UNIT II FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

II. FLOW THROUG CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Laminar flow though circular conduits and circular annuli. Boundary layer concepts. Boundary layer
thickness. Hydraulic and energy gradient. Darcy Weisbach equaition. Friction factor and Moody
diagram. Commercial pipes. Minor losses. Flow though pipes in series and in parallel.

General Concepts
The real behaviour of fluids flowing is well described by an experiment carried out by Reynolds in
1883. He set up the following apparatus:

The discharge is controlled by the valve and the small filament of dye (practically astreamline)
indicates the behaviour of the flow. By changing the flow Reynolds noticed:
At low flows/velocities the filament remained intact and almost straight. This type of flow is known
as laminar flow, and the experiment looks like this:

At higher flows the filament began to oscillate. This is called transitional flow and the experiment
looks like:

Lastly, for even higher flows again, the filament is found to break up completely and gets diffused over
the full cross-section. This is known as turbulent flow:

Reynolds experimented with different fluids, pipes and velocities. Eventually he

found that the following expression predicted which type of flow was found:

In which Re is called the Reynolds Number; is the fluid density; v is the averagevelocity; l is the
characteristic length of the system (just the diameter for pipes), and; is the fluid viscosity. The
Reynolds Number is a ration of forces and hence has nounits.
Flows in pipes normally conform to the following:
Re < 2000: gives laminar flow;
2000 < Re < 4000: transitional flow;
Re > 4000: turbulent flow.
These values are only a rough guide however. Laminar flows have been found at
Reynolds Numbers far beyond even 4000.
For example, if we consider a garden hose of 15 mm diameter then the limiting average velocity
for laminar flow is:

This is a very low flow and hence we can see that in most applications we deal with turbulent flow. The
velocity below which there is no turbulence is called the critical velocity.
Characteristics of Flow Types
For laminar flow:
Re < 2000;
low velocity;
Dye does not mix with water;
Fluid particles move in straight lines;
Simple mathematical analysis possible;
Rare in practical water systems.
Transitional flow
2000 < Re < 4000
medium velocity
Filament oscillates and mixes slightly.
Turbulent flow
Re > 4000;
high velocity;
Dye mixes rapidly and completely;
Particle paths completely irregular;
Average motion is in the direction of the flow;
Mathematical analysis very difficult - experimental measures are used;
Most common type of flow.
Background to Pipe Flow Theory
To explain the various pipe flow theories we will follow the historical development
of the subject:
Laminar Flow
Steady Uniform Flow in a Pipe: Momentum Equation
The development that follows forms the basis of the flow theories applied to laminar flows. We
remember from before that at the boundary of the pipe, the fluid velocity is zero, and the maximum
velocity occurs at the centre of the pipe. This is because of the effect of viscosity. Therefore, at a given
radius from the centre of the pipe the velocity is the same and so we consider an elemental annulus of
fluid:
FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPE:
For the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe, the velocity distribution across a section, the
ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity, the shear stress distribution and drop of pressure for a
given length is to be determined. The flow through circular pipe will be viscous or laminar, if the
Reynolds number is less than 2000. The expression for Reynolds number is given by
vd
Re

Where = Density of fluid flowing through pipe,

V = Average velocity of fluid,
D = Diameter of pipe and,
= Viscosity of fluid

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The viscous fluid is flowing from left to right in the pipe as
shown in figure. Consider a fluid element of radius r, sliding in a cylindrical fluid element of radius
(r+dr). Let the length of fluid element be x. If p is the intensity of pressure on the face AB, then the
p
intensity of pressure on the face CD will be p x . The the forces acting on the fluid element
x
are:
1. The pressure force, p x r 2 on face AB
p
2. The pressure force p x . r 2 on face CD
x
3. The shear force, 2rx on the surface of fluid element. As there is no acceleration, hence the
summation of all forces in the direction of flow must be zero.

p
p r 2 - p x . r 2 - 2rx =0
x
p
xr 2 - 2rx =0
x

p
r 2 0
x
 p r
-------------------(1)
x 2
The shear stress across a section varies with r as p across a section is constant. Hence shear
x
stress across a section is linear as shown in figure.

(i) Velocity Distribution: To obtain the velocity distribution across a section, the value of shear
u
stress y is substituted in equation (1)

u
But in the relation y , y is measured from the pipe wall. Hence
y=Rr and dy = - dr
u du

r dr
Substituting this value in equation (1)
du p r

dr x 2
du 1 p
r
dr 2 x
Integrating the equation w.r.t r we get
1 p 2
u r C ------------- (2)
4 x
Where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary condition that at
r=R, u=0
1 p 2
0 R C
4 x
1 p 2
C r
4 x
Substituting this value of C in equation (2), we get

1 p 2 1 p 2
u r R
4 x 4 x
u
1 p
4 x

R 2 r 2 ----------------------- (3)

p
In equation (3) values of , and r are constant, which means the velocity u, varies with the
x
square of r. Thus the equation (3) is a equation of parabola. This shows that the velocity distribution
across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity distribution is shown in fig.

(ii) Ratio of Maximum velocity to average velocity:

The velocity is maximum, when r =0 in equation (3). Thus maximum velocity, Umax is obtained as
1 p 2
U max R ------------------- (4)
4 x
The average velocity, u , is obtained by dividing the discharge of the fluid across the section by the
area of the pipe R 2 . The discharge (Q) across the section is obtained by considering the through a
ring element of radius r and thickness the as shown in fig (b). The fluid flowing per second through the
elementary ring
dQ= velocity at a radius r x area of ring element
=u x 2rdr
= 4 x R r 2rdr
1 p 2 2
 R

Q= o
R
dQ
1 p
4 x

R 2 r 2 2rdr
0
R
1 p
=
4 x
2 2

2 R r rdr
0
R
1 p
=
4 x
2 3

2 R r r dr
0

1 p R 2r 2 r4
= 2
4 x 2 4
1 p R 4 R4
= 2
4 x 2 4
1 p R 4 p
2R
4
= 2 =
4 x 4 8 x

p 4
Q R
Average velocity, u = 8 x
Area
R 2
1 p 2
u= R --------------- (5)
8 x
Dividing equation (4) by equation (5)

1 p 2
R
U max 4 x
2.0
u 1 p 2
R
8 x
Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity = 2.0
(iii) Drop of pressure for a given length (L) of a pipe:
From equation (5), we have

1 p 2 p 8 u
u = R or
8 x x R
2

Integrating the above equation w.r.t . x, we get

1 1
8 u
dp 2
dx
2 2 R

p1 p 2 82u x 1 x 1
R
p1 p 2 8 u
2 x 2 x1
R
8 u
L { x2- x1 = L from equation (3)}
R2
8 uL D

2
D
2 {R=
2
}

p1 p 2
32 uL
, Where p1 p2 is the drop of pressure
D2
p1 p 2
Loss of pressure head =
g
 p1 p 2 32 uL
= hf --------------------- (6)
g gD 2
Equation (6) is called Hagen Poiseuille Formula.

BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW:

When a real fluid flow past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles adhere to the boundary
and condition of no slip occurs. This means that the velocity of fluid close to the boundary will be same
as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationary, the velocity of fluid at the boundary will be zero.
Farther away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher and as a result of this variation of velocity,
du
the velocity gradient dy will exit. The velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity on the stationary
boundary to free stream velocity (U) of the fluid in the direction normal to the boundary. This variation
of velocity from zero to free stream velocity in the direction normal to the boundary takes place in a
narrow region in the vicinity of solid boundary. This narrow region of the fluid is called boundary layer.
The theory dealing with boundary layer flows is called boundary layer theory.
According to boundary layer theory, the flow of fluid in the neighborhood of the solid boundary may
be divided into two regions as shown in figure.
1. A very thin layer of the fluid, called the boundary layer, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
solid boundary, where the variation of velocity from zero at the solid boundary to free stream velocity
du
in the direction normal to the boundary takes place. In this region, the velocity gradient exists and
dt
hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction of motion. The value of shear stress is
given by
du

dy
2. The remaining fluid, which is outside the boundary layer. The velocity outside the boundary layer is
constant and equal to free-stream velocity. As there is no variation of velocity in this region,
du
the velocity gradient becomes zero. As a result of this shear stress is zero.
dt
Laminar Boundary Layer: For defining the boundary layer (i.e., laminar boundary layer or
turbulent boundary layer) consider the flow of a fluid, having a free-stream velocity (U), over a smooth
thin plate which is flat and parallel to the direction for free stream of fluid as shown in figure. Let us
consider the flow with zero pressure gradient on one side of the plate, which is stationary.
The velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate should be equal to the velocity of the plate. But plate
is stationary and hence velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate is zero. But at a distance away from
the plate, the fluid is having certain velocity. Thus a velocity gradient is set up in the fluid near the
surface of the plate. This velocity gradient develops shear resistance, which retards the fluid. Thus the
fluid with a uniform free stream velocity (U) is retarded in the vicinity of the solid surface of the plate
and the boundary layer region begins at the sharp leading edge. At subsequent points downstream the
leading edge, the boundary layer region increases because the retarded fluid is further retarded. This is
also referred as the growth of boundary layer. Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where
the thickness is small, the flow in the boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent. This
layer of fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer. This is shown by AE in figure. The length of the
plate from the leading edge, upto which laminar boundary layer exists, is called laminar zone. This is
shown by distance AB. The distance of B from leading edge is obtained from Reynolds number equal
to 5 x 105 for a plate. Because upto this Reynolds number the boundary layer is laminar.
Ux
The Reynolds number is given by R e x

Where x= Distance from leading edge
U= Free-stream velocity of fluid
= Kinematic viscosity of fluid
Ux
Hence, for laminar boundary layer, we have 5 10 5 ------------- (1)

 If the values of U and are known, x or the distance from the leading edge upto which laminar
boundary layer exists can be calculated
Turbulent Boundary Layer: If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, calculated from
equation (1), the thickness of boundary layer will go on increasing in the down-stream direction. Then
the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid within it, is disturbed and irregular
which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. This short length over which the
boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called transition zone. This is shown by
distance BC in figure. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and
continuous to grow in thickness. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary layer, which is
shown by the portion FG in figure.
3. Laminar Sub-layer: This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer boundary layer zone,
adjacent to the solid surface of the plate as shown in figure. In this zone, the velocity variation is
influenced only by viscous effects. Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the
laminar sub-layer zone, but in view of the very small thickness we can reasonably assume that velocity
variation is linear and so the velocity gradient can be considered constant. Therefore, the shear stress in
the laminar sub-layer would be constant and equal to the boundary shear stress 0 . Thus the shear
stress in the sub-layer is

u u u u
0 { For linear variation, }
y y 0 y y y

Boundary Layer Thickness( ): It is defined as the distance from boundary of the solid body
measured in y-direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99
times the free stream (U) velocity of the fluid. It is denoted by the symbol . For laminar and
turbulent zone it is denoted as:
1. lam= Thickness of laminar boundary layer,
2. tur=Thickness of turbulent boundary layer, and
3. = Thickness of laminar sub-layer.
Displacement thickness ( *):It is defined as the distance, perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on
account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by the symbol *. It is also defined as:
The distance, perpendicular to the boundary, by which the free stream is displaced due to the
formation of boundary layer.

u
* 0 1 dy
U
Momentum thickness ():It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum
of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by the symbol .
u u
0 1 dy
U U
Energy thickness ( **):It is defined as the distance, perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of
the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by the symbol **.
u u2
** 0 1 dy
U U2

Expression for loss of head due to Friction in pipes (Darcy weisbachs Equation):

4.f LV 2 4f .L.V 2
hf
2g d d 2g
The above equation is known as Darcy- weisbachs equation. This is commonly used for finding loss
of head due to friction in pipes.
 f .L.V 2
hf
Equation (5) is written as d 2g
Then f is known as friction factor.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE:
This concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in the study of flow of
fluids through pipes. They are defined as
1.Hydraulic Gradient Line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and
datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is
obtained by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head (p/w) of a flowing fluid
in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as H.G.L (Hydraulic Gradient Line).
2.Total Energy Line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and
kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the line
which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of pressure head and
kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as T.E.L (Total Energy Line)

DARCY WEISBACH EQUATION (Derivation refer class notes)

Moody diagram for friction factor:

Minor losses: (Derivation and formulas refer class notes)

Sudden enlargement
Sudden contraction
Sudden obstruction
Entrance in pipe
Exit in pipe
Losses by bend
Losses by using fittings

FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES OR FLOW THROUGH COMPOUND PIPES:

2 2 2
4fL 1 V1 + 4fL 2 V2 + 4fL 3 V3
H
d 1 2g d 2 2g d 3 2g
4f L 1 V1
2 2 2
L V L V
= 2 2 3 3
2g d 1 d2 d3

FLOW THROUGH PARALLEL PIPES:

 Loss of head for branch pipe 1= Loss of head for branch pipe 2
2 2
4f 1 L 1 V1 4f 2 L 2 V2
or =
d 1 2g d 2 2g
2 2
L 1 V1 L 2 V2
If f1=f2, then =
d 1 2g d 2 2g

UNIT II FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

1. Laminar flow though circular conduits and circular annuli. (Refer class notes)
HAGEN POISEUILLE EQUATION ( Derivation refer class notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 534 to 546, Example: 10.1 to 10.14)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 391 to 396, Example: 9.1 to 9.6)
Boundary layer concepts (Theory)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 716 and 717)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 611 to 613)
Boundary layer thickness.
Boundary layer thickness (Derivation Refer Class Notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 720 to729, Example: 13.1 to 13.9)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 616 to 618, Problem: 13.1 and 13.2)
Drag force on a flat plate by momentum equation
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 729 to762, Example: 13.10 to 13.28)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 619 to 648, Problem: 13.3 and 13.17)
Hydraulic and energy gradient
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 648 to 658, Example: 12.16 to 12.21)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 491 to 498, Problem: 11.22 to 11.26)
Darcy Weisbach equation and chezys eqn. (Derivation Refer Class Notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 630 to 633, Example: 12.1 to 12.4)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 467 to 471, Problem: 11.1 to 11.7)
Friction factor and Moody diagram. (Notes)
Minor losses (Derivation refer class notes)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 636 to 648, Example: 12.8 to 12.15)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 471 to 491, Problem: 11.8 to 11.21)
Flow though pipes in series
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 659 to 665, Example: 12.22 to 12.26)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 502 to 508, Problem: 11.30 to 11.31)
Flow though pipes in parallel.
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 665 to 684, Example: 12.27 to 12.39)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 508 to 524, Problem: 11.32 to 11.41)
Flow though branched pipes.
(A Text book of fluid mechanics by R.K.Rajput Page no: 684 to 687, Example: 12.40 to 12.42)
(A Text book of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines by Dr.R.K.Bansal Page no: 524 to 530, Problem: 11.42 to 11.44)

COMPILED BY,
R.BOOPATHI,
AP/MECH