1 Introduction

After reading this chapter you will be able to appreciate the following:
l The subject of fiber optics and optoelectronics
l Historical developments in the field
l The configuration of a fiber-optic communication system
l Advantages of fiber-optic systems
l Emergence of fiber optics as a key technology
l Role of fiber optics technology

1.1 FIBER OPTICS AND OPTOELECTRONICS

Fiber optics is a branch of optics that deals with the study of propagation of light
(rays or modes) through transparent dielectric waveguides, e.g., optical fibers.
Optoelectronics is the science of devices that are based on processes leading to the
generation of photons by electrons (e.g., laser diodes) or electrons by photons (e.g.,
photodiodes). The large-scale use of optoelectronic devices in fiber-optic systems
has led to the integration of these two branches of science, and they are now
synonymous with each other.
Prior to delving into the subject and its applications, a curious reader would like to
know the following:
(i) the emergence of fiber optics as a dominant technology
(ii) the basic configuration of a fiber-optic system
(iii) the merits of such a system
(iv) the role of this technology in sociological evolution
This chapter aims at exploring these and other related issues.

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The term ‘fiber optics’ was first coined by N.S. Kapany in 1956 when he along with
his colleagues at Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, developed an
2 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

image-transmitting device called the ‘flexible fiberscope’. This device soon found
application in inspecting inaccessible points inside reactor vessels and jet aircraft
engines. The flexible endoscope became quite popular in the medical field. Improved
versions of these devices are now increasingly being used in medical diagnosis and
surgery.
The next important development in this area was the demonstration of the first
pulsed ruby laser in 1960 by T. Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratory and the
realization of the first semiconductor laser in 1962 by researchers working almost
independently at various research laboratories. However, it took another eight years
before laser diodes for application in communications could be produced.
Almost around the same period, another interesting development took place when
Charles Kao and Charles Hockham, working at the Standard Telecommunication
Laboratory in England, proposed in 1966 that an optical fiber might be used as a
means of communication, provided the signal loss could be made less than 20 decibels
per kilometer (dB/km). (The definition of a decibel is given in Appendix A1.1.) At
that time optical fibers exhibited losses of the order of 1000 dB/km.
At this point, it is important to know why the need for optical fibers as a transmission
medium was felt. In fact, the transfer of information from one point to another, i.e.,
communication, is achieved by superimposing (or modulating) the information onto
an electromagnetic wave, which acts as a carrier for the information signal. The
modulated carrier is then transmitted through the information channel (open or guided)
to the receiver, where it is demodulated and the original information sent to the
destination. Now the carrier frequencies present certain limitations in handling the
volume and speed of information transfer. These limitations generated the need for
increased carrier frequency. In fiber-optic systems, the carrier frequencies are selected
from the optical range (particularly the infrared part) of the electromagnetic spectrum
shown in Fig. 1.1.
1.7 mm 0.8 mm

Fiber-optic
communications

Visible
Millimeter waves

Near-infrared
Far-infrared
Microwaves

Radio waves
Ultraviolet

Cosmic
X-rays

g - rays
Power

rays

100 102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum
 Introduction 3

The typical frequencies are of the order of 1014 Hz, which is 10,000 times greater
than that of microwaves. Optical fibers are the most suitable medium for transmitting
these frequencies, and hence they present theoretically unlimited possibilities.
Coming back to Kao and Hockham’s proposal, the production of a low-loss optical
fiber was required. The breakthrough came in 1970, when Dr Robert Maurer, Dr
Donald Keck, and Dr Peter Schultz of Corning Glass Corporation of USA succeeded
in producing a pure glass fiber which exhibited an attenuation of less than 20 dB/km.
Concurrent developments in optoelectronic devices ushered in the era of fiber-optic
communications technology.

1.3 A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Before proceeding further, let us have a look at the generalized configuration of a
fiber-optic communication system, shown in Fig. 1.2. A brief description of each
block in this figure will give us an idea of the prime components employed in this
system.

Input Output
OE source Repeater channel OE detector
channel
coupler coupler

Transmitter Receiver
Optical fibers

Information channel
Information Information
input output
l Voice l Voice

l Video l Video

l Data l Data

Fig. 1.2 Generalized configuration of a fiber-optic communication system

1.3.1 Information Input

The information input may be in any of the several physical forms, e.g., voice, video,
or data. Therefore an input transducer is required for converting the non-electrical
input into an electrical input. For example, a microphone converts a sound signal into
an electrical current, a video camera converts an image into an electric current or
voltage, and so on. In situations where the fiber-optic link forms a part of a larger
system, the information input is normally in electrical form. Examples of this type
include data transfer between different computers or that between different parts of
the same computer. In either case, the information input must be in the electrical
form for onward transmission through the fiber-optic link.
4 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

1.3.2 Transmitter
The transmitter (or the modulator, as it is often called) comprises an electronic stage
which (i) converts the electric signal into the proper form and (ii) impresses this
signal onto the electromagnetic wave (carrier) generated by the optoelectronic source.
The modulation of an optical carrier may be achieved by employing either an
analog or a digital signal. An analog signal varies continuously and reproduces the
form of the original information input, whereas digital modulation involves obtaining
information in the discrete form. In the latter, the signal is either on or off, with the on
state representing a digital 1 and the off state representing a digital 0. These are called
binary digits (or bits) of the digital system. The number of bits per second (bps)
transmitted is called the data rate. If the information input is in the analog form, it
may be obtained in the digital form by employing an analog-to-digital converter.
Analog modulation is much simpler to implement but requires higher signal-to-
noise ratio at the receiver end as compared to digital modulation. Further, the linearity
needed for analog modulation is not always provided by the optical source, particularly
at high modulation frequencies. Therefore, analog fiber-optic systems are limited to
shorter distances and lower bandwidths.

1.3.3 Optoelectronic Source

An optoelectronic (OE) source generates an electromagnetic wave in the optical range
(particularly the near-infrared part of the spectrum), which serves as an information
carrier. Common sources for fiber-optic communication are the light-emitting diode
(LED) and the injection laser diode (ILD). Ideally, an optoelectronic source should
generate a stable single-frequency electromagnetic wave with enough power for long-
haul transmission. However, in practice, LEDs and even laser diodes emit a range of
frequencies and limited power. The favourable properties of these sources are that
they are compact, lightweight, consume moderate amounts of power, and are relatively
easy to modulate. Furthermore, LEDs and laser diodes which emit frequencies that
are less attenuated while propagating through optical fibers are available.

1.3.4 Channel Couplers

In the case of open channel transmission, for example, the radio or television
broadcasting system, the channel coupler is an antenna. It collects the signal from the
transmitter and directs this to the atmospheric channel. At the receiver end again the
antenna collects the signal and routes it to the receiver. In the case of guided channel
transmission, e.g., a telephone link, the coupler is simply a connector for attaching
the transmitter to the cable.
In fiber-optic systems, the function of a coupler is to collect the light signal from
the optoelectronic source and send it efficiently to the optical fiber cable. Several
 Introduction 5

designs are possible. However, the coupling losses are large owing to Fresnel reflection
and limited light-gathering capacity of such couplers. At the end of the link again a
coupler is required to collect the signal and direct it onto the photodetector.

1.3.5 Fiber-optic Information Channel

In communication systems, the term ‘information channel’ refers to the path between
the transmitter and the receiver. In fiber-optic systems, the optical signal traverses
along the cable consisting of a single fiber or a bundle of optical fibers. An optical
fiber is an extremely thin strand of ultra-pure glass designed to transmit optical signals
from the optoelectronic source to the optoelectronic detector. In its simplest form, it
consists of two main regions: (i) a solid cylindrical region of diameter 8–100 mm
called the core and (ii) a coaxial cylindrical region of diameter normally 125 mm
called the cladding. The refractive index of the core is kept greater than that of the
cladding. This feature makes light travel through this structure by the phenomenon
of total internal reflection. In order to give strength to the optical fiber, it is given a
primary or buffer coating of plastic, and then a cable is made of several such fibers.
This optical fiber cable serves as an information channel.
For clarity of the transmitted information, it is required that the information channel
should have low attenuation for the frequencies being transmitted through it and a
large light-gathering capacity. Furthermore, the cable should have low dispersion in
both the time and frequency domains, because high dispersion results in the distortion
of the propagating signal.

1.3.6 Repeater
As the optical signals propagate along the length of the fiber, they get attenuated due
to absorption, scattering, etc., and broadened due to dispersion. After a certain length,
the cumulative effect of attenuation and dispersion causes the signals to become
weak and indistinguishable. Therefore, before this happens, the strength and shape of
the signal must be restored. This can be done by using either a regenerator or an
optical amplifier, e.g., an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA), at an appropriate
point along the length of the fiber.

1.3.7 Optoelectronic Detector

The reconversion of an optical signal into an electrical signal takes place at the OE
detector. Semiconductor p-i-n or avalanche photodiodes are employed for this purpose.
The photocurrent developed by these detectors is normally proportional to the incident
optical power and hence to the information input. The desirable characteristics of a
detector include small size, low power consumption, linearity, flat spectral response,
fast response to optical signals, and long operating life.
6 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

1.3.8 Receiver
For analog transmission, the output photocurrent of the detector is filtered to remove
the dc bias that is normally applied to the signal in the modulator module, and also to
block any other undesired frequencies accompanying the signal. After filtering, the
photocurrent is amplified if needed. These two functions are performed by the receiver
module.
For digital transmission, in addition to the filter and amplifier, the receiver may
include decision circuits. If the original information is in analog form, a digital-to-
analog converter may also be required.
The design of the receiver is aimed at achieving high sensitivity and low distortion.
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and bit-error rate (BER) for digital transmission are
important factors for quality communication.

1.3.9 Information Output

Finally, the information must be presented in a form that can be interpreted by a
human observer. For example, it may be required to transform the electrical output
into a sound wave or a visual image. Suitable output transducers are required for
achieving this transformation. In some cases, the electrical output of the receiver is
directly usable. This situation arises when a fiber-optic system forms the link between
different computers or other machines.

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER-OPTIC SYSTEMS

Fiber-optic systems have several advantages, some of which were apparent when the
idea of optical fibers as a means of communication was originally conceived.
For communication purposes, the transmission bandwidth and hence the
information-carrying capacity of a fiber-optic system is much greater than that of
coaxial copper cables, wide-band radio, or microwave systems. (The concepts of
bandwidth and channel capacity are explained in Appendix A1.2.) Small size and
light weight of optical fibers coupled with low transmission loss (typically around
0.2 dB/km) reduces the system cost as well as the need for numerous repeaters in
long-haul telecommunication applications.
Optical fibers are insulators, as they are made up of glass or plastic. This property
is useful for many applications. Particularly, it makes the optical signal traversing
through the fiber free from any radio-frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic
interference (EMI). RFI is caused by radio or television broadcasting stations, radars,
and other signals originating in electronic equipment. EMI may be caused by these
sources of radiation as well as from industrial machinery, or from naturally occurring
phenomena such as lightning or unintentional sparking. Optical fibers do not pick up
 Introduction 7

or propagate electromagnetic pulses (EMPs). Thus, fiber-optic systems may be

employed for reliable monitoring and telemetry in industrial environments, where
EMI and EMPs cause problems for metallic cables. In fact, in recent years, a variety
of fiber-optic sensor systems have been developed for accurate measurement of
parameters such as position, displacement, liquid level, temperature, pressure,
refractive index, and so on.
In contrast to copper cables, the signal being transmitted through an optical fiber
cannot be obtained from it without physically intruding the fiber. Further, the optical
signal propagating along the fiber is well protected from interference and coupling
with other communication channels (electrical or optical). Thus, optical fibers offer
a high degree of signal security. This feature is particularly suitable for military and
banking applications and also for computer networks.
For large-scale exploitation, the system’s cost and the availability of raw material
are two important considerations. The starting material for the production of glass
fibers is silica, which is easily available. Regarding the cost, it has been shown that
for long-distance communication, fiber cables are cheaper to transport and easier to
install than metallic cables. Despite the fragile nature of glass fiber, these cables are
surprisingly strong and flexible.
 Ray Propagation in
2 Optical Fibers

After reading this chapter you will be able to understand the following:
l Ray propagation in step-index fibers
l Ray propagation in graded-index fibers
l Effect of multipath time dispersion
l Effect of material dispersion
l Calculation of rms pulse width

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fiber optics technology uses light as a carrier for communicating signals. Classical
wave theory treats light as electromagnetic waves, whereas the quantum theory treats
it as photons, i.e., quanta of electromagnetic energy. In fact, this is what is known as
the wave-particle duality in modern physics.
Both points of view are valid and valuable in their respective domains. However,
it will be easier to understand the propagation of light signals through optical fibers if
we think of light as rays that follow a straight-line path in going from one point to
another. Ray optics employs the geometry of a straight line to explain the phenomena
of reflection, refraction, etc. Hence, it is also called geometrical optics. Let us review,
in brief, certain laws of geometrical optics, which aid the understanding of ray
propagation in optical fibers.

2.2 REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF OPTICS

The most important optical parameter of any transparent medium is its refractive
index n. It is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of
light in the medium (v). That is,
c
n= (2.1)
v
As v is always less than c, n is always greater than 1. For air, n = na » 1.
18 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

The phenomenon of refraction of light at the interface between two transparent

media of uniform indices of refraction is governed by Snell’s law. Consider a ray of
light passing from a medium of refractive index n1 into a medium of refractive index
n2 [see Fig. 2.1(a)]. Assume that n1 > n2 and that the angles of incidence and refraction
with respect to the normal to the interface are, respectively, f1 and f2. Then, according
to Snell’s law,
n1sinf1 = n2 sinf2 (2.2)

Refracted
ray
f2
f2 = p /2
Medium 2 n2 n2
Medium 1 n1 n1

f1 f1 > fc f1
f1 = fc

Incident ray
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.1 (a) Refraction of a ray of light. (b) Critical ray incident at f1 = fc and refracted at
f2 = p /2. (c) Total internal reflection (f1 > fc).

As n1 > n2, if we increase the angle of incidence f1, the angle of refraction f2 will
go on increasing until a critical situation is reached, when for a certain value of
f1 = fc, f2 becomes p /2, and the refracted ray passes along the interface. This angle f1
= f c is called the critical angle. If we substitute the values of f1 = f c and
f2 = p /2 in Eq. (2.2), we see that n1sinfc = n2sin(p /2) = n2. Thus
sinfc = n2 /n1 (2.3)
If the angle of incidence f1 is further increased beyond fc, the ray is no longer
refracted but is reflected back into the same medium [see Fig. 2.1(c)]. (This is ideally
expected. In practice, however, there is always some tunnelling of optical energy
through this interface. The wave carrying away this energy is called the evanescent
wave. This can be explained in terms of electromagnetic theory, discussed in Chapters
3 and 4.) This is called total internal reflection. It is this phenomenon that is responsible
for the propagation of light through optical fibers.
There are several types of optical fibers designed for different applications. We
will discuss these in Chapter 4. For the present discussion, we will begin with ray
propagation in the simplest kind of optical fiber.

2.3 RAY PROPAGATION IN STEP-INDEX FIBERS

A step-index optical fiber is a thin dielectric waveguide consisting of a solid cylindrical
 Ray Propagation in Optical Fibers 19

core (diameter, 2a = 50–100 mm) of refractive index n1, surrounded by a coaxial

cylindrical cladding (diameter, 2b = 120–140 mm) of refractive index n2 (n1 > n2), as
shown in Fig. 2.2. The refractive index n is a step function of the radial distance r, as
shown in Fig. 2.2(a). Hence it is called a step-index (SI) fiber.

Radius r

2a 2b
Core
Refractive n2 (n1)
n1
index n
Cladding (n2)

(a) (b)

qm
Medium (na) fc f > f Axis
q c

am a a Core (n1)

b Cladding (n2)

(c)
Fig. 2.2 Basic structure of a step-index fiber: (a) refractive index profile,
(b) cross section (front view), (c) ray propagation (side view)

The material used for the production of an optical fiber is either silica (glass) or
plastic. Assume that such a fiber is placed in a medium (normally air) of refractive
index na (n1 > n2 > na). If a ray of light enters from the flat end of the fiber at some
angle a, from the medium into the core, it will bend towards the normal, making an
angle of refraction, q. This ray then strikes the core–cladding interface at an angle of
incidence f. If f > fc, the ray will undergo total internal reflection. It will suffer
multiple reflections at the core–cladding interface and emerge out of the fiber at the
other end.
What is the allowed range of a ? The propagation of rays by total internal reflection
requires f to be greater than fc and hence q to be less than qm = p /2 – fc. Thus, the
angle of incidence a should be less than a certain angle am. This maximum value of
am will correspond to the limiting value of qm = p /2 – fc.
20 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

Applying Snell’s law at the core–medium (air) interface, we get for a = am and
corresponding q = qm,
nasinam = n1sinqm = n1cosfc
for the incident ray at the core–cladding interface. From Eq. (2.3), we know that
sinfc = n2 /n1. Therefore,
1/ 2
é n22 ù
cosfc = [1 – sin fc] 2 1/2
= ê1 - ú
êë n12 úû

( n12 - n22 )1/ 2

=
n1

( n12 - n22 )1/ 2

Thus nasinam = n1 = ( n12 - n22 )1/ 2
n1
The light collected and propagated by the fiber will thus depend on the value of
am, which is fixed for a given optical fiber (n1 and n2 being constants). This limiting
angle am is called the angle of acceptance of the fiber. This means that all the rays
incident within a cone of half-angle am will be collected and propagated by the fiber.
The term nasinam is called the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber; it determines the
light-gathering capacity of the fiber. Thus

NA = nasinam = ( n12 - n22 )1/ 2 (2.4)

Example 2.1 If the step-index fiber of Fig. 2.3 has a core of refractive index 1.5, a
cladding of refractive index 1.48, and a core diameter of 100 mm, calculate, assuming
that the fiber is kept in air, the (a) NA of the fiber; (b) angles am, qm, and fc; and
(c) pulse broadening per unit length (DT/L) due to multipath dispersion.

Solution
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.48, 2a = 100 mm, and na = 1.
(a) NA = n12 - n22 = 2.25 - 2.19 = 0.244
(b) NA = nasinam = 1 ´ sinam = 0.244
Therefore, am = 14.13°
Also nasinam = n1sinqm
or 0.244 = 1.5 sinqm
Therefore, qm = sin–1
æ 0.244 ö = 9.36°
è 1.5 ø
æ n2 ö
Further, fc = sin–1 ç = 80.63°
è n1 ÷ø
5.5 ATTENUATION IN SINGLE-MODE FIBERS
Signal attenuation (or fiber loss) is another major factor limiting the performance of
a fiber-optic communication system, as it reduces the optical power reaching the
receiver. Every receiver needs a certain minimum incident power for accurate signal
recovery. Hence the fiber loss plays a major role in determining the maximum
repeaterless transmission distance between the transmitter and the receiver. In this
section, we discuss, in general, various mechanisms that give rise to signal attenuation
in all types of fibers, and single-mode fibers in particular.
In general, the attenuation of optical power P with distance z inside an optical
fiber is governed by Beer’s law:
dP
= -a P (5.29)
dz
where a is the coefficient of attenuation. Thus, for a particular wavelength, if Pin is
the (transmitted) optical power at the input end of the optical fiber of length L and
Pout the (received) optical power at the other end of the fiber, then
Pout = Pinexp (–a L) (5.30)
It should be noted here that Beer’s law refers only to the losses due to absorption.
However, there are other mechanisms such as scattering and bending that also
contribute to the losses. Further, a varies with the wavelength and the material of the
fiber. Therefore, relation (5.30) should be treated as an approximation.
The attenuation coefficient a is usually expressed in terms of decibels per unit
length (dB km–1) following the relation

10 æ Pin ö
a (dB km–1) = log10 ç (5.31)
L è Pout ÷ø
where the length L is measured in kilometres.
5.5.1 Loss Due to Material Absorption
Optical fibers are normally made of silica-based glass. As light passes through the
fiber, it may be absorbed by one or more major components of glass. This is called
intrinsic absorption. Impurities within the fiber material may also absorb light. This
is called extrinsic absorption.
Intrinsic absorption results from the electronic and vibrational resonances associated
with specific molecules of glass. For pure silica, electronic resonances in the form of
absorption bands have been observed in the ultraviolet range, whereas vibrational
resonances have been observed in the infrared range. Empirical relationships have
been found for different glass compositions.
Extrinsic absorption results from the presence of impurities in the glass. Transition-
metal ions such as Cr3+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Mn2+, etc. absorb strongly in the
wavelength range 0.6–1.6 mm. Thus the impurity content of these metal ions should
be reduced to below 1 ppb (part per billion) in order to obtain loss below 1 dB/km.
Another source of extrinsic absorption is the presence of OH– ions that are incorporated
in the fiber material during the manufacturing process. Though the vibrational
resonance of OH– ions peaks at 2.73 mm, its overtones produce strong absorption at
1.38, 0.95, and 0.72 mm. Typically, the OH– ion concentration should be less than
10 ppb to obtain a loss below 10 dB/km at 1.38 mm. The attenuation versus wavelength
curve for a typical fiber is shown in Fig. 5.4.

100
50

Experimental
10
5
Infrared
Loss (dB/km)

absorption

1 Rayleigh
scattering
0.5

Ultraviolet
0.1 absorption
Waveguide
0.05 imperfections

0.01
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wavelength (mm)
Fig. 5.4 Attenuation versus wavelength curve for a low-loss optical fiber (Miya
et al. 1979)

5.5.2 Loss Due to Scattering

There are two scattering mechanisms which cause the linear transfer of some or all of
the optical power contained within one guided mode (proportional to the mode power)
into a different mode. This transfer process results in the attenuation of power. The
mechanisms involved are Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.
Rayleigh scattering is a loss mechanism arising from the microscopic variations
in the density of the fiber material. Such a variation in density is a result of the
composition of glass. In fact, glass is a randomly connected network of molecules.
Therefore, such a configuration naturally has some regions in which the density is
either lower or higher than its average value. For multicomponent glass, compositional
variation is another factor causing density fluctuation. These variations in the density
lead to the random fluctuation of the refractive index on a scale comparable to the
wavelength of light. Consequently, the propagating light is scattered in almost all the
directions. This is known as Rayleigh scattering. The attenuation caused by such
scattering is proportional to 1/l4. The contribution to attenuation due to Rayleigh
scattering is shown in Fig. 5.4. Scattering may also be caused by waveguide
imperfections. For example, irregularities at the core–cladding interface, refractive
index difference along the fiber, fluctuation in the core diameter, etc. may lead to
additional scattering losses. These are known as losses due to Mie scattering.
 Dispersion Losses

Dispersion losses in optical fiber are the losses of light power due to the spreading or
broadening of light pulses as they travel along the fiber. It causes the pulses to overlap and
interfere with each other, which reduces the signal quality and the data rate of the fiber.

A short pulse becomes longer and ultimately joins with the pulse behind, making recovery of
a reliable bit stream impossible, as can be seen from the following figure:

Figure 1 Representation of dispersion loss

Types of Dispersion Losses

1. Intermodal Dispersion
Intermodal dispersion, also known as modal dispersion, is a phenomenon that
occurs in multimode optical fibers due to the fact that different modes (mode refers to
a specific path that light can take through the fiber) of light travel at different speeds
through the fiber. Optical fibers can support multiple modes, each corresponding to a
different optical path that light can take as it propagates through the fiber. Intermodal
dispersion can limit the performance of a fiber optic communication system by causing
spreading or broadening of optical pulses. It arises from the different propagation
characteristics of the various modes supported by the optical fiber. Each mode has a
distinct group velocity, and thus, they take different amounts of time to traverse the
length of the fiber.
The variations in the arrival times of different modes can result in the spreading
of optical pulses over distance. As a consequence, the pulses at the output of the fiber
may have different arrival times, leading to distortion and reduced signal quality.
Intermodal dispersion becomes more significant in optical fibers with a larger core
 diameter and when operating at higher data rates. It imposes a limit on the achievable
data rate and distance in a fiber optic communication system.
To minimize intermodal dispersion, especially in high-speed data transmission
systems, single-mode fibers are often preferred. Single-mode fibers allow only one
mode of light to propagate, eliminating the variations in travel times associated with
multiple modes.

2. Intramodal Dispersion
Intramodal dispersion, also known as chromatic dispersion, is a phenomenon
that occurs in optical fibers due to the fact that different wavelengths of light travel at
different speeds through the fiber. This can lead to a spreading or broadening of the
optical pulses as they propagate along the fiber, affecting the overall performance of
the communication system. There are two main types of intramodal dispersion:
a. Material Dispersion:
This type of dispersion occurs because different wavelengths of light travel at
different speeds through the fiber material itself. It is primarily influenced by
the material properties of the core and cladding of the optical fiber. Dispersion
in the material is a result of the wavelength-dependent refractive index of the
fiber. Longer wavelengths typically travel faster than shorter wavelengths,
causing them to spread out over distance.
b. Waveguide Dispersion:
Waveguide dispersion is related to the waveguide structure of the optical fiber.
It is caused by the variations in the propagation constant for different modes
supported by the fiber. Different modes have different effective refractive
indices, leading to variations in the time it takes for each mode to traverse the
fiber.

Intramodal dispersion can limit the bandwidth and data transmission capabilities of an
optical communication system. It becomes a significant factor in high-speed, long-
distance communication systems where precise control over pulse spreading is crucial.
can be compensated by using dispersion-shifted fibers or dispersion-compensating
fibers, which have opposite dispersion characteristics to the original fiber.
6.6 FIBER SPLICES
A fiber splice is a permanent joint formed between two optical fibers. Splicing is
required (i) when the length of the system span is more than the manufactured cable
length and (ii) when the cable is broken and needs to be repaired. The primary objective
of splicing is to establish transmission continuity in the fiber-optic link. This can be
done in two ways, namely, through (i) fusion splices or (ii) mechanical splices.
In order to achieve a low-loss splice, it is essential for the fiber ends (to be joined)
to be smooth, flat, and perpendicular to the core axes. This is normally achieved
using a cleaving tool (a blade of hard metal or diamond). The technique is called
‘scribe and break’ or ‘score and break’. It involves scoring the fiber under tension
with a cleaving tool, as shown in Fig. 6.15. This generates a crack in the fiber surface
that propagates in the transverse direction and a flat fiber end is produced.

Knife edge
Fiber

Pull
Curved mandrel

Fig. 6.15 ‘Score and break’ technique of cleaving optical fibers

6.6.1 Fusion Splices

A good quality permanent joint may be obtained by fusion or welding the prepared
fiber ends. A widely used heating source for fusion is the electric arc. The set-up for
arc fusion is shown in Fig. 6.16. Herein, the prepared fiber ends are placed in a precision
alignment jig. The alignment is done with the help of an inspection microscope (not
shown). After the initial setting, a short arc discharge is applied to ‘fire polish’ the
fiber ends. This removes any defects due to imperfect cleaving. In the final step, the
 Optical Fiber Cables and Connections 127

Arc electrodes
Fixed block Movable block

Fiber 1 Fiber 2

Micro-positioning directions
Fig. 6.16 Fusion splicing apparatus

two ends are pressed together and fused with a stronger arc, thus producing a fusion
splice. A possible drawback of such a splicing mechanism is that the heat produced
by the welding arc may weaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice.

6.6.2 Mechanical Splices

There are several mechanical techniques of splicing fibers. These normally use
appropriate fixtures for aligning the fibers and holding them together. A popular
technique, known as the snug tube splice, uses a glass or ceramic capillary with an
inner diameter just large enough to accommodate the optical fibers, as shown in
Fig. 6.17. The prepared fiber ends are gently inserted into the capillary and a transparent
adhesive (e.g., epoxy resin) is injected through a transverse hole. The adhesive ensures
both mechanical bonding and index-matching. A stable low-loss splice may be
obtained in this way but it poses stringent limits on the capillary diameters.
Hole
Ceramic or glass
capillary

Optical
fiber Fig. 6.17 Capillary splicing technique

A slightly different technique uses an oversized metallic capillary of square cross

section, as shown in Fig. 6.18. The capillary is first filled with the transparent adhesive,
after which the prepared fiber ends are inserted into it. The two fiber ends are forced
against one of the four inner corners of the capillary.
128 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

Square cross section capillary

Optical fiber
Fiber

Cross section at joint Fig. 6.18 Loose tube splicing technique

Other techniques of mechanical splicing normally employ V-grooves for securing

optical fibers. The simplest technique uses an open V-groove, into which the prepared
fiber ends are placed as shown in Fig. 6.19. The splice is accomplished with the aid
of epoxy resin.

Epoxy resin

Fibers butted together

V-grooved substrate Fig. 6.19 V-groove splicing technique

It is also possible to obtain a suitable groove by placing two precision pins (of
appropriate diameter) close to each other. The fibers may then be placed in the cusp
as shown in Fig. 6.20. A transparent adhesive ensures bonding as well as index-
matching, and a flat spring on the top applies pressure ensuring that fibers remain in
their positions. Such a groove is called a spring groove.

Spring

Optical fiber

Precision pins
Retainer
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.20 Spring-groove splicing technique: (a) exploded view illustrating
the spring, fibers on pins, and retainer; (b) cross-sectional view
130 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

6.7 FIBER-OPTIC CONNECTORS

A fiber-optic connector is a device which is used to efficiently couple and decouple
two, or two groups of, fibers. The criteria for designing a connector are that it must
(i) allow for repeated connection and disconnection without problems of fiber
alignment and/or damage to fiber ends, (ii) be insensitive to environmental factors
such as moisture and dust, and capable of bearing load on the cable, and (iii) have
low insertion losses (which should be repeatable) and low cost. Since it is difficult to
optimize all three parameters simultaneously, the design of a connector is a
compromise between ease and economy, on one hand, and the level of performance,
on the other.
A number of fiber-optic connectors have been developed. These may be grouped
in two categories, namely, (i) butt-jointed and (ii) expanded-beam connectors. These
are discussed, in brief, in the following subsections.

6.7.1 Butt-jointed Connectors

Butt-jointed connectors are based on the principle of aligning the two fiber ends and
keeping them in close proximity (i.e., butted to each other). For this purpose, the
plug-in-socket configuration shown in Fig. 6.23 is normally employed.

Coupling nut
Fiber cable

Plug Fig. 6.23 A plug–adapter–

Adapter plug configuration

The mechanical connection between the plug and the adapter on both the ends is
made with the help of either threaded nuts or bayonet locks. Some connectors employ
standard BNC or SMA configurations. The design of connectors differs mainly in
the technique of aligning fiber ends. The simplest connector design is shown in
Fig. 6.24.
Metallic ferrule
Retaining spring

Optical fiber
Cable sheath Cylindrical alignment Connector shell
sleeve
Fig. 6.24 The basic ferrule connector
 Optical Fiber Cables and Connections 131

It consists of metal plugs (normally called ferrules), which are precision-drilled along
the central axis. The prepared fiber ends (to be connected) are placed in these holes.
They are then permanently bonded to the ferrules by an epoxy resin. A spring retains
the ferrule in its position. The two opposite ferrules are aligned by a coaxial cylindrical
alignment sleeve.
Another plug–adapter–plug design is shown in Fig. 6.25. Instead of metal ferrules,
it employs ceramic capillary ferrules. Ceramic has better thermal, mechanical, and
chemical resistance than metallic or plastic.
Locking nut

Alignment sleeve

Ceramic capillary
ferrule

Threaded coupling
Plug housing

Boot
Fig. 6.25 Typical connector design employing ceramic ferrules

6.7.2 Expanded-beam Connectors

An alternative design of connectors is based on expanded-beam coupling, illustrated
in Fig. 6.26.
Lenses

(a)

Optical
fibers

(b)

(c)

Fig. 6.26 Expanded-beam coupling using (a) a convex

microlens, (b) a spherical microlens, and (c) GRIN
rod lenses
132 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

This technique uses two microlenses for collimating and refocusing light from one
fiber end to another. As the beam diameter is expanded, the requirement of lateral
alignment of the two plugs in an adapter becomes less critical as compared to butt-
jointed connectors. Fresnel reflection losses may increase in this case but are normally
reduced with the help of antireflection coating on the lenses.
 Optoelectronic Detectors 205

8.3 TYPES OF PHOTODIODES

8.3.1 p-n Photodiode
The simplest structure is that of a p-n photodiode, shown in Fig. 8.4(a). Incident
photons of energy, say hn, are absorbed not only inside the depletion region but also
outside it, as shown in Fig. 8.4(b). As discussed in Sec. 8.2, the photons absorbed
within the depletion region generate electron–hole pairs. Because of the built-in strong
electric field [shown in Fig. 8.4(c)], electrons and holes generated inside this region
206 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

V0 Load

hn p n

w
Optical (a)
power

(b) z
Electric
field Depletion
region
Fig. 8.4 (a) Structure of a p-n photodiode
and the associated depletion
region under reverse bias.
(b) Variation of optical power
within the diode. (c) Variation of
(c) z electric field inside the diode.

get accelerated in opposite directions and thereby drift to the n-side and the
p-side, respectively. The resulting flow of photocurrent constitutes the response of
the photodiode to the incident optical power. The response time is governed by the
transit time tdrift, which is given by
w
tdrift = (8.12)
vdrift
where w is the width of the depletion region and vdrift is the average drift velocity. tdrift
is of the order of 100 ps, which is small enough for the photodiode to operate up to a
bit rate of about 1 Gbit/s. In order to minimize tdrift, both w and vdrift can be tailored.
The depletion layer width w is given (Sze 1981) by
1/2
é 2e æ 1 1 öù
w = ê ( Vbi + V0 ) ç + ÷ø ú (8.13)
ëê e è N a N d ûú
where e is the dielectric constant, e is the electronic charge, Vbi is the built-in voltage
and depends on the semiconductor, V0 is the applied bias voltage, and Na and Nd are
the acceptor and donor concentrations used to fabricate the p-n junction. The drift
velocity vdrift depends on the bias voltage but attains a saturation value depending on
the material of the diode.
 Optoelectronic Detectors 207

As shown in Fig. 8.4(b), incident photons are absorbed outside the depletion region
also. The electrons generated in the p-side have to diffuse to the depletion-region
boundary before they can drift (under the built in electric field) to the n-side. In a
similar fashion, the holes generated in the n-side have to diffuse to the depletion-
region boundary for their drift towards the p-side. The diffusion process is inherently
slow and hence the presence of a diffusive component may distort the temporal
response of a photodiode, as shown in Fig. 8.5.
Incident optical

Input optical
power

pulse

(a) Time
Photocurrent

Output electrical
pulse
Fig. 8.5 Response of a typical p-n
photodiode to a rectangular
optical pulse when both drift
and diffusion contribute to the
Time photocurrent
(b)

8.3.2 p-i-n-Photodiode
The diffusion component of a p-n photodiode may be reduced by decreasing the
widths of the p-side and n-side and increasing the width of the depletion region so
that most of incident photons are absorbed inside it. To achieve this, a layer of
semiconductor, so lightly doped that it may be considered intrinsic, is inserted at the
p-n junction. Such a structure is called a p-i-n photodiode and is shown in Fig. 8.6
along with the electric-field distribution inside it under the reverse bias. As the middle
layer is intrinsic in nature, it offers high resistance, and hence most of the voltage
drop occurs across it. Thus, a strong electric field exists across the middle i-region.
Such a configuration results in the drift component of the photocurrent dominating
the diffusion component, as most of the incident photons are absorbed inside the
i-region.
A double heterostructure, similar to that discussed in Chapter 7 for sources,
improves the performance of the p-i-n photodiodes. Herein, the middle i-region of a
material with lower band gap is sandwiched between p- and n-type materials of higher
band gap, so that incident light is absorbed only within the i-region. Such a
configuration is shown in Fig. 8.7. The band gap of InP is 1.35 eV and hence it is
208 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

Load

hn p i n

w
(a)

Electric
field

Fig. 8.6 (a) Structure of a p-i-n

photodiode. (b) Electric-
field distribution inside
z
the device under reverse
(b) bias.
Au/Au-Sn

P-InP

i-InGaAs

N-InP

N+-InP (substrate)

Fig. 8.7 A double heterostructure design of a

hn p-i-n photodiode using InGaAs/InP

transparent for light of wavelength greater than 0.92 mm, whereas the band gap of
lattice-matched InGaAs is about 0.75 eV, which corresponds to a lc of 1.65 mm. Thus
the intrinsic layer of InGaAs absorbs strongly in the wavelength range 1.3–1.6 mm.
The diffusive component of the photocurrent is completely eliminated in such a
heterostructure simply because the incident photons are absorbed only within the
depletion region. Such photodiodes are very useful for fiber-optic systems operating
in the range 1.3–1.6 mm.
8.4 PHOTOCONDUCTING DETECTORS
The basic detection process involved in a photoconducting detector is raising an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band upon absorption of a photon
by a semiconductor, provided the photon energy is greater than the band gap energy
(i.e., hn ³ Eg). As long as an electron remains in the conduction band, it will contribute
toward increasing the conductivity of the semiconductor. This phenomenon is known
as photoconductivity.
The structure of a typical photoconducting detector designed for operation in the
long-wavelength range (typically 1.1–1.6 mm) is shown in Fig. 8.9. The device
comprises a thin conducting layer, 1–2 mm thick, of n-type InGaAs that can absorb
photons in the wavelength range 1.1–1.6 mm. This layer is formed on the lattice-
matched semi-insulating InP substrate. A low-resistance interdigital anode and cathode
are made on the conducting layer.
In operation, the incident photons are absorbed by the conducting layer, thereby
generating additional electron–hole pairs. These carriers are swept by the applied
field towards respective electrodes, which results in an increased current in the external
circuit. In the case of III-V alloys such as InGaAs, electron mobility is much higher
than hole mobility. Thus whilst the faster electrons are collected at the anode, the
corresponding holes are still proceeding towards the cathode. The process creates an
absence of electrons and hence a net positive charge in the region. However, the
excess charge is compensated for, almost immediately, by the injection of more
electrons from the cathode into this region. In essence, this process leads to the
generation of more electrons upon the absorption of a single photon. The overall
212 Fiber Optics and Optoelectronics

hn
Interdigital
electrodes

Load

n-InGaAs
Semi-insulating InP

Fig. 8.9 A photoconducting detector for long-wavelength operation

effect is that it results in a photoconductive gain G, which may be defined as the ratio
of transit time ts for slow carriers to the transit time tf for fast carriers. Thus,
ts
G= (8.16)
tf
The photocurrent Ig produced by the photoconductor can be written as
h Pin e
Ig = G = I pG (8.17)
hn
where h is the quantum efficiency of the device, Pin is the incident optical power, and
Ip is the photocurrent in the absence of any gain. Gain in the range 50–100 and a
3-dB bandwidth of about 500 MHz are currently achievable with the InGaAs
photoconductors discussed above.