH to deliver a flexible, cost-effective
network solution.
 Next generation access SDH multiplexers to provide multi-service
solutions at the edge.

 Supports for both TDM and data traffic services.

 Flexible set of configurations to meet customer’s different service

requirements.

 Bringing intelligence to Optical Networking.

 STM-1 STM-4 and STM-4 Muxes comes with:

 Add / Drop and Terminal Multiplexer, Cross-Connect and Regenerator

configurations

 E1, E3, E4, STM-1e (electrical), STM-1o (optical) and 10/100 Mbps
ethernet tributaries

 Built-in cross-connect capabilities at VC-12, VC-3 and VC-4 granularity

 Support for AU-3 and AU-4 mapping

 Rate adaptive ethernet services for easy control of bandwidth with 2
Mbps granularity.

 Supports MSP and SNCP protection.

 “Point-and-click provisioning“ of E1s, E3s, STM-1 and 10/100 Ethernet

Interfaces for ease of management.

 Optional hardware redundancy for power supply, processor sub-system

and aggregate interfaces (STM-1 / STM-4).
 Dense Wavelength-division multiplexing
In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technology which multiplexes multiple optical carrier signals on a single optical
fiber by using different wavelengths (colours) of laser light to carry different
signals. This allows for a multiplication in capacity, in addition to enabling
bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber. "This is a form of
frequency division multiplexing (FDM) but is commonly called wavelength
division multiplexing."[1]
The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical
carrier (which is typically described by its wavelength), whereas frequency-
division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier (which is more often
described by frequency). However, since wavelength and frequency are inversely
proportional, and since radio and light are both forms of electromagnetic
radiation, the two terms are equivalent.

Dense Wavelenth Division Multiplexing

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, or DWDM for short, refers
originally to optical signals multiplexed within the 1550-nm band so as to
leverage the capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs),
which are effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525 nm - 1565 nm
(C band), or 1570 nm - 1610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to
replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which they
have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their
operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate. In terms of multi-
wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy available to
it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed into its
amplification band (though signal densities are limited by choice of modulation
format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in
bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the link, while retaining the
existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long haul route. Furthermore,
single-wavelength links using EDFAs can similarly be upgraded to WDM links
at reasonable cost. The EDFAs cost is thus leveraged across as many channels
as can be multiplexed into the 1550-nm band.
DWDM systems
At this stage, a basic DWDM system contains several main components:
A DWDM terminal multiplexer. The terminal multiplexer actually contains one
wavelength converting transponder for each wavelength signal it will carry. The
wavelength converting transponders receive the input optical signal (i.e., from a
client-layer SONET/SDH or other signal), convert that signal into the electrical
domain, and retransmit the signal using a 1550-nm band laser. (Early DWDM
systems contained 4 or 8 wavelength converting transponders in the mid 1990s.
By 2000 or so, commercial systems capable of carrying 128 signals were
available.) The terminal mux also contains an optical multiplexer, which takes
the various 1550-nm band signals and places them onto a single SMF-28 fiber.
The terminal multiplexer may or may not also support a local EDFA for power
amplification of the multi-wavelength optical signal.
An intermediate optical terminal, or Optical Add-drop multiplexer. This is a
remote amplification site that amplifies the multi-wavelength signal that may
have traversed up to 140 km or more before reaching the remote site. Optical
diagnostics and telemetry are often extracted or inserted at such a site, to allow
for localization of any fiber breaks or signal impairments. In more sophisticated
systems (which are no longer point-to-point), several signals out of the
multiwavelength signal may be removed and dropped locally.
A DWDM terminal demultiplexer. The terminal demultiplexer breaks the
multi-wavelength signal back into individual signals and outputs them on
separate fibers for client-layer systems (such as SONET/SDH) to detect.
Originally, this demultiplexing was performed entirely passively, except for some
telemetry, as most SONET systems can receive 1550-nm signals. However, in
order to allow for transmission to remote client-layer systems (and to allow for
digital domain signal integrity determination) such demultiplexed signals are
usually sent to O/E/O output transponders prior to being relayed to their client-
layer systems. Often, the functionality of output transponder has been integrated
into that of input transponder, so that most commercial systems have
transponders that support bi-directional interfaces on both their 1550-nm (i.e.,
internal) side, and external (i.e., client-facing) side. Transponders in some
systems supporting 40 GHz nominal operation may also perform forward error
correction (FEC) via 'digital wrapper' technology, as described in the ITU-T
G.709 standard.
Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC). This is an additional wavelength usually
outside the EDFA amplification band (at 1510nm, 1620nm, 1310nm or another
proprietary wavelength). The OSC carries information about the multi-
wavelength optical signal as well as remote conditions at the optical terminal or
EDFA site. It is also normally used for remote software upgrades and user (ie,
network operator) Network Management information. It is the multi-wavelength
analogue to SONET's DCC (or supervisory channel). ITU standards suggest
that the OSC should utilize an OC-3 signal structure, though some vendors have
opted to use 100 megabit Ethernet or another signal format. Unlike the 1550-nm
band client signal-carrying wavelengths, the OSC is always terminated at
intermediate amplifier sites, where it receives local information before
retransmission.

Wavelength converting transponders

At this stage, some details concerning Wavelength Converting Transponders
should be discussed, as this will clarify the role played by current DWDM
technology as an additional optical transport layer. It will also serve to outline
the evolution of such systems over the last 10 or so years.
As stated above, wavelength converting transponders served originally to
translate the transmit wavelength of a client-layer signal into one of the DWDM
system's internal wavelengths in the 1550-nm band (note that even external
wavelengths in the 1550-nm will most likely need to be translated, as they will
almost certainly not have the required frequency stability tolerances nor will it
have the optical power necessary for the system's EDFA.
 GSM (Global System for Mobile
communications)
INTRODUCTION
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. GSM differs
from first generation wireless systems in that it uses digital technology and time
division multiple access transmission methods. GSM is a circuit-switched system
that divides each 200kHz channel into eight 25kHz time-slots. GSM operates in
the 900MHz and 1.8GHz bands in Europe and the 1.9GHz and 850MHz bands
in the US. The 850MHz band is also used for GSM and 3GSM in Australia,
Canada and many South American countries. GSM supports data transfer
speeds of up to 9.6 kbit/s, allowing the transmission of basic data services such
as SMS (Short Message Service). Another major benefit is its international
roaming capability, allowing users to access the same services when travelling
abroad as at home. This gives consumers seamless and same number
connectivity in more than 210 countries. GSM satellite roaming has also
extended service access to areas where terrestrial coverage is not available.

Technical details
GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it
by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in
four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900
MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including
Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands
because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated.

The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries,
notably Scandinavia, where these frequencies were previously used for first-
generation systems.

In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890–915 MHz, and the
downlink frequency band is 935–960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is
subdivided into 124 carrier frequency channels, each spaced 200 kHz apart.
Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate
speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots
(giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half
rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is
270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in

GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between
5.6 and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel
they were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (5.6 kbit/s) and Full Rate
(13 kbit/s). These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In
addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to
identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to
prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal.

GSM was further enhanced in 1997[11] with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR)
codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the
development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called
AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust against interference when
used on full rate channels, and less robust but still relatively high quality when
used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels.

There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto
and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the
implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the
base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top
level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level;
they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage
diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are
cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect
to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella
cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in
coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and
propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of
kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use
is 35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several implementations of the concept
of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more,
depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.
Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an
indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor
antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an
antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are
typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in
shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor
coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from
nearby cells.

The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a

kind of continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be
modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter
prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the
interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).

GSM security
GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to
authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response.
Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted.
The development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer
authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating
the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticated the user to the
network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality
and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-
repudiation. GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1
and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1
was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the
United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses
have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with
a ciphertext-only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its
ability and plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a
rainbow table attack [1]. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators
may replace that cipher with a stronger one.
 Signaling System

Definition
Signaling System 7 (SS7) is an architecture for performing out-of-band
signaling in support of the call-establishment, billing, routing, and information-
exchange functions of the public switched telephone network (PSTN). It
identifies functions to be performed by a signaling-system network and a
protocol to enable their performance.

Signaling refers to the exchange of information between call components

required to provide and maintain service.

As users of the PSTN, we exchange signaling with network elements all the time.
Examples of signaling between a telephone user and the telephone network
include: dialing digits, providing dial tone, accessing a voice mailbox, sending a
call-waiting tone, dialing *66 (to retry a busy number), etc.
SS7 is a means by which elements of the telephone network exchange
information. Information is conveyed in the form of messages .

SS7 is characterized by high-speed packet data and out-of-band signaling

On the public switched telephone network (PSTN), Signaling System 7 (SS7) is a
system that puts the information required to set up and manage telephone calls
in a separate network rather than within the same network that the telephone
call is made on. Signaling information is in the form of digital packets. SS7 uses
what is called out-of-band signaling, meaning that signaling (control)
information travels on a separate, dedicated 56 or 64 Kbps channel rather than
within the same channel as the telephone call. Historically, the signaling for a
telephone call has used the same voice circuit that the telephone call traveled on
(this is known as in-band signaling). Using SS7, telephone calls can be set up
more efficiently and with greater security. Special services such as call
forwarding and wireless roaming service are easier to add and manage. SS7 is
now an international telecommunications standard.

SS7 is used for these and other services:

Setting up and managing the connection for a call
Tearing down the connection when the call is complete
Billing
Managing call forwarding, calling party name and number display, three-way
calling, and other Intelligent Network (IN) services

Wireless as well as wireline call service including mobile telephone subscriber

authentication, personal communication service (PCS), and roaming.

Out-of-Band Signaling
Out-of-band signaling is signaling that does not take place over the same path as
the conversation.
We are used to thinking of signaling as being in-band. We hear dial tone, dial
digits, and hear ringing over the same channel on the same pair of wires. When
the call completes, we talk over the same path that was used for the signaling.
Traditional telephony used to work in this way as well. The signals to set up a
call between one switch and another always took place over the same trunk that
would eventually carry the call. Signaling took the form of a series of
multifrequency (MF) tones, much like touch tone dialing between switches.
Out-of-band signaling establishes a separate digital channel for the exchange of
signaling information. This channel is called a signaling link. Signaling links
are used to carry all the necessary signaling messages between nodes. Thus,
when a call is placed, the dialed digits, trunk selected, and other pertinent
information are sent between switches using their signaling links, rather than
the trunks which will ultimately carry the conversation. Today, signaling links
carry information at a rate of 56 or 64 kbps. It is interesting to note that while
SS7 is used only for signaling between network elements, the ISDN D channel
extends the concept of out-of-band signaling to the interface between the
subscriber and the switch. With ISDN service, signaling that must be conveyed
between the user station and the local switch is carried on a separate digital
channel called the D channel. The voice or data which comprise the call is
carried on one or more B channels.

Signaling Network Architecture

If signaling is to be carried on a different path from the voice and data traffic it
supports, then what should that path look like? The simplest design would be to
allocate one of the paths between each interconnected pair of switches as the
signaling link. Subject to capacity constraints, all signaling traffic between the
two switches could traverse this link. This type of signaling is known as
associated signaling, and is shown below in Figure 1.
 Figure 1. Associated Signaling

Associated signaling works well as long as a switch’s only signaling

requirements are between itself and other switches to which it has trunks. If call
setup and management was the only application of SS7, associated signaling
would meet that need simply and efficiently. In fact, much of the out-of-band
signaling deployed in Europe today uses associated mode.
The North American implementers of SS7, however, wanted to design a
signaling network that would enable any node to exchange signaling with any
other SS7–capable node. Clearly, associated signaling becomes much more
complicated when it is used to exchange signaling between nodes which do not
have a direct connection. From this need, the North American SS7 architecture
was born.
Basic Signaling Architecture
Figure 4 shows a small example of how the basic elements of an SS7 network
are deployed to form two interconnected networks.

Figure 4. Sample Network

The following points should be noted:

STPs W and X perform identical functions. They are redundant. Together, they
are referred to as a mated pair of STPs. Similarly, STPs Y and Z form a mated
pair.

Each SSP has two links (or sets of links), one to each STP of a mated pair. All
SS7 signaling to the rest of the world is sent out over these links. Because the
STPs of a mated pair are redundant, messages sent over either link (to either
STP) will be treated equivalently.

The STPs of a mated pair are joined by a link (or set of links).
Two mated pairs of STPs are interconnected by four links (or sets of links).
These links are referred to as a quad.

SCPs are usually (though not always) deployed in pairs. As with STPs, the SCPs
of a pair are intended to function identically. Pairs of SCPs are also referred to
as mated pairs of SCPs. Note that they are not directly joined by a pair of links.
Signaling architectures such as this, which provide indirect signaling paths
between network elements, are referred to as providing quasi-associated
signaling.

SS7 Link Types

SS7 signaling links are characterized according to their use in the signaling
network. Virtually all links are identical in that they are 56–kbps or 64–kbps
bidirectional data links that support the same lower layers of the protocol; what
is different is their use within a signaling network. The defined link types are
shown in Figure 5 and defined as follows:

Figure 5. Link Types

A Links
A links interconnect an STP and either an SSP or an SCP, which are collectively
referred to as signaling end points ("A" stands for access). A links are used for
the sole purpose of delivering signaling to or from the signaling end points (they
could just as well be referred to as signaling beginning points). Examples of A
links are 2–8, 3–7, and 5–12 in Figure 5.
Signaling that an SSP or SCP wishes to send to any other node is sent on either
of its A links to its home STP, which, in turn, processes or routes the messages.
Similarly, messages intended for an SSP or SCP will be routed to one of its
home STPs, which will forward them to the addressed node over its A links.

C Links
C links are links that interconnect mated STPs. As will be seen later, they are
used to enhance the reliability of the signaling network in instances where one
or several links are unavailable. "C" stands for cross (7–8, 9–10, and 11–12 are
C links). B links, D links, and B/D links interconnecting two mated pairs of
STPs are referred to as either B links, D links, or B/D links. Regardless of their
name, their function is to carry signaling messages beyond their initial point of
entry to the signaling network towards their intended destination. The "B"
stands for bridge and describes the quad of links interconnecting peer pairs of
STPs. The "D" denotes diagonal and describes the quad of links
interconnecting mated pairs of STPs at different hierarchical levels. Because
there is no clear hierarchy associated with a connection between networks,
interconnecting links are referred to as either B, D, or B/D links (7–11 and 7–12
are examples of B links; 8–9 and 7–10 are examples of D links; 10–13 and 9–14
are examples of interconnecting links and can be referred to as B, D, or B/D
links).

E Links
While an SSP is connected to its home STP pair by a set of A links, enhanced
reliability can be provided by deploying an additional set of links to a second
STP pair. These links, called E (extended) links provide backup connectivity to
the SS7 network in the event that the home STPs cannot be reached via the A
links. While all SS7 networks include A, B/D, and C links, E links may or may
not be deployed at the discretion of the network provider. The decision of
whether or not to deploy E links can be made by comparing the cost of
deployment with the improvement in reliability. (1–11 and 1–12 are E links.)
F Links
F (fully associated) links are links which directly connect two signaling end
points. F links allow associated signaling only. Because they bypass the security
features provided by an STP, F links are not generally deployed between
networks. Their use within an individual network is at the discretion of the
network provider. (1–2 is an F link.)

Addressing in the SS7 Network

Every network must have an addressing scheme, and the SS7 network is no
different. Network addresses are required so that a node can exchange signaling
nodes to which it does not have a physical signaling link. In SS7, addresses are
assigned using a three-level hierarchy. Individual signaling points are identified
as belonging to a cluster of signaling points. Within that cluster, each signaling
point is assigned a member number. Similarly, a cluster is defined as being part
of a network. Any node in the American SS7 network can be addressed by a
three-level number defined by its network, cluster, and member numbers. Each
of these numbers is an 8-bit number and can assume values from 0 to 255. This
three-level address is known as the point code of the signaling point. A point
code uniquely identifies a signaling point within the American SS7 network and
is used whenever it is necessary to address that signaling point.

Network numbers are assigned on a nationwide basis by a neutral party.

Regional Bell operating companies (RBOCs), major independent telephone
companies, and interexchange carriers (IXCs) already have network numbers
assigned. Because network numbers are a relatively scarce resource, companies'
networks are expected to meet certain size requirements in order to be assigned a
network number. Smaller networks can be assigned one or more cluster
numbers within network numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. The smallest networks are
assigned point codes within network number 5. The cluster to which they are
assigned is determined by the state in which they are located. The network
number 0 is not available for assignment and network number 255 is reserved
for future use.