W-1 Optical Fiber Communucation

Optical Fiber Technology Optical Fiber Communication-an overview
EETP/BSNL
GOLD CERTIFICATION
COURSE
OPTICAL FIBER TECHNOLOGY
VERSION 2 January’ 2015
EETP/BSNL Gold Certification course/Ver. 02/Jan’2015 Page 1 of 34
For Restricted Circulation

Contents
Sl. Name of Topic Page No.
No.
1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 FIBER OPTIC APPLICATION 4
3 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 11
4 BASIC OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 12
5 GEOMETRY OF FIBER 13
6 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - THEORY 14
7 FIBRE TYPES – SINGLE MODE AND MULTI-MODE 16

8 TYPES OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE (MOST POPULAR FIBER
OPTIC CABLE TYPES) 20
9 ITU-T COMPLIANT FIBERS
23
10 CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER
27
11 FDF/FDMS
32
12 SUMMARY
33
13 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
34

1 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION-AN OVERVIEW
1 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION-AN OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1.3 FIBER-OPTIC APPLICATIONS
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
1.5 BASIC OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
1.6 GEOMETRY OF FIBER
1.7 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - THEORY
1.8 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE
1.9 FIBRE TYPES – SINGLE MODE AND MULTI-MODE
1.10 CABLE CONSTRUCTION
1.11 TYPES OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE (MOST POPULAR FIBER OPTIC

CABLE TYPES)
1.12 ITU-T COMPLIANT FIBERS
1.13 CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER
1.14 FDF (FIBER DISTRIBUTION FRAME)
1.15 FDMS (FIBER DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT)
1.16 SUMMARY
1.17 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.18
1.1 REFERENCES
Introduction AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
The use of light for transmitting information from one place to another place is a
very old technique. In 800 BC., the Greeks used fire and smoke signals for sending
information like victory in a war, alerting against enemy, call for help, etc. Mostly only
one type of signal was conveyed. During the second century B.C. optical signals were
encoded using signaling lamps so that any message could be sent. There was no
development in optical communication till the end of the 18th century. The speed of the

optical communication link was limited due to the requirement of line of sight
transmission paths, the human eye as the receiver and unreliable nature of transmission
paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods
to illuminate body cavities. Alexander Graham Bell invented a 'Photophone' to transmit
voice signals over an optical beam. By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was
identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB
of light loss per kilometer standard. Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of
glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970 Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or
"optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of carrying 65,000 times more information
than copper wire, through which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be
decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away. Corning Glass developed fiber with
loss of 17 dB/ km at 633 nm by doping titanium into the fiber core. By June of 1972,
multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss of 4 dB per kilometer and
much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber.
In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's
first live telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach,
California. They were soon followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone
communication system installed in the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of
1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice
channels. Today more than 80 percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic
is carried over optical-fiber cables.
An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or

"light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Optical fibers are widely
used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances
and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used
instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also
immune to electromagnetic interference.
1.2 Objective
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Fiber-Optic Applications
 Basic optical fiber communication system:
 The Structure of an Optical Fiber
 Principle of Operation – Theory
 Fiber types
 Optical Fiber Cable construction
 FDF/FDMS
1.3 Fiber-Optic Applications

The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber
applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from

global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or
video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few
standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
1.3.1.1 Fiber Optic Interconnects

Interconnections are one of the largest and most widely used areas for fiber optic
cables and assemblies. An interconnect is defined as the physical connection of two or
more fixtures through which communication is possible. Interconnects range from simple,
simplex patch cords to multi-channel distribution and backbone cables and virtually
everything in between. Most interconnects are used for smaller, localized network or
system structures, linking similar machines, complimentary devices, and/or data
communications from one system to another.
1.3.1.2 Fiber Optic Networking

With the increasing bandwidth requirements associated with broadband services,
service providers and network operators are expanding and extending fiber optics further
down line to accommodate present and future requirements. This network extension and
expansion requires multiple fiber optic connectivity products in a myriad of forms. Trunk
cables, distribution cables, high-density interconnect cables, and standard patch cords are
just a few of the many types of products.
1.3.1.3 Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet solutions have become a necessity with the accelerating growth
of LAN traffic, pushing network administrators to look for higher speed network
technologies to meet the demand for more bandwidth.
While most copper systems will support Gigabit Ethernet, fiber optics provide a
much higher degree of flexibly and future bandwidth/speed expansion as opposed to its
copper counterparts. Generally, copper will support Gigabit and multi-gig transmission
rates, but only for very short distances. Copper is affected by EMI (electromagnetic
interference) and RFI (radio frequency interference). Fiber optics will support Gigabit and
multi-gig transmission for both short and long distances, with immunity to EMI and RFI,
making fiber a more suitable solution for a number of applications.
Gigabit Ethernet applications supported by fiber optics are now transmitting signal
reliably at 10Gbps, up to 10,000 meters using single mode systems, and well over that for
Gigabit and multi-gig transmission rates. With multimode systems, fiber optics will push
10Gbps transmission between 26 and 300 meters, depending on the fiber type and core
size.
1.3.1.4 Data Transfer Tests

For testing applications, optical or electrical loopbacks are used to verify the
operational reliability of the device under test. With both optical and electrical loopbacks,

the signal generated by the device under test is looped from the transmit (Tx) side of an
active component back to the receive (Rx) port of the same component.
With this type of test setup, you can pass data to/from the device. The test code
(data being transmitted) can range from simple data pass-through to very complex strings
of data. To verify results in these applications, the data sent from the Tx port on the
device under test is compared with data received in the Rx port. Providing these data sets
are identical, you have verified that your system is working properly.
1.3.1.5 Fiber Optics for Data Storage Equipment

The main function of fiber optics in data storage equipment is to provide the
communications link between multiple devices on a network and/or part of a storage
system, typically SAN.
Fiber optic connectivity offers very high bandwidth over extended distances
making optical communication an ideal conduit for device-to-device connections,
enabling faster, simultaneous information access from across the room or across the
country.
While some data storage devices use copper connections and cabling for device-
to-device connections, more data storage administrators are replacing copper ports with
optical ports to improve performance and ensure these devices can support ever
increasing bandwidth requirements now and in the future.
1.3.1.6 Premise Networks

Premise network is defined as the transmission network (LAN) inside the users'
building or group of buildings that connects the various types of voice and data
communications devices to each other and to the outside world.
Premise networks are used worldwide, across every industry, in both small and
large scale applications. For most applications, the end goal is to connect as many points
on the network as possible, with the most bandwidth possible. Depending on the size of
the network, the equipment infrastructure and connectivity requirements can vary greatly.
For small, lower bandwidth requirement premise applications, copper based systems can
generally support most requirements. However, with larger networks or those networks
requiring longer runs or large amounts of bandwidth, a fiber optic system is more
suitable.
1.3.1.7 Carrier Networks

Carrier networks are defined as a network, or series of networks, providing
connectivity to cities, towns, or other entities on a large scale. Communications service
providers utilize these networks to distribute very large amounts of bandwidth over long
distances, providing the communication necessary to support premise networks and
central office, and all other communications and broadband services offered at the end

residential, business, or institutional level. Commonly referred to as the 'backbone', these

networks transmit and distribute a large portion of all the communications taking place
around the globe.
While some carrier networks are built entirely on fiber optics, certain legacy
copper systems still exist. However, with the recent industry push for FTTx, fiber is now
being extended further down the network line to support higher bandwidths and
additional services.
The large majority of the carrier network infrastructure is built on a bundled,

single mode fiber optic system. This type of system allows multiple signals (1 per fiber,
multiple fibers per bundle) to travel very long distances at very high transmission rates,
ensuring seamless real time communication between points thousands of miles away.
1.3.1.8 Outside Plant

Outside plant is defined as all the cables, conduits, ducts, poles, towers, repeaters,
repeater huts, and other equipment located between a demarcation point in a switching
facility and a demarcation point in another switching facility or customer premises.
Simply put, this is the portion of your network that resides outside your facilities,
connecting you with the outside world.
Most outside plant applications require cabling, enclosures, optical nodes, or

distribution points to withstand any number of adverse circumstances directly related to
its surroundings. Outside plant products are designed to perform the same functionality as
their industry standard counterparts, with additional protection or ruggedization, greatly
reducing the opportunity for failure while in service.
Typically these products are designed using specialized jacketing, cases, and/or
distribution methods to ensure durability. Generally, companies use these products for
direct burial cabling and enclosures, aerial cabling, water and chemical proof
environmental connections, and crush-resistant/proof connectivity requirements.
1.3.1.9 Broadcast Fiber Optics

The broadcast fiber optics are designed to provide multiple channel, high-
bandwidth links and, in some cases, power (electrical) connections to and from cameras,
trucks, and satellite links.
With the increasing demand for HDTV programming, broadcasters are

implementing more fiber to support HDTV signal capture and transport at live sports,
music, and entertainment events. Fiber is also rapidly becoming the data transmission
method of choice for stadiums, arenas, and venues allowing these facilities to supply
high-definition content for HDTV, video-on-demand, and broadband networks.

1.3.1.10 Fiber Optics for Sensing

Fiber optics for sensing applications are used to communicate with a sensor
device, or use a fiber as the sensor itself, to conduct continuous monitoring of physical,
chemical, and biological changes in the subject or object of study.
Fiber optic sensing is a key component to improving industrial processes, quality

control systems, medical diagnostics, and preventing and controlling general process
abnormalities. Fiber optics used for these applications provide very acute sensitivity and
data collection versatility, while allowing for a wide range of specialized application uses.
1.3.1.11 FTTx
FTTx (Fiber To The X), most commonly covers FTTh (Fiber To The Home),
FTTc (Fiber To The curb), FTTp (Fiber To The Premises), and FTTd (Fiber To The
Desk) applications running from the central office or head-end to business, residential, or
multi-unit dwellings.
1.3.1.12 HDTV
HDTV (high definition television) is the broadcasting of a higher resolution
format than possible with traditional analog television broadcasting. A form of digital
television, HDTV is a very bandwidth intensive application requiring maximum
allowable speed and data volume transfer.
Originating with HD camera and video capture/processing equipment, television

networks, service providers, and production companies are utilizing fiber optics as the
support and distribution structure all the way to the subscriber premises.
1.3.1.13 CATV Fiber Optics

CATV (cable television) systems support multiple services including broadcast
television, on-demand entertainment (video), and high speed internet access. These
services are supplied via a fiber optic network to an optical node, which converts and
distributes the electrical signal to subscribers via a coaxial cable connection.
Most CATV applications will utilize both single mode and multimode signals
within different areas of the network. Single Mode fiber is used to distribute signal from
the central office to optical nodes, where it can be converted to multimode.
1.3.1.14 Data Transmission Fiber Optics

Data transmission fiber optics, simply put, is the sending and receiving of data
from point-to-point via a network, thus the fundamental function of all fiber systems from
small to large. Data transmission requirements range from very simple cables connecting
servers or storage arrays inside a network or telecommunications system, to large multi-
fiber distribution cables supporting intra-building connectivity and beyond.

For smaller, localized data transmission applications, a multitude of products are

available to move data from place to place. Primarily multimode, these applications use
single fibers to move multiple signals over distances, usually less than 300 meters.
Depending on the particular application or system requirement, data transmission cabling
can take many forms from basic simplex (SX) or duplex (DX) cable assemblies to ribbon
fiber distribution cables, and various combinations of customized products.
In larger data transmission applications, data transmission can be multimode,

single mode, or a combination of the two, depending on bandwidth and transmission
distance requirements. These applications generally use a higher volume or longer lengths
of cabling, or in some case both, supporting data centers, building-to-building, campuses,
and carrier network communications.
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Fiber Optics has the following advantages:
3.1 Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is

directly proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier
frequency is in the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz
and the microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater
transmission bandwidth than the conventional communication systems and the data rate
or number of bits per second is increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber
communication system. Further the wavelength division multiplexing operation by the
data rate or information carrying capacity of optical fibers is enhanced to many orders of
magnitude.
3.2 Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra low loss fibers and the
erbium doped silica fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless
transmission. In the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a
transmission loss of 0.002dB/km are used. Further, using erbium doped silica fibers over
a short length in the transmission path at selective points; appropriate optical
amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing is more than 100 km. Since the
amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the distortion produced during the
strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.
3.3 Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical
insulator. Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current
lightning. It is also suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical fibers are not
affected by any interference originating from power cables, railway power lines and radio
waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers even though there are so many fibers in a
cable because of the absence of optical interference between the fibers.
3.4 Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate.
Further the signal cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical
fiber communication provides hundred per cent signal security.

3.5 Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and
they are flexible, compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted
without damage. Further, the optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in
terms of storage, handling, installation and transportation, maintaining comparable
strength and durability.
1.5 Basic optical fiber communication system:

Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission
sequence give below:
(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.
(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.
- Inexpensive light sources available.
- Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss
fibres are used at high data rates.
Fig : 1 Fiber Optic System
1.6 Geometry of Fiber

The optical fibers used in communications have a very simple structure. A hair-thin
fiber consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the cladding,
which are enclosed by a protective sheath as shown in Fig. 2. Core and cladding have

different refractive indices, with the core having a refractive index, n1, which is slightly
higher than that of the cladding, n2. It is this difference in refractive indices that enables the
fiber to guide the light. Because of this guiding property, the fiber is also referred to as an
“optical waveguide.” As a minimum there is also a further layer known as the secondary
cladding that does not participate in the propagation but gives the fiber a minimum level of
protection, this second layer is referred to as a coating. Light rays modulated into digital
pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves along the core without penetrating the
cladding.
Fig : 2 (a) Cross section and (b) longitudinal cross section of a typical optical fiber
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive
index—a measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the
development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks
to carry trillions of bits of data per second.
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive
index—a measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the
development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic
networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second.
The diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.
Core (m) Cladding ( m)
8 125
50 125
62.5 125
100 140
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the
cladding size. Thus 50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter of
125m.

125 8 125 50 125 62.5 125 100
Core Cladding
Fig : 3 Typical Coreand

Typical Core and Cladding
Cladding Diameter
Diameters
1.7 Principle of Operation - Theory

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such as
space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light travelling
from one material to another changes speed, which results in changing its direction of
travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction. The amount that a ray of light passing
from a lower refractive index to a higher one, is bent towards the normal, but light going
from a higher index to a lower one, refracting away from the normal, as shown in the
figures.
The basics of light propagation can be discussed with the use of geometric optics.
The basic law of light guidance is Snell’s law. Consider two dielectric media with different
refractive indices and with n1 >n2 and that are in perfect contact, as shown in Figure 7. At
the interface between the two dielectrics, the incident and refracted rays satisfy Snell’s law
of refraction—that is,
n1sin1= n2sin2
In addition to the refracted ray there is a small amount of reflected light in the
medium with refractive index n1. Because n1  2 1. As the angle of the
incident ray increases there is an angle at which the refracted ray emerges parallel to the
interface between the two dielectrics (Figure 3(b)). This angle is referred to as the critical
angle, crit, and from Snell’s law is given by
Sin
Fig : 4 Snell’s law

If the angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is totally
reflected back into the first material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle
of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total Internal Reflection.
1.8 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The
inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference
refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of
the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a
core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fiber manufacturers control this
difference to obtain desired optical fiber characteristics. Most fibers have an additional
coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical
properties affecting the propagation of light within the fiber. Figure shows the idea of light
travelling through a fiber. Light injected into the fiber and striking core to cladding
interface at greater than the critical angle, reflects back into core, since the angle of
incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be reflected. The light will
continue zigzagging down the length of the fiber. Light striking the interface at less than
the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is
usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairly.
Propagation of light through fiber is governed by the indices of the core and cladding by
Snell's law.
Jacket Jacket
Cladding
Core
Cladding (n2) Cladding
Core (n2) Jacket

Light at less than Angle of Angle of
critical angle is
incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection
Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

Fig : 5 Propagation of light through fiber
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical
fiber. This analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass through the fiber axis
each time, they are reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down the fiber without
passing through the axis. The path of a skew ray is typically helical wrapping around and
around the central axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fiber optics analysis.

The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depends on many

factors, including
- The size of the fiber.
- The composition of the fiber.
The light injected into the fiber
1.9 FIBRE TYPES – SINGLE MODE AND MULTI-MODE

The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core
and cladding. Two main relationships exist:
(I) Step Index
(II) Graded Index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows
a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a
non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it
matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and
the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibres :
(I) Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre)
(II) Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre)
(III) Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre)
1. STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
Step Index Fiber has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a result, some
of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others
zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different
groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The
pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape.
The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is,
the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is best suited
for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

Fig : 6 STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
2. GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
It contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the
center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the
light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding.
Fig : 7 GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER
Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically
because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the
higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as
the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less
dispersion.
3. SINGLE-MODE FIBER
It has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction between
the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus
travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television
networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.
Fig : 8 SINGLE-MODE FIBER
1.10 CABLE CONSTRUCTION

There are two basic cable designs are:
1. Tight Buffer Tube Cable
2. Loose Buffer Tube Cable
Loose-tube cable is used in the majority of outside-plant installations and tight-

buffered cable, primarily used inside buildings.

1. TIGHT BUFFER TUBE CABLE
With tight-buffered cable designs, the buffering material is in direct contact with
the fiber. This design is suited for "jumper cables" which connect outside plant cables to
terminal equipment, and also for linking various devices in a premises network. Single-
fiber tight-buffered cables are used as pigtails, patch cords and jumpers to terminate
loose-tube cables directly into opto-electronic transmitters, receivers and other active and
passive components. Multi-fiber tight-buffered cables also are available and are used
primarily for alternative routing and handling flexibility and ease within buildings. The
tight-buffered design provides a rugged cable structure to protect individual fibers during
handling, routing and connectorization. Yarn strength members keep the tensile load
away from the fiber.
Fig : 9 Tight Buffer Tube Cable
The structure of a 250um coated fiber (bare fiber)

 Core (9um for standard single mode fibers, 50um or 62.5um for
multimode fibers)
 Cladding (125um)
 Coating (soft plastic, 250um is the most popular, sometimes 400um is
also used)
2. LOOSE-TUBE CABLE
The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or even
more than 400 fibers per cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or optionally
armored. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and administration of
fibers in the system.

In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and protect
optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess fiber length
(relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of installation and
environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a dielectric or steel central
member, which serves as an anti-buckling element.
The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile strength
member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If armoring is required,
a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed cable with an additional jacket
extruded over the armor. Loose-tube cables typically are used for outside-plant
installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried applications.
Loose tube cable is designed to endure outside temperatures and high moisture
conditions. The fibers are loosely packaged in gel filled buffer tubes to repel water.
Recommended for use between buildings that are unprotected from outside elements.
Loose tube cable is restricted from inside building use.
Fig : 10 Loose Tube Cable
Elements in a loose tube fiber optic cable:

1. Multiple 250um coated bare fibers (in loose tube)
2. One or more loose tubes holding 250um bare fibers. Loose tubes
strand around the central strength member.
3. Moisture blocking gel in each loose tube for water blocking and
protection of 250um fibers
4. Central strength member (in the center of the cable and is stranded
around by loose tubes)
5. Aramid Yarn as strength member
6. Ripcord (for easy removal of outer jacket)

7. Outer jacket (Polyethylene is most common for outdoor cables

because of its moisture resistant, abrasion resistant and stable over
wide temperature range characteristics.)
1.11 Types of Fiber Optic Cable (Most Popular Fiber Optic Cable
Types)
1.11.1 INDOOR CABLES
1.11.1.1 Simplex Fiber Cables

A single cable structure with a single fiber. Simplex cable varieties
include 1.6mm & 3mm jacket sizes.
Fig : 11 Simplex Fiber Cables
1.11.1.2 Duplex Fiber Optic Cable

Duplex-zip. This cable contains two optical fibers in a single cable
structure. Light is not coupled between the two fibers; typically one fiber is
used to transmit signals in one direction and the other receives.
Fig : 12 Duplex Fiber Optic Cable

1.11.2 OUTDOOR LOOSE TUBE FIBER OPTIC CABLES
Tube encloses multiple coated fibers that are surrounded by a gel

compound that protects the cable from moisture in outside environments. Cable
is restricted from indoor use, typically allowing entry not to exceed 50 feet.
Fig : 13 Outdoor Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cables
1.11.3 AERIAL/SELF-SUPPORTING
Figure 8 (aerial/self-supporting) fiber cables are designed to be strung

from poles outdoors and most can also be installed in underground ducts. They
have internal stress members of steel of steel or aramid yarn that protect fibers
from stress.
Aerial cable provides ease of installation and reduces time and cost.
Figure 8 cable can easily be separated between the fiber and the messenger.
Temperature range -55 to +85°C.
Fig : 14 Figure 8 cable
1.11.4 Direct-buried Armored Fiber Optic Cable

Armored cables are similar to outdoor cables but include an outer armor
layer for mechanical protection and to prevent damage. They can be installed in
ducts or aerially, or directly buried underground. Armor is surrounded by a
polyethylene jacket.
Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct burial if
required. This cable is non-gel filled and can also be used in aerial applications.

The armor can be removed leaving the inner cable suitable for any
indoor/outdoor use. Temperature rating -40 to +85°C.
Fig : 15 Armored cable
1.11.5 Submarine Fiber Optic Cable (Undersea Fiber Optic Cable)

Submarine cables are used in fresh or salt water. To protect them from
damage by fishing trawlers and boat anchors they have elaborately designed
structures and armors. Long distance submarine cables are especially complex
designed.
Fig : 16 Submarine cables
1.12 ITU-T COMPLIANT FIBERS

ITU-T G.651 COMPLIANT MULTIMODE FIBERS AND OM1
Multimode fibers can be classified further into two as Multimode 50/125 and
Multimode 62.5/125. The classification is based on the core diameter of multimode
fibers. 50/125 have a core diameter of 50 micrometers, whereas for 62.5/125 have a
core diameter of 62.5 micrometers.
Recent classification of multimode fibers divides them as OM1, OM2, OM3 etc.
OM1 multimode fibers are 62.5/125 multimode fibers. OM2 and OM3 fibers are
compliant with ITU-T G.651 recommendations.

G.651 multimode fibers are used mainly in Local Area Networks (LAN).
Multimode fibers are not suitable for Long haul applications. Cheaper transmission
devices like lasers etc. make Multimode fibers attractive for short distance
transmission within the 300 to 500 meters reach.
For a 10GBASE-SR system demanding 2000 MHz*km, OM2 multimode fiber

can be used for a distance of up to 82 meters and OM3 fibers can be used for 300
meters. An OM2 fiber having a bandwidth of 500 MHz*km can be used for 550 meters
on a 10BASE-SX/LX networks.
ITU-T does not have any specification for 62.5/125 multimode fibers. OM1 Fibers
also known as 62.5/125 Multimode fibers are popular in United States. OM2 and OM3
multimode fibers are also known as ITU-T G.651 fibers.
The core of MMF 50/125 has a graded index refractive index profile, which is
gradually changing from the center of the core to the cladding that enables multiple
modes with near equal velocity to travel inside the fiber.
ITU-T G.652 COMPLIANT SINGLE MODE FIBERS
This is the most common single mode fiber in the world. It is designed to have
minimum dispersion at around 1310nm, which is supposed to be transmission window for
single mode fibers. Conventional single mode fibers can be used at 1550nm with the use
of dispersion compensation modules.
G.652A is the first single mode fibers ITU-T classified. G.652B fibers are also
known as conventional type single mode fibers and many installers intend to use 652B
fiber by mentioning simply G.652. The major difference is in attenuation at both 1310nm
and 1550nm and polarization mode dispersion. 652B fibers have a PMD as low as 0.2
ps/sqrt.km where as for 652A fibers have a PMD of 0.5 ps/sqrt.km. Attenuation is low for
G.652B fibers.
Similarly G.652C and G.652D fibers differ in PMD value. PMD for G.652C fiber
is 0.5 ps/sqrt.km, where as for G.652D fibers have a PMD of less than or equal to 0.2
ps/sqrt.km. Both these optical fibers are known as low water peak fiber having low
attenuation at 1360nm through 1480nm, the wavelength range which is not yet used
commonly for transmission.
ITU-T G.653 COMPLIANT DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER
These fibers are designed to utilize the low attenuation window of 1550nm by
minimizing the dispersion value at around 1550nm. The purpose was good, but it
generated Non-linear effects in the transmission which caused more troubles.
ITU-T G.654 COMPLIANT CUT-OFF SHIFTED FIBER
This fiber is also known as low attenuation fiber. Some manufacturers have
extremely low attenuation at 1550nm for this fiber. The application area demands low

attenuation like those in Submarine optical fiber cables and terrestrial ultra long haul
optical networks. Low attenuation at 1550nm range makes this fiber suitable for
400km span without repeaters. The low attenuation ranges from 0.15 – 0.16 dB/km.
ITU-T G.655 COMPLIANT NON-ZERO DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER
NZDSF was introduced in the mid 1990s for WDM applications. NZDSF is the
short of Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber. These are wide band transmission
supporting fibers. The non-linear effects due to zero dispersion at 1550nm in G.653
fibers are solved by G.655 fibers which are having a non-zero value for dispersion at
this wavelength range. ITU-T specifies up to G.655E fibers (latest) from G.655A fibers
which are not currently in use. G.655 fibers are most suitable for DWDM applications.
The non-linear effects are successfully solved in G.655 fibers.
It has a positive nonzero dispersion value over the entire C-band, which is the
spectral operating region for eribium doped optical fiber amplifiers.
Version G.655b was introduced to extend WDM application into the S-band.
Version G.655c specifies a lower PMD value of 0.2 ps√km than the 0.5 ps/√km
value of G.655a/b
ITU-T G.656 COMPLIANT LOW SLOPE DISPERSION NON-ZERO

DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER
This is another type non-zero dispersion shifted fiber which has more stricter and
low dispersion slope which enables to guarantee the DWDM performance in wide
wavelength range.
It has a positive chromatic dispersion value ranging from 2 to 14 ps/(nm-km) in

the 1460 to 1625 nm wavelength band. Here dispersion slop is significantly lower than
in G.655 fibers
It means that the chromatic dispersion changes slower with the wavelength so that
dispersion compensation is simpler or not needed. This allows the use of CWDM
without chromatic dispersion compensation.
ITU-T G.657 COMPLIANT BEND INSENSITIVE FIBER
G.657 fibers are the new comers in the market, but became a super hit in the FTTH
market. More and more installers are looking for G.657 fibers. As the name indicates, the
bend insensitive fibers are suitable for applications where multiple bends will be present.
Insensitivity to bends makes them suitable for installation at home and office
environment. G.657A is intended to compatible with G.652 D fibers. Interconnectivity
with the existing G.652 fibers are guaranteed for the G.657 A fibers. ITU-T G.657B
fibers are free from all backward compatibility requirements and do not require
complying with conventional single mode fibers. The difference between 657A and B
fibers is in the bending radius. G.657B can be bend at 7.5mm radius and less for some

manufacturers. Single mode optical fibers complying with ITU-T G.657A was developed
with the purpose of using at FTTH sites. G.657A category fibers are therefore compliant
with G.652 category fibers also. This back compatibility makes the G.657A category
fibers suitable for access networks used for FTTH. The other category, G.657.B does not
need to be compliant with G.652 fibers. Therefore G.657.B category fibers are mostly
used in indoor fiber optic cables that are installed with field installable optical connectors.
Features
 Low macro-bending loss at very low radii (≤ 15 mm)
 Compatibility with other G.652 single-mode fibre installations
 Low bending at partial bends in the mm bend radius range
 Low micro-bending loss
 Apart from its ideal use in office installations, as patch cords and/or
interconnection cables, the use of G.657 compliant fiber in Fiber-to-the-Home
networks offers significant added value to the network installers. Bend radii in
fibre guidance ports can be reduced as well as minimum bend radii in wall and
corner mountings.
Applications
 The fibre is ideal for installation under tight bend conditions in CATV and
FTTH networks. Incorporates all the features of ITU-T G.652D optical fiber
including Low Water
 Peak (LWP) benefits, 1 Gb/s up to an indicative 5 km in data networks and

supports ATM, SONET and WDM technologies.
 All ITU-T G.657A cable constructions including FTTH tight buffered, loose
tube and ribbon.
 Supports high speed multi channel video, data and voice services in
metropolitan and access networks.
1.13 CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER

1.13.1 WAVELENGTH
It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in
nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of
the light.

For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical
wavelength for fibre use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible
(Infrared).
1.13.2 FREQUENCY
It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is
measured in units of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec.
1.13.3 WINDOWS
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best
operates. Typical windows are given below:
Window Operational Wavelength
800nm - 900nm 850nm
1250nm - 1350nm 1300nm
1500nm - 1600nm 1550nm
Fig : 17 Operating Windows
1.13.4 ATTENUATION
Attenuation in optical fiber is caused by intrinsic factors, primarily scattering and
absorption, and by extrinsic factors, including stress from the manufacturing process, the
environment, and physical bending.
1. INTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to inherent or within the fiber. Intrinsic attenuation may occur as
(I) Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.

(II) Scattering - Light rays travelling in the core reflect from small
imperfections into a new pathway that may be lost through the cladding.
The most common form of scattering, Rayleigh scattering, is caused by small

variations in the density of glass as it cools. These variations are smaller than the
wavelengths used and therefore act as scattering objects (see Figure 18).
Fig : 18 Rayleigh scattering
Scattering affects short wavelengths more than long wavelengths and limits the
use of wavelengths below 800 nm.
Attenuation due to absorption is caused by the intrinsic properties of the material

itself, the impurities in the glass, and any atomic defects in the glass. These impurities
absorb the optical energy, causing the light to become dimmer (see Figure 19). While
Rayleigh scattering is important at shorter wavelengths, intrinsic absorption is an issue at
longer wavelengths and increases dramatically above 1700 nm. However, absorption due
to water peaks introduced in the fiber manufacturing process are being eliminated in some
new fiber types.
Fig : 19 Absorption
The primary factors affecting attenuation in optical fibers are the length of the
fiber and the wavelength of the light. Figure 20 shows the loss in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km) by wavelength from Rayleigh scattering, intrinsic absorption, and total
attenuation.

Fig : 20 Attenuation Vs. Wavelength characteristic
2. EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as –
(I) Macro bending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling
down the fibre cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
(II) Micro bending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by

crushing contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison between the

transmitted and received power in a system.
Micro bend
Micro bend
Fig : 21 Micro bends
Micro bend
Fig. Loss and Bends

Fig : 22 Macro bend
1.13.5 DISPERSION
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its travels down the length of
an optical fibre as shown in figure 23. The varying delay in arrival time between
different components of a signal "smears out" the signal in time. This causes
energy overlapping and limits information capacity of the fiber.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a

fibre. The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that pulses are farther apart and
therefore the greater dispersion can be tolerated.
Dispersion of optical energy within an optical fiber falls into following

categories:
 Intermodal Delay or Modal Delay
 Intramodal Dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion
 Material Dispersion
 Waveguide Dispersion
 Polarization –Mode Dispersion

Fig : 23 Dispersion
1. INTERMODAL DELAY/ MODAL DELAY
Intermodal distortion or modal delay appears only in multimode fibers. This signal
distortion mechanism is a result of each mode having a different value of the group
velocity at a single frequency.
The amount of spreading that occurs in a fiber is a function of the number of

modes propagated by the fiber and length of the fiber
 Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input
light pulse is made up of a group of modes (MULTIMODE). As the modes
propagate along the fiber, light energy distributed among the modes is delayed by
different amounts. Modes travel in different directions, some modes travel longer
distances.
 Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over the
same time span
 The modes of a light pulse that enter the fiber at one time exit the fiber different
times.
 This condition causes the light pulse to spread.
 As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion increases.

Fig : 24 Intermodal Dispersion
2. INTRAMODAL DISPESION
 Pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode
 Intra-modal dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through

different materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds
 Also called GROUP VELOCITY DISPERSION (GVD)
 Occurs in all types of fibers
 Two main causes : Material dispersion
Waveguide dispersion
A. Material Dispersion
 Arises from variations of the refractive index of the core material as a function of
wavelength
 Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the fiber material and hence
exit the fiber at different times
Fig : 25 Material Dispersion

 Material dispersion is a function of the source spectral width.
 The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can propagate in the
fiber.
 Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths
B. Waveguide Dispersion
 Arises because a Single Mode Fiber confines only 80% of the optical power to the
core
 The other 20% tends to travel through the cladding and hence travels faster
 This results in spreading of the light pulses
 The amount of dispersion depends on the fiber design and the size of the fiber
core relative to the wavelength of operation
 In multimode fibers, waveguide dispersion and material dispersion are basically

separate properties.
 Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to material

dispersion and is usually neglected.
 Arises from dependence of waveguide 'size' on wavelength
 Causing light distribution between core and cladding to change with l
 Light distribution and dispersion depend on core-cladding design
 Proportional to source bandwidth and fiber length
 Same dimensions as material dispersion
 Can cancel material dispersion if signs are opposite
1.13.6 BANDWIDTH
It is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each
pulse of light is distinguishable by the receiver. System bandwidth is measured in MHz or
GHz. In general, when we say that a system has bandwidth of 20 MHz, means that 20
million pulses of light per second will travel down the fibre and each will be
distinguishable by the receiver.
1.13.7 BANDWIDTH-LENGTH PRODUCT
Bandwidth is a length dependent. Longer fibre results in more pulse spreading and
leads to lower BW. As a result, the fibre BW is often given in terms of the BW times

kilometer product. A 1000 MHz x km fibre can usually operate with 100 MHz BW if a 10
km fibre is used or with a 1000 MHz BW if a 1 km fibre is used.
1.13.8 ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL BANDWIDTH
A distinction must be made between electrical and optical BW. Electrical

bandwidth (BWel) is defined drops to 0.707. The optical bandwidth (BWopt) is defined as
the frequency at which the ratio, PLo/PLi dropped to 1/2. (The ratio Iout/Iin and PLo/PLi have
maximum values of 1). Because PLi and PLo are directly proportional to Iin and Iout
respectively (and not to Iin2 and Iout2 as in an all electrical system), the half power point is
equivalent to the half current point. That is the point where Iout/Iin drops to 0.50, not to
0.707. This results in a BWopt that is larger than the BWel.
BWel = 0.707 x BWopt
It is important to realize that these two parameters represent two ways of

describing the same system. For example, a system can be said to have an optical BW of
10 MHz, which implies that its electrical BW is 7.07 MHz.
Fig : 26 ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL BANDWIDTH
1.14 Splice Joint Closures

Joint closure is used to connect two or more optical fiber cable in an
optical fiber rate. Fiber from different cable are fusion spliced and kept safely inside the
splice organizer provide inside the OFC joint closure. The equipment closure is buried
inside the earth (manholes) or hanged on to a pole in case of Arial cable. They are
straight joint closure or branches joint closure for armored or unarmored optical fiber
cable. The joint closure is sufficiently strong& robust to resist the environment /
weathering effect. After assembly / Heat shrinking it is completely moisture free dust
free & insect free.

Fig : 27 Splice Closure
1.15 FDF (Fiber Distribution Frame)

Fiber distribution frame (FDF) provides efficient cable connections between
outside plant cable and equipment in the buildings and communication facilities. FDF
integrates fiber splicing, storage, and cable connections together in single unit.
Fig : 28 FDF
1.16 FDMS (Fiber Distribution Management)

The Fiber Distribution Management System (FDMS) is designed to provide
management of a large volume of optical fibers and cables in a Central Office
environment. The FDMS provides flexibility, reliability, consistency and structure in the
management of the fiber and has facilities for configuration expansion and testing. The
design is compact and the construction is robust for easy access, operation, adjustment,
storage and transport.

Fig : 29 FDMS
1.17 Summary
Fiber optic technology is a revolutionary technological departure from the
traditional copper wires twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable. The usage of optical fiber in
the telecommunications industry has grown a few decades ago. Today, many industries
particularly telecommunications industry chooses optical fiber over copper wire because
of its ability to transmit large amount of information at a time.
An optical fiber is a flexible filament of very clear glass capable of carrying
information in the form of light. Optical fibers are hair-thin structures created by forming
pre-forms, which are glass rods drawn into fine threads of glass protected by a plastic
coating.
The first single-mode optical fibre was specified in Recommendation ITU-T
G.652, Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre and cable, and for this reason, the
ITU-T G.652 fibres are often called, “standard single-mode fibres”. These fibres were the
first to be widely deployed in the public network and they represent a large majority of
fibres that have been installed. The agreements that led to the first publication of
Recommendation ITU-T G.652 formed a key foundation to the modern optical networks
that are the basis of all modern telecommunications.
1.18 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Fill in the blanks
 An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a ……………, or
"………….", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber.
 In the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a
transmission loss of ……. dB/km are used.
 Optical Fiber supports wide ………….
 A hair-thin fiber consists of two concentric layers known as……………..
 The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a ….. refractive
index.
 The refractive index of cladding is slightly …………. than core.
 The propagation of light through fiber is based on principle of ……………

 The step index fiber has a core with …….. index throughout.
 Loose-tube cable is used in the majority of …………. Installations.
 ………. can be defined as a remittable means of arranging transfer of optical
energy from one fiber optic component to another in an optical fiber system.
 Bandwidth is a length dependent (True/False)
1.19 References and Suggested Further Readings

 Understanding optical communication by Dutton
 www.timbercon.com
 http://www.ofsoptics.com
 http://www.corning.com
 http://www.fiber-optics.info
 http://www.rp-photonics.com
 http://www.occfiber.com

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Optical Fiber Technology Optical Fiber Communication-an overview

EETP/BSNL Gold Certification course/Ver. 02/Jan’2015 Page 1 of 34

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2 FIBER OPTIC APPLICATION 4

3 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 11

4 BASIC OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 12

6 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - THEORY 14

7 FIBRE TYPES – SINGLE MODE AND MULTI-MODE 16

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1 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION-AN OVERVIEW

1 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION-AN OVERVIEW

1.3 FIBER-OPTIC APPLICATIONS

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

1.5 BASIC OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

1.6 GEOMETRY OF FIBER

1.7 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - THEORY

1.8 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

1.9 FIBRE TYPES – SINGLE MODE AND MULTI-MODE

1.10 CABLE CONSTRUCTION

1.11 TYPES OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE (MOST POPULAR FIBER OPTIC

1.12 ITU-T COMPLIANT FIBERS

1.13 CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER

1.14 FDF (FIBER DISTRIBUTION FRAME)

1.15 FDMS (FIBER DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT)

1.17 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

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An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or

1.3 Fiber-Optic Applications

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1.3.1.1 Fiber Optic Interconnects

1.3.1.2 Fiber Optic Networking

1.3.1.3 Gigabit Ethernet

1.3.1.4 Data Transfer Tests

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1.3.1.5 Fiber Optics for Data Storage Equipment

1.3.1.6 Premise Networks

1.3.1.7 Carrier Networks

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residential, business, or institutional level. Commonly referred to as the 'backbone', these

The large majority of the carrier network infrastructure is built on a bundled,

1.3.1.8 Outside Plant

Most outside plant applications require cabling, enclosures, optical nodes, or

1.3.1.9 Broadcast Fiber Optics

With the increasing demand for HDTV programming, broadcasters are

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1.3.1.10 Fiber Optics for Sensing

Fiber optic sensing is a key component to improving industrial processes, quality

Originating with HD camera and video capture/processing equipment, television

1.3.1.13 CATV Fiber Optics

1.3.1.14 Data Transmission Fiber Optics

EETP/BSNL Gold Certification course/Ver. 02/Jan’2015 Page 8 of 34

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For smaller, localized data transmission applications, a multitude of products are

In larger data transmission applications, data transmission can be multimode,