Optical& Wireless Communication 21EC72

Module – 1

Overview of Optical Fiber communication

1. Historical Development
Fiber optics deals with study of propagation of light through transparent dielectric
waveguides. The fiber optics are used for transmission of data from point to point
location. Fiber optic systems currently used most extensively as the transmission line
between terrestrial hardwired systems.
The carrier frequencies used in conventional systems had the limitations in handling the
volume and rate of the data transmission. The greater the carrier frequency larger the
available bandwidth and information carrying capacity.
First generation
The first generation of light wave systems uses GaAs semiconductor laser and operating
region was near 0.8 μm. Other specifications of this generation are as under:
i) Bit rate : 45 Mb/s
ii) Repeater spacing : 10 km
Second generation
i) Bit rate: 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 50 km
iii) Operation wavelength: 1.3 μm
iv) Semiconductor: In GaAsP
Third generation
i) Bit rate : 10 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 100 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.55 μm
Fourth generation
Fourth generation uses WDM technique.
i) Bit rate: 10 Tb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: > 10,000 km
Iii) Operating wavelength: 1.45 to 1.62 μm

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Fifth generation
Fifth generation uses Roman amplification technique and optical solitiors.
i) Bit rate: 40 - 160 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 24000 km - 35000 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.53 to 1.57 μm
Need of fiber optic communication
Fiber optic communication system has emerged as most important communication
system. Compared to traditional system because of following requirements:
1. In long haul transmission system there is need of low loss transmission medium
2. There is need of compact and least weight transmitters and receivers.
3. There is need of increase dspan of transmission.
4. There is need of increased bit rate-distrance product.
A fiber optic communication system fulfills these requirements, hence most widely
accepted
2. General Optical Fiber Communication System.
Basic block diagram of optical fiber communication system consists of following
important blocks.
1. Transmitter
2. Information channel
3. Receiver.
Fig. 1.2.1 shows block diagram of OFC system.

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Message origin
Generally message origin is from a transducer that converts a non-electrical message into
an electrical signal. Common examples include microphones for converting sound waves into
currents and video (TV) cameras for converting images into current. For data transfer between
computers, the message is already in electrical form.
Modulator
The modulator has two main functions.
1. It converts the electrical message into the proper format.
2. It impresses this signal onto the wave generated by the carrier source.
3. Two distinct categories of modulation are used i.e. analog modulation and digital
modulation.
Carrier source
Carrier source generates the wave on which the information is transmitted. This wave is
called the carrier. For fiber optic system, a laser diode (LD) or a light emitting diode (LED) is
used. They can be called as optic oscillators; they provide stable, single frequency waves with
sufficient power for long distance propagation.
Channel coupler
Coupler feeds the power into the information channel. For an atmospheric optic system,
the channel coupler is a lens used for collimating the light emitted by the source and directing
this light towards the receiver. The coupler must efficiently transfer the modulated light beam
from the source to the optic fiber. The channel coupler design is an important part of fiber system
because of possibility of high losses.
Information channel
The information channel is the path between the transmitter and receiver. In fiber optic
communications, a glass or plastic fiber is the channel. Desirable characteristics of the
information channel include low attenuation and large light acceptance cone angle. Optical
amplifiers boost the power levels of weak signals. Amplifiers are needed in very long links to
provide sufficient power to the receiver. Repeaters can be used only for digital systems. They
convert weak and distorted optical signals to electrical ones and then regenerate the original
digital pulse trains for further transmission.

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Another important property of the information channel is the propagation time of the
waves travelling along it. A signal propagating along a fiber normally contains a range of optic
frequencies and divides its power along several ray paths. This results in a distortion of the
propagating signal. In a digital system, this distortion appears as a spreading and deforming of
the pulses. The spreading is so great that adjacent pulses begin to overlap and become
unrecognizable as separate bits of information.
Optical detector
The information being transmitted is detector. In the fiber system the optic wave is
converted into an electric current by a photo detector. The current developed by the detector is
proportional to the power in the incident optic wave. Detector output current contains the
transmitted information. This detector output is then filtered to remove the constant bias and then
amplified.
The important properties of photo detectors are small size, economy, long life, low power
consumption, high sensitivity to optic signals and fast response to quick variations in the optic
power.
Signal processing
Signal processing includes filtering, amplification. Proper filtering maximizes the ratio of
signal to unwanted power. For a digital system decision circuit is an additional block. The bit
error rate (BER) should be very small for quality communications.
Message output
The electrical forms of the message emerging from the signal processor are transformed
into a sound wave or visual image. Sometimes these signals are directly usable when computers
or other machines are connected through a fiber system.

3. Advantages of Optical Fiber Communications

1. Wide bandwidth
The light wave occupies the frequency range between 2 x 1012 Hz to 3.7 x 1012 Hz.
Thus the information carrying capability of fiber optic cables is much higher.
2. Low losses
Fiber optic cables offers very less signal attenuation over long distances. Typically it is
less than 1 dB/km. This enables longer distance between repeaters.

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3. Immune to cross talk

Fiber optic cables have very high immunity to electrical and magnetic field. Since fiber
optic cables are non-conductors of electricity hence they do not produce magnetic field. Thus
fiber optic cables are immune to cross talk between cables caused by magnetic induction.
4. Interference immune
Fiber optic cable immune to conductive and radiative interferences caused by electrical
noise sources such as lighting, electric motors, fluorescent lights.
5. Light weight
As fiber cables are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than copper or
aluminum cables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport.
6. Small size
7. The diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables, therefore fiber cable is
small in size, requires less storage space.
8. More strength
Fiber cables are stronger and rugged hence can support more weight.
9. Security
Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to tap into a fiber
cable as they do not radiate signals. No ground loops exist between optical fibers hence they are
more secure.
10. Long distance transmission
Because of less attenuation transmission at a longer distance is possible.
11. Environment immune
Fiber cables are more immune to environmental extremes. They can operate over large
temperature variations. Also they are not affected by corrosive liquids and gases.
12. Sage and easy installation
Fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain. They are non-conductors hence
there is no shock hazards as no current or voltage is associated with them. Their small size and
light weight feature makes installation easier.
13. Less cost
Cost of fiber optic system is less compared to any other system.

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4. Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communications

1. High initial cost
The initial cost of installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other system.
2. Maintenance and repairing cost
The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic systems is not only difficult but expensive
also.
3. Jointing and test procedures
Since optical fibers are of very small size. The fiber joining process is very costly and
requires skilled manpower.
4. Tensile stress
Optical fibers are more susceptible to buckling, bending and tensile stress than copper cables.
This leads to restricted practice to use optical fiber technology to premises and floor backbones
with a few interfaces to the copper cables.
5. Short links
Even though optical fiber cables are inexpensive, it is still not cost effective to replace every
small conventional connector (e.g. between computers and peripherals), as the price of
optoelectronic transducers are very high.
6. Fiber losses
The amount of optical fiber available to the photo detector at the end of fiber length depends
on various fiber losses such as scattering, dispersion, attenuation and reflection.

5. Applications of Optical Fiber Communications

Applications of optical fiber communications include telecommunications, data
communications, video control and protection switching, sensors and power applications.
1. Telephone networks
Optical waveguide has low attenuation, high transmission bandwidth compared to copper
lines; therefore numbers of long haul co-axial trunks links between telephone exchanges are
being replaced by optical fiber links.
2. Urban broadband service networks
Optical waveguide provides much larger bandwidth than co-axial cable, also the
number of repeaters required is reduced considerably.

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Modern suburban communications involves videotext, videoconferencing Video

telephony Switched broadband communication network. All these can be supplied
over a single fiber optic link. Fiber optic cables is the solution to many of today‘s
high speed, high bandwidth data communication problems and will continue to play a
large role in future telecom and data-com networks.
6. Optical Fiber Waveguides
In free space light ravels as its maximum possible speed i.e. 3 x 108 m/s or 186 x 103
miles/sec. When light travels through a material it exhibits certain behavior explained by laws of
reflection, refraction.
a. Electromagnetic Spectrum
The radio waves and light are electromagnetic waves. The rate at which they alternate
in polarity is called their frequency (f) measured in hertz (Hz). The speed of
electromagnetic wave (c) in free space is approximately 3 x 108 m/sec. The distance
travelled during each cycle is called as wavelength (λ)

In fiber optics, it is more convenient to use the wavelength of light instead of the
frequency with light frequencies, wavlengfth is often stated in microns or nanometers
1 micron (μ) = 1 Micrometre (1 x 10-6)
1 nano (n) = 10-9 metre
Fig. 1.6.1 shows electromagnetic frequency spectrum.

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Fiber optics uses visible and infrared light. Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of
wavelengths and is generally used for all fiber optic communications. Visible light is normally
used for very short range transmission using a plastic fiber.

7. Ray Transmission Theory

Before studying how the light actually propagates through the fiber, laws governing the
nature of light m ust be studied. These was called as laws of optics (Ray theory). There is
conception that light always travels at the same speed. This fact is simply not true. The speed of
light depends upon the material or medium through which it is moving. In free space light travels
at its maximum possible speed i.e. 3 x 108 m/s or 186 x 103 miles/sec. When light travels
through a material it exhibits certain behavior explained by laws of reflection, refraction.
b. Reflection
The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident upon a reflective surface at some
incident angle 1 from imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be reflected from the
surface at some angle 2 from normal which is equal to the angle of incidence. Fig. 1.6.2 shows
law of reflection.

c. Refraction
Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another i.e. the light ray
changes its direction at interface. Refraction occurs whenever density of medium changes. E.g.
refraction occurs at air and water interface, the straw in a glass of water will appear as it is bent.
The refraction can also observed at air and glass interface.
When wave passes through less dense medium to denser medium, the wave is
refracted (bent) towards the normal. Fig. 1.6.3 shows the refraction phenomena.
The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different speed in
different mediums. The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or glass.

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d. Refractive Index
The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of two materials of
different densities is usually expressed as refractive index of two materials. Refractive
index is also known as index of refraction and is denoted by n.
Based on material density, the refractive index is expressed as the ratio of the
velocity of light in free space to the velocity of light of the dielectric material
(substance).

The refractive index for vacuum and air os 1.0 for water it is 1.3 and for glass refractive
index is 1.5.
e. Snell’s Law
Snell‘s law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two media
having different indexes of refraction.
Let the two medias have refractive indexes n1 and n2 where n1 >n2.
1 and 2 be the angles of incidence and angle of refraction respectively. Then
according to Snell‘s law, a relationship exists between the refractive index of both
materials given by,

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A refractive index model for Snell‘s law is shown in Fig. 1.6.4.

The refracted wave will be towards the normal when n1 < n2 and will away from it
then n1 > n2.
Equation can be written as,

This equation shows that the ratio of refractive index of two mediums is inversely
proportional to the refractive and incident angles. As refractive index

substituting these values in equation

f. Critical Angle
When the angle of incidence ( 1) is progressively increased, there will be progressive
increase of refractive angle ( 2). At some condition ( 1) the refractive angle ( 2)
becomes 90o to the normal. When this happens the refracted light ray travels along

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the interface. The angle of incidence ( 1) at the point at which the refractive angle
( 1) becomes 90 degree is called the critical angle. It is denoted by c.
The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence ( 1) at which the ray
strikes the interface of two media and causes an angle of refraction ( 2) equal to 90o.
Fig 1.6.5 shows critical angle refraction

Hence at critical angle 1 = c and 2 = 90o .Using Snell‘s law: n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

The actual value of critical angle is dependent upon combination of materials present on
each side of boundary.
g. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
When the incident angle is increase beyond the critical angle, the light ray does not
pass through the interface into the other medium. This gives the effect of mirror exist
at the interface with no possibility of light escaping outside the medium. In this
condition angle of reflection ( 2) is equal to angle of incidence ( 1). This action is
called as Total Internal Reflection (TIR) of the beam. It is TIR that leads to the

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propagation of waves within fiber-cable medium. TIR can be observed only in

materials in which the velocity of light is less than in air.
The two conditions necessary for TIR to occur are:
1. The refractive index of first medium must be greater than the refractive index
of second one.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than (or equal to) the critical angle.
h. Acceptance Angle
Applying Snell‘s law to external incidence angle.

n0 sin 0 = n1 sin 1
But 1 = (90 - c)
sin 1 = sing (90 - c) = cos c
Substituting sin 1 in above equation.
n0 sin 0 = n1 cos c

Applying Pythagorean Theorem to ΔPQR.

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The maximum value of external incidence angle for which light will propagate in the
fiber.

When the light rays enters the fivers from an air medium n0 = 1. Then above equation
reduces to,

The angle 0 is called as acceptance angle and omax defines the maximum angle in
which the light ray may incident on fiber to propagate down the fiber.

i. Acceptance Cone

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Rotating the acceptance angle omax around the fiber axis, a cone shaped pattern is
obtained, it is called as acceptance cone of the fiber input. Fig 1.6.10 shows formation of
acceptance cone of a fiber cable.

The Cone of acceptance is the angle within which the light is accepted into the core and
is able to travel along the fiber. The launching of light wave becomes easier for large acceptance
cone.
The angle is measured from the axis of the positive cone so the total angle of
convergence is actually twice the stated value.
j. Numerical Aperture (NA)
The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a figure of merit which represents its light
gathering capability. Larger the numerical aperture, the greater the amount of light
accepted by fiber. The acceptance angle also determines how much light is able to be
enter the fiber and hence there is relation between the numerical aperture and the cone
of acceptance.
Numerical aperture (NA) = sin omax

Hence acceptance angle = sin-1 NA

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By the formula of NA note that the numerical aperture is effectively dependent

only on refractive indices of core and cladding material. NA is not a function of fiber
dimension.
The index difference (Δ) and the numerical aperture (NA) are related to the core and
cladding indices:

Example 1.6.1: A light ray is incident from medium-1 to medium-2. If the refractive indices of
medium-1 and medium-2 are 1.5 and 1.36 respectively then determine the angle of refraction for
an angle of incidence of 30o.
Solution: Medium-1, n1 = 1.5
Medium-2, n2 = 1.36
Angle of incidence 1 = 30o.
Angle of incident 2 =?

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Angle of refraction 33.46 degrees from normal.

8. Optical Fiver as Waveguide
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide capable of conveying
electromagnetic waves at optical frequencies. The electromagnetic energy is in the form of
the light and propagates along the axis of the fiber. The structural of the fiver determines the
transmission characteristics.
The propagation of light along the waveguide is decided by the modes of the
waveguides, here mode means path. Each mode has distict pattern of electric and
magnetic field distributions along the fiber length. Only few modes can satisfy the
homogeneous wave equation in the fiver also the boundary condition a waveguide
surfaces. When there is only one path for light to follow then it is called as single
mode propagation. When there is more than one path then it is called as multimode
propagation. Single fiber structure
A single fiber structure is shown in Fig. 1.6.6. It consists of a solid dielectric cylinder
with radius ‗a‘. This cylinder is called as core of fiber. The core is surrounded by
dielectric, called cladding. The index of refraction of core (glass fiber) is slightly
greater than the index of refraction of cladding. If refractive index of core (glass
fiver) = n1 and refractive index of cladding = n2 then n1 > n2.

9. Modes of Fiber
Fiber cables cal also be classified as per their mode. Light rays propagate as an
electromagnetic wave along the fiber. The two components, the electric field and the
magnetic field form patterns across the fiber. These patterns are called modes of
transmission. The mode of a fiber refers to the number of paths for the light rays within the
cable. According to modes optic fibers can be classified into two types.
1. Single mode fiber

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2. Multimode fiber.
Multimode fiber was the first fiber type to be manufactured and commercialized.
The term multimode simply refers to the fact that numerous modes (light rays) are carried
simultaneously through the waveguide. Multimode fiber has a much larger diameter,
compared to single mode fiber, this allows large number of modes.
Single mode fiber allows propagation to light ray by only one path. Single mode
fibers are best at retaining the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distance also they do
not exhibit dispersion caused by multiple modes. Thus more information can be transmitted
per unit of time. This gives single mode fiber higher bandwidth compared to multimode
fiber.
Some disadvantages of single mode fiber are smaller core diameter makes
coupling light into the core more difficult. Precision required for single mode connectors and
splices are more demanding.
Fiber Profiles
A fiber is characterized by its profile and by its core and cladding diameters.
One way of classifying the fiber cables is according to the index profile at fiber.
The index profile is a graphical representation of value of refractive index across the core
diameter.
There are two basic types of index profiles.
1. Step index fiber.
2. Graded index fiber.
Step Index (SI) Fiber
The step index (SI) fiber is a cylindrical waveguide core with central or inner core has a
uniform refractive index of n1 and the core is surrounded by outer cladding with uniform
refractive index of n2. The cladding refractive index (n2) is less than the core refractive index
(n1). But there is an abrupt change in the refractive index at the core cladding interface.
Refractive index profile of step indexed optical fiber is shown in Fig. 1.6.13. The refractive
index is plotted on horizontal axis and radial distance from the core is plotted on vertical
axis.

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The propagation of light wave within the core of step index fiber takes the path of
meridional ray i.e. ray follows a zig-zag path of straight line segments. The core typically has
diameter of 50-80 μm and the cladding has a diameter of 125 μm.
The refractive index profile is defined as –

Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber

The graded index fiber has a core made from many layers of glass.
In the graded index (GRIN) fiber the refractive index is not uniform within the
core, it is highest at the center and decreases smoothly and continuously with distance
towards the cladding. The refractive index profile across the core takes the parabolic nature.
Fig. 1.6.14 shows refractive index profile of graded index fiber .

In graded index fiber the light waves are bent by refraction towards the core axis
and they follow the curved path down the fiber length. This results because of change in
refractive index as moved away from the center of the core.
A graded index fiber has lower coupling efficiency and higher bandwidth than the
step index fiber. It is available in 50/125 and 62.5/125 sizes. The 50/125 fiber has been
optimized for long haul applications and has a smaller NA and higher bandwidth. 62.5/125
fiber is optimized for LAN applications which is costing 25% more than the 50/125 fiber
cable.
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The refractive index variation in the core is giver by relationship

Where,
r = Radial distance from fiber axis
a = Core radius
n1 = Refractive index of core
n2 = Refractive index of cladding
α = Shape of index profile.
Comparison of Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Optic Fiber Configurations

Depending on the refractive index profile of fiber and modes of fiber there exist three
types of optical fiber configurations. These optic-fiber configurations are -
Single mode step index fiber.

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Multimode step index fiber.

Multimode graded index fiber.
Single mode Step index Fiber
In single mode step index fiber has a central core that is sufficiently small so that
there is essentially only one path for light ray through the cable. The light ray is propagated
in the fiber through reflection. Typical core sizes are 2 to 15 μm. Single mode fiber is also
known as fundamental or mono mode fiber.
Fig. 1.6.16 shows single mode fiber.

Single mode fiber will permit only one mode to propagate and does not suffer
from mode delay differences. These are primarily developed for the 1300 nm window but
they can be also be used effectively with time division multiple (TDM) and wavelength
division multiplex (WDM) systems operating in 1550 nm wavelength region.
The core fiber of a single mode fiber is very narrow compared to the wavelength
of light being used. Therefore, only a single path exists through the cable core through. which
light can travel. Usually, 20 percent of the light in a single mode cable actually travels down
the cladding and the effective diameter of the cable is a blend of single mode core and degree
to which the cladding carries light. This is referred to as the ‗mode field diameter‘, which is
larger than physical diameter of the core depending on the refractive indices of the core and
cladding.
The disadvantage of this type of cable is that because of extremely small size
interconnection of cables and interfacing with source is difficult. Another disadvantage of
single mode fibers is that as the refractive index of glass decreases with optical wavelength,
the light velocity will also be wavelength dependent. Thus the light from an optical
transmitter will have definite spectral width.
Multimode step Index Fiber

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Multimode step index fiber is more widely used type. It is easy to manufacture. Its
core diameter is 50 to 1000 μm i.e. large aperture and allows more light to enter the cable.
The light rays are propagated down the core in zig-zag manner. There are many paths that a
light ray may follow during the propagation.
The light ray is propagated using the principle of total internal reflection (TIR).
Since the core index of refraction is higher than the cladding index of refraction, the light
enters at less than critical angle is guided along the fiber.

Light rays passing through the fiber are continuously reflected off the glass
cladding towards the centre of the core at different angles and lengths, limiting overall
bandwidth.
The disadvantage of multimode step index fibers is that the different optical
lengths caused by various angles at which light is propagated relative to the core, causes the
transmission bandwidth to be fairly small. Because of these limitations, multimode step index
fiber is typically only used in applications requiring distances of less than 1 km.
Multimode Graded Index Fiber
The core size of multimode graded index fiber cable is varying from 50 to 100 μm
range. The light ray is propagated through the refraction. The light ray enters the fiber at
many different angles. As the light propagates across the core toward the center it is
intersecting a less dense to more dense medium. Therefore the light rays are being constantly
being refracted and ray is bending continuously. This cable is mostly used for long distance
communication.
Fig 1.6.18 shows multimode graded index fiber.

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The light rays no longer follow straight lines, they follow a serpentine path being
gradually bent back towards the center by the continuously declining refractive index. The
modes travelling in a straight line are in a higher refractive index so they travel slower than
the serpentine modes. This reduces the arrival time disparity because all modes arrive at
about the same time.
Fig 1.6.19 shows the light trajectory in detail. It is seen that light rays running
close to the fiber axis with shorter path length, will have a lower velocity because they pass
through a region with a high refractive index.

Rays on core edges offers reduced refractive index, hence travel more faster than axial
rays and cause the light components to take same amount of time to travel the length of fiber,
thus minimizing dispersion losses. Each path at a different angle is termed as ‗transmission
mode‘ and the NA of graded index fiber is defined as the maximum value of acceptance
angle at the fiber axis.
Typical attenuation coefficients of graded index fibers at 850 nm are 2.5 to 3
dB/km, while at 1300 nm they are 1.0 to 1.5 dB/km.
The main advantages of graded index fiber are:
1. Reduced refractive index at the centre of core.
2. Comparatively cheap to produce.

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10. Mode Theory for Cylindrical Waveguide

To analyze the optical fiber propagation mechanism within a fiber, Maxwell equations
are to solve subject to the cylindrical boundary conditions at core-cladding interface. The

core-cladding boundary conditions lead to coupling of electric and magnetic field

components resulting in hybrid modes. Hence the analysis of optical waveguide is more
complex than metallic hollow waveguide analysis.
Depending on the large E-field, the hybrid modes are HE or EH modes. The two
lowest order does are HE11 and TE01.
11. Overview of Modes
The order states the number of field zeros across the guide. The electric fields are
not completely confined within the core i.e. they do not go to zero at core-cladding interface
nd extends into the cladding. The low order mode confines the electric field near the axis of
the fiber core and there is less penetration into the cladding. While the high order mode
distribute the field towards the edge of the core fiber and penetrations into the cladding.
Therefore cladding modes also appear resulting in power loss. In leaky modes the fields are
confined partially in the fiber core attenuated as they propagate along the fiber length due to
radiation and tunnel effect.
Therefore in order to mode remain guided, the propagation factor β must satisfy
the Condition

Where, n1 = Refractive index of fiber core

n2 = Refractive index of cladding
k = Propagation constant = 2π / λ
The cladding is used to prevent scattering loss that results from core material
discontinuities. Cladding also improves the mechanical strength of fiber core and reduces
surface contamination. Plastic cladding is commonly used. Materials used for fabrication of
optical fibers are silicon dioxide (SiO2), boric oxide-silica.
Summary of Key Modal Concepts

Normalized frequency variable, V is defined as

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Where, a = Core radius

λ = Free space wavelength

The total number of modes in a multimode fiber is given by

Example 1.7.1 : Calculate the number of modes of an optical fiber having diameter of 50 μm, n1
= 1.48, n2 = 1.46 and λ = 0.82 μm.

Solution: d = 50 μm
n1 = 1.48
n2 = 1.46
λ = 0.82 μm

Number of modes is given by,

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Example 1.7.3: A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative index
difference of 1.5 % is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core refractive index is 1.48,
estimate the normalized frequency for the fiber and number of guided modes. [July/Aug.-2008,
6 Marks]

Solution:
Given : MM step index fiber, 2 a = 80 μm
. .Core radians a = 40 μm
Relative index difference, Δ = 1.5% = 0.015
Wavelength, λ = 0.85μm
Core refractive index, n1 = 1.48
Normalized frequency, V =?
Number of modes, M =?
Numerical aperture

Normalized frequency is given by,

Number of modes is given by,

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Example 1.7.4: A step index multimode fiber with a numerical aperture of a 0.20 supports
approximately 1000 modes at an 850 nm wavelength.
i) What is the diameter of its core?
ii) How many modes does the fiber support at 1320 nm?
iii) How many modes does the fiber support at 1550 nm? [Jan./Feb.-2007, 10 Marks]

Solution:

i) Number of modes is given by,

ii)

iii)

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12. Mode Field Diameter and Spot Size

The mode filed diameter is fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber. This parameter
is determined from mode field distributions of fundamental LP01 mode.
In step index and graded single mode fibers, the field amplitude distribution is
approximated by Gaussian distribution. The mode Field diameter (MFD) is distance between
opposite 1/e – 0.37 times the near field strength amplitude and power is 1/e2 = 0.135 times.
In single mode fiber for fundamental mode, on field amplitude distribution the
mode filed diameter is shown in fig. 1.8.1.

The spot size ω0 is gives as –

MFD = 2 ω0
The parameter takes into account the wavelength dependent filed penetration into the
cladding. Fig. 1.8.2 shows mode field diameters variation with λ.

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13. Fiber Materials

Requirements of Fiber Optic Material
1. The material must be transparent for efficient transmission of light.
2. It must be possible to draw long thin fibers from the material.
3. Fiber material must be compatible with the cladding material.
Glass and plastics fulfills these requirements.
Most fiber consists of silica (SiO2) or silicate. Various types of high loss and low
loss glass fibers are available to suit the requirements. Plastic fibers are not popular because
of high attenuation they have better mechanical strength.
Glass Fibers
Glass is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides having refractive index of 1.458
at 850 nm. For changing the refractive index different oxides such as B2O3, GeO2 and P2O5
are added as dopant. Fig. 1.8.3 shows variation of refractive index with doping concentration.

The principal raw material for silica is sand and glass. The fiber composed of pure
silica is called as silica glass. The desirable properties of silica glass are :-
Resistance to deformation even at high temperature.
Resistance to breakage from thermal shocks (low thermal expansion).

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Good chemical durability.

Better transparency.
Other types of glass fibers are
Halide glass fibers.
Active glass fibers
Chalgenide glass fibers
Plastic optical fibers
Fiber Fabrication Methods
The vapor-phase oxidation process is popularly used for fabricating optical fibers.
In this process vapors of metal halides such as SiCl4 and Gecl4 reactive with oxygen and
forms powder of SiO2 particles. The SiO2 particles are collected on surface of bulk glass and
then sintered to form a glass rod called Preform. The preforms are typically 10-25 mm
diameter and 60-120 cm long from which fibers are drawn. A simple schematic of fiber
drawing equipment
The preform is feed to drawing furnace by precision feed mechanism. The
preform is heated up in drawing furnace so that it becomes soft and fiber can be drawn easily.

The fiber thickness monitoring decides the speed of take up spool. The fiber is then
coated with elastic material to protect it from dust and water vapor.

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Outside Vapor-Phase Oxidation (OVPO)

The OVPO process is a lateral deposition process. In OVPO process a layer of
SiO2 (Soot) is deposited from a burner on a rotating mandrel so as to make a perform.
Fig, 1.8.5 shows this process.

During the SiO2 deposition O2 and metal halide vapors can be controlled so the
desired core-cladding diameters can be incorporated. The mandrel is removed when
deposition process is completed; this preform is used for drawing thin filament of fibers in
fiber drawing equipment.
Vapor-Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
In VAD process, the SiO2 particles are deposited axially. The rod is continuously
rotated and moved upward to maintain symmetry of particle deposition.
The advantages of VAD process are - Both step and graded index fibers are
possible to fabricate in multimode and single mode.
The performs does not have the central hole.
The performs can be fabricated in continuous length.
Clean environment can be maintained.
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
The MCVD process involves depositing ultra fine, vaporized raw materials into a
premade silica tube. A hollow silica tube is heated to about 1500 oC and a mixture of oxygen
and metal halide gases is passed through it. A chemical reaction occurs within the gas and
glass ‗500t‘ is formed and deposited on the inner side of the tube. The soot that develops
from this deposition is consolidated by heating. The tube is rotated while the heater is moved
to and along the tube and the soot forms a thin layer of silica glass. The rotation and heater
movement ensures that the layer is of constant thickness. The first layer that is deposited

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forms the cladding and by changing the constituents of the incoming gas the refractive index
can be modified to produce the core. Graded index fiber is produced by careful continuous
control of the constituents.
The temperature is now increased to about 1800 oC and the tube is collapsed to
form a solid rod called a preform. The preform is about 25 mm in diameter and 1 meter in
length. This will produce 25 km of fiber.

The preform is placed at a height called a pulling tower and its temperature is
increased to about 2100 oC. To prevent contamination, the atmosphere is kept dry and clean.

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The fiber is then pulled as a fine strand from the bottom, the core and cladding flowing
towards the pulling point. Laser gauges continually monitor the thickness of the fiber and
automatically adjust the pilling rate to maintain required thickness. After sufficient cooling
the primary buffer is applied and the fiber is drummed.
Fig. 1.8.6 (Refer Fig. 1.8.6 on previous page) shows the overall MCVD process.

Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)

PCVD process is similar to MCVD process where the deposition occurs on silica
tube at 1200 oC. It reduces mechanical stress on glass films. There is no soot formation and
hence sintering is not required. Non-isothermal microwave plasma at low pressure initiates
the chemical reaction.

Double-Crucible Method
Double-crucible method is a direct melt process. In double-crucible method two
different glass rods for core and Cladding are used as feedstock for two concentric crucibles.
The inner crucible is for core and outer crucible is for cladding. The fibers can be drawn from
the orifices in the crucible. Fig. 1.8.7 shows double crucible method of fiber drawing.

Major advantage of double crucible method is that it is a continuous production process.

14. Fiber Optic Cables
The fiber optic cable is to be used under variety of situations such as underground,
Outdoor poles or submerged under water. The structure of cable depends on the situation where
it is to be used, but the basic cable design principles remain same.

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Mechanical property of cable is one of the important factor for using any specific
cable. Maximum allowable axial load on cable decides the length of the cable be reliably
installed.
Also the fiber cables must be able to absorb energy from impact loads. The outer
sheath must be designed to protect glass fibers from impact loads and from corrosive
environmental elements.
Fiber Arrangements
Several arrangements of fiber cables are done to use it for different applications.
The most basic form is two fiber cable designs. Fig. 1.10.1 shows basic two fiber cable
design. It is also known as basic building block of fiber cable.
For providing strength to the core several coatings of different materials are
applied as shown in fig 1.10.1.

Multiple fiber cable can be combined together using similar techniques. Fig. 1.10.2
shows commonly used six fiber cables.
The basic fiber building blocks are used to form large cable. These units are
bound on a buffer material which acts as strength element along with insulated copper
conductor. The fiber building blocks are surrounded by paper tape, PVC jacket, yarn and
outer sheath.

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Fiber Optic Cable Ducts

Number of cores is bundled in plastic ducts. To ease identification, individual
fibers are colour coded Table 1.10.1 shows an example of the colour coding used by
manufacturers

If there are more than 12 fibers in a tube they are usually bundled together in
quantities of 12 and held together with a coloured binding yarn.

Plastic Fiber Optic Cables

Fibers can also be manufactured from transparent plastic which offers advantages
of larger diameter (1 mm), increased flexibility, can be cut using a hot razor blade, ease of
termination. But because of high intrinsic loss use of plastic fibers is normally restricted to
only few metres.
Plastic optic fiber (POF) offers noise immunity and low cable weight and volume
and is competitive with shielded copper wire making it suitable for industrial applications.

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Silica (glass) optical fiber has better transmission characteristics (Low loss) than
POF. Also, silica fiber can tolerate higher temperature than plastic fiber. On the other hand,
POF is more flexible, less prove to breakage, easier to fabricate and cost is low than glass
fibers.
Another advantage of glass/glass fiber is that very clean fracture surface can be
obtained which ensures that fiber cladding inside the connector retains its optical
characteristics right upto the end face to fiber. Whereas in plastic glass/plastic fiber some
additional losses exists due to fracture zone of plastic which even after grinding and
polishing still have microscope end face absorption areas. These advantages and
disadvantages are summarized in Table 1.10.3.

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Attenuation
Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as
light pulses propagate through the length of the fiber.
In optical fibers the attenuation is mainly caused by two physical factors absorption and
scattering losses. Absorption is because of fiber material and scattering due to structural
imperfection within the fiber. Nearly 90 % of total attenuation is caused by Rayleigh
scattering only.
Micro bending of optical fiber also contributes to the attenuation of signal. The rate at
which light is absorbed is dependent on the wavelength of the light and the characteristics
of particular glass. Glass is a silicon compound; by adding different additional chemicals
to the basic silicon dioxide the optical properties of the glass can be changed.
The Rayleigh scattering is wavelength dependent and reduces rapidly as the wavelength
of the incident radiation increases.
The attenuation of fiber is governed by the materials from which it is fabricated, the
manufacturing process and the refractive index profile chosen. Attenuation loss is
measured in dB/km.
1.1. Attenuation Units
As attenuation leads to a loss of power along the fiber, the output power is
significantly less than the couple‘s power. Let the couples optical power is p(0) i.e. at
origin (z = 0). Then the power at distance z is given by,

Where, αp is fiber attenuation constant (per km).

This parameter is known as fiber loss or fiber attenuation.

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Attenuation is also a function of wavelength. Optical fiber wavelength as a

function of Wavelength is shown in Fig. 2.1.1.

Example 2.1.1: A low loss fiber has average loss of 3 dB/km at 900 nm. Compute the length
over which – a) Power decreases by 50 % b) Power decreases by 75 %.

Solution: α = 3 dB/km
a) Power decreases by 50 %.

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α is given by,

b) Power decreases by 75 %.

Since power decrease by 75 %.

Example 2.1.2: When mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 12 μW, the
mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 μW. Determine –
1) Overall signal attenuation in dB.
2) The overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber with splices at 1
km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB.
Solution :
Given : z = 8 km
1P(0) = 120 μW
P(z) = 3 μW
1) Overall attenuation is given by,

2) Overall attenuation for 10 km,

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Attenuation per km

Attenuation in 10 km link = 2.00 x 10 = 20 dB

In 10 km link there will be 9 splices at 1 km interval. Each splice introducing attenuation
of 1 dB.
Total attenuation = 20 dB + 9 dB = 29 dB

Example 2.1.4: A continuous 12 km long optical fiber link has a loss of 1.5 dB/km.
i) What is the minimum optical power level that must be launched into the fiber to
maintain as optical power level of 0.3 μW at the receiving end?
ii) What is the required input power if the fiber has a loss of 2.5 dB/km?
[July/Aug-2007, 6 Marks]
Solution:
Given data: z = 12 km
α = 1.5 dB/km
P (0) = 0.3 μW
i) Attenuation in optical fiber is given by,

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ii) Input power = ? P(0)

When α = 2.5 dB/km

Absorption loss is related to the material composition and fabrication process of fiber.
Absorption loss results in dissipation of some optical power as hear in the fiber cable.
Although glass fibers are extremely pure, some impurities still remain as residue after
purification. The amount of absorption by these impurities depends on their concentration
and light wavelength.
Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms.
1) Absorption by atomic defects in glass composition.
2) Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in glass mats.
3) Intrinsic absorption by basic constituent atom of fiber.
2. Absorption by Atomic Defects
Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber materials such as
missing molecules, high density clusters of atom groups. These absorption losses are
negligible compared with intrinsic and extrinsic losses.

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The absorption effect is most significant when fiber is exposed to ionizing radiation in
nuclear reactor, medical therapies, space missions etc. The radiation dames the internal
structure of fiber. The damages are proportional to the intensity of ionizing particles. This
results in increasing attenuation due to atomic defects and absorbing optical energy. The
total dose a material receives is expressed in rad (Si), this is the unit for measuring
radiation absorbed in bulk silicon.
1 rad (Si) = 0.01 J.kg
The higher the radiation intensity more the attenuation as shown in Fig 2.2.1.

Extrinsic Absorption
Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between the energy level and
because of charge transitions from one ion to another. A major source of attenuation is
from transition of metal impurity ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper. These
losses can be upto 1 to 10 dB/km. The effect of metallic impurities can be reduced by
glass refining techniques.
Another major extrinsic loss is caused by absorption due to OH (Hydroxil) ions
impurities dissolved in glass. Vibrations occur at wavelengths between 2.7 and 4.2 μm.
The absorption peaks occurs at 1400, 950 and 750 nm. These are first, second and third
overtones respectively.
Fig. 2.2.2 shows absorption spectrum for OH group in silica. Between these absorption
peaks there are regions of low attenuation.

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Intrinsic Absorption
◻Intrinsic absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure state, no density
variation and in homogeneities. Thus intrinsic absorption sets the fundamental lower limit
on absorption for any particular material.
Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in UV region and from
atomic vibration bands in the near infrared region.
The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps of amorphous glass
materials. Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the valene band
and excites it to a higher energy level. UV absorption decays exponentially with
increasing wavelength (λ).
In the IR (infrared) region above 1.2 μm the optical waveguide loss is determined by
presence of the OH ions and inherent IR absorption of the constituent materials. The
inherent IR absorption is due to interaction between the vibrating band and the
electromagnetic field of optical signal this results in transfer of energy from field to the
band, thereby giving rise to absorption, this absorption is strong because of many bonds
present in the fiber.
Attenuation spectra for the intrinsic loss mechanism in pure Ge is shown in Fig. 2.2.3.

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The ultraviolet loss at any wavelength is expressed as,

where, x is mole fraction of GeO2.

λ is operating wavelength.
αuv is in dB/km.
The loss in infrared (IR) region (above 1.2 μm) is given by expression:

The expression is derived for GeO2-SiO2 glass fiber.

3. Rayleigh Scattering Losses
Scattering losses exists in optical fibers because of microscopic variations in the material
density and composition. As glass is composed by randomly connected network of
molecules and several oxides (e.g. SiO2, GeO2 and P2O5), these are the major cause of
compositional structure fluctuation. These two effects results to variation in refractive
index and Rayleigh type scattering of light.
Rayleigh scattering of light is due to small localized changes in the refractive index of the
core and cladding material. There are two causes during the manufacturing of fiber.
The first is due to slight fluctuation in mixing of ingredients. The random changes
because of this are impossible to eliminate completely.
The other cause is slight change in density as the silica cools and solidifies. When light
ray strikes such zones it gets scattered in all directions. The amount of scatter depends on
the size of the discontinuity compared with the wavelength of the light so the shortest

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wavelength (highest frequency) suffers most scattering. Fig. 2.3.1 shows graphically the
relationship between wavelength and Rayleigh scattering loss.

Scattering loss for single component glass is given by,

where, n = Refractive index

kB = Boltzmann‘s constant
βT = Isothermal compressibility of material
Tf = Temperature at which density fluctuations are frozen into the glass as it solidifies
(Fictive temperature)
Another form of equation is

where, P = Photoelastic coefficient

Scattering loss for multi component glasses is given by,

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Multimode fibers have higher dopant concentrations and greater compositional

fluctuations. The overall losses in this fiber are more as compared to single mode fibers.
Mie Scattering:
Linear scattering also occurs at in homogeneities and these arise from imperfections in
the fiber‘s geometry, irregularities in the refractive index and the presence of bubbles etc. caused
during manufacture. Careful control of manufacturing process can reduce mie scattering to
insignificant levels.
4. Bending Loss
Losses due to curvature and losses caused by an abrupt change in radius of curvature are
referred to as ‗bending losses.‘
The sharp bend of a fiber causes significant radiative losses and there is also possibility
of mechanical failure. This is shown in Fig. 2.4.1.

As the core bends the normal will follow it and the ray will now find itself on the wrong
side of critical angle and will escape. The sharp bends are therefore avoided. The radiation loss
from a bent fiber depends on –
Field strength of certain critical distance xc from fiber axis where power is lost through
radiation.
The radius of curvature R. The higher order modes are less tightly bound to the fiber
core, the higher order modes radiate out of fiber firstly. For multimode fiber, the effective
number of modes that can be guided by curved fiber is given expression:

where,
α is graded index profile.

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Δ is core – cladding index difference.

n2 is refractive index of cladding.
k is wave propagation constant .
N∞ is total number of modes in a straight fiber.

Microbending
Microbending is a loss due to small bending or distortions. This small micro bending is
not visible. The losses due to this are temperature related, tensile related or crush related.
The effects of microbending on multimode fiber can result in increasing attenuation
(depending on wavelength) to a series of periodic peaks and troughs on the spectral
attenuation curve. These effects can be minimized during installation and testing. Fig.
2.4.2 illustrates microbening.

Macrobending
The change in spectral attenuation caused by macrobending is different to micro bending.
Usually there are no peaks and troughs because in a macrobending no light is coupled
back into the core from the cladding as can happen in the case of microbends.
The macrobending losses are cause by large scale bending of fiber. The losses are
eliminated when the bends are straightened. The losses can be minimized by not
exceeding the long term bend radii. Fig. 2.4.3 illustrates macrobending.

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Core and Cladding Loss

Since the core and cladding have different indices of refraction hence they have different
attenuation coefficients α1 and α2 respectively.
For step index fiber, the loss for a mode order (v, m) is given by,

For low-order modes, the expression reduced to

For graded index fiber, loss at radial distance is expressed as,

The loss for a given mode is expressed by,

Where, P(r) is power density of that model at radial distance r.

5. Signal Distortion in Optical Waveguide

The pulse gets distorted as it travels along the fiber lengths. Pulse spreading in fiber is
referred as dispersion. Dispersion is caused by difference in the propagation times of light rays
that takes different paths during the propagation. The light pulses travelling down the fiber
encounter dispersion effect because of this the pulse spreads out in time domain. Dispersion

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limits the information bandwidth. The distortion effects can be analyzed by studying the group
velocities in guided modes.

Information Capacity Determination

Dispersion and attenuation of pulse travelling along the fiber is shown in Fig. 2.6.1

Fig. 2.6.1 shows, after travelling some distance, pulse starts broadening and overlap with the
neighboring pulses. At certain distance the pulses are not even distinguishable and error will
occur at receiver. Therefore the information capacity is specified by bandwidth distance product
(MHz. km). For step index bandwidth distance product is 20 MHz. km and for graded index it is
2.5 MHz. Km.

Group Delay
Consider a fiber cable carrying optical signal equally with various modes and each mode
contains all the spectral components in the wavelength band. All the spectral components travel
independently and they observe different time delay and group delay in the direction of
propagation. The velocity at which the energy in a pulse travels along the fiber is known as
group velocity. Group velocity is given by,

Thus different frequency components in a signal will travel at different group velocities and
so will arrive at their destination at different times, for digital modulation of carrier, this results
in dispersion of pulse, which affects the maximum rate of modulation. Let the difference in
propagation times for two side bands is δτ.

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where,

Then

Material Dispersion

Material dispersion is also called as chromatic dispersion. Material dispersion exists due to
change in index of refraction for different wavelengths. A light ray contains components of
various wavelengths centered at wavelength λ10. The time delay is different for different

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wavelength components. This results in time dispersion of pulse at the receiving end of fiber.
Fig. 2.6.2 shows index of refraction as a function of optical wavelength.

The material dispersion for unit length (L = 1) is given by

Where, c = Light velocity

λ = Center wavelength

Negative sign shows that the upper sideband signal (lowest wavelength) arrives before the
lower sideband (highest wavelength).

A plot of material dispersion and wavelength is shown in Fig. 2.6.3

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The unit of dispersion is: ps/nm. Km. the amount of material dispersion depends upon the
chemical composition of glass.

Example 2.6.1: An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 45 nm. What is the
pulse spreading in ns/km due to material dispersion? [Jan./Feb.-2007, 3 Marks]

Solution:
Given : λ = 850 nm
σ = 45 nm
R.M.S pulse broadening due to material dispersion is given by,
σm = σ LM
Considering length L = 1 meter

For LED source operating at 850 nm,

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Example 2.6.2: What is the pulse spreading when a laser diode having a 2 nm spectral width
is used? Find the the material-dispersion-induced pulse spreading at 1550 nm for an LED with a
75 nm spectral width? [Jan./Feb.-2007, 7 Marks]

Solutions:

Given: λ = 2 nm

σ = 75

Waveguide Dispersion

Waveguide dispersion is caused by the difference in the index of refraction between the
core and cladding, resulting in a ‗drag‘ effect between the core and cladding portions of
the power.
Waveguide dispersion is significant only in fibers carrying fewer than 5-10 modes. Since
multimode optical fibers carry hundreds of modes, they will not have observable
waveguide dispersion.
The group delay (τwg) arising due to waveguide dispersion.

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10EC72

Where, b = Normalized propagation constant

k = 2π / λ (group velocity)
Normalized frequency V,

The second term

is waveguide dispersion and is mode dependent term..

As frequency is a function of wavelength, the group velocity of the energy varies with
frequency. The produces additional losses (waveguide dispersion). The propagation constant (b)
varies with wavelength, the causes of which are independent of material dispersion.

Chromatic Dispersion
The combination of material dispersion and waveguide dispersion is called chromatic
dispersion. These losses primarily concern the spectral width of transmitter and choice of correct
wavelength.

A graph of effective refractive index against wavelength illustrates the effects of material,
chromatic and waveguide dispersion.

Material dispersion and waveguide dispersion effects vary in vary in opposite senses as the
wavelength increased, but at an optimum wavelength around 1300 nm, two effects almost cancel
each other and chromatic dispersion is at minimum. Attenuation is therefore also at minimum
and makes 1300 nm a highly attractive operating wavelength.

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Modal Dispersion
As only a certain number of modes can propagate down the fiber, each of these modes carries
the modulation signal and each one is incident on the boundary at a different angle, they will
each have their own individual propagation times. The net effect is spreading of pulse, this form
of dispersion is called modal dispersion.

Modal dispersion takes place in multimode fibers. It is moderately present in graded

Index fibers and almost eliminated in single mode step index fibers.
Modal dispersion is given by,

where Δt modal = Dispersion

n1 = Core refractive index
Z = Total fiber length
c = Velocity of light in air
Δ = Fractional refractive index

The modal dispersion Δtmodal describes the optical pulse spreading due to modal effects
optical pulse width can be converted to electrical rise time through the relationship.

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Signal distortion in Single Mode Fibers

The pulse spreading σwg over range of wavelengths can be obtained from derivative of
group delay with respect to λ.

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This is the equation for waveguide dispersion for unit length.

Example 2.6.3 : For a single mode fiber n2 = 1.48 and Δ = 0.2 % operating at A = 1320 nm,
compute the waveguide dispersion if

Solution : n2 = 1.48
Δ = 0.2
λ = 1320 nm
Waveguide dispersion is given by,

Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Different frequency component of a pulse acquires different polarization state (such as
linear polarization and circular polarization). This results in pulse broadening is known as
polarization mode dispersion (PMD).

PMD is the limiting factor for optical communication system at high data rates. The
effects of PMD must be compensated.

Pulse Broadening in GI Fibers

The core refractive index varies radially in case of graded index fibers, hence it supports
multimode propagation with a low intermodal delay distortion and high data rate over long
distance is possible. The higher order modes travelling in outer regions of the core, will travel
faster than the lower order modes travelling in high refractive index region. If the index profile is
carefully controlled, then the transit times of the individual modes will be identical, so
eliminating modal dispersion.

The r.m.s pulse broadening is given as :

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The intermodal delay and pulse broadening are related by expression given by Personick

Where τg is group delay.

From this the expression for intermodal pulse broadening is given as:

The intramodal pulse broadening is given as :

Where σλ is spectral width of optical source.

Solving the expression gives:

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Optical Sources and Detectors

 Optical transmitter coverts electrical input signal into corresponding optical signal. The
optical signal is then launched into the fiber. Optical source is the major component in an
optical transmitter.
Popularly used optical transmitters are Light Emitting Diode (LED) and semiconductor
Laser Diodes (LD).
Characteristics of Light Source of Communication
To be useful in an optical link, a light source needs the following characteristics:
i) It must be possible to operate the device continuously at a variety of temperatures for many
years.
ii) It must be possible to modulate the light output over a wide range of modulating frequencies.
iii) For fiber links, the wavelength of the output should coincide with one of transmission
windows for the fiber type used.
iv) To couple large amount of power into an optical fiber, the emitting area should be small.
v) To reduce material dispersion in an optical fiber link, the output spectrum should be narrow.
vi) The power requirement for its operation must be low.
vii) The light source must be compatible with the modern solid state devices.
viii) The optical output power must be directly modulated by varying the input current to the
device.
ix) Better linearity of prevent harmonics and intermodulation distortion.
x) High coupling efficiency.
xi) High optical output power.
xii) High reliability.
xiii) Low weight and low cost.
Two types of light sources used in fiber optics are light emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser
diodes (LDs).

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1. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

P-n Junction
Conventional p-n junction is called as homojunction as same semiconductor
material is sued on both sides junction. The electron-hole recombination occurs in
relatively wide layer = 10 μm. As the carriers are not confined to the immediate
vicinity of junction, hence high current densities can not be realized .
The carrier confinement problem can be resolved by sandwiching a thin layer (=
.1 μm) between p-type and n-type layers. The middle layer may or may not be
doped. The carrier confinement occurs due to band gap discontinuity of the
junction. Such a junction is call heterojunction and the device is called double
heterostructure.
In any optical communication system when the requirements is –
i) Bit rate f 100-2—Mb/sec.
ii) Optical power in tens of micro watts.
LEDs are best suitable optical source.
LED Structures
Heterojunction
A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal
semiconductors with different band gap.
Heterojunction are of two types, Isotype (n-n or p-p) or Antistype (p-n).
Double Heterojunction (DH)
In order to achieve efficient confinement of emitted radiation double heterojunction are
used in LED structure. A heterojunction is a junction formed by dissimilar semiconductors.
Double heterojunction (DH) is formed by two different semiconductors on each side of active
region. Fig. 3.1.1 shows double heterojunction (DH) light emitter.
The crosshatched regions represent the energy levels of free charge. Recombination
occurs only in active InGaAsP layer. The two materials have different band gap energies and
different refractive indices. The changes in band gap energies create potential barrier for both
holes and electrons. The free charges can recombine only in narrow, well defined active layer
side.
A double heterojunction (DH) structure will confine both hole and electrons to a narrow
active layer. Under forward bias, there will be a large number of carriers injected into active
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region where they are efficiently confined. Carrier recombination occurs in small active region

so leading to an efficient device. Antoer advantage DH structure is that the active region has a
higher refractive index than the materials on either side, hence light emission occurs in an optical
waveguide, which serves to narrow the output beam.

LED configurations
At present there are two main types of LED used in optical fiber links –
1. Surface emitting LED.
2. Edge emitting LED.
Both devices used a DH structure to constrain the carriers and the light to an active layer.
Surface Emitting LEDs
In surface emitting LEDs the plane of active light emitting region is oriented
perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber. A DH diode is grown on an N-type substrate at the top of
the diode as shown in Fig. 3.1.2. A circular well is etched through the substrate of the device. A
fiber is then connected to accept the emitted light.

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At the back of device is a gold heat sink. The current flows through the p-type material
and forms the small circular active region resulting in the intense beam of light.
Diameter of circular active area = 50 μm
Thickness of circular active area = 2.5 μm
Current density = 2000 A/cm2 half-power
Emission pattern = Isotropic, 120o beamwidth.
The isotropic emission pattern from surface emitting LED is of Lambartian pattern. In
Lambartian pattern, the emitting surface is uniformly bright, but its projected area
diminishes as cos θ, where θ is the angle between the viewing direction and the normal to
the surface as shown in Fig. 3.1.3. The beam intensity is maximum along the normal.

The power is reduced to 50% of its peak when θ = 60o, therefore the total half-power
beamwidth is 120o. The radiation pattern decides the coupling efficiency of LED.
Edge Emitting LEDS (ELEDs)

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In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the
beam more directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED. Such a device is
known as edge emitting LED or ELED.
It consists of an active junction region which is the source of incoherent light and two
guiding layers. The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active region but
higher than outer surrounding material. Thus a waveguide channel is form and optical
radiation is directed into the fiber. Fig. 3.1.4 shows structure of ELED.

Edge emitter‘s emission pattern is more concentrated (directional) providing improved

coupling efficiency. The beam is Lambartian in the plane parallel to the junction but diverges
more slowly in the plane perpendicular to the junction. In this plane, the beam divergence is
limited. In the parallel plane, there is no beam confinement and the radiation

is Lambartian. To
maximize the useful output power, a reflector may be placed at the end of the diode opposite the
emitting edge. Fig. 3.1.5 shows radiation from ELED.

Features of ELED:
1. Linear relationship between optical output and current.
2. Spectral width is 25 to 400 nm for λ = 0.8 – 0.9 μm.
3. Modulation bandwidth is much large.

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4. Not affected by catastrophic gradation mechanisms hence are more reliable.

5. ELEDs have better coupling efficiency than surface emitter.
6. ELEDs are temperature sensitive.
Usage :
1. LEDs are suited for short range narrow and medium bandwidth links.
2. Suitable for digital systems up to 140 Mb/sec.
3. Long distance analog links.
Light Source Materials
The spontaneous emission due to carrier recombination is called electro luminescence. To
encourage electroluminescence it is necessary to select as appropriate semiconductor material.
The semiconductors depending on energy band gap can be categorized into,
1. Direct band gap semiconductors.
2. Indirect band gap semiconductors.
Some commonly used band gap semiconductors are shown in following table 3.1.1

Direct band gap semiconductors are most useful for this purpose. In direct band gap
semiconductors the electrons and holes on either side of band gap have same value of

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crystal momentum.Hence direct recombination is possible. The recombination occurs

within 10-8 to 10-10 sec.
In indirect band gap semiconductors, the maximum and minimum energies occur at
Different values of crystal momentum. The recombination in these semiconductors is
quite slow i.e. 10-2 and 10-3 sec.
The active layer semiconductor material must have a direct band gap. In direct band gap
semiconductor, electrons and holes can recombine directly without need of third particle
to conserve momentum. In these materials the optical radiation is sufficiently high.
These materials are compounds of group III elements (Al, Ga, In) and group V element (P,
As, Sb). Some tertiary alloys Ga Al As are also used. Emission spectrum of Ga1-x AlxAs LED is
shown in Fig. 3.1.6.

The peak output power is obtained at 810 nm. The width of emission spectrum at half power
(0.5) is referred as full width half maximum (FWHM) spectral width. For the given LED FWHM
is 36 nm.
The fundamental quantum mechanical relationship between gap energy E and frequency v is
given as –

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where, energy (E) is in joules and wavelength (λ) is in meters. Expressing the gap energy
(Eg) in electron volts and wavelength (λ) in micrometers for this application.

Different materials and alloys have different bandgap energies.

The bandgap energy (Eg) can be controlled by two compositional parameters x and y,
within direct bandgap region. The quartenary alloy In1-x Gax Asy P1-y is the principal
material sued in such LEDs. Two expression relating Eg and x,y are –

Quantum Efficiency and Power

The internal quantum efficiency (ηint) is defined as the ratio of radiative recombination rate to
the total recombination rate.

Where,
Rr is radiative recombination rate.
Rnr is non-radiative recombination rate.
If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time,

non-radiative life time,

The internal quantum efficiency is given as –

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The recombination time of carriers in active region is τ. It is also known as bulk

recombination life time.

Therefore internal quantum efficiency is given as –

\
If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge then total number of
recombination per second is –

Optical power generated internally in LED is given as –

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Not all internally generated photons will available from output of device. The external
quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted power. The external quantum
efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons emitted from LED to the number of photons
generated internally. It is given by equation

The optical output power emitted from LED is given as –

Example 3.1.3 : The radiative and non radiative recombination life times of minority carriers in
the active region of a double heterojunction LED are 60 nsec and 90 nsec respectively.
Determine the total carrier recombination life time and optical power generated internally if the
peak emission wavelength si 870 nm and the drive currect is 40 mA. [July/Aug.-2006, 6 Marks]
Solutions:
Given : λ = 870 nm 0.87 x 10-6 m
τr = 60 nsec.
τnr = 90 nsec.
I = 40 mA = 0.04 Amp.
i) Total carrier recombination life time:

ii) Internal optical power:

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Advantages of LED
1. Simple design.
2. Ease of manufacture.
3. Simple system integration.
4. Low cost.
5. High reliability.
Disadvantages of LED
1. Refraction of light at semiconductor/air interface.
2. The average life time of a radiative recombination is only a few nanoseconds, therefore
nodulation BW is limited to only few hundred megahertz.
3. Low coupling efficiency.
4. Large chromatic dispersion.

Comparison of Surface and Edge Emitting LED

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Injection Laser Diode (ILD)

The laser is a device which amplifies the light, hence the LASER is an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The operation of the device may be
described by the formation of an electromagnetic standing wave within a cavity (optical
resonator) which provides an output of monochromatic highly coherent radiation.
Principle:
Material absorption light than emitting. Three different fundamental process occurs
between the two energy states of an atom.
1) Absorption
2) Spontaneous emission
3) Stimulated emission.
Laser action is the result of three process absorption of energy packets (photons)
spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission. (These processes are represented by the
simple two-energy-level diagrams).
Where, E1 is the lower state energy level.
E2 is the higher state energy level.
Quantum theory states that any atom exists only in certain discrete energy state,
absorption or emission of light causes them to make a transition from one state to
another. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference
in energy E between the two states.
If E1 is lower state energy level. and E2 is higher state energy level.
E = (E2 – E1) = h.f.
Where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J/s (Plank‘s constant).
An atom is initially in the lower energy state, when the photon with energy (E2 – E1) is
incident on the atom it will be excited into the higher energy state E2 through the
absorption of the photon.

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When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2, it can make a transition to the
lower energy state E1 providing the emission of a photon at a frequency corresponding to E =
h.f. The emission process can occur in two ways.
A) By spontaneous emission in which the atom returns to the lower energy state in random
manner.
B) By stimulated emission when a photon having equal energy to the difference between the two
states (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom causing it to the lower state with the creation of the
second photon.

Spontaneous emission gives incoherent radiation while stimulated emission gives

coherent radiation. Hence the light associated with emitted photon is of same frequency of
incident photon, and in same phase with same polarization.
It means that when an atom is stimulated to emit light energy by an incident wave, the
liberated energy can add to the wave in constructive manner. The emitted light is bounced back
and forth internally between two reflecting surface. The bouncing back and forth of light wave
cause their intensity to reinforce and build-up. The result in a high brilliance, single frequency
light beam providing amplification.
Emission and Absorption Rates
It N1 and N2 are the atomic densities in the ground and excited states.
Rate of spontaneous emission
Rspon = AN2
Rate of stimulated emission
Rstim = BN2 ρem
Rate of absorption

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Rabs = B‘ N1 ρem
Where,
A, B and B‘ are constants.
ρem is spectral density.
Under equilibrium condition the atomic densities N1 and N2 are given by Boltzmann statistics.

Where,
KB is Boltzmann constant.
T is absolute temperature.
Under equilibrium the upward and downward transition rates are equal. AN2 + BN2 ρem =
B‘ N1 ρem Spectral density ρem

Comparing spectral density of black body radiation given by Plank‘s formula,

A and B are called Einstein‘s coefficient.

2. Fabry – Perot Resonator

Lasers are oscillators operating at frequency. The oscillator is formed by a resonant cavity
providing a selective feedback. The cavity is normally a Fabry-Perot resonator i.e. two parallel
plane mirrors separated by distance L,

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Light propagating along the axis of the interferometer is reflected by the mirrors back to the
amplifying medium providing optical gain. The dimensions of cavity are 25-500 μm longitudinal
5-15 μm lateral and 0.1-0.2 μm transverse. Fig. 3.1.10 shows Fabry-Perot resonator cavity for a
laser diode.
The two heterojunctions provide carrier and optical confinement in a direction normal to the
junction. The current at which lasing starts is the threshold current. Above this current the output
power increases sharply.
Distributed Feedback (DFB) Laser
In DFB laser the lasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index along
the longitudinal dimension of the diode. Fig. 3.1.11 shows the structure of DFB laser diode.

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Lasing conditions and resonant Frequencies

The electromagnetic wave propagating in longitudinal direction is expressed as –
E(z, t) = I(z) ej(ω t-β z)
where,
I(z) is optical field intensity.
Ω is optical radian frequency.
β is propagation constant.
The fundamental expression for lasing in Fabry-Perot cavity is –

Γ is optical field confinement factor or the fraction of optical power in the active layer.
α is effective absorption coefficient of material.
g is gain coefficient.
h v is photon energy.
z is distance traverses along the lasing cavity.
Lasing (light amplification) occurs when gain of modes exceeds above optical loss during
one round trip through the cavity i.e. Z = 2L. If R1 and R2 are the mirror reflectivity‘s of the two
ends of laser diode. Now the expression for lasing expressing is modified as,

The condition of lasing threshold is given as –

i) For amplitude: I (2L) = I (0)
ii) For phase: e-j2β L = 1
iii) Optical gain at threshold = Total loss in the cavity.
i.e. Γ gth = αt
Now the lasing expression is reduced to –

Where,
Α end is mirror loss in lasing cavity.
An important condition for lasing to occur is that gain, g ≥ g th i.e. threshold gain.

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External Quantum Efficiency

The external quantum efficiency is defined as the number of photons emitted per electron
hole pair recombination above threshold point. The external quantum efficiency ηext is given by

Where,
ηi = Internal quantum efficiency (0.6-0.7).
gth = Threshold gain.
α = Absorption coefficient.
Typical value of ηext for standard semiconductor laser is ranging between 15-20 %.

Resonant Frequencies
At threshold lasing

m is an integer.

Gain in any laser is a function of frequency. For a Gaussian output the gain and frequency are
related by expression –

where,
g(0) is maximum gain.

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λ0 is center wavelength in spectrum.

σ is spectral width of the gain.
The frequency spacing between the two successive modes is –

The wavelength Spacing is given as –

Optical Characteristics of LED and Laser

The output of laser diode depends on the drive current passing through it. At low drive
current, the laser operates as an inefficient Led, When drive current crosses threshold value,
lasing action beings. Fig. 3.1.13 illustrates graph comparing optical powers of LED operation
(due to spontaneous emission) and laser operation (due to stimulated emission).

Advantages of Laser Diode

1. Simple economic design.
2. High optical power.
3. Production of light can be precisely controlled.
4. Can be used at high temperatures.
5. Better modulation capability.
6. High coupling efficiency.
7. Low spectral width (3.5 nm)
8. Ability to transmit optical output powers between 5 and 10 mW.
9. Ability to maintain the intrinsic layer characteristics over long periods.

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Disadvantages of Laser Diode

1. At the end of fiber, a speckle pattern appears as two coherent light beams add or subtract their
electric field depending upon their relative phases.
2. Laser diode is extremely sensitive to overload currents and at high transmission rates, when
laser is required to operate continuously the use of large drive current produces unfavorable
thermal characteristics and necessitates the use of cooling and power stabilization.
Comparison of LED and Laser Diode

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Optical Detectors
Principles of Optical Detectors
The photo detector works on the principle of optical absorption. The main requirement
of light detector or photo dector is its fast response. For fiber optic communication purpose most
suited photo detectors are PIN (p-type- Intrinsic-n-type) diodes and APD (Avalanche
photodiodes)
The performance parameters of a photo detector are responsivity, quantum efficiency,
response time and dark current.
Cut-off Wavelength (λc)
Any particular semiconductor can absorb photon over a limited wavelength range. The
highest wavelength is known as cut-off wavelength (λc). The cut-off wavelength is determined
by band gap energy Eg of material.

where,
Eg inelectron volts (eV) and
λc cut-off wavelength is in μm.
Typical value of λc for silicon is 1.06 μm and for germanium it is 1.6 μm.
Quantum Efficiency (η)
The quantum efficiency is define as the number of electron-hole carrier pair generated per
incident photon of energy h v and is given as –

where, Ip is average photocurrent.

Pin is average optical power incident on photo detector.
Absorption coefficient of material determines the quantum efficiency. Quantum
efficiency η < 1 as the entire photons incident will not generate e-h pairs. It is normally
expressed in percentage.
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Detector Responsivity
The responsivity of a photo detector is the ratio of the current output in amperes to the
incident optical power in watts. Responsivity is denoted by

Responsivity gives transfer characteristics of detector i.e. photo current per unit incident
optical power.
Typical responsivities of pin photodiodes are –
Silicon pin photodiode at 900 nm →0.65 A/W.
Germanium pin photodiode at 1.3 μm →0.45 A/W.
In GaAs pin photodiode at 1.3 μm →0.9 A/W.

As the intensity of optical signal at the receiver is very low, the detector has to meet high
performance specifications. - The conversion efficiency must be high at the operating
wavelength. - The speed of response must be high enough to ensure that signal distortion does
not occur. - The detection process introduces the minimum amount of noise. - It must be
possible to operate continuously over a wide range of temperatures for many years. - The
detector size must be compatible with the fiber dimensions.
At present, these requirements are met by reverse biased p-n photodiodes. In these
devices, the semiconductor material absorbs a photon of light, which excites an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band (opposite of photon emission). The photo generated

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electron leaves behind it a hole, and so each photon generates two charge carriers. The increases
the material conductivity so call photoconductivity resulting in anincrease in the diode current.
The diode equation is modified as –

Where,
Id is dark current i.e. current that flows when no signal is present.
Is is photo generated current due to incident optical signal.
PIN Photodiode
PIN diode consists of an intrinsic semiconductor sandwiched between two heavily doped
p-type and n-type semiconductors as shown in Fig. 3.2.2.

Sufficient reverse voltage is applied so as to keep intrinsic region free from carries, so its
resistance is high, most of diode voltage appears across it, and the electrical forces are strong
within it. The incident photons give up their energy and excite an electron from valance to
conduction band. Thus a free electron hole pair is generated, these are called as photocarriers.
These carriers are collected across the reverse biased junction resulting in rise in current in
external circuit called photocurrent. In the absence of light, PIN photodiodes behave electrically
just like an ordinary rectifier diode. If forward biased, they conduct large amount of current. PIN
detectors can be operated in two modes : Photovoltaic and photoconductive. In photovoltaic
mode, no bias is applied to the detector. In this case the detector works very slow, and output
isapproximately logarithmic to the input light level. Real world fiber optic receivers never use
the photovoltaic mode. In photoconductive mode, the detector is reverse biased. The output in
this case is a current that is very linear with the input light power. The intrinsic region some what
improves the sensitivity of the device. It does not provide internal gain. The combination of

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different semiconductors operating at different wavelengths allows the selection of material

capable of responding to the desired operating wavelength
Depletion Layer Photocurrent
Consider a reverse biased PIN photodiode.

The total current density through depletion layer is –

Jtot = Jdr + Jdiff
Where,
Jdr is drift current density due to carriers generated in depletion region.
Jdiff is diffusion current density due to carriers generated outside depletion region.
The drift current density is expressed as –

where,
A is photodiode area.
φ0 is incident photon flux per unit area.
Φ1 The diffusion current density is expressed as –

where,
Dp is hole diffusion coefficient.
Pn is hole concentration in n-type material.
Pn0 is equilibrium hole density.

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Substituting in equation 3.2.7, total current density through reverse biased depletion layer
is –

Response Time
Factors that determine the response time of a photodiode are –
i) Transit time of photo carriers within the depletion region.
ii) Diffusion time of photo carriers outside the depletion region.
iii) RC time constant of diode and external circuit.
The transit time is given by –

The diffusion process is slow and diffusion times are less than carrier drift time. By considering
the photodiode response time the effect of diffusion can be calculated. Fig. 3.2.4 shows the
response time of photodiode which is not fully depleted.

The detector behaves as a simple low pass RC filter having pass band of

where,
RT, is combination input resistance of load and amplifier.
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CT is sum of photodiode and amplifier capacitance.

Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

When a p-n junction diode is applied with high reverse bias breakdown can occur by two
separate mechanisms direct ionization of the lattice atoms, zener breakdown and high velocity
carriers impact ionization of the lattice atoms called avalanche breakdown. APDs uses the
avalanche breakdown phenomena for its operation. The APD has its internal gain which
increases its responsivity.
Fig. 3.2.5 shows the schematic structure of an APD. By virtue of the doping
concentration and physical construction of the n+ p junction, the electric filed is high enough to
cause impact ionization. Under normal operating bias, the I-layer (the p‫ ־‬region) is completely
depleted. This is known as reach through condition, hence APDs are also known as reach
through APD or RAPDs.]

Similar to PIN photodiode, light absorption in APDs is most efficient in I-layer. In this
region, the E-field separates the carriers and the electrons drift into the avalanche region where
carrier multiplication occurs. If the APD is biased close to breakdown, it will result in reverse
leakage current. Thus APDs are usually biased just below breakdown, with the bias voltage
being tightly controlled.
The multiplication for all carriers generated in the photodiode is given as –

IM = Average value of total multiplied output current.

IP = Primary unmultiplied photocurrent.
Responsivity of APD is given by –

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