Unit - III Eia

Unit 3: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
STRUCTURE
Overview Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction to EIA
3.1.1 Purposes of EIA 3.1.2 Steps in EIA process 3.1.3 Hierarchy in EIA 3.1.4 Environmental
impact statement (EIS) 3.1.5 Impact indicators
3.2 Evolution of EIA
3.2.1 Evolution of EIA worldwide 3.2.2 Evolution of EIA in India
3.3 Forecasting Environmental Changes
3.4 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)
3.4.1 Rationale and scope 3.4.2 Overview of SEA process 3.4.3 Benefits and constraints
3.5 Environmental Clearance Procedure in India Summary Suggested Readings Model Answers
to Learning Activities
OVERVIEW
In Unit 1, we introduced you to some of the environmental management tools. One such tool we
mentioned in that context was environmental impact assessment (EIA). In the present Unit, i.e.,
Unit 3, we will discuss EIA in detail. We will begin the Unit by explaining what EIA entails. We
will then give you an account of EIA evolution in the world over. We will also discuss how EIA
can be used to predict environmental changes and introduce strategic environmental assessment
(SEA). We will close the Unit by listing some of the environmental clearance procedures in
practice in India.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this Unit, you should be able to:
discuss environmental impact assessment (EIA) as an environmental management tool;

trace the evolution of EIA;
discuss what forecasting of environmental changes entails;
explain strategic environmental assessment (SEA);
list and comply with the environmental clearance procedures in India;
plan and carry out an environmental impact assessment study.
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO EIA
Environment assessment involves a study to determine any unique environmental attributes from
endangered species to existing hazardous waste to historical significance. Environment
Assessment procedure ensures consideration of environmental implications before making a final
decision of assessing the environmental attribute. Process of assessment analyses the effects on
environment and is useful for reporting those effects undertaking a public consultation exercise
and lastly it reveals decision to public after reviewing the comment of the report. One of the
main strengths of environmental assessment (EA) is its flexibility. Project planning processes
can integrate EA as essential step giving sensitivity to the social and economic as well as
environmental impacts of projects. In this way project managers can compensate shortcomings in
the project planning process.
For example, a project which failed to adequately consult the community at the outset can take
advantage of the Environment Assessment to involve the community in a necessary exchange of
ideas and views. The EA can help establish and strengthen decision-making and communication
mechanisms within a project. It can also pave the way for introducing innovations. An EA may
reveal sound environmental, social or economic reasons for shifting a project's direction. In view
of the primacy accorded the opinions and aspirations of local people, the EA process may also
function as a project control mechanism. While the EA should not be expected to correct all the
weaknesses of a flawed planning process, when properly designed and executed, it can be a
valuable tool for project implementation. When the role of the EA is more restricted, the
situation can work in reverse. Other project planning activities can be used to gather necessary
information for the EA and to create support for the EA process. Each project manager must
decide how much importance to accord each planning.
Duration for EA will hinge on [http://www.gdrc.org/uem/e-mgmt/2.html]:
The size and complexity of the proposed project.

The extent of co-operation received from the project sponsor and third parties such as
local government.
The level of interest and support demonstrated by the community.
The ability of the project team to sustain interest in the EA.
The skills of the EA team.
The EA techniques employed.
In principle, environmental assessment can be undertaken for Individual projects such as a dam,
motorway, airport or factory and call it as 'Environmental Impact Assessment' (EIA). Plans,
programs and policies and call it as 'Strategic Environmental Assessment'(SEA).
These two sections are discussed in detail in the further sections
In recent years, there has been a remarkable growth of interest in environmental issues,
sustainability and the better management of development in harmony with the environment.
Associated with this growth of interest has been the introduction of new legislation, emanating
from national and international agencies (e.g., the European Commission) that seek to influence
the relationship between development and environment. Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
is an important example. It is defined as an activity designed to identify and predict the impact of
legislative proposals, policies, programmes, projects and operational procedures on the bio-
geophysical environment and on the health and well being of human beings and to interpret and
communicate information about the impact.
That is to say, EIA focuses on problems, conflicts or natural resource constraints that could
affect the viability of a project. It also examines implications of a project that might harm people,
their homeland or their livelihoods, or other nearby developments. After predicting the problems,
a EIA identifies measures to minimise the problems and outlines ways to improve the projects
suitability for its proposed environment. In the last three decades,
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EIA has been recognised as the most valuable, inter-disciplinary and objective decision-making
tool with respect to alternate routes for development, process technologies and project sites. It is
considered an ideal anticipatory mechanism allowing measures that ensure environmental
compatibility in our quest for socio-economic development.
EIA is generally wider in scope and less quantitative than other techniques, such as cost-benefit
analysis. EIA has the potential to be a basis for negotiation among the developers, public interest
groups and planning regulators.
The Benefits of Environmental Assessment
Most governments and donor agencies acknowledge the contribution of EA to improved project
design. The weakness of EA in the past has been largely due to poor techniques and the failure to
pay attention to findings at the implementation stage (ESSA Technologies 1994). A review of
current environmental practices found the major benefits of the EA process for project sponsors
to be (ESSA Technologies 1994: 16): Reduced cost and time of project implementation. Cost-
saving modifications in project design. Increased project acceptance. Avoided impacts and
violations of laws and regulations. Improved project performance. Avoided treatment/clean up
costs.
The benefits to local communities from taking part in environmental assessments include: A
healthier local environment (forests, water sources, agricultural potential, recreational potential,
aesthetic values, and clean living in urban areas).
Environment Management
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Improved human health. Maintenance of biodiversity. Decreased resource use. Fewer conflicts
over natural resource use. Increased community skills, knowledge and pride.
Principle of EIA
It is important to recognise that there is a general principle of assessment that applies to EIA, and
to other assessment processes. There are several other processes that relate closely to the review
of environmental impacts that may result from a proposed project. The following are well
recognised processes: Social Impact Assessment Risk Assessment Life Cycle Analysis Energy
Analysis Health Impact Assessment Regulatory Impact Assessment Species Impact Assessment
Technology Assessment Economic Assessment Cumulative Impact Assessment Strategic
Environmental Assessment Integrated Impact Assessment
Some, like Energy Analysis, focus on a particular part of the environment. Others, like Life
Cycle Analysis, enable the consideration of all those parts of the environment that are relevant to
the assessment. Also, depending on how the terms, like health, are defined for the study you may
find that it is covering most of the issues that would be found in an EIA. For example a
Technology Assessment does include
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review of the impacts on ecosystems, air quality and the like. Similarly, if the definition of
environmental is taken broadly for an EIA, then the EIA may cover the issues of the other
assessment processes; for example: Social aspects (such as impacts on employment, community
interaction); Risks (such as threats to native animals, water supplies); Life cycle (such as the
impacts at each stage of the project design through to operation and closure); and Energy (such
as use of non-renewable energy sources, Greenhouse gas emissions), etc
So there is the potential for a lot of connections between the different forms of assessment. The
essential difference between them is how the terms, or scope of assessment, are defined
narrowly, or broadly. Otherwise they all follow the same general principle.
With all the assessment approaches noted above, they are designed to identify potential impacts
of a development, action or project. To do this the assessor needs to use personal experience and
the experiences of others (including available knowledge) to think broadly about the changes that
are possible, and whether those impacts will be positive or negative.
Particular approaches emphasis specific types of impacts (i.e. on health, on social groups). All
have basically the same approach, although each may have its own individual language and
detailed techniques.
Most of the assessment processes also include a second step. After identifying the impacts, they
also consider what may be needed to avoid or reduce adverse impacts.
3.1.1 Purposes of EIA
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EIA is a process with several important purposes, which can be categorised as follows:
To facilitate decision-making: For the decision-maker, for example the local authority, it
provides a systematic examination of the environmental implications of a proposed action, and
sometimes alternatives, before a decision is taken. The decision-maker along with other
documentation relating to the planned activity can consider the environment impact statement
(EIS). To aid in the formation of development: Many developers see EIA as another set of
hurdles for them to cross in order to proceed with their various activities. They may also see the
process involved in obtaining the permission from various authorities as costly and time-
consuming. In reality, however, EIA can be of great benefit to them, since it can provide a
framework for considering location and design issues and environmental issues in parallel. It can
be an aid to the formulation of developmental actions, indicating areas where the project can be
modified to minimise or eliminate altogether the adverse impacts on the environment. The
consideration of environmental impacts early in the planning life of a development can lead to
environmentally sensitive development; to improved relations between the developer, the
planning authority and the local communities; to a smoother planning permission process and
sometimes to a worthwhile financial return on the expenditure incurred. To be an instrument for
sustainable development: The key characteristics of sustainable development include
maintaining the overall quality of life, maintaining continuing access to natural resources and
avoiding lasting environmental damage. Institutional responses to sustainable development are,
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therefore, required at several levels. For example, issues of global concern, such as ozone-layer
depletion, climate change, deforestation and biodiversity loss, require a global political
commitment to action. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was an example of international concern and also of the
problems of securing concerted action to deal with such issues. Governments have recognised
the interaction of economic and social development and the ecosystems, and the reciprocal
impact between human actions and the bio-geophysical world. While there are attempts to
manage this interaction better, investigation reveal disquieting trends that could have devastating
consequences for the quality of the environment. These trends are likely to be more pronounced
in developing countries where, because of greater rates of population growth and lower current
living standards, there is more pressure on environmental resources.
In short, an interaction among the resources, sectors and policies is necessary for sustainable
development as illustrated in Figure 3.1 below, and EIA contributes to this process:
Figure 3.1
Sustainable Development: An Illustration
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3.1.2 Steps in EIA process
EIA represents a systematic process that examines the environmental consequences of the
development actions, in advance. The emphasis of a EIA is on prevention and, therefore, is more
proactive than reactive in nature. The EIA process involves a number of steps, some of which are
listed below:
Project screening: This entails the application of EIA to those projects that may have significant
environmental impacts. It is quite likely, however, that screening is done partly by the EIA
regulations, operating in a country at the time of assessment. Scoping: This step seeks to identify,
at an early stage, the key, significant environmental issues from among a host of possible
impacts of a project and all the available alternatives.
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Consideration of alternatives: This seeks to ensure that the proponent has considered other
feasible approaches, including alternative project locations, scales, processes, layouts, operating
condition and the no-action option. Description of the project/development action: This step
seeks to clarify the purpose and rationale of the project and understand its various characteristics,
including the stages of development, location and processes. Description of the environmental
baseline: This includes the establishment of both the present and future state of the environment,
in the absence of the project, taking into account the changes resulting from natural events and
from other human activities. Identification of key impacts: This brings together the previous
steps with a view to ensuring that all potentially significant environmental impacts (adverse and
beneficial) are identified and taken into account in the process. The prediction of impacts: This
step aims to identify the likely magnitude of the change (i.e., impact) in the environment when
the project is implemented in comparison with the situation when the project is not carried out.
Evaluation and assessment of significance: This seeks to assess the relative significance of the
predicted impacts to allow a focus on key adverse impacts. Formal definition of significance is
the product of consequence and likelihood as
Significance =consequence X Likelihood Mitigation: This involves the introduction of measures
to avoid, reduce, remedy or compensate for any significant adverse impacts. Public consultation
and participation: This aims to assure the quality, comprehensiveness and effectiveness of the
EIA,
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as well as to ensure that the publics views are adequately taken into consideration in the
decision-making process. EIS presentation: This is a vital step in the process. If done badly,
much good work in the EIA may be negated. Review: This involves a systematic appraisal of the
quality of the EIS, as a contribution to the decision-making process. Decision-making: At this
stage, decisions are made by the relevant authority of the EIS (including consultation responses)
together with other material considerations as to whether to accept, defer or reject the project.
Post-decision monitoring: This involves the recording of outcomes associated with development
impacts, after the decision to proceed with the project. It can contribute to effective project
management. Auditing: This follows monitoring and involves comparing actual outcomes with
predicted outcomes, and can be used to assess the quality of predictions and the effectiveness of
mitigation. It provides a vital step in the EIA learning process.
Figure 3.2 illustrates the steps involved in the EIA process:
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Figure 3.2
Steps in a EIA Process
Note that the actual EIA process is not so linear and sequential as Figure 3.2 seems to suggest. In
other words, it is a cyclical process involving feedback and interaction among the various steps
and the sequence of the steps may also vary. Note also that we will discuss the steps involved in
detail in Unit 4.
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3.1.3 Hierarchy in EIA
The EIA studies are broadly categorised as:
(i) Site selection studies: These studies involve an evaluation of the alternative sites with respect
to environmental and project attributes such as proximity to raw materials, infrastructure
facilities, markets, etc. These studies aim at ranking site alternatives for objective decision-
making.
(ii) Rapid or comprehensive studies: Rapid studies refer to the assessment based on a one-season
monitoring (i.e., 3-month period), whereas comprehensive studies relate to the assessment based
on a three-seasons monitoring (i.e., 9- month period) of baseline data. Rapid EIA facilitates
LEARNING ACTIVITY 3.1
Define the EIA process.
Note:
a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
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decision-making in situations where a fair amount of knowledge exists about the proposed site or
the impacts of the proposed development. It also helps in identifying significant issues for
comprehensive EIA. Essentially, rapid and comprehensive studies differ with respect to
timeframes required for baseline data collection.
(iii) Regional studies: These relate to the development in/of a region based on seasonal data
collection and address themselves to the analysis of assimilative capacity of air, water and land
components of the environment.
(iv) Carrying capacity studies: The scope of a carrying capacity study is extended to the analysis
of supportive capacity in the region with respect to resource availability/ utilisation,
supply/demand, infrastructure/congestion and assimilative capacity/residuals. Carrying capacity
has been discussed in detail in Unit 9.
In the last two decades, national governments and also financial institutions have realised that
EIA has to be an integral part of the project life cycle: from project conceptualisation to post
implementation corrective action. Figure 3.3 illustrates this cycle:
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Figure 3.3
EIA Cycle
A EIA exercise culminates in an environmental impact statement (EIS), which we will study,
next.
3.1.4 Environmental impact statement (EIS)
The environmental impact statement (EIS) provides documentation of the information and
estimates derived from the various steps in the EIA process. The information contained in a
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EIS provides the decision-makers/regulators with valuable information that could ultimately
contribute to either the abandonment or substantial modification of a proposed development
action. A typical EIS contains the following three parts:
Part 1 V Methods and key issues: This part deals with the statement of methods used and a
summary of key issues. Part 2 V Background to the proposed development: This part deals with
preliminary studies (i.e., need, planning, alternatives, site selection, etc.), site
description/baseline conditions, description of proposed development and construction activities
and programmes. Part 3 V Environmental impact assessments on topic areas: This part deals
with land use, landscape and visual quality, geology, topography and soils, hydrology and water
quality, air quality and climate, terrestrial and aquatic ecology, noise, transport, socio-economic
and interrelationships between effects.
Write 3 ways in which EIA will help in Business Management.
Note:
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3.1.5 Impact indicators
An impact indicator is an element or a parameter that provides a measure (in at least some
qualitative sense) of the significance of the effect, i.e., the magnitude of an environmental
impact. Some indicators such as morbidity and mortality statistics and crop yields have
associated numerical scales. Other impact indicators, however, can only be ranked as good,
better, best or acceptable, unacceptable, etc. The selection of a set of indicators is
often a crucial step in the impact assessment process, requiring input from the decision-maker. In
the absence of relevant goals or policies, the assessor himself or herself may suggest some
indicators and scales, but he or she should not proceed with the assessment until his or her
proposals are accepted.
The most widely used impact indicators are those within statutory laws, acts, i.e., indicators such
as air and water quality standards that have statutory authority. For example, the problem of
designing an environmentally acceptable oil-fired generating station is simplified for the
engineers, if they are given one or both of the following:
Emission standards for various pollutants. Air and water quality standards.
These standards integrate the worth that a jurisdiction places on clean air and clear water. The
numerical values that have been derived from examination of the available toxicological matter
are data relating polluting dosages to health and vegetation effects, combined with a
consideration of the best practical technology. Factors such as the displacement of arable land by
industry are
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also equally important. A EIA that ignores these other components is incomplete and sometimes
misleading (Munn, 1979).
3.2 EVOLUTION OF EIA
To understand the use of EIA as a tool for environmental management, let us discuss how EIA
has evolved over the years.
3.2.1 Evolution of EIA worldwide
United States of America was the first country to assign mandatory status to EIA through its
National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) of 1969. A host of industrialised countries have
since implemented EIA procedures. Canada, Australia, the Netherlands and Japan adopted EIA
legislation in 1973, 1974, 1981 and 1984, respectively. In July 1985, the European Community
(EC) issued a directive making environmental assessments mandatory for certain categories of
projects (Wood, 1994).
Among the developing countries, Columbia was the first Latin American country to institute a
system of EIA in 1974. In Asia and the Pacific region, Thailand and the Philippines have long
established procedures for EIA. EIA was made mandatory in Sri Lanka in 1984. The EIA
process in Africa is sketchy, although a number of nations including Rwanda, Botswana and
Sudan have some experience of EIA (Wathern, 1988).
Bilateral and multilateral agencies have also recognised the value of EIA as a decision-making
tool. The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) issued
recommendations on EIA to its constituent States in 1974 and 1979, and for
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development aid projects in 1986. OECD issued guidelines for good practices in EIA in 1992
(OECD, 1992). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1980 provided guidance on
EIA of the development proposals (UNEP, 1980) and supported research on EIA in developing
countries (Ahmad and Swamy, 1985). UNEP, in 1987, set out goals and principles of EIA for the
member countries and provided guidance on basic procedures for EIA in 1988.
The World Conservation Strategy pinpointed the need to integrate environmental considerations
with development in 1980 (IUCN, 1980). EIA became an integral part of World Bank policy in
1987 which states that environmental issues must be addressed as part of overall economic
policy. In 1989, the World Bank issued the Operational Directive on Environmental Assessment
(O.D. 4.00), which was revised and updated in October 1991 (O.D. 4.01). Asian Development
Bank in 1990 published guidelines for EIA (ADB, 1990). Importance of EIA was echoed in the
Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987), and at United Nations Earth Summit on environment and
development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (UNCED, 1992). As foreseen by Garner and
O'Riodan (1982) development of EIA, as a tool for decision-making world-over, has emerged
through the following stages:
No formal accounting, decisions made on interest group lobbying and engineering feasibility;
primary emphasis on economic development. Conventional cost-benefit analysis; emphasis on
efficiency criterion and engineering feasibility; major concern still on economic development.
Innovative cost-benefit analysis, use of multiple objectives and discount rates, imaginative proxy
pricing mechanisms; economic development as one of the objectives.
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EIA mainly concerned with describing the repercussions of the proposals on bio-physical
processes; economic development still primary objective. EIA with more attention paid to socio-
cultural as well as bio- physical systems, economic development but not the sole objective.
The summary of evolution of EIA in various countries is presented in Table 3.1 below:
Table 3.1
Evolution of EIA Worldwide
Australia
Environmental Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974, Commonwealth of Australia
Bangladesh
No specific EIA legislation, however there was a Declaration that Environmental Impact
Assessments should be carried out for all major development projects, 1995
China
Environmental Protection Law, 1979
USA (California)
California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) of 1971
Canada
Federal Environmental Assessment and Review Process Guidelines Order 1984, Canada
France
Law on Protection de la Nature, 1978
India
Notifications dated May 5, 1994 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986
Japan
Principles for Implementing EIA by Environmental Agency, 1984
Malaysia
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activity) (EIA) Order, 1987
New Zealand
Resource Management Act 1991, New Zealand
Philippines
Presidential Decree (PD) 1151 Philippines Environment Policy, 1975
PD 1586 Establishing the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), 1978 Rules and Regulations to
Implement the EIS System, 1987
Sri Lanka
National Environmental Act 1980, amended in 1986
Thailand
Improvement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act 1975, amended in 1978
The Netherlands
EIA Policy, 1986
United States
US Environmental Policy Act, 1969
Vietnam
Environmental Protection Law, 1994
Western Australia
Environmental Protection Act 1986
West Germany
Cabinet Resolution, 1975
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Let us now work out Learning Activity 3.3.
3.2.2 Evolution of EIA in India
EIA in India was started in 1976-77, when the Planning Commission asked the then Department
of Science and Technology to examine the river-valley projects from the environmental angle.
This was subsequently extended to cover those projects, which required approval of the Public
Investment Board. These were administrative decisions, and lacked the legislative support. The
Government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act on 23rd May 1986. To achieve
the objectives of the Act, one of the decisions taken was to make EIA statutory. After following
the legal procedure, a notification was issued on 27th January 1994 and subsequently amended
on 4th May 1994, 10th April 1997 and 27th January 2000 making environmental impact
assessment statutory for 30 activities. This is the principal piece of legislation governing EIA in
India. Besides this, the Government of India under Environment (Protection) Act 1986 issued a
number of notifications, which are related to
List 3 Asian countries where law requires EIA and also name the relevant law.
Note:
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environmental impact assessment. These are limited to specific geographical areas, and are
summarised below:
Prohibiting location of industries except those related to Tourism in a belt of 1 km from high tide
mark from the Revdanda Creek up to Devgarh Point (near Shrivardhan) as well as in 1 km belt
along the banks of Rajpuri Creek in Murud Janjira area in the Raigarh district of Maharashtra
(6th January 1989). Restricting location of industries, mining operations and regulating other
activities in Doon Valley (1st February 1989). Regulating activities in the coastal stretches of the
country by classifying them as coastal regulation zone and prohibiting certain activities (19th
February 1991). Restricting location of industries and regulating other activities in Dahanu
Taluka in Maharashtra (6th June 91). Restricting certain activities in specified areas of Aravalli
Range in the Gurgaon district of Haryana and Alwar district of Rajasthan (7th May 1992).
Restricting industrial and other activities, which could lead to pollution and congestion in the
north west of Numaligarh in Assam (July 1996).
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3.3 FORECASTING ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGES
A EIA should be able to, among others, predict the nature and extent of the impact of human
activities on the environment. Table 3.2 gives a list of human-induced environmental changes,
which can be either benign or malignant to the environment:
Table 3.2
Environmental Changes
Medium
Changes and Rates of Change in
Soil
Quality (e.g., depth, structure,
fertility, degree of stalinisation or
acidification, etc.)
Stability
Area of arable land
Air
Quality
The climatic elements
Water
Quantity
Quality
List three major developmental projects in India funded by the World Bank, which required EIA
and the main aspect assessed in each of these projects.
Note:
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Medium
Changes and Rates of Change in
Season ability
Area of human-made lakes
Extent of irrigation canals
Biota
Abundance/scarcity of species or genetic resources
Extent of crops, ecosystems, vegetation and forests
Diversity of species
Extent of provision of nesting grounds,
etc., for migratory species
Abundance/scarcity of pests and disease organisms.
Of importance here are not only estimates of changes in environmental quality but also estimates
of rate of change. A slow change may be acceptable, especially if it leads to a new stability,
whereas rapid change or large fluctuations may place intolerable burdens on ecosystems. Of
equal or perhaps greater importance is the degree of irreversibility of an environmental change,
which will be either absolute, as in the extinction of a species, or partly absolute in that the
situation can only be reversed over long periods of time or with unacceptable expenditures of
money and energy, as in the case of catastrophic erosion.
A typical EIA contains information on the following three areas, as they relate to environmental
effects:
(i) A determination of the initial reference state.
(ii) An estimate of the future state without action.
(iii) An estimate of the future state with action.
We will describe each of these, next.
Establishment of the initial reference state
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An assessment of environmental change pre-supposes knowledge about the present state. It will
be necessary, therefore, to select attributes that may be used to estimate this state. Some of these
will be directly measurable; others will only be capable of being recorded within a series of
defined categories, or ranked in ascending or descending order of approximate magnitude.
Difficult decisions need to be made about the population (i.e., in a statistical sense), which is to
be represented by the measured variables, and the extent to which the sub-division of this
population into geographical regions, ecosystems, etc., is either feasible or necessary. In fact, it
must be emphasised that the establishment of an initial reference state is difficult because not
only are environmental systems dynamic but also they contain cyclical and random components.
Predicting the future state in the absence of action
In order to provide a fair basis for examining the impact of human activities on the environment,
a EIA must estimate the future environmental states in the absence of action. As an example, the
population of a species of animal or fish may already be declining, due to over-grazing or over-
fishing, even before a smelter is built. This part of analysis is largely a scientific problem,
requiring skills drawn from many disciplines. The prediction will often be uncertain but the
degree of uncertainty should be indicated at least in qualitative terms. For example, forecasting
of droughts 2 or 3 years in advance is not yet possible, although the statistical probability that a
drought (of a given severity) will occur sometime in the next hundred years can be estimated
with some confidence. The decision-maker should be aware of the degree of uncertainty, which
surrounds the predicted state of the environment, and have some understanding of the methods
by which this uncertainty is calculated.
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Predicting the future state in the presence of action
For each of the proposed actions, and for admissible combinations of these actions, there will be
an expected state of the environment, which is to be compared with the expected state in the
absence of action. Consequently, predictions similar to those outlined above must be derived for
each of the proposed alternatives.
Table 3.3 presents the main areas of concern that may affect human beings with regard to
forecasting the environmental state in the presence of actions:
List at least 3 adverse impacts associated with a highway, hydro-electric and thermal power
projects.
Note:
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Table 3.3
Areas of Human Concern
Areas of human concern (impact categories)
Economic and
Occupational status
Displacement of population; relocation of population in response to employment opportunities;
services and distribution patterns; property values.
Social pattern or life style
Resettlement; rural depopulation; change in population density; food; housing; material;
agricultural; rural; urban.
Social amenities and relationships
Family life styles; schools; transportation; community feelings; participation vs. alienation;
recreation; language.
Psychological features
Involvement; expectations; stress; frustration;
Commitment.
Physical amenities
(intellectual, cultural,
aesthetic and sensual)
National parks; wildlife; art galleries; archaeological monuments; wilderness; clean air and
water.
Health
Changes in health; medical services; medical standards.
Personal security
Freedom from molestation; freedom from natural disasters.
Regional and traditional
beliefs
Symbols; taboos; values.
Technology
Security; hazards; safety measures; benefits; emission of wastes; congestion; density.
Cultural
Leisure; new values; heritage; traditional and religious rites.
Political
Authority; level and degree of involvement; priorities; structure of decision-making;
responsibility and responsiveness; resource allocation; local and minority interests; defence
needs.
Legal
Restructuring of administrative management; changes in taxes; public policy.
Aesthetic
Visual physical changes; moral conduct; sentimental values.
Statutory laws and acts
Air and water quality standards; safety standards; national building acts; noise-abatement by-
laws.
Note that the nature of impact listed in Table 3.3 is likely to vary from place to place and from
time to time, and there will be overlaps between classes (e.g., health depends in part on economic
and occupational status).
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In this Section, we explained the anthropogenic effect and their impacts in terms of
environmental preservation. However, a specific parameter is necessary to provide a measure of
the significance of an effect.
So far, we dealt with EIA, which is an indispensable tool for environmental engineers and
managers alike. Now, let us introduce you to a new concept called strategic environmental
assessment, which covers policies, plans and programmes at critical stages of development.
3.4 STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT (SEA)
One of the most recent trends in EIA is its application at earlier, more strategic stages of
development at the level of policies, plans and programmes, and is known as strategic
environmental assessment (SEA). SEA is defined as the formalised, systematic

Identify 3 stages in the implementation of a highway project and the environmental concerns at
those stages.
Note:
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and comprehensive process of evaluating the environmental impacts of a policy, plan or
programme (PPP) and its alternatives, including the preparation of a written report on the
findings of that evaluation, and using the findings in publicly accountable decision-making
(Therivel, et al., 1992). In other words, the EIA of policies, plans and programmes, keeping in
mind that the process of evaluating environmental impacts at a strategic level, is not necessarily
the same as that at a project level. In theory, PPPs are tiered V a policy provides a framework
for the establishment of plans, plans provide frameworks for programmes and programmes lead
to projects. The EIAs for these different PPP tiers can themselves be tiered as shown in Figure
3.4.1, and so the issues at higher tiers need not be reconsidered as the lower tiers:
Figure 3.4.1
Tiers in SEAs
125
A hierarchy exists between policies, plans and programs with policies are at the top level of
conceptualization (Figure 3.4.2) and generality; plans are one level down from policies, and
programs. Programs make plans more specific by including a time schedule for specific
activities. Implementation of a program involves carrying out specific projects, which can be
subjected to traditional EIA.
Figure 3.4.2 Policy Plan Program (PPP) and SEA
126
3.4.1 Rationale and scope
In broad terms, the rationale for SEA of policies, plans and programmes falls into three main
categories: strengthening project EIA; advancing the sustainability agenda; and addressing
cumulative and large-scale effects; (Jacobs & Sadler, 1989; Lee & Walsh, 1992; Sadler, 1994;
Sadler & Verheem, 1996) (http://www.nssd.net/pdf/IIEDO2.pdf). Let us discuss these, next.
The EIA practice is constrained by certain limitations and weaknesses. These include structural
weaknesses centred on the relatively late stage at which EIA is usually applied in decision-
making. Put differently, high-order questions of whether, where and what type of development
should take place are decided, often with little or no environmental analysis. Project-by-project
EIA is also an ineffective means of examining these issues. SEA, or an equivalent approach, can
be used as a complement to project-level EIA to incorporate environmental considerations and
alternatives directly into policy, plan and programme design. Thus, when applied systematically
in the upstream part of the decision cycle and to the economic, fiscal and trade policies that guide
the overall course of development, SEA can be a vector for a sustainability approach to planning
and decision-making (Brundtland Commission of WCED, 1987 and Agenda 21 of UNCED,
1992). This upstream approach can also help in making EIA projects more consequential and
reducing the time and effort involved in their preparation. SEA may yield significant other
benefits, as well. For example, by ruling out certain kinds of development at the policy level,
reducing the need for many project-level EIA and thus relieving pressure where institutional
and/or skills capacity is limited.
Arguably, SEA offers a better opportunity than project-level impact assessment to address
cumulative effects. Recently, considerable
127
efforts have been made to extend EIA-based frameworks to encompass certain types of
cumulative effects. These deal reasonably well with the ancillary impacts of large-scale projects
(e.g., dams, transport infrastructure) and the incremental effects of numerous, small-scale actions
of a similar type (e.g., road realignment and improvement). However, more pervasive cumulative
effects and large-scale environmental change (which are the end result of multiple actions and
stresses that cut across policy and ecological boundaries) are difficult to address. In principle,
these can be addressed best by SEA of policies, plans and programmes. In practice, however, this
has not proven to be the case.
What then is the scope of SEA?
Most practitioners view SEA as a decision aiding rather than a decision-making process. In other
words, it is seen as a tool for forward planning to be flexibly applied at various stages of the
policy-making cycle. Under this broad perspective, SEA encompasses assessments of both broad
policy initiatives and more concrete programmes and plans that have physical and spatial
references (e.g., town and regional plans, regional development programmes, etc). With this
scope of coverage, one problem becomes evident, and that is, the methodologies to be applied at
the opposite ends of the decision-making spectrum differ markedly. However, the principles of
EIA apply at all levels.
Table 3.4.1 compares EIA and the evolving processes of SEA.
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Table 3.4.1
Comparison of EIA and SEA
EIA
SEA
Is usually reactive to a development proposal.
Is pro-active and informs development proposals.
Assesses the effect of a proposed development on the environment.
Assesses the effect of a policy, plan or programme on the environment, or the effect of the
environment on development needs and opportunities.
Addresses a specific project.
Addresses areas, regions or sectors of development.
Assesses direct impacts and benefits.
Assesses cumulative impacts and identifies implications and issues for sustainable development.
Focuses on the mitigation of impacts.
Focuses on maintaining a chosen level of environmental quality.
Narrow perspective and a high level of detail.
Wide perspective and a low level of detail to provide a vision and overall framework.
Focuses on project-specific impacts.
Creates a framework against which impacts and benefits can be measured.
Tiered planning system for EIA and SEA is shown in Table 3.4.2 given below
Table 3.4.2 Tiered planning system for EIA and SEA
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SEA process is as comprehensive as EIA, if not as exhaustive. We will discuss this, next.
3.4.2 SEA process
In project EIA, impact mitigation, i.e., avoiding or reducing the projects impacts, restoring the
affected environment or compensating for adverse effects, is often considered a separate stage in
the process. In SEA, instead, the focus of the project is on reconsidering the PPP from a cross-
cutting perspective, leading to an improved understanding of the PPP and possibly changes to the
PPP: each stage considers whether and how the PPP can be changed and improved. These
changes mostly involve rewriting the PPP to minimise any negative environmental/sustainability
impacts but could also involve establishing management guidelines for the implementation of the
PPP, placing constraints on lower-tier PPP. (For instance, establishing criteria for identifying
future developments away from sensitive sites or requiring SEA/EIA for lower-tier PPPs and
projects). Or, developing environmentally beneficial shadow PPPs or projects. As such,
mitigation in SEA is an ongoing process as illustrated in Figure 3.5:
Figure 3.5
Mitigation in SEA
130
An SEA process involves the following stages:
(i) Screening: At this stage, responsible agencies carry out an appropriate assessment of all
strategic decisions with significant environmental consequences.
(ii) Timing: At this stage, results of the assessment are available sufficiently early for use in the
preparation of the strategic decision.
(iii) Environmental scoping: At this stage, all relevant information is provided to judge whether
an initiative should proceed and objectives could be achieved in a more environmentally friendly
way (i.e., through alternative initiatives or approaches).
(iv) Other factors: At this stage, sufficient information is available on other factors, including
socio-economic considerations, either parallel to, or integrated in, the assessment.
131
(v) Review: At this stage, the quality of the process and information is safeguarded by an
effective review mechanism.
(vi) Participation: At this stage, sufficient information on the views of all legitimate stakeholders
(including the public affected) is available early enough to be used effectively in the preparation
of the strategic decision.
(vii) Documentation: At this stage, results are identifiable, understandable and available to all
parties affected by the decision.
(viii) Decision-making and accountability: At this stage, it should be clear to all stakeholders and
all parties affected how the results were taken into account in decision-making.
(ix) Post-decision: At this stage, sufficient information on the actual impacts of implementing the
decision is gained to judge whether or not the decision should be amended. (Adapted from
Sadler, 1998b and Tonk & Verheem, 1998).
Note that though the stages are listed in a particular order, it does not mean that they occur in that
very sequence. In other words, stages do overlap.
Methodological difference between EIA and SEA are Scale of SEA is wider than EIA as there
would be number of activities involved, larger extent of impacts to be assessed, and greater range
of alternatives defined and also wider area of significance. Time interval is longer in SEA this is
between planning, approval, and implementation. Even data collection in SEA is time consuming
stage.
132
Alternatives chosen at project level can be easily differentiated and they are abstract in nature
such as policy, not technical.
An SEA report should be regarded as a documentation of the processes used and available,
where necessary, for later review. The real value in SEA is as a creative tool in the design cycle
of the formulation and reformulation of PPPs, modifying them where necessary to respond to
environmental/sustainability objective.
Like every tool, an SEA also has its benefits and constraints. We will now list them in
Subsection 3.4.3.
3.4.3 Benefits and constraints of SEA
Some of the benefits of SEA include the following:
(i) promoting integrated environment and development decision-making;
(ii) facilitating the design of environmentally-sustainable policies and plans;
Name 5 stakeholders in a highway project.
Note:
133
(iii) providing for consideration of a larger range of alternatives than is normally possible in
project EIA;
(iv) taking account, where possible, of cumulative effects (particularly by focusing on the
consequences of sectoral or regional-level developments) and global change;
(v) enhancing institutional efficiency (particularly, where EIA related skills, operational funds
and institutional capacities are limited) by obviating the need for unnecessary project-level EAs;
(vi) strengthening and streamlining project EA by incorporating environmental goals and
principles into policies, plans and programmes that shape individual projects; identifying in
advance the impacts and information requirements; resolving strategic issues and information
requirements and reducing time and effort taken to conduct reviews.
(vii) providing a mechanism for public engagement in discussions relevant to sustainability at a
strategic level.
Some of the constraints of SEA include the following:
A level of institutional maturity is necessary, which allows for effective inter-sectoral dialogue,
for environmental considerations to be taken into account in formulating, revising and
implementing policies, plans and programmes effectively, and to influence decision-making.
Appropriate skills are needed, within government departments/ agencies and private sectors (e.g.,
industry, environmental consulting companies) and amongst academics and NGOs.
134
There is a need for adequate capacity in these sectors (both human and financial resources).
In practice, the extent to which the benefits of SEA are achieved will also depend on a number of
other important factors such as:
provisions made for SEA, e.g., legal versus administrative; prior record of implementation and
acceptance by decision-makers; degree to which overall strategies of sustainable development
are in place; scope and level(s) of process application; with the broadest range of benefits being
gained from SEA systems that include review of policies as well as plans and programmes.
(Adapted from Dalal-Clayton and Sadler, 1995 and Sadler & Baxter, 1997.)
3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE
PROCEDURE IN INDIA
As the utility of EIA became clear, there was need to establish project clearance procedure. The
first step in that direction was to define the EIA process. The EIA process in India is made up of
the following phases:
Screening. Scoping and consideration of alternatives. Baseline data collection. Impact prediction.
135
Assessment of alternatives, delineation of mitigation measures and environmental impact
statement. Public hearing. Environment management plan (EMP). Decision-making. Monitoring
the clearance conditions.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) has published guidelines for different sectors,
which outline the significant issues to be addressed in the EIA studies. In general, the following
impacts of the project need to be assessed:
Air: The changes in ambient levels and ground level concentrations due to total emissions from
point, line and area sources, effects on soils, materials, vegetation and human health are to be
assessed. Noise: The changes in ambient levels, due to noise generated from equipment and
movement of vehicles, and their impact on fauna and human health are to be assessed. Water:
The availability to competing users, changes in quality, sediment transport and ingress of saline
water are to be assessed. Land: The changes in land use and drainage pattern, land quality
including effects of waste disposal, shoreline/riverbank and their stability are to be assessed.
Biological: The level of deforestation/tree-cutting and shrinkage of animal habitat, the impact on
fauna and flora (including aquatic species, if any) due to contaminants/ pollutants and the impact
on rare and endangered species, endemic species, and migratory path/route of animals are to
136
be assessed, as also the impact on breeding and nesting grounds. Socio-economic: The impact on
the local community including demographic changes, economic status, human health and
increased traffic are to be assessed.
For every project, possible alternatives need to be identified and environmental attributes
compared. The alternatives identified must cover project location and process technologies
including the no-project option and the alternatives need to be ranked for selection on the basis
of optimum economic benefits to the community at large.
Once the alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan supplemented with an environmental
management plan (EMP) needs to be drawn up for the selected option to guide the proponent
towards environmental improvements. Note that the EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the
clearance conditions, and therefore, it must contain the details of monitoring. A EIA report, thus,
needs to provide clear information to the decision-maker on the different environmental
scenarios without the project, with the project and with project alternatives. This includes
uncertainties.
MOEF has issued sectoral guidelines and environmental appraisal questionnaires for obtaining
the clearance and seeks the following documents:
Filled in application form (as per Schedule II of EIA Notification). A summary of the
project/feasibility report (1 copy). EIA (EIS)/EMP report (20 copies). Risk analysis on on-site
emergency preparedness plan (20 copies) in case of projects involving hazardous substances.
137
Site clearance from MOEF for site-specific projects mentioned in the EIA notification. Consent
to establish from SPCB. NOC from the local authorities (e.g., District Collector). Commitment
regarding the availability of water and electricity from the appropriate agencies. Approval of the
Chief Controller of Explosives under the Petroleum Act and Rules for layout and storage of
hazardous substances and from the Directorate of Industrial Safety and Health under the
Factories Act and Rules. Comments/Observations/Recommendations of the Chief Wildlife
Warden in case a wildlife habitat/migration path exists within 25 km of project site.
Comprehensive summary rehabilitation plan, where displacement of more than 1,000 people is
anticipated. Copy of the application forwarded to the state government, in case of diversion of
forest land. Copy of the application forwarded to the state government in case the CRZ
notification applies. Clearance from the Airport Authority of India, if applicable. Details of the
public hearing conducted by SPCB and copies of the advertisements issued for public hearing.
Filled-in environmental appraisal questionnaires issued by MOEF, along with the attachments
(mentioned in the questionnaire).
MOEF has issued different questionnaires for different projects, and the law requires that the
public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA
report. Any one is entitled to have access to the executive
138
summary of the EIA, and the affected persons such as bona fide local residents, local
associations, environmental groups active in the area and any other person located at the project
site/sites of displacement must be given an opportunity to make oral/written suggestions to the
State Pollution Control Board (SPCB).
The decision-making process involves consultation between the project proponent (assisted by a
consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert group, if necessary). The
decision on environmental clearance is arrived at through a number of steps including evaluation
of EIA and the environmental management plan (EMP). In India, the project proponent during
the project planning stage decides the type of projects, i.e., new establishment, expansion or
modernisation. Later, the project proponent prepares a detailed project report/feasibility report
and submits to the authorities concerned the executive summary containing the project details
and findings of the EIA study, which is to be made available to the concerned public.
Where a proponent is required to obtain environmental clearance, the Impact Assessment
Agency (IAA) evaluates and assesses the EIA report. In this process, the project proponent is
given a chance to present his or her proposal. If a project is accepted, the IAA prepares a set of
recommendations and conditions for its implementation based on this assessment. Environmental
clearance conditions and recommendations of IAA are made available to the public on request
through SPCB and through a web site <http://envfor.nic.in>. During the implementation and
operation of the project, the IAA is also responsible for the environmental monitoring process.
139
3.4.1 Revised Environmental Clearance Procedure in India
As the utility of EIA became clear, there was need to establish project clearance procedure. In
1994 a clearance procedure was issued that followed EIA Notification 1994. There were some
constraints in the procedure that include: Burdensome procedure Disproportionate details sought
with applications Delay in appraisal meetings Time consuming and requiring undue effort
Reopening of technical issues during various stages of appraisal
List 3 stakeholders who should be consulted during the public hearing of a coal-based thermal
power plant project.
Note:
140
Poor quality of EIA studies by consultants Delays by other concerned agencies
Due to these reasons re engineering was done of the EIA process implementation based on
project chosen. Background of this reengineering is that; MoEF conducted a review on previous
EC process which is comprehensive under the Environmental Management Capacity Building
Project in 2001, reformation in investment approvals and implementation procedures was set up
by central government with the help of Govindarajan committee. Due to consistency in studies
with both the organizations there was a strong necessity for reforms in the EIA notification 1994.
Objectives of EIA notification 2006
To formulate a transparent, decentralized and efficient regulatory mechanism to: Incorporate
necessary environmental safeguards at planning stage. Involve stakeholders in the public
consultation process. Identify developmental projects based on impact potential instead of the
investment criteria.
It also stated that; all new projects listed in schedule, expansion and modernisation of existing
projects and those activities that show change in product mix require environmental clearance
before setting up.
According to the 1994 clearance procedure the MOEF has issued sectoral guidelines and
environmental appraisal questionnaires and needed following documents: Filled in application
form (as per Schedule II of EIA Notification). A summary of the project/feasibility report (1
copy).
141
EIA (EIS)/EMP report (20 copies). Risk analysis on on-site emergency preparedness plan (20
copies) in case of projects involving hazardous substances. Site clearance from MOEF for site-
specific projects mentioned in the EIA notification. Consent to establish from SPCB. NOC from
the local authorities (e.g., District Collector). Commitment regarding the availability of water
and electricity from the appropriate agencies. Approval of the Chief Controller of Explosives
under the Petroleum Act and Rules for layout and storage of hazardous substances and from the
Directorate of Industrial Safety and Health under the Factories Act and Rules.
Comments/Observations/Recommendations of the Chief Wildlife Warden in case a wildlife
habitat/migration path exists within 25 km of project site. Comprehensive summary
rehabilitation plan, where displacement of more than 1,000 people is anticipated. Copy of the
application forwarded to the state government, in case of diversion of forest land. Copy of the
application forwarded to the state government in case the CRZ notification applies. Clearance
from the Airport Authority of India, if applicable. Details of the public hearing conducted by
SPCB and copies of the advertisements issued for public hearing. Filled-in environmental
appraisal questionnaires issued by MOEF, along with the attachments (mentioned in the
questionnaire).
Differences between the EIA notification 1994 and 2006 No NOC for EC
142
Revised Schedule based on potential impacts instead of investment criteria Categorization into A
and B1 & B2 (given in annexure) Category A at Central level, Category B1, B2 at State Level
(with exceptions) Check-list information in Form-1/Form-1-A Scoping to determine TORs for
EIA, if required; Finality of TORs Scoping stage incorporate site clearance V No separate site
clearance is required. Public consultation structured; to be conducted by SPCB and presided by
DM (within 45 days); proceedings to be video graphed; MoEF to intervene if PH not held in
time. Time limits with consequences at each stage State Level Environment Impact Assessment
Authority (SEIAA), Expert Appraisal Committees (EAC) are also required.
State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) is an independent body
members of which should be notified by MoEF on receiving nominations from all concerned
states and UTs. Chairman and other member shall be experts fulfilling the eligibility criteria
given in Appendix VI of Notification 2006. Chairman shall be an expert in EIA process. Member
Secretary familiar with environmental laws shall be a serving officer of the State Government.
MoEF must notify SEIAAs within a time limit of 30 days from the date of receipt of
nominations. Time period for Authority defined (3 years). Decision of the Authority shall be on
the basis of consensus and lastly there would not be any funding from MoEF.
Steps in prior Environmental clearance process include Screening, Scoping, Public consultation,
and Appraisal
143
144
In short, an environmental impact assessment is an integral part of any project planning and must
be understood with respect to the requirement of each project. A project proponent has to first
determine whether the activity requires environmental clearance and undertake EIA studies to
meet the requirements of MOEF. In case of joint venture projects (with a foreign company)
and/or for seeking funds from an international financial institution, an environment impact
statement has to conform to the environmental assessment guidelines. You must have a fairly
good knowledge of, and must be capable of anticipating, the requirements and implications on
project schedules and cost. It is
The Environmental Clearance procedure was thoroughly restructured through issuance of said
Environmental Clearance Notification by MoEF, New Delhi for making the environmental
clearance procedure more transparent, less time consuming and decentralized as much as
possible. Under this restructured Environmental Clearance notification, the industrial /
developmental activities, which may cause serious spatial and temporal environmental impacts,
have been scheduled to obtain prior Environmental Clearance. And also it has been decided that
such activities shall be classified as category A or category B type projects. The existing Expert
Appraisal Committees at central level at Ministry of Environment & Forests, New Delhi, shall
screen - scope - appraise category A projects. Each state shall constitute State Environment
Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and the State Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) for
carry out similar environmental procedure at State level. The SEIAA shall grant or refuse
Environmental Clearance to any B type project after screening - scoping V appraisal of
Environmental Clearance applications at state level.
145
an inescapable fact today that a EIA report needs to be prepared in a manner that conforms to
national and international regulations and guidelines. It must be seen as a proactive, rather than a
purely conformist document.
SUMMARY
In this Unit, we introduced you to the concept of environmental impact assessment (EIA). We
began the Unit by giving an overview of what EIA entails, and in this context, touched upon the
purpose of EIA, the processes involved in EIA, etc. Subsequently, we gave an account of the
evolution of EIA both in India and in other countries. We also discussed how prediction or
forecasting of environmental change is vital for EIA. We then discussed strategic environmental
assessment (SEA) and described the overlaps and differences between SEA and EIA. Finally, we
closed the Unit by describing some of the environmental clearance procedures in practice in
India.
SUGGESTED READINGS
ADB, (1990), Environmental Guidelines for Selected Industrial and Power Development
Projects, Office of the Environment, Asian Development Bank, Bangkok.
Ahmad, Y. J. and Swamy G. K., (1985), Guidelines to Environmental Impact Assessment in
Developing Countries, Hodder & Stoughton, London.
Canter, L.W., (1977), Environmental Impact Assessment, MCGraw Mill, New York.
146
Clark, B.D., Chapman, K., Bisset, R., Wathern, P. and Barret, M., (1981), A Manual for the
Assessment of Major Developments, HMSO, London.
Commission of European Communities, (1985), On the Assessment of Effects of Certain Public
and Private Projects on the Environment, Official Journal, L175, 28.5.85.
Holling, C.S., (1987), Adaptive Environmental Assessment & Management, John Willey &
Sons, New York.
Htun, N., (1988), The EIA Process in Asia and Pacific Region in P. Wathern ed. Environmental
Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice, UNwin Hyman, London.
Kulkarni V. S., Kaul, S. N., Trivedi R. K., (2001) Handbook of EIA, Scientific Publishers, India.
Kulkarni V and Ramachandra T V, 2009. Environmental Management, TERI Press, New Delhi
Lohani, B., J.W. Evans, H. Ludwig, R.R. Everitt, Richard A. Carpenter, and S.L., Tu. 1997.
Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing Countries in Asia. Volume 1 - Overview.
ADB.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2000) EIA Manual.
Munn, R.E., (1979), Environmental Impact Assessment: Principles of Procedures, International
Council of Scientific Unions, Scientific Committee on Problems of Environment, Report -5
(SCOPE -5)
Rau, J.G., and Wotten, D.C., (1980), Environmental Impact Analysis Hand Book, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
147
Ramachandra T.V., Subhash Chandran M.D., Sreekantha, Diwakar Mesta, Rao G.R. and Sameer
Ali. 2004. Cumulative Impact Assessment in the Sharavathi River Basin, International Journal of
Environment and Development, 1(1): 113-135.
Ramachandra T V, Subash Chandran M D, Gururaja K V and Sreekantha, 2007. Cumulative
Environmental Impact assessment, Nova Science Publishrers, New York
UNCED, (1992), Rio Declaration, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
Rio de Janeiro.
UNEP, (1980), Environmental Assessment Statement - A Test Model Presentation, UNEP
Regional office and UN Asian and Pacific Development Institute, Bangkok.
UNEP, (1980), Guidelines for Assessing Industrial Environmental Impact and Environmental
Criteria for the sitting of Industry, UNEP Industry and Environment Guidelines Series, Vol. 1.
UNEP, (1987), Environmental Law Guidelines and Principles: Environmental Impact
Assessment, Nairobi.
UNEP, (1988), Environmental Impact Assessment: Basic Procedures for Developing Countries,
Nairobi.
Wathern, P., (1988), The EIA Directive of the European Community in P. Wathern ed.,
Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice, Unwin Hymann, London.
WCED, (1987), Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and Development
Oxford University Press, London
World Bank, (1991), Operational Directive 4.01, Environmental Assessment, The World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
148
World Bank. (1991). Environmental Assessment Sourcebook. Washington, D.C. Vol. 1: Policies,
Procedures, and Cross-Sectoral Issues World Bank Technical Paper 139. Vol. 2: Sectoral
Guidelines. World Bank Technical Paper 140. Vol. 3: Guidelines for Environmental Assessment
of Energy and Industry Projects. World Bank Technical Paper 154.
Model Answers to Learning Act ivities
135
Lecture 3
Model Answers to Learning Activities
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal study process used to predict the
environmental consequences of a proposed development project. Such projects may include, for
example, building a hydroelectric dam or a factory, irrigating a large valley, or developing a
harbour.
Selection of site for locating new industry which is not in an ecologically sensitive area.
Selection of manufacturing technology which results in minimum environmental impacts.
Involving project affected population in the process of project development.
Country
Law
Thailand
India
Sri Lanka
Improvement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act 1975, amended in 1978.
Notifications dated May 5, 1994 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
National Environmental Act 1980, amended in 1986.
136
Project
Main Aspect Assessed
Sardar Sarovar
Bombay Sewage
Disposal Project
Chennai Water Supply
Resettlement & rehabilitation of the project affected population.
Impact of length on marine outfall on coastal water quality.
Impact of laying raw water pipeline on agricultural land Project and forests.
Highway project:
Change in land use. Deforestation. Increase in air pollution.
Hydro electric project:
Displacement of population in catchments area. Reservoir induced seismicity. Impact on
terrestrial ecosystem.
Thermal power:
Increase in ambient air pollution level. Increase in water demand due to cooling water
requirements. Land pollution due to fly ash disposal.
Model Answers to Learning Act ivities
137
Stages
Route selection
Construction
Operations
Concerns
Deforestation.
Transportation and storage of road construction material.
Increase in air pollution and noise levels.
Stakeholders in a highway project are:
Land use planner. Department of road transport. Industrial development department. Persons
affected due to land acquisition. Settlements along the proposed route or highway.
The stakeholders that are required to be consulted, during public hearing of a coal-based thermal
power project, are:
(i) Land owners whose land would be acquired.
(ii) Farmers in the surrounding area.
(iii) Fishermen who depend on fish yield of the water body from where the water would be
extracted for the proposed unit.
Coal-based thermal power plant involves:
(i) Land acquisition for setting up the plant and ash disposal.
138
(ii) Impact on agricultural production due to the fly ash emission from the stack that increases the
sulphur dioxide levels.
(iii) Impact on fish yields as a result of the cooling water disposal that increases the temperature
of water body and toxic chemical levels (due to antifouling chemicals used in cooling water).
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Unit 3: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

discuss environmental impact assessment (EIA) as an environmental management tool;

The size and complexity of the proposed project.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3.6

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