The

The Orange Book

Publisher
Tetra Pak Processing Systems AB
SE-221 86 Lund, Sweden.
www.tetrapak.com

ISBN 91-3428-4

Further copies of The Orange Book can be obtained

from your local Tetra Pak company.

Editor
Ulla Ringblom

Production
Pyramid Communication AB
Printer: Ruter Press
Printed in 2004

Copyright
No part of The Orange Book may be duplicated in any
form without the source being indicated (Tetra Pak).

To the best of our knowledge the information

presented in this book is correct. Nevertheless,
Tetra Pak disclaims all responsibility for any
detrimental effects resulting from the way in
which the information is used.

I
II
Sharing an experience

Because of its refreshing taste and whole- A mine of information

some nature, orange juice dominates the fruit From bulk concentrate and onwards, much of
juice market. It is unique among juices in that what is described in The Orange Book is also
the consumer can easily compare its sensory valid for orange nectars and other types of fruit
properties with those of the fresh fruit or juice juices. However, the production requirements
squeezed directly from fresh oranges. for pure orange juice are usually more stringent
This puts high demands on orange juice in order to satisfy consumer expectations for
producers to deliver the same level of quality, this product.
or as near as possible, as that consumers expect This book focuses solely on orange juice,
from fresh fruit. The challenge is particularly but Tetra Pak also has extensive know-how in
tough because orange juice is a complex bever- the processing and packaging of many other
age sensitive to the way it is treated. types of fruit juices.
Over the years, Tetra Pak has been closely A number of tools help you extract infor-
involved with orange juice products. We be- mation readily from this book. A glossary
lieve that some of this experience could also explains familiar expressions used in the citrus
be of interest to our customers. As a supplier industry, and a list of literature is given for fur-
of both processing equipment and packaging ther reading. Metric units are used throughout
systems, Tetra Pak has hands-on competence this book except when other specific units are
with all steps in the production chain, from the commonly used. A list of conversion factors al-
fruit tree to the distribution of packaged orange lows you to convert between different units.
juice. This is what we would like to share with We hope you will find The Orange Book
you in the form of this book. useful in providing consumers with the most
enjoyable fruit juice provided by nature.
A journey with juice
The Orange Book follows the complete jour- Second edition
ney of orange juice. It begins with the various The first edition of The Orange Book was well
types of orange fruit, proceeds through all the received in 1997, and as it went out of print it is
processing and packaging steps, and ends with followed by this revised edition.
the distribution of the end product to consumers. Valuable comments have been received on
Along the way there is a chance to look the book from many sources in the citrus indus-
at market information, juice quality and cate- try. Tetra Pak would particularly like to thank
gories, the trading and shipping of products, the following persons for their review of rel-
and industry standards and regulations. Con- evant sections in the book and suggestions on
sideration is given throughout to the factors that how to improve it: Professor Robert Braddock
influence end-product quality, including the of the University of Florida, Antonio Carlos
role of flavour and product blending. Gonalves of Louis Dreyfus Citrus, Dr. Bar-
rie Preston of Dhler-Eurocitrus, and Martin
Greeve, Chairman of the AIJN Code of Prac-
tice Expert Group.

III
Contents

1. THE ORANGE FRUIT AND 3.5 Global orange juice consumption 42

ITS PRODUCTS 1 3.5.1 Per capita orange juice consumption 43
1.1 The fruits origin and
important varieties 2 4. PRINCIPLES OF PROCESSING
1.2 A global overview 3 ORANGE JUICE 45
1.2.1 Large-scale development 4 4.1 Impact of processing on
1.2.2 Orange crop diseases 4 juice quality 46
4.1.1 Raw materials 47
1.3 Bridging the seasons 5
4.1.2 Processing 47
1.4 Fruit selection 6 4.1.3 Impact of long-term bulk storage 49
1.5 Inside an orange 6 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product 50
1.6 Squeezing out every drop 7 4.2.1 Sources of air/oxygen 51
1.7 Primary and secondary products 8 4.2.2 Problems caused by air/oxygen
in the product 52
1.8 Major orange-producing regions 10 4.2.3 Principles of deaeration 53
1.8.1 Brazil 10
1.8.2 Florida 12 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice 54
4.3.1 Relevant microorganisms
1.9 Other regions 13 in orange juice 54
4.3.2 Microflora of different
2. ORANGE JUICE QUALITY types of orange juice 57
AND CATEGORIES 17 4.3.3 Influence of raw materials 58
2.1 Juice quality 18 4.3.4 Sanitation 58
2.1.1 Defining quality 18 4.4 Pasteurisation 59
2.1.2 Quality specifications 19 4.4.1 Purpose of pasteurisation 59
2.2 Important properties 4.4.2 Inactivation of enzymes 59
of orange juice 20 4.4.3 Inactivation of microorganisms 61
2.2.1 Sugars and acids 20 4.4.4 Time-temperature conditions
2.2.2 Cloud and pulp 22 for pasteurisation 61
2.2.3 Flavour 23
2.2.4 Colour 25 5. FRUIT PROCESSING 63
2.2.5 Promoting health 26
5.1 Processing plant overview 64
2.3 Orange juice categories 28 5.2 Orange juice production steps 66
2.3.1 Ready-to-drink orange juice 28
2.3.2 Concentrated orange juice 29 5.3 Fruit reception 67
2.4 Regulations governing juice origin 30 5.4 Juice extraction 68
5.4.1 Extractor types 68
5.4.2 The squeezer-type extractor 69
3. THE SUPPLY CHAIN AND 5.4.3 The reamer-type extractor 71
GLOBAL CONSUMPTION
OF ORANGE JUICE 31 5.4.4 Down stream of the juice
extractors 72
3.1 The chain of supply 32
3.1.1 Growers 33 5.5 Clarification 72
3.1.2 Types of fruit processor 34 5.6 NFC production 74
3.1.3 Blending houses 35 5.6.1 Oil reduction 75
3.1.4 Juice packers 36 5.6.2 Primary pasteurisation 76
3.1.5 Soft drink producers 37 5.6.3 Deaeration 76
5.6.4 Long-term frozen storage 76
3.2 World market pricing
for bulk juice products 37 5.6.5 Aseptic storage in tanks 77
5.6.6 Aseptic storage in bag-in-box
3.3 FCOJ commodity trading containers 78
and the futures market 38
5.6.7 Reprocessing of NFC 78
3.4 Import duties and juice imports 39
3.4.1 Import duties with some
typical examples 41

IV
 Contents

5.7 Concentrate production 79 7. PROCESSING AT

5.7.1 Tubular evaporator systems 79 THE JUICE PACKER 103
5.7.2 Plate evaporator systems 80 7.1 An overview of juice
5.7.3 Homogenisation 81 packer operations 105
5.7.4 The centrifugal evaporator 82 7.1.1 General requirements for
5.7.5 Essence recovery 82 juice packer lines 105
5.7.6 Concentrate storage 83 7.1.2 Process lines 105
5.7.7 Alternative concentration methods 83 7.2 Raw material reception
5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery 84 and handling 110
5.8.1 Straining and concentration step 84 7.2.1 Tanks for concentrate storage 110
5.8.2 Polishing 85 7.2.2 Drums with frozen concentrate 111
5.8.3 The winterisation process 85 7.2.3 Drums containing solid
5.8.4 d-Limonene recovery systems 85 frozen products 111
7.2.4 Aseptic bag-in-box containers 112
5.9 Feed mill operations 86 7.2.5 Tanks for NFC 112
5.10 Pulp production 87 7.2.6 Reclaim product 112
5.10.1 Production factors which affect
commercial pulp quality 88 7.3 Water treatment 113
7.3.1 Water quality 113
5.10.2 Process steps in pulp production 88
7.3.2 Water treatment methods 114
5.11 Pulp wash production 92 7.3.3 In-plant distribution
5.12 Essence recovery 92 of product water 115
7.3.4 Deaeration of water 116
6. TRANSPORT AND HANDLING 7.4 Blending 116
OF BULK PRODUCTS 93 7.4.1 Blending of nectars and fruit drinks 116
6.1 Packing and shipping preferences 95 7.4.2 Defining the blending formula 117
7.4.3 Savings made by accurate blending 118
6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ 95 7.4.4 Comparison of blending methods 118
6.2.1 From Brazil to Europe 96
7.4.5 Batch blending systems 119
6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC 97 7.4.6 In-line blending systems 120
6.3.1 Frozen NFC shipments 97 7.4.7 How a refractometer works 121
6.3.2 Bulk units for aseptic NFC 7.4.8 How a density meter works 122
shipments 97
6.3.3 Bulk shipping of aseptic NFC 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration 122
7.5.1 Selecting the heat exchanger 123
by sea 99
7.5.2 The pasteurisation process 124
6.3.4 Transport of bulk product
versus retail packaged product 99 7.5.3 Deaeration 125
7.5.4 System design 126
6.4 Shipping costs 100 7.5.5 Process control 126
6.5 Terminals for receiving 7.5.6 Control of pasteurisation units 127
orange juice 100
6.5.1 Terminals for bulk FCOJ 100 7.6 Aseptic buffer 128
7.6.1 Operational steps 129
6.5.2 Terminals for bulk aseptic NFC 101
7.7 Hot filling 129
6.6 Blending house operations 102 7.7.1 Process description 130
7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC 130
7.9 Cleaning-in-place 131
7.9.1 CIP procedures 132
7.9.2 Pigging 133
7.10 Quality control of final product 134
7.10.1 Microbiological control 134

V
 Contents

8. ADD-BACK COMPONENTS 10. FROM JUICE PACKER

VOLATILE FLAVOURS AND TO CONSUMER 167
FLOATING PULP 135
10.1 Distribution of product to retailer 169
8.1 Volatile flavours 136 10.1.1 Delivery directly to the retail store 169
8.1.1 Origin of natural volatile 10.1.2 Delivery through wholesalers 169
orange flavours 137 10.1.3 Delivery to a retailers
8.1.2 Major constituents central depot 170
of flavour fractions 139
8.1.3 Flavour standardisation 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer 171
and folding of oils 140 10.2.1 Distribution units 171
8.1.4 Methods of separating and 10.2.2 Handling at the retailer 172
concentrating flavours 141 10.3 The orange juice consumer 174
8.1.5 Creation of flavour systems 142 10.3.1 Regional preferences for juice
8.2 Floating pulp 142 categories 174
8.2.1 Useful terms 142 10.3.2 Who buys juice in the USA 176
8.2.2 Floating pulp properties 144 10.3.3 When orange juice is consumed 176
8.2.3 Floating pulp concentration 145 10.3.4 Where orange juice is consumed 177
10.3.5 Why people buy orange juice 178
8.3 Components added back to juice 146
10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks 179
10.4.1 Fruit nectars 179
9. PACKAGING AND STORAGE 10.4.2 Still fruit drinks 179
OF ORANGE JUICE 149
9.1 The role of packaging 151 11. STANDARDS AND
9.1.1 Product quality parameters REGULATIONS 181
to be protected during storage 151
9.1.2 Factors affecting quality 11.1 Standards governing juice
parameters during storage 151 composition and labelling 182
11.1.1 The USA and Canada 183
9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen 152 11.1.2 The European Union 184
9.2.1 Vitamin C degradation 152
11.1.3 Other major regions and countries 186
9.2.2 Colour changes 154 11.1.4 Fruit juice standards of
9.2.3 The impact of oxygen on Codex Alimentarius 187
storage-dependent flavour changes 154
11.2 The problem of adulteration 188
9.3 Barrier properties against light 156 11.2.1 Protecting the consumer 188
9.4 Barrier properties against aromas 156 11.2.2 Telling wrong from right 189
9.4.1 Composition of orange juice aroma 156
9.4.2 Properties of different polymers 157 12. GLOSSARY 191
9.4.3 Properties of different packages 158
9.4.4 Consequences of flavour scalping 159
13. ABBREVIATIONS, WEIGHTS
9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic AND MEASURES 197
packaging 160
13.1 Abbreviations 197
9.6 Different packages and
packaging systems 160 13.2 Unit conversions 198
9.6.1 Carton-based packages 161 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions 199
9.6.2 Bottles 163
9.6.3 Hot filling 165 14. FURTHER READING AND
9.6.4 Selecting the most appropriate REFERENCES 201
package for a particular juice 166
14.1 Books on orange juice 201
14.2 References 202
14.3 Useful websites 204

INDEX 205

VI
1 The orange fruit
and its products

In section 1 you will read about:

The origin and spread of the orange plant How the seasons are bridged to provide
from Southeast Asia to the rest of the world. consumers with year-round supplies.
Global orange production and the Whats inside an orange.
development of large-scale production. Natures gift. Every part of the orange can be
Common orange crop diseases and their used for producing commercial products.
control by using resistant rootstocks. Valuable by-products such as pulp, peel oil,
The whys and wherefores of single-strength essences and animal feed.
and concentrated juice. The most important orange-growing regions.

1
1. The orange fruit
and its products
Summary A look inside
The orange plant originated in Southeast Basically, an orange consists of juice ves-
Asia and spread gradually to other parts icles surrounded by a waxy skin, the peel.
of the world. Today, orange juice products The peel comprises a thin, coloured outer
derive from four main groups of orange. layer called the avedo and a thicker, -
About 65 million tonnes of oranges per brous inner layer called the albedo. The
annum are produced globally. Of this, endocarp, the edible portion of the fruit, in-
around 40 % is processed into juice and cludes a central brous core and individual
the rest consumed as whole fruit. segments containing the juice sacs. In large
processing plants the complete fruit is uti-
Single-strength or lised. By-products are produced to help
concentrated maximise prots and minimise waste.
As juice is produced on a seasonal basis, it
must be stored between seasons to ensure Major players
a year-round supply to consumer markets. The two most important orange-proces-
Most juice is produced as frozen concen- sing regions are Brazil and the state of
trated orange juice, FCOJ, because it can Florida in the US. Together these regions
be stored for long periods of time and account for nearly 90 % of global orange
shipped at lower cost as it contains less juice production.
water. Not-from-concentrate juice, NFC,
which is at single strength, requires much
larger volumes during storage and shipping.
Most NFC produced is intended for nearby
markets but its export is increasing.
Tangerines 17 %

Lemons /
1.1 The fruits origin and Limes 11 %
important varieties
The orange is the worlds most popular fruit. Like Grapefruits Oranges 66 %
all citrus plants, the orange tree originated in the 6%
tropical regions of Asia. Oranges are mentioned
in an old Chinese manuscript dating back to 2200
BC. The development of the Arab trade routes,
the spread of Islam and the expansion of the
Roman empire led to the fruit being cultivated
in other regions.
Fig. 1.1 World citrus fruit production by types 2001/02.
From its original habitat, the orange spread to Source: FAO
India, the east coast of Africa, and from there to the
eastern Mediterranean region. By the time Colum- Oranges account for more than two thirds of the
bus and his followers took plants to the Americas, world production of all citrus fruits, of which
orange trees were common in the western Mediter- other important species are the lemon, grapefruit
ranean region and the Canary Islands. and mandarin (see Figure 1.1).

2
 1.2 A global overview

Italy
Greece
Spain
California
Turkey
Florida

Caribbean Israel Japan

China
Mexico Morocco Egypt

Brazil
Central America

Argentina

South Africa Australia

Fig. 1.2 The major orange-growing regions.

Four groups of fruit are of commercial signicance ripens at a similar time, which allows efcient
in the production of orange juice products: harvesting and operation of processing plants.
The sweet orange, also known as the China However, it also means that trees of the same
orange, Citrus sinensis variety in a grove are susceptible to the same dis-
The sour or bitter orange, also known as the eases and physiological disorders. As required
Seville orange, Citrus aurantium in different regions, bud wood may be grafted
The mandarin orange and tangerine varieties, on to rootstocks known to be resistant to certain
Citrus reticulata diseases or drought.
Hybrid oranges (tangors) which result from During their rst few years of growth orange
various crosses between tangerines and sweet trees do not bear fruit, but when they do, the yield
oranges. per tree increases gradually until the trees reach
maturity at about 10 years old.
Of these, the sweet orange is by far the most
important. In several markets, including Europe, 1.2 A global overview
only juice made from sweet orange varieties, Oranges are cultivated in tropical and subtropical
Citrus sinensis, may be labelled as orange juice. regions around the world. The trees can grow in
To be cor rect from a horticultural viewpoint, the a wide range of soil conditions, from extremely
common name for the species Citrus reticulata sandy soils to rather heavy clay loams, although
is mandarin, some varieties of which are called they grow best in intermediate types of soil.
tangerines. However, the word tangerine is often Local growing conditions, such as climate,
used as the common species name. type of soil and grove practices, have a large
Most citrus plants are propagated vegetatively inuence on the quality of fruit produced and on
by bud wood cuttings (scions the top part that the extracted juice. An orange variety, for example
controls the type of fruit) grafted on to a differ- Valencia, may have quite different properties when
ent rootstock. This means that trees of the same grown in different parts of the world. The major
cultivar are genetically identical and respond orange-growing regions are shown in Figure 1.2.
similarly to their environment, for example fruit

3
 1.2 A global overview

120
Approximately 65 million tonnes of oranges are
produced per year worldwide. About 40 % of the Others
100 USA
total tonnage is processed, the rest being con- Brazil
sumed as fresh fruit. Whenever possible, growers
80

Million tonnes
prefer to sell oranges to the fresh fruit market as
their price is normally higher than for fruit sold 60
for processing into juice. In some countries this
can lead to a signicant variation in the amount 40
of fruit processed from one year to another.
Florida and Brazil are the worlds largest fruit 20
producing countries. Here the majority of fruit
harvested is processed because the orange varie- 0
ties in these regions are grown for processing Citrus fruit Oranges Oranges for
processing
rather than for direct consumption. Fig. 1.3 World citrus fruit production
Due to the planting of new trees, world orange and processing, 2001/02.
production continued to increase into the early Source: FAO
2000s mainly in Florida, Brazil and China.
World orange production is also expected to In 1983 Brazil surpassed Florida as the worlds
increase further in other regions as a result of number one orange producer. However, new
improved planting programmes, cultivating trees that were planted further south in Florida
techniques, and support given to orange grow- in areas less affected by frost are now bearing
ers. Nevertheless, unwanted climatic effects like fruit. This has boosted Floridas orange produc-
frost and storms, along with uncontrolled diseases tion signicantly and in years with good yields
of fruit trees, could reduce crops and juice yields the state meets most of the US demand for juice.
signicantly. Recent years have seen notable uc- Figure 1.3 shows the estimated world citrus fruit
tuations in world orange production. production and processing for the 2001-02 season
(mid-01 to mid-02).
1.2.1 LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT
China has the fastest growth in citrus fruit
Commercial cultivation of oranges intended for
production as a result of the intensive planting
large-scale processing into fruit sections and
of new trees. So far, most oranges in China are
juice began in Florida in the 1920s. In the late
consumed fresh, with only a small amount of
1940s, frozen concentrated orange juice for home
fruit being processed. The Mediterranean is an
dilution was developed in the USA. This led to a
important region for growing high-quality fruit.
rapid growth in orange juice consumption. As a
As more and more Mediterranean oranges are
result, the cultivation and processing capacity of
being eaten fresh, juice production is gradually
oranges in Florida grew rapidly.
declining in this region.
However, severe frosts in Florida drastically
reduced fruit yields and killed many trees during 1.2.2 ORANGE CROP DISEASES
the 1960s, 70s and 80s. To secure the supply of Like any other fruit, orange trees are susceptible
orange juice for the US market, trees were planted to diseases. These may affect the leaves or fruit
and large processing plants were built for orange and even kill the trees. Because diseases have a
concentrate in Brazil. The rst concentrate plant large economical impact on the citrus industry,
was built in Brazil in the early 1960s and the large many orange-growing regions allocate large funds
expansion in production capacity took place dur- for research on citrus diseases, and develop more
ing the 70s and 80s. Orange processing in Brazil resistant fruit cultivars and cultivation methods
was established by US companies. to limit their effects.

4
 1.3 Bridging the seasons

The characteristics of a disease will determine

the appropriate response to control it. Control
methods include the eradication of infected trees,
chemical suppression of disease-transmitting in-
sects and using resistant rootstock for grafting.
New trees should come from controlled nurseries
where seedlings are protected from airborne or
soil contamination.
The inspection of groves and follow-up of
measures taken are important for successful con-
trol of a disease. Large eradication programmes
may require special funding. In the 1940s almost
all orange trees in Brazil were destroyed following
an outbreak of CTV (Citrus Tristeza Virus). New Fig. 1.4 Harvesting seasons in Brazil and Florida.
plantings were made using a different rootstock
(Rangpur Lime) resistant to this virus.
Among the serious citrus diseases found today
is Citrus Canker, caused by Xanthomonas bacte- 1.3 Bridging the seasons
ria, that results in premature leaf and fruit drop. Oranges can only ripen on the tree and the qual-
There is no treatment but the disease is limited ity of the fruit begins to deteriorate immediately
by removing all trees within a 60 m radius of in- after picking. Therefore, the time between pick-
fected trees. CVC (Citrus Cholorosis Variegated), ing fruit and processing it into juice and other
caused by a bacterial pathogen transmitted by the products should ideally be as short as possible
sharpshooter insect, leads to spotted leaves and less than 24 hours although longer periods
small fruit. The fungal disease Citrus Black Spot are not uncommon.
causes lesions on the fruit skin, which make fruit Because the orange is a seasonal fruit, each re-
unsuitable for consumption although it can still gion strives to grow orange varieties with different
be processed. ripening periods (see Figure 1.4). This prolongs
In 1999, a new disease was discovered in Bra- the total harvesting period in a region and allows
zil called Citrus Sudden Death (CSD) because it greater utilisation of processing equipment.
caused the rapid decline and death of trees with To provide a year-round supply to consumers,
fruit and leaves still on them. It is caused by an juice must be stored to bridge the gap between
insect-transmitted virus (similar to Tristeza) and seasons. Most of the juice is stored frozen as con-
in just a few years it has spread to important citrus centrate. This is called Frozen Concentrated Orange
areas of So Paulo State. Juice, or just FCOJ as it is referred to within the
Certain rootstocks are resistant to the Sudden industry. For the same amount of ready-to-drink
Death virus. Now there is intensive replanting (RTD) juice, concentrate requires 56 times
using resistant trees as well as in-arching, where less volume for storage and shipping than single-
resistant seedlings are planted next to an existing strength juice. Thus shipping costs over long dis-
exposed tree and a by-pass is grafted onto it above tances are signicantly higher for single-strength
the bud union. However, since these alternative products like not-from-concentrate juice (NFC).
rootstocks are less resistant to drought, they may
require more irrigation or be used to plant groves
in areas having a wetter climate.

5
 1.4 Fruit selection

Juices from early and late fruit varieties differ In plants where NFC is produced, concentrate
in quality as regards colour, sugar content, etc. should also be produced to make use of the non-
To deliver products of specied and consistent optimal fruit. In most regions, fruit best suited to
quality throughout the year, concentrate suppli- NFC production is available for only part of the
ers blend concentrates produced from different season. The proportion of NFC and concentrate
orange varieties. Most NFC products also consist produced in a certain region will depend on the
of a blend of juices extracted at different times availability of suitable fruit.
of the season. Blending of NFC may take place At present, NFC production makes up a low
within the producing country or in the import- percentage (<10 %) of the total juice produc-
ing market. The difference in quality and yield tion in most orange-growing regions except for
between different orange varieties is reected in Florida, where the share of NFC production can
the range of market prices. reach 45 %.
With oranges grown to be eaten fresh, a cer-
1.4 Fruit selection tain amount of fruit is rejected because of poor
In Brazil, the typical processing season is from appearance (up to 20 %). The rejected fruit is
June to February. In Florida, oranges are usually used for processing into juice. This is why juice
processed from late October to early June. Good processing facilities are also found in regions
quality fruit is harvested for the greater part of the which specialise in producing oranges intended
season. In the Mediterranean, the period yielding for the fresh fruit market.
fruit of quality suitable for processing is shorter
than in Florida and Brazil. 1.5 Inside an orange
NFC is essentially juice as it is extracted direct- Essentially, an orange is a ball of juice sacs
ly from the fruit. Regulations and the production protected by a waxy skin, the peel. The peel
process allow for very limited, if any, adjustments consists of a thin outer layer called the avedo
to product characteristics other than blending NFC and a thicker, brous inner layer called the albedo.
from different varieties. Therefore careful selec- Orange-coloured substances called carotenoids in
tion of the fruit is necessary for NFC production. the avedo give the fruit its characteristic colour.
In concentrate production it is possible to ad- Vesicles (a small sac or cavity) containing peel oil
just certain quality parameters. Careful control also present in the avedo contribute to the fruits
of the evaporation step, essence recovery and the fresh aroma. The white spongy albedo contains
possibility of blending concentrates that differ in several substances which inuence juice quality,
character enable the processor to meet many dif- often negatively, if they nd their way into ex-
ferent product specications. Hence, variations tracted juice. These substances include avonoids,
in fruit properties are less critical for concentrate d-limonene, limonin and pectin.
production.

ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

FCOJ = Frozen concentrated orange juice

NFC = Not-from-concentrate juice
Single strength = The natural strength of juice
and that at which it is consumed.
Single-strength equivalent (SSE) = Concen-
trate and other products stated as their corre-
sponding amount of single-strength juice.

6
 1.6 Squeezing out every drop

Central core 1.6 Squeezing out every drop

Flavedo Juice vesicles In theory, the aim of the juice extraction process
is to remove the maximum amount of juice from
Albedo the fruit without including any peel. In practice,
Oil sacs a compromise is made between the possible juice
yield and the desired product quality. The maxi-
mum juice yield from an orange is 4060 % by
weight depending on the fruit variety and local
Seed climate. Valuable oil from the peel is recovered
during juice extraction. Volatile avours from the
Segment
juice are also recovered during juice processing.
The remaining material is mainly pulp, peel,
rag and seeds. Some pulp is recovered for sale as a
Segment wall
commercial product. Soluble solids are reclaimed
from the remaining pulp stream by washing with
Fig. 1.5 The structure of an orange.
water. d-Limonene is extracted from oil in waste
peel for use in the chemical and electronics
The edible portion of the fruit is known as the industry. Other by-products such as pectin and
endocarp. It consists of a central brous core, in- clouding agents are sometimes recovered. Peel
dividual segments, segments walls and an outer and other residual waste can be dewatered and
membrane. The segments contain juice vesicles, dried as pellets for animal feed. Because orange
or juice sacs, that are held together by a waxy waste is very biodegradable, small plants may
substance. Seeds may also be present within the dispose of it as landll.
segments. (See Figure 1.5.) Increased cost-efciency is important for
Apart from the juice itself, droplets of juice the orange juice industry. The development of
oil and lipid are also present in the juice vesicles. equipment within the citrus processing industry is
The juice contains sugars, acids, vitamins, miner- aimed at increasing juice yields while maintaining
als, pectins and coloured components along with juice quality. It is also very important to reduce
many other components. These are discussed in energy costs and to further rene by-products and
more detail in subsection 2.2. nd new uses for them.
After juice is extracted, pieces of ruptured
juice sacs and segment walls are recovered as
pulp. When these particles are large, they are
referred to as oating pulp because they rise to
the surface of the juice. Very ne particles and
suspended solids that gradually accumulate at the
bottom of the juice are called sinking pulp.

7
 1.7 Primary and secondary products

1.7 Primary and secondary Juice

products This product is produced either:
The orange is one of natures gifts. The two as a single-strength (natural strength) bulk
primary products whole fruit and juice are product in frozen or aseptic form (NFC);
enjoyed worldwide. Various secondary products, as bulk concentrate normally frozen (FCOJ).
the by-products, help to maximise prots and Comminuted citrus base
minimise waste. No part of the fruit is unused A by-product made either by milling the whole
after the juice is extracted if fruit throughput fresh fruit or by mixing juice concentrate with
justies investment in equipment needed to turn milled peel. This product is used as an ingredient
pulp and peel into commercial products. for fruit drinks. Because comminuted citrus base
A range of products that can be obtained from has a stronger avour and provides more cloud
oranges is summarised below, many of which than pure orange juice, it imparts a good orange
are discussed in greater detail in other sections avour to fruit drinks of low fruit content. It was
of this book. Yields of the various products de- originally developed in the UK.
rived from Florida Valencia oranges are shown
in Figure 1.6. Pulp
This is ruptured juice sacs and segment walls
Fresh fruit recovered after the extraction process. It can be
After picking, fruit intended for the fresh fruit mar- added back to juice and juice drinks to provide
ket is sent to packing stations where it is normally mouthfeel and give a natural appearance to the
graded by visual inspection, washed, coated with product. Pulp, also traded as cells, is usually
wax and packed. The detergent used in washing distributed frozen but also in aseptic bag-in-box
may include fungicides. As traces of fungicide containers.
could nd its way into juice, fruit from packing
houses may not be processed into juice for sale to,
for example, the European Union countries.

1000 kg 553 kg
Juice Essence oil: 0.1 kg

Essence aroma: 1.1 kg

Pulp: 30 kg

65 Brix concentrate: 100 kg

Peel oil: 3 kg Evaporated water: 452 kg

Fig. 1.6 Products derived from whole

Peel, rag and seeds: 413 kg
Florida Valencia oranges.
Source: SunBase, Florida

8
 1.7 Primary and secondary products

Pulp wash d-Limonene

A product reclaimed from washing the pulp The major component of peel oil. Industrial
stream. Pulp wash contains soluble fruit solids d-limonene is recovered as a by-product from
and is often used in fruit drink formulations waste peel in the feed mill. It is sold for use in
as a source of sugars and fruit solids. It is also the plastics industry as a raw material for the
used as a clouding agent to provide body and manufacture of synthetic resins and adhesives.
mouthfeel because of its pectin content. If the It has also found use as a solvent, e.g. in the
law permits, pulp wash is sometimes added to electronics industry.
juice in-line before concentration. Pulp wash is
Animal feed
also referred to as water-extracted soluble orange
Dry pellets made from the material left over from
solids, WESOS.
juice processing. The waste stream consists of
Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) peel, rag, unrecovered pulp and seeds. This resi-
The oil extracted from orange peel. Some peel oil due is dewatered and dried to form concentrated
is added to concentrate after evaporation prior to fodder for cattle and sheep.
long-term storage. It masks or slows down the de-
Citrus molasses
velopment of a cardboard off-taste during storage.
The syrup produced from the concentration of
Peel oil is sometimes used by blending houses and
liquor pressed from the wet waste stream. It is
juice packers for extra additions to concentrate. It
used in producing animal feed pellets or as raw
is sold to avour manufacturers for the production
material for the production of citrus alcohol by
of various avour compounds used in the bever-
fermentation.
age, cosmetics and chemical industries. In trading,
it is often referred to as CPO, cold-pressed oil, or Pectin
CPPO, cold-pressed peel oil. A less common by-product of fruit peel. Pectin
can be extracted from the peel for use in jam,
Essence
marmalade, jelly and preserve production.
Essence comprises the volatile components re-
covered from the evaporation process. These are
separated in an aqueous phase and an oil phase.
The water-soluble compounds (essence aroma)
are sometimes added back to the concentrate
or juice product. The oil phase (essence oil) is
different from peel oil and contains more of the
fruit avour. Essence oil is also used as add-back
to concentrate. Both aroma and essence oil are
raw materials used by avour companies for the
manufacture of avour mixtures for the beverage
and other food industries.

9
 1.8 Major orange-producing regions

Mexico 1.7 %
Cuba 1.3 %
Greece 1.2 %
South Africa 0.9 %
1.8 Major orange-producing Australia 1.1 %
Egypt 0.4 %
regions Others 1.7 %
Together, Brazil and the USA grow 50 % of the
worlds oranges and produce more than 85 % of the Spain 2 %
global orange juice supply (12 billion litres/year). Italy 3 %
Regions contributing to the majority of world or-
ange juice production are shown in Figure 1.7.
The export of orange juice onto the world
market is dominated by Brazil. US exports are
quite small as a consequence of the large domestic
Brazil 51 %
market for orange juice. (See Figure 1.8).
USA 36 %
The USA has been a signicant net importer
of juice. However, as juice production in Florida
increased as a result of new tree planting, US net
juice imports have gradually declined to a low
level, the quantities depending on the size of the
Florida harvest. Thus more juice available on the
world market must nd new or existing markets.
Figure 1.9 shows the orange juice production in Fig. 1.7 World orange juice production, 2001/02.
Source: FAO
Brazil and Florida between 1996-2003.
1.8.1 BRAZIL
During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in
Brazil was about 15 million tonnes (370 million
boxes of 40.8 kg/90 lb). Almost all commercial The majority of Brazilian oranges goes into
groves and processing plants are located in the processing. Nevertheless, the domestic fresh
state of So Paulo, where 280 million boxes were fruit market, selling for home-squeezed orange
produced. The 2002/03 harvest saw a 25 % lower juice, makes up a signicant share of the total
fruit yield than the previous and following har- production resulting from the increase in per
vests, following cyclic uctuations in yield. capita income.

1800

1600

1400
Thousand tonnes

1200

1000

800
Others
600 Belize
Costa Rica
400 Brazil Spain
USA
200

0
86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00
Year
Fig. 1.8 World export of frozen concentrated orange juice
(FCOJ), NFC volumes calculated as concentrate.
Source: FAO

10
 1.8 Major orange-producing regions

10,000

8,000
Brazil
Million litres

6,000

4,000
Florida

2,000

0
96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03

Fig. 1.9 Orange juice production in Brazil and Florida as SSE, single-strength equivalents.
Source: Florida Department of Citrus

Sweet oranges comprise the bulk of the Brazilian Groves are not normally irrigated and climatic
crop. The most important varieties are: variations, including drought, can have a strong
inuence on fruit yield and juice quality. Some
Pera Rio (June to mid-July; mid-August citrus varieties (Hamlin and Valencia) have a bi-
to mid-December) ennial cycle which leads to cyclic uctuations
Pera Natal (September to mid-January) in orange output. The variation in yield per tree
Valencia (mid-July to September;mid- obtained during recent harvest seasons is shown
October to January) in Figure 1.10.
In Brazil, the bloom the time when the
Brazilian fruit tends to be smaller, less round and tree owers and becomes pollinated before
to have a thicker peel than oranges grown for the new crop of fruit starts to grow does not
processing in, for example, Florida. The normal occur at the same time for all the trees in a
processing season for Brazilian juice plants is grove or plantation. As a consequence, trees
from late June through to early February. in a grove bear fruit of differing ripeness at
any given time. Since fruit in a specic grove
is gathered at one picking, the harvested crop
will therefore vary in maturity. This variation
2.50
in fruit ripeness forces the processor to make
compromises in the juice extraction process
Boxes/tree

2.25
that affect both the quality and yield of juice
produced. Nevertheless, the processor can
2.00
modify process conditions and use essence
1.75
recovery and juice blending to compensate for
variations in fruit to produce juice concentrate
1.50 of consistent uniformity.
96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03 Most juice in Brazil is processed into concen-
Crop year trate that is exported in large volumes. There is
Fig. 1.10 Average orange yield per tree in So Paulo a small but growing production of NFC. This is
expressed as boxes of 40.8 kg (90 lb)/tree. intended for the South American market, as well as
Source: USDA Gain report Brazil
overseas export to North America and Europe.

11
 1.8 Major orange-producing regions

1.8.2 FLORIDA Florida also produces about 40 % of the worlds

During the 2002/03 season, the orange crop in grapefruit, of which 40 % is sold as fresh fruit and
Florida was about 8 million tonnes (200 million 60 % is processed into juices and fruit products.
boxes). This was a smaller yield, 15 % lower, than The Florida orange juice processing season
average for the early 2000s. More than 95 % of extends from late October to late May/early June.
the orange crop harvested in Florida is processed Seasonal variations occur from year to year de-
into juice or juice products. pending on the weather.
A combination of climatic conditions, tree Climatic conditions in Florida are such that
variety and soil conditions results in fruit that the bloom occurs uniformly and during a very
has a low appeal to the fresh fruit market, but short period of time, usually two or three weeks.
produces a very high quality of juice. The high level of grove management includes ir-
The skin is not uniform in colour and it is often rigation and intensive pest and weed control. This
quite green or yellow. The peel is fairly difcult combination of favourable climate and procient
to remove, which contributes to consumer rejec- grove management enables the fruit to ripen uni-
tion. However, the round shape and thin peel of formly for efcient harvesting. Moreover, the uni-
Florida oranges make them ideal for mechanical form fruit quality enables the processor to select
extraction systems. the optimum processing conditions for the fruit
The main varieties of sweet oranges are: harvested each day.
Early season
Hamlin (October to January)
Parson Brown (October to January)
Mid-season
The round shape and thin
peel of Florida oranges make
Pineapple (December to March)
Late season them ideal for mechanical
Valencia (February to June) dejuicing systems
During the early part of the season the orange

juice is light in colour and has a low oil content, There has been a shift in processing oranges away
whereas during late season the juice has a stronger from FCOJ to NFC to meet the demand of the
colour and higher oil content. Some mandarin North American market. At present, 3545 % of
and hybrid fruit is also processed into juice the total orange crop goes to NFC production.
from December to April for blending in small In years with lower orange yields, processing
amounts with orange juice to obtain the desired to NFC is favoured while FCOJ production is
colour and/or avour. reduced. Most NFC juice is consumed in the US.
There are relatively short distances between juice
production and consumption.

12
 1.9 Other regions

1.9 Other regions Caribbean and Central America

This region includes several areas of small but
California increasing orange cultivation and orange juice
California is the second largest orange-produc- production. Valencia is the most common vari-
ing area in the US as regards quantity of fruit, ety of sweet orange. Grove management is not
but is the leading supplier of oranges to the fresh intensive and irrigation is rare. Climatic varia-
fruit market. The dry climate results in oranges tions lead to differences in crop yield and juice
with thick skin and good appearance that appeal quality between seasons. The main product in
to consumers. The state produced about 2 million this region is frozen concentrate, although NFC
tonnes of oranges during the 2001/02 season. is also produced for export markets.
The dominant sweet orange variety in Cali- The orange processing capacity has been
fornia is Navel, a seedless variety, followed by consolidated in Belize and Costa Rica, whereas
Valencia. Both are grown primarily for the fresh capacity has expanded in Cuba, the largest pro-
fruit market. About 20 % of the crop, which for ducer in the region. Cubas citrus production
some reason is considered unattractive to con- increased steadily in the 1990s. However, in
sumers, is used for fruit processing. 2001 a hurricane damaged a large part of the
Navel orange juice has the peculiarity of de- citrus-growing area. Cubas orange production
veloping a bitter taste after processing. In small in the 2001/02 season was 0.4 million tonnes, of
amounts, Navel juice can be used for blending which more than half went to processing. Cuba
with other juices or, alternatively, the bitterness is among the worlds most important grapefruit
can be removed in a debittering process. producers, but output was dramatically reduced
Other orange-growing states in the USA are by the hurricane.
Arizona and Texas. Valencia oranges are harvested from Decem-
Mexico ber to June. Fruit harvested from March onwards
During the 2000/01 season, 3.8 million tonnes tends to be high in sugar and low in acidity, which
of oranges were produced in Mexico. Oranges leads to very high Brix:acid ratios (>25). This
make up two thirds of citrus production, limes juice therefore requires blending.
come second with nearly 30 % of total produc- Argentina
tion and their plantation area is increasing. The Citrus production in Argentina was about 2.3
sweet orange crop is dominated by the Valencia million tonnes in 2003. Oranges made up about
variety, and most of the fruit (about 85 %) goes 30 % of the total crop, the main outlet being the
to the fresh fruit market. The majority of groves fresh fruit market. However, lemon is the most
are small, a result of Mexican land reform and important citrus crop, with Argentina being the
regulation that limit the size of farms. In the worlds largest producer of lemons, yielding about
orange-growing areas there is often a shortage 1 million tonnes annually.
of investment money and difculty in achiev- Most lemons are grown in the northeast prov-
ing effective grove management. This leads to ince of Tucuman. One third is exported as fresh
variations in crop size and fruit quality from fruit, whereas about two thirds are processed
year to year. into lemon juice. Local consumption of lemons
The production quantity of FCOJ depends on is small, and the main markets for lemon ex-
world market prices for FCOJ and raw material port lie in the Northern Hemisphere. Fresh fruit
costs. In years with short orange supply, prices export to some regions has been constrained
are high in the domestic fresh fruit market and by the required protocols and phytosanitary
so less fruit goes to processing. standards, but these demands are now being
increasingly met.

13
 1.9 Other regions

China Japan
China has the highest growth in citrus fruit produc- Citrus fruit grown in Japan consists primarily of
tion, with the provinces Sichuan, Guangdong and mandarin varieties, some of which are processed
Zheijang accounting for the largest yields. In 2001, into juice. However, since the strict restrictions
the seasonal production was about 12 million tonnes, governing fruit juice imports into Japan were
up 50 % in 5 years, and extensive citrus tree planting lifted at the end of the 1980s, production of man-
is expected to further increase harvests. Neverthe- darin juice has decreased to a low level. Imported
less, compared with other large citrus-producing orange juice concentrate now meets the needs of
regions, fruit yields are relatively low because of the rapidly expanding domestic juice market.
poor cultivar availability and grove practices. Japan is also a large importer of fresh grape-
Mandarins account for more than half of fruit and orange fruit, mainly from the US. Peri-
citrus harvests in China, although the trend is ods of economic downturn also show in declining
to reduce mandarin planting in favour of sweet imports.
orange cultivars. These include Hamlin, Valencia
Australia
and Chinese varieties, which make up about 30 %
Sweet orange varieties in Australia are Navel and
of the total citrus production. Most oranges are
Valencia. Because of the high popularity of Navel
consumed fresh with very little being processed
it is easy to peel and enjoyable to eat and new
into juice; the predominant processed product is
plantings replacing old Valencia trees, it now
canned mandarin.
accounts for about half of the crop and supplies
At present, the majority of oranges are har-
the fresh fruit market. The orange production in
vested during a short period. Since fruit quality
Australia was about 0.6 million tonnes for the
deteriorates rapidly after harvesting, there is only
2001/02 season, a high-yield year in the biennial
a short fresh fruit consumption period of 34
yield cycle.
months. In comparison, Brazil and Florida have
Fruit for processing, mainly Valencia, typi-
typical harvesting cycles with balanced yields
cally accounts for 40 % of the total harvest. The
over 7 months. Therefore there is a strong desire
Australian market for NFC has increased rapidly
in China to change to fruit varieties that result in
over the last few years and domestic producers are
longer consumption and processing periods.
shifting from FCOJ to NFC production, which of-
The per capita growth in income has led to
fers higher protability. It is difcult for Austral-
the rapidly increased demand for orange juice,
ian producers to compete at world market prices
especially in large cities. But until greater orange
for concentrate in the domestic market. Frozen
production can support efcient processing, this
concentrate now accounts for half of the juice
demand will continue to be satised by juice im-
market, mainly imported from Brazil.
ports over the next few years. Likewise, it will
There is also a drive to increase the export of
be difcult to meet the demand for fresh fruit
fresh fruit, primarily Navel, to Far East markets
by domestic production in the foreseeable future,
and increasingly to the US. As Australia has an
especially as the per capita fresh citrus consump-
alternate season to the US, it can supply the US
tion is expected to increase by 50 % over the next
market with high-quality fruit during the Califor-
10 years. Fresh fruit will continue to be the main
nia Navel off-season.
market for domestic oranges.
When China joined the WTO in 2001 it agreed
to reduce tariff rates, a measure that promotes
higher imports of fresh fruit and orange juice.

14
 1.9 Other regions

Million tonnes/year Oranges in the Mediterranean region are primarily

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 grown for the fresh fruit market, both domestic
and for export to European countries. About 15 %
China
of regional crops goes into processing. The Medi-
Spain terranean is also important for other citrus fruits.
Mandarin production is about 4.5 million tonnes,
Mexico or 30 % of world production. Lemons, about 3 mil-
India
lion tonnes, account for 30 % of world supply.
Spain is the largest Mediterranean producer of
Italy oranges and mandarins, the most important sweet or-
ange varieties being Navel and Valencia. Exports to
Iran
fresh fruit markets dominate. Production of orange
Argentina concentrate has been reduced drastically in Spain
because production costs are not competitive with
Egypt world-market concentrate prices. This is despite the
fact that processors in European Union countries
Pakistan
are entitled to a signicant subsidy for purchasing
Turkey fruit for juice production. NFC is produced for the
European market from high-quality Valencia fruit
Japan but volumes are limited by fruit availability.
South Africa

Morocco Mediterranean
Spain is the largest
producer of
Greece
oranges and mandarins
Cuba

Australia
Production
Processing

The cultivation of seedless clementines in Spain
Israel has met with success and is much appreciated by
consumers. Most fruit is exported and accounts
Fig. 1.11 World citrus fruit production and processing for 50 % of world mandarin exports.
except Brazil and Florida, 2001/02. In Italy, orange concentrate production has
Source: FAO also dropped drastically because of strong inter-
national competition as regards price. However,
Mediterranean countries several types of blood orange unique to Sicily are
In order of crop size, the most important orange- grown on the island. Juice from these oranges has
growing countries in the Mediterranean are Spain, created a niche market for export of both NFC and
Italy, Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Morocco, Syria, Alge- concentrate. In other cultivation areas, replace-
ria and Israel. About 11 million tonnes of oranges ment of blonde oranges with more protable pink
are grown in this region (2001). This represents grapefruit is taking place.
about 20 % of world orange production, and
slightly more than the current yield in Florida.

15
 1.9 Other regions

Citrus production in Israel has been declining South Africa

for many years. Orange production was less than South Africa has an expanding citrus industry, the
0.2 million tonnes in 2002, similar to grapefruit main orange varieties being Valencia and Navel.
production. The drop in concentrate production Most of the orange production, some 1.3 million
has caused the closure of processing plants. tonnes, is exported as fresh fruit. About 20 % goes
Uprooting of orchards is carried out because of to the domestic fresh fruit market and the same
low protability, urbanisation and an increasing amount is processed into concentrate.
water shortage. Traditionally, the main export market for or-
The main varieties of sweet oranges grown in ange fruit was Europe, but deregulation in 1997
Israel are Shamouti (early) and Valencia. (Jaffa is opened up new opportunities that led to Japan and
not a fruit variety but a trade name used for fruit the Middle East becoming important markets.
and juice exported from Haifa harbour.) South Africa has good potential for exporting
The CMBI (Citrus Marketing Board of Israel), fresh fruit to the northern hemisphere because
which encouraged the production and marketing of its alternate season. However, increased trade
of citrus for more than 65 years and actively built depends on South Africa meeting the phytosani-
up the European juice market, closed in 2003. tary requirements and production protocols of the
importing regions. Changes in the organisation of
the South Africa citrus industry have taken place
aimed at enabling producers to meet importers
demands more efciently.

16
2 Orange juice quality
and categories

In section 2 you will read about:

How quality is assessed in objective and How the different quality parameters are
subjective ways. measured.
Substances and factors that are important to Orange juice categories and the terms used to
juice quality, such as sugars and acids, cloud, describe the various types of orange juice.
pulp, avour and colour components, and An introduction to regulations governing
vitamin C. juice quality.

17
2. Orange juice quality
and categories
Summary Juice categories and
The most important compounds that inu- relevant terms
ence the quality of orange juice are sugars Many special terms are used for the two
and acids, avour and colour components, main categories of orange juice products,
and vitamin C. These compounds, plus cloud, ready-to-drink orange juice and juice con-
are analysed to dene and grade juice. The centrate. Some of these terms are referred to
Brix scale is used to measure sugar con- in the regulations of certain countries, other
centration, and juice acidity is measured terms are merely used in juice marketing
by titration. There are several methods for and trading.
measuring cloud and colour. Flavour is Standards and regulations governing
evaluated using subjective methods and is product origin, juice processing, juice
thus difcult to dene and measure. quality and product labelling are imple-
The deterioration of juice quality is mented by a number of regulatory bodies
mainly related to avour degradation, in different trading blocs. There is a general
nonenzymatic browning and nutrient loss. desire worldwide to harmonise the stand-
Enzyme activity affects the mouthfeel of ards in force.
juice, and the formation of limonin makes
juice taste bitter.

2.1 Juice quality

2.1.1 DEFINING QUALITY
For food products, quality is subjective and what TABLE 2.1 IMPORTANT QUALITY
is good quality must ultimately be determined by PARAMETERS FOR ORANGE JUICE
the consumer. This is also true for orange juice.
Sugar content (Brix) Flavour
The quality of orange juice as perceived by the Acid content Oil content
consumer is made up of: Ratio of Brix to acid Colour
taste Cloud Vitamin C
Pulp Defects
mouthfeel
colour

However, because orange juice is traded and con- All the parameters listed in Table 2.1, except a-
sumed worldwide, its quality cannot be determined vour, can be determined by standard methods of
solely by subjective assessments. To make assess- analysis to give meaningful and reliable results.
ments more objective, several quality parameters Orange juice avour can only be evaluated by
have been dened. Some of these parameters are sensory means, usually by groups of panellists.
used to classify (grade) orange juice, while others are These analysis methods have been collected and
used to specify the product for trading. Table 2.1 lists published in books by, for example, Redd et al.
the important quality parameters for orange juice. and Kimball.

18
 2.1 Juice quality

All processing and storage of juice on its way to

TABLE 2.2 AIJN QUALITY REQUIREMENTS the consumer should aim at maintaining the initial
FOR ORANGE JUICE quality as much as possible. Equally important is
Properties Direct Reconstituted
the quality of water used to reconstitute orange
juice juice juice, as juice made from concentrate comprises
Relative density 20/20 min. 1.040 min. 1.045 85 % added water.
Corresponding Brix min.10 min. 11.2 The effects of processing on quality are mainly
related to avour degradation, while nonoptimal
Direct juice storage conditions can result in juice browning,
Properties / Reconstituted juice
L-ascorbic acid (vit. C)
loss of vitamin C and avour changes.
at end of shelf life, mg/l min. 200
2.1.2 QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS
Volatile oils, ml/l max. 0.3
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), mg/l max. 10 Guidelines for quality standards for fruit juices for
the European Union are specied in the Code of
Volatile acid as acetic acid, g/l* max. 0.4 Practice for the evaluation of fruit and vegetable
Ethanol, g/l max. 3.0
D/L Lactic acid, g/l max. 0.2 juices, published by the AIJN (see Section 11).
Arsenic and heavy metals, mg/l max 0.015.0 The absolute quality requirements dened in the
(various values) reference guideline for orange juice are given in
* Indication of hygiene, not juice acidity.
Source: AIJN Code of Practice, Reference guideline for orange juice, 2003
Table 2.2.
In the USA, the US Department of Agriculture,
USDA, is responsible for specifying quality
The basic quality of orange juice is determined standards for orange juice. To be labelled USDA
at the fruit processor, i.e. by the quality of fruit Grade A, orange juice produced in Flor ida must
accepted at the reception area, fruit storage meet the quality requirements shown in Table
times and the way juice is extracted. Subsequent 2.3. The quality factors are measured on a 100-
processing steps cannot improve the main quality point scale. If the total score is above the limit
parameters of a given production batch. This can but just one of the quality factors does not meet
only be achieved by blending a particular juice the Grade A requirements, the juice still may not
with superior quality orange juice or concentrate. be labelled Grade A.
This is commonly done. The most important properties of orange juice
that are directly related to these quality parameters
are discussed in the following subsections.

TABLE 2.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR USDA GRADE A ORANGE JUICE

Orange juice NFC From concentrate

Analytical factors
Brix min. 11.0 min. 11.8
Ratio (Brix:acid) 12.5 20.5 12.5 20.5
Recoverable oil % v/v. max. 0.035 max. 0.035

Quality factors
Appearance fresh orange juice fresh orange juice
Reconstitution reconstitutes properly
Colour very good, min. 36 points very good, min. 36 points
Flavour very good, min. 36 points very good, min. 36 points
Defects practically free, min. 18 points practically free, min. 18 points
Total score min. 90 points min. 90 points
Source: USDA

19
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

2.2 Important properties

of orange juice HOW BRIX IS MEASURED

2.2.1 SUGARS AND ACIDS Brix can be measured by either density measure-
ments or by measuring the refractive index of
The most important properties of orange juice orange juice. Both are then related to a 100 %
are its sugar content and ratio of sugar to acid sucrose solution. The Brix scale is based on
content. This ratio indicates the balance between standard measurements at 20 C. If the juice/
concentrate is analysed at any other tempera-
sweetness and acidity in the juice. When the fruit ture, a correction factor is used to equate the
matures, this ratio increases as sugars are formed Brix measurement to one made at 20 C.
and the acid content decreases. The sugars are To obtain the corrected Brix value, the acid
content must be determined by titration in order
mainly sucrose, glucose and fructose in a ratio to read the right correction value from a table.
approximating to 2:1:1. The sugar content of juice
is normally expressed as Brix. In extracted juice, Density measurements: The buoyancy of a
hydrometer in a liquid is directly proportional to
the concentration of sugar typically varies from the density of the solution. Therefore a scale on
9 Brix for early season varieties to 12 Brix for the neck of the hydrometer can be calibrated to
fruit harvested late in the season (e.g. Florida). a Brix scale. The Brix is read on the scale at
the point where the liquid meniscus intersects
The Brix (degree Brix) scale, which was the hydrometer neck. Before measuring it is
developed by the sugar industry, relates the important to deaerate the juice since air in the
sucrose concentration of a pure sucrose solu- sample can affect the result.
tion to its density at 20 C. Brix for orange Hydrometers are mostly used for single-
strength juice. Although a hydrometer is an
juice not only includes the concentration of dis- inexpensive instrument, it is not very fast and
solved sugars but all soluble solids. Dissolved requires up to 200 ml of sample.
substances other than sugars will inuence the For in-line Brix measurements, one com-
mon method of measuring density is to feed
result of Brix measurements. Thus, the level of the sample through an oscillating tube. When
acid, the second most abundant dissolved mate- the liquid enters the tube, the frequency of the
rial, is often measured and a correction of the oscillations decrease. From this deviation the
density can be calculated. Read more about in-
Brix value is made. line density measurements in subsection 7.4.8.
For single-strength orange juice, acid cor-
rection is small and the term Brix is commonly Measurement of light refraction: Light travels
at different speeds in different media such as
used without correction to mean only the sugar air, water or sugar solutions. When light passes
content. However, in measuring Brix of orange from one medium to another it is refracted, that
juice concentrate, the acid correction is important is, it changes direction slightly. This property of
a medium can be quantied as its refractive in-
due to the much higher acid content of concen- dex. The refractive index of a solution depends
trate. Here, the term Brix, cor rected is used. on its total soluble solids. Therefore Brix can be
determined by measuring the refraction of light.
Either analogue or digital refractometers can be
used to measure Brix. Although refractometers
Brix = % soluble solids (w/w) are more expensive than hydrometers, they are
more frequently used because they can measure
Brix, corrected = % sugar (w/w) over a large scale, 170 Brix, and they constitute
a fast method which requires very little sample,
23 ml. Modern refractometers can compensate
In the laboratory, the Brix of orange juice is for temperature, but independent correction for
analysed by measuring the juice density with a acids is necessary, especially for concentrates.
Read more about in-line refractometer meas-
hydrometer or by measuring the refractive index urements in subsection 7.4.7.
of juice using a laboratory or hand refractometer.
Two basic instruments used for Brix analysis are Source: Dan A. Kimball, Citrus processing: Quality control
shown in Figure 2.1. Read more about in-line and technology, 1991.

measurements in subsection 7.4.

20
 Density: 2.2 Important properties of orange juice
hydrometer

Light refraction:
hand refractometer

HOW ACIDITY (TOTAL ACIDS)

IS MEASURED

Fig. 2.1 Examples of instruments used Juice acidity is measured using a chemical titra-
for Brix measurements. tion method. Orange juice contains acids which
release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. When a
-
base which releases hydroxyl ions (OH ) is added
to an acid media, a chemical reaction takes place
After sugars, acids are the most abundant class of which gradually turns the solution neutral.
soluble solids in orange juice. The acids comprise
H+ + OH- H2O
mainly citric acid and to a lesser degree malic acid.
Some of the acids are in the form of salts, which To analyse the acid content in a juice sample, a
base (e.g. sodium hydroxide, NaOH) of known
give orange juice a buffering capacity. Thus even concentration is slowly added under agitation
though the acid content may vary a lot, the pH of until a specic pH value is reached. Most
juice extracted from mature oranges is generally ofcial methods state that the end pH value
should be 8.1 (AOAC*) 8.2 (USDA). However,
between 3.2 and 3.8. some producers titrate to pH 7.0 (neutral) and
Total acid content (acidity) is measured by it is therefore important to mention the end pH
titration and is often expressed as grams citric together with the acid content. The change in
pH can be detected by a pH electrode or by us-
acid per litre juice. ing a sensitive pH colour indicator that changes
colour abruptly at pH 8.2.
Ratio When the size of the juice sample, the con-
The Brix:acid ratio is very important for taste as centration of the base and the amount of base
it is a measure of the balance between the sweet added are known, the total concentration of ac-
ids in the juice can be calculated. In Europe, the
and sour sensation. As oranges ripen, the acidity acidity of orange juice is expressed as grams
decreases while the sugars increase. Therefore citric acid per litre juice, whereas in the USA it
the Brix:acid ratio will also increase. is expressed as grams citric acid per 100 grams
juice, or % w/w.
The ratio decides the maturity of the fruit be-
fore harvesting. Maturity standards for oranges EXAMPLE
Procedure
in Florida require a minimum Brix of 9.0 and a
Pipette 10 ml of single-strength juice or weigh
minimum Brix:acid ratio of 10. Consumers prefer 510 g concentrate into a beaker.
a ratio around 15 and therefore it is often necessary Pour sodium hydroxide (NaOH) of concentra-
to increase the ratio. In the USA, the only permit- tion 0.1562 N into a burette.
The pH can be indicated by adding 5 drops of
ted way of doing this is by blending low-ratio juice phenolphthalein or by using a pH meter.
with juice of higher ratio extracted at other times Titrate until a slight darkening in the juice per-
of the season. In the EU, sugar may be added up to sist or until pH 8,20. Read off the amount NaOH
used from the burette.
15 g/l orange juice for balancing acidity without
having to label it sweetened. Many other coun- Calculation
tries also allow for small amounts of sugar addition Single-strength juice: % acid = ml titration
solution/10.4
but the permitted level may vary. Therefore local Concentrate: % acid = ml titration solution/g
legislation should be consulted for details of this. concentrate
Adding sugar to juice for sweetening purposes (in
* AOAC The association of ofcial analytical chemists.
higher concentrations than above) is not permitted
without highly visible information on the package
indicating this. Removal of acid from the juice, dea-
cidication, would also increase the ratio but is not Brix
permitted for orange juice in most countries. Ratio =
Orange juice concentrate can be bought with % (w/w) citric acid
different ratios; typical values lie between 14
and 17.

21
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

2.2.2 CLOUD AND PULP

Cloud in orange juice is considered a desirable HOW CLOUD AND PULP
characteristic; it gives an opaque appearance ARE MEASURED
to the juice and is important for the mouthfeel.
Sinking pulp
Orange juice cloud is formed by soluble and in- Different procedures for measuring the pulp and
soluble (suspended) compounds released during concentration of suspended solids of orange
juice extraction. juice are used by the industry, therefore it is
often impossible to compare values from differ-
Pectin is an important soluble cloud con- ent sources.
stituent because it increases the viscosity of the The juice sample is centrifuged in graduated
juice liquid, thereby allowing solid particles to tubes for a known time and speed. Solid mate-
rial above a certain particle size will settle in
remain suspended. the tubes according to the time and centrifugal
So-called cloud loss is caused by a loss in force of the lab centrifuge. The recommended
viscosity due to reactions between pectin mole- procedure in the juice industry is to spin the
juice sample at 370 g for 10 minutes at 26 C
cules and calcium. In the reaction, long pectin (USDA method), whereas the Tetra Pak method
molecule chains are formed which settle to the uses 3000 g for 3 minutes. The higher g-force
bottom. Cloud loss leads to total separation of used in the Tetra Pak method gives a more
compact pulp sediment and therefore a signi-
suspended particles, leaving an upper clear phase cantly lower reading than the recommended
and a lower cloudy phase consisting of solid matter method for juice of the same pulp content.
settling towards the bottom. If the same reaction The sedimented quantity is expressed as vol-
ume %. Not only may the time-speed combina-
between pectin and calcium takes place in orange
tion vary greatly from method to method, but the
juice concentrate, it will instead lead to gelation results may be referred to suspended solids, sus-
of the concentrate. You can read more about this pended pulp, centrifugable pulp or sinking pulp.
in subsection 4.4.
Floating pulp
Another important contributor to the opaque Floating pulp is often measured by a sieving
appearance of juice is the suspended solids also method. Sieves with different hole sizes are
known as pulp. The very small pulp particles used to determine the amount and size of pulp
in juice. (See subsection 8.2)
called sinking pulp are closely related to cloud.
Some sedimentation of these particles will occur Cloud stability
during storage. This sedimentation is not related Cloud stability is detected by measuring the
transmittance of orange juice in a spectropho-
to cloud loss. tometer. This analysis method is based on the
Pulp is made up mainly of ruptured fruit cell fact that both soluble and insoluble solids absorb
walls, segment walls and core bre. Two kinds of light, with the result that only a certain amount of
total light entering a sample will pass through it.
pulp are found in juice: The orange juice sample is centrifuged to take
away larger suspended particles (sinking pulp).
Sinking pulp, comprising particulate bres that The light transmittance of the sample serum is
measured at 650 nm wavelength. The denser
gradually settle out with time. This type of pulp
the cloud in orange juice, the lower the transmit-
is found in all orange juices and is an important tance, %T. Orange juice cloud is not considered
part of orange juice cloud. Typical values in stable if the %T at 650 nm is greater than 36.
single-strength juice range from 5 % to 12 %,
although the results depend very much on the
analysis method used.

22
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

Floating pulp, or cells, consisting of larger solid The rst two components have already been dis-
matter. Most of this rises to the surface of juice cussed. The following text deals with the volatile
after it has been stirred. Floating pulp is added components of orange juice.
to concentrate or reconstituted juice. Its typical Volatile means that the compounds will va-
concentration in single-strength juice, if added, porise from the juice at elevated temperatures.
is 530 g/l (sieving method). The lower the temperature at which the a-
vour component evaporates, the more volatile
More information on pulp and pulp production is the component. As the orange ripens the volatile
can be found in Sections 5 and 8. components are created and increase. The vola-
tiles are of two types water-insoluble oils and
watersoluble aromas. In everyday speech, volatile
components are referred to as avours.
Essence oil
During the production of orange juice concen-
Essence
Peel oil aroma trate, most of the volatile avours are removed
in the evaporation step by being boiled off to-
gether with water. This results in juice concen-
trate having a at cooked taste. However, the
volatiles boiled off from juice are collected in
an essence-recovery system. The orange avour
in the juice can later be restored by adding back
the recovered fractions.
Processing and storage of juice along the
whole supply chain from tree to consumer are
responsible for the changes in orange avour
caused by the juice losing or gaining components.
Gained compounds are called off-avours (not
Figure 2.2 The product streams that contain volatile always volatile). They are of two kinds;
avours in a juice processing plant. natural constituents of the fruit itself
(from peel and rag)
compounds formed during processing
and/or storage
2.2.3 FLAVOUR
Flavour is the complex experience of the smell, It is important to extract the juice so that unwanted
taste and mouthfeel of a product. The avour of compounds from peel and rag do not enter the
orange juice is built up from a number of compo- juice. This is mainly achieved by avoiding too
nents, the most important of which are: high a pressure in the juice extractors and juice
acids and sugars for taste nishers (see Section 5). Heat and oxygen are in-
cloud for mouthfeel volved in the formation of off-avour compounds
volatile components for smell and taste during processing and storage. However, it is still
not totally clear how the compounds that affect
juice avour are formed.

23
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

Volatile avours There is no reliable instrumental method of de-

The volatile avour components are found in termining orange juice avour objectively, so it is
three product fractions peel oil, essence oil carried out by sensory evaluation. As this is based
and essence aroma. To obtain good orange juice on subjective judgement, the setup of sensory
avour, components from all three fractions must analyses for avour and the evaluation of results
be present. However, the exact blend needed for an are complicated. Nevertheless, avour analyses
optimal orange juice avour is still unknown. must be carried out because of the importance of
avour as a quality parameter.
Peel oil. The recommended level of peel oil in
Oil content
reconstituted FCOJ is about 0.02 % v/v. When
The oil content is often equated to d-limonene
added to juice, peel oil gives body and freshness,
concentration since d-limonene is the dominant
although when used alone it can give an articial
compound present in both peel oil and essence oil.
taste. Oil levels much above 0.02 % v/v give rise
d-Limonene acts as a carrier of avours but con-
to juice harshness and a burning taste.
tributes little to the avour itself. However, excess
of d-limonene can give a burning taste to juice.
Essence oil. A typical concentration of single-
Juice processed under USDA directives may
strength essence oil added to orange juice from
have a maximum oil content of 0.035 % v/v. How-
concentrate is about 0.01 % v/v. When added to
ever, consumer preferences range between 0.015
juice, essence oil gives top-notes and makes the
and 0.020 % v/v. High levels of oil in juice result
juice fruity, green and sweet.
from squeezing the fruit too hard when extracting
the juice (for increased yield).
Essence aroma. The essence aroma gives top-
notes to the juice and makes it fresh and sweet.
A typical concentration of single-strength aroma
added to orange juice is about 0.2 % v/v. Ad-
dition of this fraction is more commonly found HOW OIL CONTENT IS MEASURED
with premium quality juice products than with The analysis of volatile avours is often compli-
standard products. cated and involves expensive instruments like a
gas chromatograph. The d-limonene level can,
however, be measured by a simpler titration

Acompounds
balance of avour
from peel oil,
method, the Scott method.
Since it is not possible to titrate the juice
directly, the oil must rst be removed from the
juice. This is done by heating up a mixture of
juice and alcohol; the alcohol and oil evapo-
essence oil and aroma is rate readily from the mixture since they are the
most volatile components. The alcohol and oil
essential for optimal vapours are cooled down and collected. The
orange avour d-limonene content in this mixture can then be

determined by titration.
The titration in the Scott method is based on
a chemical reaction between d-limonene and
The add-back of avours to concentrate or recon- bromide. A red colour indicator is rst added to
stituted juice is carried out to different degrees. the sample and then a bromide solution is added
slowly. Bromide reacts with d-limonene, and as
Most processors add essence oil, essence aroma long as there is d-limonene present in the sam-
and additional peel oil to develop a special taste. ple the solution remains red. When the sample
And today, dedicated avour companies usually no longer contains any d-limonene the bromide
reacts with the colour indicator instead and the
offer specially developed avour packages to en-
red colour disappears. As the concentration of
hance a certain desirable avour prole. Further the bromide solution and the amount added to
details on volatile avour fractions can be found reach the colour change are known, it is possible
in Section 8. to calculate the d-limonene content. The oil level
is expressed as % v/v in 11.8 Brix juice.

24
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

In juice used for concentrate production, high 2.2.4 COLOUR

oil levels are not regarded as a serious problem The intense colour of orange juice is mainly due
since most of the oil is boiled off in the evapo- to compounds called carotenoids. Colour, which
rator. However, high oil levels in juice from the should be bright yellow to orange-red and not too
extractors may indicate that other unwanted com- pale, is an important quality parameter. The fact
pounds have entered the juice. These nonvolatile that the USDA regards colour scores and avour
avour compounds do not leave the juice during scores as equally important for orange juice shows
concentration. the signicance of colour.
For NFC production, low-pressure extraction
and/or downstream deoiling of extracted juice
is often used to reduce the oil content to near HOW COLOUR IS MEASURED
0.020 % v/v.
Colour is an important quality parameter but it is
Bitterness difcult to dene and measure. The main meth-
Orange juice should have no noticeable trace of ods used to evaluate colour are presented below.
bitterness. Although even very small amounts of Known colour standards
bitter substances are detectable by the consumer, An example of this subjective method is the set
bitterness is not a common problem for orange of USDA colour tubes. One merely matches the
colour of the orange juice sample with one of
varieties normally used for processing. six colour standards in glass tubes. The com-
Some orange varieties mainly intended for the parison should be done under a dened light
fresh fruit market such as Navel and Shamouti intensity around 150 candela.
contain a precursor (a chemical substance that
Colorimetry
gives rise to another more important substance) A colorimeter emits a ash of light from a pulsed
of a very bitter compound called limonin. The xenon arc lamp to illuminate a juice sample and
precursor itself is not bitter, which explains then measures the reected light. The measured
colour is then expressed according to the L, a
why fresh fruit and freshly extracted juice of and b scale. The L axis indicates lightness of
these varieties do not taste bitter. But when the colour, the a axis indicates the colour range
juice sacs are ruptured during extraction, the from red to green, and the b axis indicates the
colour range from yellow to blue.
limonin precursor enters juice where it is rap- Although colorimetric measurements are not
idly converted to limonin. A debittering process subjective, meaningful interpretation of results
involving ultraltration and adsorbing separated can only be made after fairly long experience.
The colorimeter can also be calibrated to known
bitter components on to resin can be used to re- standard colour tubes to make the colour meas-
move the bitter taste. For more information see urements easier.
Braddock, 1999.
Spectrophotometry
The colour change that may occur in orange
juice during storage is often called browning
and is measured with a spectrophotometer. All
cloud material is removed from the juice sample
and the light absorbed by clear juice is meas-
ured at 420 nm wavelength. A wavelength of
420 nm is selected because the more red-brown
the sample is, the more light will be absorbed at
this wavelength. The higher the absorption, the
more accurate the results.

25
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

In dry and cooler climates such as in the Medi-

terranean, the colour of juice is well developed, TABLE 2.4 AVERAGE VITAMIN C
while in hotter and more humid climates like that CONTENT IN SOME FRUITS
of Florida the pigments are diluted and thus juice Fruit Average vitamin C,
has less colour. The only legal way to enhance col- mg per 1000 g
our is to blend the juice in question with another edible fruit
orange juice with a higher colour score (e.g. from Peach 80
Apple 80
Valencia oranges). In the USA it is also allowed Blackberry 210
to add up to 10 % tangerine juice to early sea- Kumquat 380
son orange juice. Tangerine juice contains more Grapefruit 390
Orange 530
carotenoids and therefore has stronger colour than Papaya 620
most other citrus varieties. Kiwi fruit 630
Colour can be measured by comparing the Strawberry 660
Guava 1840
juice with known colour standards in glass tubes,
Blackcurrant 2100
or by using a colorimeter.
Off-colours result primarily from formation
Source: Svenska statens livsmedelsverk, Livsmedelstabell
of brown compounds that dull the natural colour
of juice, not by changes in the pigments them-
selves. The colour pigments of orange juice are
quite heat-stable compared with colour pigments Typical values for vitamin C in freshly extracted
in other foods. The formation of brown-coloured juice range from 450 to 600 mg/litre. Provided
compounds occurs after excessive heat treatment that the production procedures are correct, only
or long storage at room temperature. a small loss of vitamin C occurs during the in-
itial processing into concentrate. More signicant
2.2.5 PROMOTING HEALTH
losses may occur during processing at the juice
A number of compounds present in juice con-
packer and during ambient storage. Typical values
tribute to its health-promoting image. Some of
for orange juice when consumed range from 200
these are discussed below.
to 400 mg/litre.
Ascorbic acid Vitamin C is essential for the synthesis of
Ascorbic acid vitamin C is the most important collagen, the most abundant protein in mam-
nutrient in orange juice. One of the reasons for mals. Collagen is the major brous element of
this is that consumers regard oranges as a good skin, bone, blood vessels and teeth. A lack of
source of vitamin C. Some other fruits contain vitamin C leads to scurvy, which causes loss of
more vitamin C than oranges but few are as popu- teeth, bleeding skin and ulcers.
lar, see Table 2.4. The level of vitamin C in freshly Vitamin C is sometimes suggested to have an
extracted orange juice may vary a lot depending anticancer effect by its reaction with and inac-
on orange variety and growing conditions. tivation of free radicals in the body. A wide range
of other benecial effects of vitamin C are also
suggested. However, contrary to popular belief,
it has never been shown clinically that vitamin C
has a preventive effect on the common cold.

26
 2.2 Important properties of orange juice

TABLE 2.5 THE NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF

FRESHLY EXTRACTED ORANGE JUICE

Content per 100 g

Constituent Range Average
Protein (total Nx6.25), g 0.581.29 0.91
Amino nitrogen, g 0.0290.07 0.047
Fat (ether extract), g 0.00.66 0.2
Soluble solids, total, g 8.117.7 12.3
Sugar, total as invert, g 6.2314.3 9.15
Reducing sugar, g 2.258.83 4.60
Sucrose, g 2.986.24 4.37
Acid, total, g 0.581.73 1.09
Malic acid, g 0.100.17 0.15
Mineral nutrients as ash, g 0.270.70 0.41
Calcium, mg 6.329.4 15
Chlorine, mg 3.613.2 6
Fluorine, mg 0.110.19 0.14
Iron, mg 0.10.8 0.3
Magnesium, mg 9.817.1 12
Phosphorus, mg 8.030.0 20
Potassium, mg 116265 196
Sodium, mg 0.22.4 0.5
Sulphur, mg 3.511.3 8
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), mg 2684 56.6
Betain, mg 4147 44
Biotin, mg 0.00010.00037 0.00024
-Carotene, mg 0.230.28 0.12
Choline, mg 715 11
Flavonoids, mg 80118 99
Folic acid, mg 0.0030.007 0.004
Inositol, mg 170210 194
Niacin, mg 0.130.46 0.26
Pantothenic acid, mg 0.060.3 0.13
Pyridoxine (B6), mg 0.0230.094 0.038
Riboavin (B4), mg 0.0130.059 0.021
Thiamine, B1, mg 0.0570.106 0.077
Vitamin B12, g 0.00110.0012 0.0011

Source: adapted from Redd and Praschan.

Other nutrients Flavonoids and pectin are believed to be linked

Folic acid is also found in signicant amounts in to the reduction of blood serum cholesterol in
orange juice. This B vitamin is required for DNA humans. The avonoid hesperidin can, however,
synthesis and its deciency is rst expressed in cause problems during orange juice production as it
tissues with high rates of cell turnover. Pregnant precipitates out as white akes in the evaporator.
women are prone to folic acid deciency which, in A number of other nutrients like thiamine
rare cases, may affect the foetus. Folic acid is quite and potassium are also found in orange juice
heat-sensitive, but the vitamin C in citrus juice pro- but not in larger amounts than found in other
tects it from degradation during heat treatment. fruits and vegetables. A comprehensive list of
nutrients in freshly extracted orange juice is
given in Table 2.5.

27
 2.3 Orange juice categories

Ready to drink

NFC or direct juice

RTD juice made

from concentrate

Fig. 2.3 Main orange juice categories.

For dilution

FCOJ 4152 Brix

2.3.1 READY-TO-DRINK ORANGE JUICE
Ready-to-drink (RTD) orange juice is at the
strength at which it will be consumed. It does not
require dilution before drinking. Some categories
of RTD orange juice are given below.
Freshly squeezed orange juice
2.3 Orange juice categories Juice packaged directly after extraction but with-
Quality parameters as dened in product specic- out pasteurisation or any other physical or chemi-
ations and grade standards provide orange juice cal treatment. Its shelf life is very short.
buyers and sellers with appropriate information
Fresh orange juice
about the product they are handling. This applies to
A misleading term that should be avoided. Some-
any link in the production chain. To the consumer,
times it is used to mean freshly squeezed orange
however, orange juice covers a wide range of prod-
juice, in other markets it is used for juice distrib-
ucts, many of which are not well-dened.
uted chilled (NFC or made from concentrate).
Many different terms are used within orange
juice marketing to describe the various products. Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC)
Several of these terms are not consistent and have Juice which has neither undergone a concentration
different meanings in different countries. Never- step nor dilution during production. This term
theless, along with the increase in global trade originated in the USA.
and marketing of orange juice, there is growing
Premium juice
pressure to harmonise the terms used.
Orange juice products can be divided into two A term which has been used in the USA and
main categories ready-to-drink juices and con- Canada for NFC for marketing purposes.
centrates. The latter require dilution with water Direct juice
before consumption. Ready-to-drink juices are A term sometimes used in Europe for NFC. The
either NFC or reconstituted from concentrate. expression not from concentrate is felt to imply
to consumers that juice derived from concentrate
is inferior to NFC. In European legislation NFC
is dened simply by the term fruit juice.

28
 2.3 Orange juice categories

Pure juice or 100 % juice Orange juice drinks

Often used on a label to dene pure juice, being Drinks with a lower juice content than nectars.
a direct juice or one made from concentrate to They are not subject to juice legislation but to
distinguish it from nectar. general food legislation. In some cases they may
contain only peel oil and avouring agents.
Orange juice from concentrate
This product is also known as orange juice made Orange avour drinks
with concentrate. The juice is produced by di- Products tasting of orange but containing no
luting orange concentrate with potable water. genuine juice product.
2.3.2 CONCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE
FORTIFIED ORANGE JUICES Concentrated orange juice is diluted to single
strength before consumption. The most com-
Juice with added oating pulp
mon orange concentrate products for the trade
This is juice with added oating cells (also known
and retail sectors are given below.
as pulp or fruit meat). The product is sometimes
called Home style, Natural, etc. Frozen concentrated orange juice
The added cells provide mouthfeel and increase (FCOJ), 6566 Brix
the natural bre content of juice. Juice without The standard product for traded orange juice
oating cells is referred to as smooth. concentrate. It is concentrated approx. 5.5 times.
It is a bulk product only, stored and shipped at
Vitamin enriched 6 to 25 C.
Both naturally occurring vitamins and man-made The term may be misleading as FCOJ at such
vitamins can be added by packers to increase the high concentration does not freeze solid but is
nutritional value of orange juice. still pumpable.
Calcium enriched FCOJ at approx. 55 Brix
Calcium compounds, which are soluble in juice, This product is often referred to as Dairy Pack. It
are added to juice by the packer to increase its is a bulk product only. It is 66 Brix concentrate
nutritional value. cut back (rediluted), e.g. with single-strength
Fibre enriched juice and pulp, to the required concentration. No
Addition of nutritional bre (normally not from further additions are needed at the juice packer
oranges) to increase the health value of juice. apart from water dilution. This product is com-
monly used by dairies.
RTD ORANGE PRODUCTS WHICH MAY FCOJ at min. 41.8 Brix
NOT BE CALLED ORANGE JUICE A retail product, mainly in US, for dilution with
water (3 times) to single strength at home, in
Orange nectar
restaurants, etc.
Orange juice with added sugar, acids and/or water.
The minimum fruit content varies according to leg- Concentrate at approx. 52 Brix
islation. For orange nectar, EU regulations stipulate A retail product aseptically packaged, mainly in
min. 50 % fruit juice content at RTD strength. Scandinavia. For dilution with water (4 times) to
single strength at home, in restaurants, etc. It is
distributed chilled or at ambient temperature.

29
 2.4 Regulations governing juice origin

2.4 Regulations governing In the USA, standards governing the composition

juice origin and labelling of food and the use of additives are
In the European Union and several other countries, under the administration of the Food and Drug
the term orange juice may only be used for juice Administration (FDA) and the United States De-
extracted from sweet oranges, Citrus sinensis. In the partment of Agriculture (USDA). The standards
USA, regulations allow for up to 10 % of tangerine for orange juice identity (or juice origin) are
or hybrid orange/tangerine juice to be included in enforced by the FDA, whereas the standards for
orange juice. Also Codex Alimentarius allows for orange juice grades (more or less the quality) are
10 % mandarine juice. These added juices can im- enforced by the USDA.
prove the colour and avour of the blended juice. In the European Community, legislation
In principle, regulations governing direct juice, covering fruit juices and fruit nectars is based
or NFC, require that avour and pulp removed on a Council Directive concerning fruit juices
during processing should be added back to the and similar products. The current directive
same juice. For reconstituted orange juice, water 2001/112/EC came into force in 2001 and EU
should be added back to the minimum concentra- countries were given until 2003 to comply with
tion dened in the quality standard applied in a it. The demands for labelling are outlined in the
country. Essences should be added back to restore Council Directive on labelling, although specic
avours, and pulp may be added to achieve the labelling requirements are given in the fruit juice
desired properties of the nal juice product. Council Directive.
Orange juice should come from the endocarp Countries in other regions have similar leg-
of the fruit and be extracted by mechanical means. islation to that of the US and EU. Countries not
The EU directives for fruit juices of 2001 allow having their own legislation refer to the Codex
pulp wash in orange juice from concentrate, but Alimentarius published by the FAO.
not in direct (NFC) juice. In-line addition of pulp There is a general desire worldwide to har-
wash is also allowed in the US (up to 5 %) and monise orange juice standards to promote free and
many other countries. open global trading. This is an objective of the
Although attempts are being made continually Juice Products Association (JPA), whose mem-
to reach consensus between legislation in different bers are drawn from the United States, Canada,
global trading blocs, regulations governing fruit Mexico, Central and South America, and Europe.
juices and other beverages still vary worldwide. The JPAs position is that the USDA standards
In general, legislation covers: covering the grade and quality of orange juice
product origin should be applicable throughout the major citrus
how juice processing may be carried out juice producing countries. It even suggests that
the composition and quality of fruit juices USDA standards should be adopted as a world-
product labelling wide harmonised standard. There are ongoing
discussions with European and other authorities
on this topic.
An overview of the most important aspects of
legislation in the US, EU and other countries are
found in Section 11, Standards and Regulations.

30
3 The supply chain and
global consumption
of orange juice

In section 3 you will read about:

The structure of the orange juice industry. How FCOJ is traded as a commodity
The evolving relationship between orange product and the signicance of the futures
growers and fruit processors. market to bulk trading.
How marketing processors and bulk Import duties with examples in certain
processors operate. trading blocs and countries.
The activities of blending houses, juice The amount of orange juice products
packers and soft drink producers. consumed in major markets.
The uctuations in the worldwide pricing
of bulk juice products.

31
3. The supply chain
and global consumption
of orange juice
Summary Pricing and trading
Orange juice products usually change Special terminals for handling frozen con-
hands many times along the supply chain. centrate in bulk are located in major ports.
It is thus important for all involved in the The world market price of FCOJ uctuates
intermediate steps to be familiar with the according to its supply and demand. Free-
total sequence of juice production. carrier Rotterdam warehouse is a common
In Florida, orange growers are becoming standard for FCOJ (66 Brix) traded prices,
diversied agribusiness companies. In Bra- which include freight charges to the port of
zil, the large orange processors still get part Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
of their fruit from their own groves. The futures market enables the citrus
So-called marketing processors produce industry to manage commercial risks. It
and sell their own juice brands. Bulk proc- also sets a value for FCOJ. The speculative
essors mainly sell their products in bulk activity of the futures market provides the
form. Blending houses provide concentrate nance needed to transact commercial
and bases of consistent quality according to hedges and set price levels. In addition
dened customer specications. Juice pack- to long-term contracts there is also a spot
ers treat bulk product as required and then market for FCOJ.
pack it in consumer packages. Soft drink Quite large differences in import duties
producers may use orange concentrate and for orange juice exist between importing
prepared bases from blending houses as countries. As regards the consumption of
raw materials. orange juice, the USA and Europe are the
largest markets.

3.1 The chain of supply Industry structure

There are many links in the chain of supply for Full vertical integration i.e. having all the steps
orange juice from ripe oranges ready for pick- from fruit harvesting to distribution of packaged
ing to the consumer opening a carton of juice at consumer product under one roof is rare in the
a distant location (see Figure 3.1). The product orange juice industry. This has resulted not only
usually changes hands several times along the from geographical factors but also from the way
way. It is thus important to be familiar with the the industry has matured.
complete sequence of juice production in order There is a trend for each link in the production
to understand the commercial conditions for each chain growers, fruit processors, juice packers
type of company forming the intermediate links and retailers to become independent businesses.
in the supply chain. This may be a natural consequence of the market-
This section refers generally to orange juice place demanding increased and specialised com-
production in Florida and Brazil, which dominate petence at each step of the production sequence.
the world juice market. It may also be partly due to commercial factors,
such as long-term supply contracts and the futures
market, that allow individual sectors of the citrus
industry to reduce their own commercial risk from
market price uctuations.

32
 3.1 The chain of supply

Oranges

Packaged juice
reconstituted and NFC

Packaged juice
and juice drinks

Bulk concentrate
Fruit processors and NFC

By-products Still and

carbonated
Bulk concentrate soft drinks
Juice packers
and NFC

Fig. 3.1 The supply chain from

fruit harvest to consumers.

Soft drink bases

Blending houses Soft drink producers

3.1.1 GROWERS The orange-growing and processing industry

Orange growers manage the groves, harvest and undergoes constant change in line with evolving
sell the orange fruit. They are organised in many commercial and political conditions. On the grow-
ways from small independent growers selling ers side, in Florida there has been a shift from
their fruit to a fruit handler or through a coop- independent farmers to diversied agribusiness
erative, to growers who are part of a large fruit companies that are active in marketing and inter-
processing company. ested in long-term business relationships.
For the fruit processor it is essential to secure Moreover, in Florida during the 90s, grow-
a continuous supply of oranges in sufcient quan- ers divested themselves of juice production, and
tities and at the right price. Traditionally, many processors who had until then owned their own
orange processors have owned the groves needed groves instead formed partnerships with growers.
to supply them with all or the majority of fruit Long-term agreements between processors and
required throughout a season. This is particularly growers ensure the stable supply of raw materials.
important during periods of uncertain fruit sup- There are several organisations promoting the in-
ply and unstable prices, e.g. as was experienced terests of Florida citrus growers to give them a
during the Florida freezes in the 1980s. Today, stronger marketing and negotiating position than
however, the supply of fruit is abundant in most their counterparts in other countries.
regions, although the drop in concentrate prices In Brazil, the large orange processors still
has made alternative outlets for fruit more inter- get part of their fruit (20 %) from their own
esting than concentrate production. groves. The remaining fruit is mostly obtained
by long-term contracts with medium- and large-
size growers.

33
 3.1 The chain of supply

The largest marketing processors are based in

Growers Florida, such as Tropicana, the leading NFC
producer, and Citrus World. They process fruit
into juice and ll it into retail packages at their
Fruit handlers own facilities. They also purchase additional juice
in bulk form from other bulk processors.
For marketing processors, the control of prod-
uct availability is regarded as more important
Fruit processors than ownership of manufacturing assets. As an
example, Coca-Cola now focuses on marketing
and distributing Minute-Maid brands, while the
Fig. 3.2 The supply of oranges to fruit processors. production facilities are owned and operated by
a Brazilian bulk processor, Cutrale.
How growers are paid
The majority of orange juice worldwide is
Fruit quantities are often quoted in eld box produced by bulk processors. Bulk delivery is
units. Based on Florida practice, one box is de- most important to the large Brazilian processors.
ned as 90 lb (40.8 kg) of oranges. They do not possess their own consumer brands,
In Florida, payment to growers is not based on one reason being to avoid competing with their
the weight of delivered fruit but on the amount bulk juice customers.
of soluble solids (juice sugars) obtained from the Several joint ventures have been created for
fruit. The quantity of soluble solids is calculated the rapidly growing NFC market in South Amer-
from the volume of juice extracted from the fruit ica. Brazilian bulk processors pack retail products
multiplied by the Brix level of the juice. The at their facilities as co-packers for companies that
amount of extracted juice is determined by squeez- have their own branded products and distribution
ing a sample of oranges on a State test extractor. and marketing chains.
Oranges rejected during screening at the process- The bulk products are transported in ship tank-
ing plant fruit reception area are not paid for. ers, tank cars or in individual containers, such as
In Brazil, payment to the growers was made 200 litre (55 gallon) steel drums and one tonne bag-
traditionally according to the gross weight of in-box containers. Efcient transport is crucial for
delivered fruit, including rejects. Payment to- these commodity products. (See also Section 6.)
day is still based on fruit quantity although the Several terminal installations around the
contract format has changed. Standard contracts world are dedicated to receiving and shipping
with payment to growers based on FCOJ world frozen concentrated orange juice (FCOJ) using
market prices were abandoned in the mid 90s tankers. The larger Brazilian processors own
and replaced by free negotiations. terminals in Brazil for exporting bulk products
3.1.2 TYPES OF FRUIT PROCESSOR from Brazil, and in Europe, the USA and Japan
In short, orange processors take in fruit and proc- for importing FCOJ into these markets. These
ess it to produce concentrate and NFC. They can companies also own several large tanker ships
be divided into two groups: designed and dedicated to transporting FCOJ.
marketing processors Recently, bulk ships and terminals dedicated to
bulk processors handling chilled aseptic NFC from Brazil have
also come into operation.
Marketing processors sell packaged juice under Bulk processors make their money from the
their own brand name, which requires retail and difference in bulk concentrate prices and fruit
consumer marketing skills. prices the bulk processing margin. Florida
Bulk processors mainly sell their products in bulk processors are very vulnerable to the wide
bulk form, which requires skills in the efcient uctuations in FCOJ prices.
distribution and marketing of a commodity.

34
 3.1 The chain of supply

Bulk processors
Long-term contracts

Trading companies
Long-term contracts

Blending houses Juice packers

Long-term contracts

Spot market Spot purchases

Fig. 3.3 The orange juice supply chain from bulk processors.

Therefore they need to take advantage of the season and operating conditions change in the
commodity trading market (and to benet from plant. Juice packers, however, need to buy raw
its commercial protection) in a similar way to juice of dened quality as they, in turn, need to
their Brazilian counterparts. supply the market with uniform products over
The links between Florida and Brazil strength- the long term.
ened during the 1990s. The major Brazilian bulk The need for consistent juice quality has
processors acquired several juice facilities in created the industry segment blending houses.
Florida and operate 8 plants (2002) contribut- Although they normally work with many different
ing to about half of Floridas juice production. fruit juices, orange juice is a primary product
Operating in both markets offers benets such for blending houses. Their purpose is to provide
as higher trading efciency and balancing con- juice packers with a concentrate (and sometimes
centrate quality. also NFC) that consistently meets dened qual-
NFC, which has had a high growth rate in ity specications. They achieve this by blending
Florida and now accounts for more than a 40 % concentrates of different origin and adding avour
share there, offers better margins than FCOJ for fractions, often according to customer-specic
Florida juice producers. Bulk processors supply recipes. In addition to supplying the dened juice
NFC to juice packers and marketing processors product, blending houses normally have specialist
but some also co-pack in their own facilities. product know-how which is made available to
The links between Florida and Brazil strength- their customers. (Blending house operations are
ened during the 1990s. The major Brazilian bulk also discussed in Section 6.)
processors acquired several juice facilities in Blending houses are often located in or near
Florida and operate 8 plants (2002) contributing the main ports receiving juice concentrates. The
to about half of Floridas juice production. Op- larger Brazilian processors who have their own
erating in both markets offers benets in trading terminal facilities also offer blending house
efciency and balancing concentrate quality. operations. The preparation of soft drink bases
The different routes that orange juice products is another important business activity of those
take from bulk suppliers are shown in Figure 3.3. blending houses which have developed from
avour-manufacturing operations.
3.1.3 BLENDING HOUSES
Purchasing concentrate from a blending house
Consistent quality between batches of FCOJ can-
is generally more expensive than buying it on the
not be maintained during processing. Variations
spot market. However, the buyer can be assured
in avour prole, Brix:acid ratio, pulp levels, etc.,
of product quality meeting his demands.
are unavoidable because fruit varies during the

35
 3.1 The 3.1
chain
The
ofchain
supply
of supply

2500

2000
USD/tonne

1500

1000

500
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03
Year

Fig. 3.4 World market for FCOJ (Brazilian export prices Rotterdam)
Source: Foodnews

3.1.4 JUICE PACKERS Fluctuations in world market prices for FCOJ, not
Juice packers take in bulk product, treat it as always reected in retail prices, put pressure on
required and then pack the product in consumer juice packers. For a successful operation, the juice
packages. The juice packer may also control packer requires important skills in several areas:
the distribution of the packaged product. Juice
packer operations are described in more detail Sourcing: raw material costs constitute a major
in Section 7. share of the total costs. The right juice quality
As with fruit processors, there are two main and favourable contracts are vital to overall
categories of juice packer those who market protability.
their own brands and those who focus on co-
packing, e.g. for private label brands. There are Processing/Packaging: where the focus is on
dedicated juice packers and dairies with juice maintaining product quality and keeping running
packing operations. The product range of juice costs, including product losses, low.
packers may include nectars and fruit-based still
drinks in addition to 100 % pure juices. Distribution: distribution of packaged product
also accounts for a signicant share of the total
costs, and efcient distribution therefore plays an
Juice packers treat bulk
product as required and
important part in overall protability.

Marketing: marketing skills are important to both

then pack the product in packers who market their own brands and those
consumer packages who focus on co-packing.

36
 3.2 World market pricing for bulk juice products

3.1.5 SOFT DRINK PRODUCERS In the mid 1990s world market prices for FCOJ
Although the term soft drinks strictly means all (66 Brix) were quite stable around 1,5001,600
non-alcoholic drinks, the name soft drink pro- USD/tonne CIF Rotterdam because of efforts made
ducers is commonly applied to manufacturers of by the Brazilian export association, ABE. However,
retail packaged carbonated beverages and fruit- new producers entering the market and large FCOJ
avoured still drinks. stocks remaining after a cold European summer
The soft drink producer may use orange con- led again to a slump in prices, as low as 700 USD/
centrate as a raw material, but often he purchases tonne. In the early 2000s price levels remained
a prepared base from a blending house. For drinks around 1,0001,200 USD/tonne. Although these
of low fruit content, the avour of FCOJ is not levels are claimed to be near or below break-even
strong enough and so it has to be enhanced with for most juice processors, the purchasing market
additional avours. Other ingredients in the soft did not allow increases in price levels.
drink base may be emulsiers and preservatives. Brazil is the dominant world exporter of
At the soft drink producer, only sugar, acid and frozen concentrate and Europe the largest mar-
water (plus carbonation as required) need to be ket, with import harbours in Belgium and the
added to a ready-prepared base. Netherlands. Rotterdam is a commonly used
A few large multinational companies and reference for FCOJ world market prices. Free-
many local companies can be found among carrier warehouse means that the price includes
the soft drink producers. As with juice pack- freight charges to the port of Rotterdam in the
ers, blending house specialists may provide Netherlands, and loading product, e.g. on road
a valuable source of experience and product tankers. But import duty and transport costs from
knowledge for small to medium-sized soft the tank farm to the user need to be added.
drink producers. Blending houses may also Price levels for Florida FCOJ are given in a
help in developing new soft drink products and different unit, US dollar per pounds solid, which is
in responding to new consumer trends. quoted free on-board carrier in Florida. Hence the
bulk price does not include overseas transport, but
3.2 World market pricing this is not normally required as the main market
for bulk juice products is North America.
FCOJ world market prices are set in US
World market prices for FCOJ have shown wide
dollars. Variations in the Brazilian currency
uctuations over the years. Prices increased dur-
against the US currency inuence the Brazilian
ing the 1980s as freezes in Florida reduced orange
processors margins. For European markets, the
supplies. Prices dropped between 1992 and 1994
exchange rate of the Euro against the US dollar
as large harvests were again recorded in Florida.
will inuence retail juice prices.
In the autumn of 1994 a severe drought in Brazil
As regards the market for juice supply, the
once more led to sharply rising prices for frozen
extensive planting of new trees seems to assure
concentrate. (See Figure 3.4.)
an adequate supply of fruit and orange juice
In general there is a correlation between FCOJ
concentrate in the foreseeable future. Never-
price levels and expected supply, but in the past
theless, a reduction in Brazilian output due to
over reaction by the market has resulted in very
adverse climate effects or diseases can alter
wide price uctuations. This usually constitutes
this outlook.
an undesirable situation for both suppliers and
juice purchasers.

37
 3.3 FCOJ commodity trading and the futures market

3.3 FCOJ commodity trading

and the futures market UNITS USED FOR BULK
JUICE TRADING
The buying and selling of FCOJ have evolved into
commodity trading. Two of the largest Brazilian On the world market, frozen concentrates of
bulk juice producers, Louis Dreyfus and Cargill Brazilian and other origin are usually traded
per metric tonne product, with prices given as
(both also producing in the USA), are major com- USD/tonne concentrate. In the USA, however,
modity trading companies active in several other the basic unit for pricing orange fruit, single-
elds besides citrus. They have inuenced the trad- strength juice and FCOJ is the content of
soluble solids (in principle the sugars), not the
ing of citrus on the commodity trade market. weight or volume of product. The unit used is lb.
Commodity products, which are usually sup- soluble solids. The US futures market also use
plied in well-dened units, can be traded on the lb. soluble solids to dene product quantity.
futures market. Futures are contracts agreed The following approximate factors can be used
for the future delivery of a physical commodity, when converting prices:
such as FCOJ. Cash price is the price at which For FCOJ of 66 Bx
the actual commodity is selling for. 1000 USD/t conc. 0.70 USD/lb solids
1430 USD/t conc. 1.0 USD/lb solids
Risk management and price setting For NFC juice of 11.8 Bx
The futures market provides a means of man- 1000 USD/t juice 3.82 USD/lb solids
aging risk for the citrus industry, a way for all 260 USD/t juice 1.0 USD/lb solids
involved to hedge (protect against nancial loss)
their risk exposure caused by uctuations in cash
prices for products. Futures markets require the Trading of FCOJ futures takes place through
participation of both hedgers (risk shifters) and the Citrus Associates of the New York Cotton
speculators (risk assumers). Hedgers are those in Exchange, NYCE. This nonprot organisation
the citrus industry, such as fruit processors and provides the physical location where FCOJ fu-
sellers, who transfer unwanted risks associated tures and options are traded (by voice and hand
with their normal commercial activities. Specu- signals), and oversees the regulations governing
lators (nonproducers/processors) seek nancial all transactions. It forms part of New York Board
gain by cor rectly predicting changes in future of Trade, NYBOT. The regulations dene quanti-
price moves. The speculative activity provides the ties of FCOJ to be contracted and the time periods
nance required to carry out commercial hedges. allowed for trade and delivery of contracts (every
In addition to risk shifting, the futures markets other month). Grade standards for product quality,
also sets the value for one pound of FCOJ solids, as well as product identication and inspection,
known as price discovery. are also specied in the regulations.

38
 3.4 Import duties and juice imports

In 2004, a new form of futures contract was 3.4 Import duties and
introduced that recognised the Florida/Brazil juice imports
origin of FCOJ in order to more correctly follow There have been long-lasting negotiations be-
cash market transactions, which tend to value tween trading blocs aimed at reducing trade
FCOJ from Florida and Brazil differently to that barriers and promoting freer trade, including
of other origins. that of citrus products. Examples are the GATT
The futures market is important to the citrus (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs) where
industry, not only as a tool for risk management major agricultural agreements were established
but also as a price basis for purchasing fruit and in the Uruguay round of talks held in 1994. The
for sales contracts for bulk concentrate. The North American Free-Trade agreement, NAFTA,
NYCE provides hedging opportunites for citrus intended to reduce trade barriers between USA,
industry players active in Florida, but there is no Canada and Mexico was reached in 1994.
similar futures exchange providing risk manage- Work on a similar agreement to also include all
ment in So Paulo. countries in South and Latin America, Free-Trade
The prot of bulk juice processors comes Area of the Americas or FTAA, was initiated in
from the price difference between the fruit and 1998. Although scheduled to come into force in
concentrate. Therefore they must posses good 2005, the participants are still discussing many
skills in marketing a commodity product and issues involved with the agreement. Since both
risk management. Brazil and Florida, the major orange juice regions,
In addition to long-term sales contracts there is are part of the FTAA, the agreement would have
also a spot market for FCOJ, delivered from tank a signicant impact on orange juice trade. The
storage and in drums. Trade on the spot market Florida citrus industry are carefully evaluating
is high when price levels are unstable. the likely impact on Florida orange growers and
Products on the spot market may be of less the juice market.
well-dened quality or product specications
and thus command lower prices. During periods
of depressed retail prices for orange juice, juice
packers may be forced to acquire large volumes SOME TERMS USED WITH
of such juice on the spot market. TRADE TARIFFS

Ad Valorem tariffs: duty calculated as a per-

centage of the value of the imported product.
Freight costs are included in the product value.

Specic tariffs: a duty of a xed amount of

money per unit of juice independent of the value
of the product.

Quota: dened maximum quantity of product

which is allowed, e.g. at a lower import duty.

SSE or single-strength equivalent: FCOJ

calculated as the volume of juice it would yield
when reconstituted to single-strength juice.

GATT: General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs.

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement.

39
 3.4 Import duties and juice imports

3500

3000

2500
Thousand tonnes

2000

1500
Others
1000 Japan
USA/Canada
500 EU

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Years
Fig. 3.5 The major juice import markets.
Source: FAO

For orange juice, there are quite large differences FCOJ and NFC. Tariffs are higher for FCOJ than
in import duties between the various importing NFC (calculated as single-strength juice.)
countries. Duties often depend on the exporting In general, citrus growers and fruit processors
country, for example, several exporting countries receive little or no subsidies. Within the EU, how-
have agreements with respective importing markets ever, signicant subsidies are paid to orange proc-
which enable duty-free or reduced import tariff. In essors who purchase fruit from EU fruit growers
general, however, such agreements do not apply to at the minimum recommended fruit prices.
the major exporters, Brazil and the USA. The European Union is the largest juice import
The US duty drawback procedure favours market, followed by the USA. The relative sizes
the export of juice from the US. In the duty of the major juice import markets are shown in
drawback system juice exporters/importers can Figure 3.5. The consumption of packaged orange
recover the import duty paid for a certain volume juice per region is shown in Figure 3.6.
of juice if they export the same volume and kind
of product. US import duties distinguish between

5000

4000
Million litres

4341

3000

2000
2451

1000
1206 240
0
USA/Canada W Europe Asia/Pacific S&C America

Fig. 3.6 Consumption of packaged orange juice in certain regions, 2003.

Source: Euromonitor

40
 3.4 Import duties and juice imports

3.4.1 IMPORT DUTIES WITH SOME Mexico

TYPICAL EXAMPLES Phasing down to duty-free unlimited import
European Union by 2008 (NAFTA agreement)
Tariffs for orange juice imported into the Eu- For 2003:
ropean Union vary greatly depending on the within quota for FCOJ, 4.6 USD/100 l SSE
exporting country. The dominant share of juice within quota for NFC, 1.8 USD/100 l SSE
imported into Europe comes from Brazil and is Most Favoured Nation (e.g. Brazil)
subject to import duty for Most Favoured Nation FCOJ 7.9 USD/100 l SSE
(MFN). This duty, which was 20 %, has gradually NFC 4.5 USD/100 l SSE
been lowered under GATT, and is differentiated
according to the degree of concentration and The USA implements a duty drawback pro-
temperature. cedure. This allows US importers of FCOJ who
EU import duties are ad valorem (a xed per- also export FCOJ or reconstituted orange juice
centage of the product value including freight). to be reimbursed 99 % of the import duty paid
Some import tariffs in effect in 2002 are presented on the same quantity of imported concentrate
in the list below: as was exported within a 3-year period. NFC
From EU countries and some non-EU Medi- exports are not eligible for drawback against
terranean countries, 0 % imported FCOJ.
Mediterranean Basin Preference Canada
(mainly Israel and Morocco) Canada allows orange juice concentrate to
within quota, 2.3 % enter duty-free but levies import duty on single-
exceeding quota, 5.7 % strength juice. All juice imports from NAFTA
Lom convention countries, 0 % countries (USA and Mexico) are tariff-free.
(African, Caribbean incl. Belize and Costa
Rica, Pacic) Japan
Most Favourable Nation (MFN) tariff Until 1979 there was little fruit juice import
(applies to countries such as Brazil and USA) into Japan due to very low import quotas. The
FCOJ at -18 C, 15.2 % quotas were gradually increased until they were
FCOJ at -10 C, 12.2 % removed altogether in 1992. Import duties are
Mexico ad valorem.
within quota for FCOJ, 3.8 % Most Favoured Nation tariff FCOJ, 25.5 %
exceeding quota imported at MFN tariff Republic of Korea
USA Until 1989 juice imports were restricted by very
Import duties are specic in the USA. The rates, low quota. Following GATT agreement, quotas for
differentiated for FCOJ and NFC, are given as a orange juice imports were removed in 1997.
xed fee per pound of soluble solids. Some of the Most Favoured Nation tariff for FCOJ and
current duties, converted to US dollars per 100 juice ad valorem, 55 %
litres single-strength juice, are given in the list China
below. Most US juice imports are as FCOJ and Following Chinas WTO entry, tariffs for imported
the largest exporter is Brazil, which is subject to orange juice have decreased signicantly. Tariffs
full MFN duty. are ad valorem:
Caribbean Basin Initiative beneciary coun- Frozen juice Most Favoured Nation tariff,
tries (e.g. Belize, Honduras, Costa Rica), 0 % 7.5 %
Israel (as of 1995), 0 % Nonfrozen single-strength juice MFN, 32 %

41
 3.5 Global orange juice consumption

Million litres

0 200 400 600 800

Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
UK
Canada
Brazil
China
South Korea

Fig. 3.7 Consumption of packaged orange juice in European

and other countries, 2003.
Source: Euromonitor

3.5 Global orange juice has gradually increased to take more than 40 %
consumption market share. RTD juice made from concentrate
North American and European markets are the accounts for about 40 %. Virtually all RTD orange
largest consumers of orange juice. The USA and juice in the US is distributed refrigerated (4 C).
Canada account for some 50 % of total global See also section 10.3.
consumption of packaged orange juice, whereas In Europe, nearly all retail orange juice is RTD,
Western Europe consumes about 30 % of the total there is very little concentrate. The total orange
volume. (See Figure 3.6.) juice volume for Western Europe in 2000 was
In the USA, consumption of orange juice, about 3 billion litres.
about 5 billion litres/year in 2001, has remained European consumption has had a high growth
fairly constant over the past decade. Nevertheless, rate almost doubling between 1983 and 1993
there has been a constant shift in market share but since then growth has slowed down to about
for the three main types of orange juice in the 3 % annually.
US market: frozen concentrate for home dilution, Most orange juice in Europe is made from con-
ready-to-drink (RTD) juice made from concen- centrate. The consumption of NFC has increased
trate, and NFC. over the last decade and now accounts for more
Frozen concentrate has steadily decreased than 10 % of total orange juice sales. The growth
from a dominant position to less than 15 % of total in per capita income and the perception of NFC
orange juice retail sales. NFC, which emerged quality as being similar to that of fresh fruit have
on the US orange juice market in the mid-80s, driven the increase in NFC sales despite its high
price premium.

42
 3.5 Global orange juice consumption

20
Litres / capita/year

15
16.6
10
13.8
5 8.3

2.7
0
USA UK Germany Japan

Fig. 3.8 Per capita consumption of orange juice in some countries, 2002.
Source: Canadean

NFC is retailed at up to double the price of or- 3.5.1 PER CAPITA ORANGE JUICE
ange juice made from concetrate. Compared with CONSUMPTION
FCOJ, the 56 times larger storage and shipping The USA is not only the largest total consumer of
volumes for NFC combined with the stricter orange juice worldwide, but it also has the highest
quality demand on raw fruit for NFC result in a consumption per capita, some 16 l (4.2 US gal.)
signicantly higher cost for bulk NFC imported per person per year. Per capita consumption in the
into Europe. During the introduction of NFC in UK comes second, where orange juice accounts
Europe the market was dominated by Florida for the highest share of all fruit juice with more
juice, but today NFC is often a blend of origins. than 70 % of the market. Although Germany has
In other markets, a rapid growth in the con- the highest total fruit juice consumption in Eu-
sumption of packaged orange juice is noteworthy rope, because apple and blends dominate, the per
in South America, particularly Brazil. Some Far capita orange juice consumption is much lower
East markets such as Japan and the Republic of than in the UK. The per capita estimates in Figure
Korea have also shown large growth rates, al- 3.8 are based on data collected by market organi-
though these may uctuate from year to year due sations and refer to 100 % orange juice.
to economic factors. Large cities in the coastal The Florida Department of Citrus (FDOC)
region of China constitute an area with high eco- also estimates the overall orange juice utilisation
nomic growth and a rapidly growing demand for in major markets. This is the presumed consump-
orange juice. Eastern European counties are also tion, which is based on so-called disappearance
rapidly expanding markets data, or net utilisation of bulk orange concentrate
The consumption of packaged orange juice and NFC. This means that orange concentrate
in European and other countries is shown in used to produce nectars and fruit drinks is also
Figure 3.7. counted as orange juice consumption. The val-
ues presented by the FDOC are therefore higher
than the actual consumption of 100 % juice only.
However, they provide a valuable understanding
of the total usage of processed orange juice in
different markets.

43
3.5 Global orange juice consumption

44
4 Principles of
processing
orange juice

In section 4 you will read about:

How the different steps of juice processing and Which microorganisms cause juice spoilage
bulk storage affect the quality of orange juice. and the inuence of raw materials and clean-
How oxygen gets into juice and its role in ing procedure on product contamination.
degrading juice quality and causing problems Why and when pasteurisation is carried out
during operation. The removal of oxygen and the conditions needed for effective heat
from juice is also discussed. treatment.

45
4. Principles of processing
orange juice
Summary
A good understanding of the properties of packages. It is therefore essential to prevent
orange juice is required to design and op- air from entering product streams, and to
erate processing plants that maintain high remove it before lling and packaging.
juice quality. The properties of fresh fruit Orange juice is a high-acid product
and the initial processing conditions (dur- which limits microbial growth to acid-
ing juice extraction) inuence the quality tolerant bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Yeast
of the end product. fermentation is the prime cause of micro-
Heat treatment of juice is essential for bial spoilage in aseptically packaged juice.
obtaining the desired product shelf life, but Effective cleaning procedures are essential
the process should be designed to minimise in controlling microbial contamination.
unwanted quality degradation. Bulk storage Pasteurisation of orange juice is nec-
conditions that minimise changes in quality essary for inactivating enzymes and for
are essential because juice may be stored destroying microorganisms capable of
for a year or more. growing during storage. Enzyme activity
leads to cloud loss in single-strength juice
Minimising loss of quality and gelation in orange juice concentrate.
Air in juice leads to reduced product quality, The relevant enzymes in orange juice
foam during deaeration and lling, and un- require a higher heat load to be inactivated
even distribution of oating pulp (if any) in than that for microorganisms.

Raw materials Processing Bulk storage Packaging Shelf storage

Quality Heat treatment Temperature Barriers Temperature

Treatment Oxygen Time Hygiene Time

Fig. 4.1 Factors which inuence juice quality.

into consideration in designing and operating a

4.1 Impact of processing
process plant. It should be stressed that, despite
on juice quality the long experience of the industry in processing
Orange juice is a complex product. Therefore orange fruit and the large amount of research that
a good understanding of the basic nature and has been done on the subject, all the secrets of
properties of orange juice is needed for process- orange juice have not yet been revealed.
ing and packaging orange juice. In fact, to This subsection takes a look at the impact of
ensure that high product quality is maintained raw materials, processing and bulk storage on the
during juice processing, such understanding is quality of orange juice according to Figure 4.1.
indispensable. Considerations involved in minimising quality
Section 4 as a whole looks at the principles degradation during processing are listed in Table
of processing orange juice that have to be taken 4.1. The effect of packaging and shelf storage on
juice quality is discussed in Section 9.

46
 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality

4.1.1 RAW MATERIALS Highly alkaline water may affect the acidity of the
nal product, and excessive solids and minerals
Orange fruit
will cause a brackish or metallic taste. Chlorine
The quality of orange fruit is important for the
imparts water with a pharmaceutical taste and
characteristics of the nal orange juice product.
has a negative inuence on juice colour and taste.
Since oranges are natural products, they vary
Both iron and copper catalyse oxidation reactions
signicantly in avour, vitamin C content and
which result in chemical changes.
colour according to the variety of orange, the
Microorganisms and organic debris con-
time of season when harvested and the region of
taminate juice, affect its taste and reduce
the world where they are grown.
product shelf life. However, the main spoilage
A prerequisite for initial high juice quality is
organisms of juice products are not commonly
the use of whole, undamaged oranges with low
found in water.
microbial populations.
Despite all the possible effects on juice qual-
Juice concentrate ity, there are no regulatory standards specifying
Juice concentrate is the raw material for the water quality for beverage production other than
juice packer. As the quality of reconstituted that it should full the drinking water standards
juice depends very much on the quality of in the respective country. Read more about water
concentrate used, it is essential that high qual- treatment in subsection 7.3.
ity concentrate with the desired Brix:acid ratio,
4.1.2 PROCESSING
colour and sinking pulp content is used. Brix
Processing steps to stabilise extracted orange
determines the volume of single-strength juice
juice with respect to enzyme and microbial
that can be reconstituted from a given volume
activity are indispensable before concentration,
of concentrate.
bulk storage, packaging and distribution. One
The microbial condition of concentrate is
exception is perhaps for the small amount of
another important factor because high microbial
freshly squeezed, unpasteurised single-strength
loads demand more intensive pasteurisation to
orange juice which is distributed chilled and has
achieve the required product stability. The max-
a shelf life of up to 3 weeks, often shorter. Heat
imum microbial load in concentrate should be
treatment with respect to time/temperature set-
specied by the concentrate producer.
tings should be designed to minimise unwanted
Water chemical and avour changes in the product.
Water must often be treated before it can be used Never theless it should still give an adequate
for juice reconstitution. The degree of treatment safety margin concerning the inactivation of
depends on the water source. As regards reconsti- enzymes and spoilage microorganisms.
tuted orange juice, the quality of water is critical
with respect to the content of chlorine, metals,
nitrates, salts, air, etc.

47
 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality

loss of nutritional value. It is generally agreed

TABLE 4.1 PROCESSING CONSIDERA- that the degradation of vitamin C in citrus juices
TIONS AT THE FRUIT PROCESSOR can occur through both aerobic (depending on
- Choice of orange fruit.
oxygen) and anaerobic (not depending on oxy-
- Short residence time in the fruit bins before
extraction to prevent deterioration of fruit. gen) reactions of nonenzymatic nature. Which
- Fruit washing and grading. one predominates depends on the temperature
- Fruit sizing. and availability of oxygen. During processing,
- Optimal extractor pressure and correct n-
isher settings to avoid unwanted (of ten bitter) the aerobic degradation of vitamin C predomi-
compounds in fruit from entering the juice. nates, whereas during orange juice storage both
- Evaporation using low temperature and pathways must be taken into account.
short residence time to obtain high-quality
concentrate. In the aerobic degradation of vitamin C, the
presence of 1 mg oxygen corresponds theoreti-
AT THE JUICE PACKER cally to a loss of 11 mg vitamin C. This calcu-
- Preventing air contact during concentrate lation is based on the reaction where vitamin C
handling and reconstitution.
- Water quality.
is oxidised to dehydroascorbic acid.
- Short residence time after juice reconstitu-
tion and prior to pasteurisation to minimise
microbial growth and vitamin C degradation. AA + 1/2 O2 DHA + H2O
- The use of correct temperatures during pas- AA = ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
teurisation and lling. DHA = dehydroascorbic acid
- Package integrity.
- Storage conditions.

Oxygen is soluble in single-strength juice up to a

level of approximately 8 mg/l, which corresponds
To a great extent the loss of quality during process- to a potential loss of 88 mg vitamin C. Assuming
ing is similar to that encountered during packaging an initial vitamin C content of about 450 mg/l,
and shelf storage. Refer to Section 9, packaging this corresponds to a 20 % loss in the nutritional
and storage of orange juice, which complements quality attributed to vitamin C. Subsection 9.2.1
the information presented in this section. gives more information on how different storage
conditions affect vitamin C degradation.
Oxygen impact on vitamin C degradation
At the fruit processor, the loss of vitamin C (ascor- Flavour changes
bic acid) from orange fruit to frozen orange juice The desirable taste of freshly squeezed orange
concentrate is generally negligible when the right juice is easily affected by heat treatment and
processing conditions and short residence times subsequent bulk storage.
before concentration and freezing are used. The juice may undergo several chemical
During reconstitution of the orange juice and reactions that can degrade the original volatile
further processing steps, the amount of oxygen avours of the juice. In addition, off-avours can
present has an important impact on juice quality. be formed mainly from compounds in the aqueous
Oxygen is a very reactive element which can juice matrix. The Maillard reaction, a well-known
induce several changes in the chemical compo- reaction between sugars (or vitamin C) and amino
sition of orange juice, the most dominant of acids, is an example of this.
which is the loss of vitamin C and consequent

48
 4.1 Impact of processing on juice quality

Several potential off-avour molecules have been For long-term storage, the lower temperatures
identied in orange juice. Most of these com- are used. Industry experience has shown that this
pounds are formed during juice storage, although temperature range is needed to avoid changes in
it takes a long time (several months) or storage colour and taste. At temperatures below 20 C,
at high temperature before any off-taste is noted, concentrate can be stored for several years and
i.e. the compounds responsible for an off-taste still be of acceptable quality.
are present in high enough concentration. PVG, If the pasteurisation of juice prior to concen-
4-vinyl guaiacol, is an exception. This com- tration has not been carried out correctly, the re-
pound has been found in concentrations above sidual enzyme activity can lead to gelation of the
its perception threshold in newly extracted and concentrate. Pectic substances in the juice form
processed juice. It imparts an old fruit or rotten a gel which prevents the concentrate from being
fruit aroma to the juice. reconstituted to a juice of acceptable quality. See
PVG is formed from an odourless compound subsection 4.4.2.
ferrulic acid normally present in juice. The
concentration of free ferulic acid in juice has been
shown to double after the rst pasteurisation step,
thereby greatly increasing the possibility of PVG
Ifinactivated,
enzymes are not completely
gelation of
forming. More about off-avours is presented in
concentrate may occur
subsection 9.2.3.
When orange juice is concentrated in an evap-
orator, the volatile water-soluble and oil-soluble

components that provide most of the characteristic Not-from-concentrate juice, NFC
orange avour are removed. The process avour Two kinds of bulk storage are practised for NFC:
(also known as pumpout avour) obtained is frozen (in 200 l drums at 18 C or lower)
a combination of the loss of volatile avour and chilled (in large aseptic tanks or aseptic bag-
the cooked taste resulting from heat treatment. in-box containers at 1 to 1 C)
The impact of these unwanted changes can be
compensated for by addition of avour fractions Both forms of storage give a shelf life of at least
at a later processing stage. one year. This long shelf life is necessary since
juice from fruit harvested at different times of the
4.1.3 IMPACT OF LONG-TERM
season is blended to obtain consistent quality year-
BULK STORAGE
round. Low-temperature storage is important; a
During bulk storage the product is kept under
temperature around 0 C is low enough to avoid
conditions that minimise changes in quality. This
deterioration of the juice while still keeping the
is of great importance since storage may be for a
juice as a liquid.
year or longer. Demands on the storage conditions
An advantage of aseptic NFC storage over
depend on the orange juice product, FCOJ and
frozen NFC is that the juice does not have to
NFC, and the intended storage time.
be thawed before nal packaging. This avoids
Frozen concentrated orange juice, FCOJ the use of crushing equipment and high energy
Orange juice concentrate is bulk-stored frozen input for quick thawing. At ambient temperature
at temperatures from 6 to 25 C to avoid deg- thawing takes several days and therefore product
radation of product quality. A temperature of quality may deteriorate during this period due to
8 C is often used during bulk transport. microbial growth and avour degradation.

49
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

Temperature
Air consists mainly of the gases nitrogen and
oxygen. These gases are soluble in orange juice
to a certain degree, but if the juice contains more Pressure Solubility of
oxygen
air than it can dissolve, free or dispersed air bub-
bles are formed.
Air in the product can cause a number of Sugar
concentration
problems for the juice packer, such as:
decreased product quality due to oxidation
foam formation in the deaerator Fig. 4.2 The effect of temperature, pressure and
foam formation during lling, which leads to sugar concentration on oxygen solubility.
underlling of retail packages
uneven distribution of oating cells in retail
packages
Oxygen solubility
The solubility of oxygen is important since dis-
COMPOSITION OF AIR: solved oxygen is more difcult to remove than
Nitrogen N2 78 % v/v dispersed oxygen. The solubility of oxygen and
Oxygen O2 21 % v/v other gases in a liquid, i.e. the concentration of dis-
Other gases minor solved gas, depends on pressure, temperature and
the concentration of soluble solids in the liquid (see
Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Solubility decreases with:
It is therefore important to prevent air from en- increasing temperature
tering juice during reconstitution and blending decreasing oxygen partial pressure
of concentrate. If the juice does contain air after increasing concentration of soluble solids
reconstitution, it can be removed later in the proc- (sugars)
ess. Dispersed air can be decreased by letting the
juice rest for half an hour in an open tank before The measured amount of oxygen in orange juice
pasteurisation. A deaerator can be used to further can sometimes be higher than its theoretical
decrease the air content. A deaerator uses vacuum solubility values. This can be explained by the
at ambient or elevated temperatures to remove phenomena whereby free oxygen adsorbs as
dispersed and soluble gases from the juice. gas bubbles to pulp particles in the juice. When
Nitrogen can be considered as an inert gas solubility decreases due to increased temperature
with regard to juice quality, whereas oxygen is and/or reduced pressure, the gas released does
very reactive and is involved in many reactions not leave the product but stays as gas bubbles on
that impair quality. It is therefore essential to the surface of fruit cell particles. This adsorption
remove oxygen from juice. The deaeration ef- phenomena appears mainly on large particles in
ciency is determined by measuring oxygen the form of added oating cells, but not on the
concentration in the product before and after smaller sinking pulp particles.
deaeration.

50
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

14.00
4.2.1 SOURCES OF AIR/OXYGEN
12.00 100 kPa, atmospheric pressure At the fruit processor, juice is in contact with air
during extraction and nishing. Deaeration is es-
Oxygen (mg/litre)

10.00
sential in the production of NFC for bulk storage,
8.00 since a high oxygen level will decrease its vitamin
6.00
C level signicantly. Oxygen is less of a problem
in the production of concentrate because gases are
4.00 20 kPa removed in the evaporator. However, if concen-
2.00 trate is mishandled, a large amount of dispersed
air may enter the concentrate.
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 The various steps of reconstituting orange
Temperature (C) juice from concentrate present a number of en-
Fig. 4.3 Solubility of oxygen in water as a function try points for oxygen and air. Nevertheless, op-
of temperature at two different pressures. timising the rst process step to avoid air entry
minimises problems later in the process. Steps
where particular care is needed are: handling of
Oxidation juice concentrate, handling of water, addition of
The main reason for deaerating juice is to re- oating cells, ow in pumps and pipes, blending
duce its oxygen concentration. Oxygen is very and reconstitution (Figure 4.4).
reactive and promotes many of the reactions that
Concentrate
take place in juice during processing and stor-
Concentrate can be a source of gases. Although the
age which lead to quality degradation. The most
solubility of oxygen in orange juice concentrate
important reaction is the oxidation of vitamin C,
is low due to the high concentration of soluble
which leads to loss of nutritional quality (see
solids, the high viscosity of concentrate makes it
subsections 4.1 and 9.2).
difcult for free gas bubbles to rise to the surface.
Considering that many countries have regu-
Therefore careful procedures are important dur-
lations that dene the minimum level of vitamin
ing all handling steps involved with concentrate,
C in products at the end of their shelf life, and as
including its transport, transfer and blending.
long shelf life (3 to 9 months) is a desired ben-
et, the importance of maintaining the vitamin
C content of juice is readily understood. Other
signicant parameters like colour are also affected
by oxidation (see subsection 9.2).

Concentrate

Water Pumps & pipes Blending/

Agitation

Floating cells

Fig. 4.4 Sources of oxygen/air entry during orange juice reconstitution.

51
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

Blending tanks Deaeration Pasteurisation Filling Storage

Fig. 4.5 Process steps where high oxygen/air concentrations can cause problems.

Water Tanks
Water for reconstitution is often a source of high Tank inlets should be designed to prevent air
levels of dissolved oxygen. The solubility of oxy- entry and foaming when the tank is lled. Juice
gen in cold water is about 9 mg per litre (at 20 C). should not be left in blending tanks for long
Deaeration of water before reconstitution of juice periods before deaeration and pasteurisation,
minimises dissolved oxygen. It can also eliminate since this may lead to impaired quality due to
the need to deaerate reconstituted juice. microbial growth and vitamin C loss. Sometimes
During certain water treatments, the carbon di- tanks are blanketed with nitrogen to prevent ox-
oxide concentration builds up to levels that cause ygen entry, especially in buffer tanks containing
problems with foaming during the deaeration of deaerated juice.
juice containing oating cells.
4.2.2 PROBLEMS CAUSED BY AIR/OXYGEN IN
Floating pulp THE PRODUCT
Addition of oating pulp to juice often increases If air gains entry during the initial reconstitution
its gas content. Frozen pulp contains a lot of air, steps, it can cause problems later in the process.
both as air bubbles adsorbed to the surface of See Figure 4.5.
pulp particles and as free bubbles which are not Blending tank
released due to the high viscosity of concentrated Gas bubbles adsorbed to oating pulp reduce their
pulp. Moreover, the agitation required to blend density and make them oat to the top of juice. This
pulp with juice and keep the mixture homogenous makes it difcult to maintain even distribution of
in the tank increases the risks of additional gas oating pulp in the blending and balance tanks.
entry. Due to gas bubbles adsorbed to cell par-
ticles, the measured oxygen content can exceed Deaerator
9 ppm/litre at 20 C. Dissolved and dispersed gases are removed in the
deaerator. Problems with foaming can occur if the
Pumps and pipes
incoming product contains high concentrations of
Bad piping design and pumps that are not airtight undissolved gas. When juice goes from a higher
can be responsible for air entry. pressure (in the pipes) to a lower pressure (in the
Blending/agitation deaerator), gas solubility decreases and bubbles of
It is important to use the right blending and re- free gas form in the juice and build up foam.
constitution techniques. Blending in tanks should The foam formed in the deaerator and lling
be done with low-speed agitators, and the juice machine consists mainly of gas which is separated
should cover the agitator. In some cases, blend- by very thin layers of liquid lm. Some foam in
ing is carried out under a blanket of nitrogen to the deaerator does not affect its performance, but
prevent oxygen entering the product. Using an if the deaerator is lled with foam deaeration be-
in-line blending technique minimises oxygen comes insufcient. This problem is mainly found
ingress during reconstitution. with juices containing oating pulp or a lot of
dispersed gas.

52
 4.2 Air/oxygen in the product

Pasteurisation Henrys law states that the equilibrium concen-

Ineffective pasteurisation can occur if juice con- tration XA of gas A in solution is proportional to
tains very high concentrations of dispersed gas the partial pressure of gas A in the vapour phase.
(which may lead to reduced residence time or In order to remove dissolved oxygen (decrease XA
inconsistent heating). in Henrys law) a driving force must be applied.
This can be done either by:
Filling
reducing the oxygen partial pressure (PA)
Problems with foam in lling machines may occur
above the liquid surface;
for the same reasons as with deaerators, i.e. foam
increasing the temperature (T). This will
is formed when the pressure is suddenly released
increase Henrys constant [H(T)].
in the lling nozzle. Foaming causes decreased
lling efciency that can lead to:
A combination of these two alternatives is often
product losses
used during deaeration. The partial pressure (PA)
incorrect amounts of juice in packages
is reduced by either using a vacuum (the total
pressure becomes very low) or by replacing ox-
If the juice contains oating pulp, gas in the juice
ygen in the gas phase with another gas.
can cause poor distribution of particles in the
Dispersed oxygen bubbles in juice (without
packages (see blending tank).
added oating cells) can be removed by leaving
Storage the juice in an open tank. The gas bubbles, which
Oxygen takes part in many reactions that impair have a lower density than the juice, will rise to the
the quality of juice during storage. These reac- top and gradually leave the juice with time. This
tions include changes in colour and taste, and process can be accelerated by creating a vacuum
degradation of vitamin C. It is therefore crucial above the juice. However, it is still a relatively
to protect the juice against oxygen during storage. slow process. Dissolved oxygen and oxygen bub-
The need for protection depends on the period the bles adsorbed to oating pulp are much more
juice will be stored for and at what temperature. difcult to remove by such a tank process.
(See Section 9.) To increase the efciency of deaeration, it
must be made difcult for the oxygen to remain
4.2.3 PRINCIPLES OF DEAERATION
in the juice, e.g. by decreasing its solubility. This
The concentration of dissolved gases in a liquid
can be done by:
follows physical laws. One of the more important
increasing the temperature
relationships is the one dened by the scientist
decreasing the pressure
Sir William Henry (17751836). A gas which is
dissolved in a liquid is in equilibrium with the
It is important for the juice to have sufcient
gas above the liquid surface. This equilibrium is
residence time in the deaerator to allow the gas
given by Henrys law.
to leave the juice. By turning the juice into thin
layers of liquid, the distance the gas has to diffuse
from the liquid phase to the gas phase is mini-
PA mised, thereby producing a high rate at which the
XA= gas leaves the juice.
H(T)
XA = concentration of gas A in the liquid
phase (mole fraction).
PA = partial pressure of gas A in the vapour
phase (Pa).
H(T) = Henrys constant. It is a function of
temperature and depends on the liquid
(Pa/mole fraction).

53
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice

Deaerators There are several types of stripping system. In one

Methods of removing oxygen include vacuum type, the liquid and the gas meet in countercurrent
deaeration and counter-current ushing with ow as they pass through a packed column. In a
an inert gas. Existing methods of deaeration do another, the liquid is sprayed into a room lled
not remove all oxygen from juice. Nevertheless, with gas, or the gas is sprayed into the liquid
vacuum ash deaeration reduces residual oxygen stream before the deaerator vessel.
to levels that no longer have a signicant impact
on juice quality. 4.3 Microbiology of
Vacuum deaerator orange juice
In a continuous vacuum deaerator, the gases are
4.3.1 RELEVANT MICROORGANISMS
removed from a thin lm of juice over a large area IN ORANGE JUICE
at a raised temperature and/or at a underpressure. Although several microorganisms have been iso-
A thin layer of juice can be achieved by: lated from orange juice, few of them cause spoil-
spraying the juice through a nozzle age. The high acidity (low pH) of juice limits the
spreading the juice by centrifugation types of microorganism that can grow in the juice.
distributing the juice over surface packing Juice spoilage is caused by microorganisms that
are able to multiply in juice during its processing
When juice is sprayed through a nozzle or run and storage (see Table 4.2.)
over packing and/or trays, a large surface area is The growth of microorganisms in orange
created for release of oxygen from the liquid to juice is characterised by fermentation and/or the
the vapour phase. Dissolved oxygen has then only production of off-avours that spoil the product.
a short distance to diffuse to the liquid surface. Fermentation may lead to gas formation, which,
The ner the nozzle or the more packing/trays, the in turn, results in blown packages.
quicker (and therefore often better) deaeration at
a given temperature. However, there are practical
and cost limitations. TABLE 4.2 THE PREDOMINANT
During vacuum ash deaeration, usually about MICROORGANISMS IN ORANGE JUICE
1 % of the liquid is vaporised. As the vapour con-
tains some volatile avour components, it has to Acid-tolerant bacteria
Yeasts
be condensed back into the juice. This can be done Moulds
either by an internal or an external condenser that
chills the vapour back to a liquid state. In both
cases, the temperature of the cooling water in the
Acid-tolerant bacteria
condenser and the vacuum applied will determine
Lactic acid bacteria belonging to the genera
the amount of avour components condensed.
Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc are the most
Gas stripping common acid-tolerant bacteria that cause spoil-
In the gas-stripping type of deaerator, the partial age of orange juice (see Figure 4.6). Spoilage is
pressure of oxygen in the vapour phase is reduced characterised by a buttery or buttermilk-like
to almost zero by displacing the oxygen with anoth- avour resulting from the formation of diacetyl
er gas, e.g. nitrogen (N2) or carbon dioxide (CO2). during bacterial growth. Leuconostoc and many
By removing the oxygen in the vapour phase above species of Lactobacillus also produce large
the liquid, the oxygen in the juice is forced out amounts of CO2.
from the juice into the vapour phase. This process
does not reduce the total gas content of the juice
but replaces oxygen with another gas.

54
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice

The optimal growth temperature for most yeasts

is 2030 C. They are more tolerant of cold
temperatures, high osmotic pressure and lack
of nutrients than bacteria or moulds. Species of
yeasts can easily survive in citrus concentrates of
58 to 65 Brix and in frozen juices.

Yeasts are the most common

type of spoilage organism

Fig. 4.6 Different shapes of lactic acid bacteria. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rhodotorula spp and
Zygosaccharomyces spp are the most common
yeasts present in juice. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Most lactic acid bacteria grow best in orange is most commonly associated with the spoilage
juice at temperatures between 20 and 37 C. of pasteurised citrus juices. The presence of
Their rate of growth is greatly reduced above or Rhodotorula may be indicative of poor postpas-
below these temperatures. Growth is very slow teurisation hygiene.
at 4 C in single-strength juice. These bacteria Zygosaccharomyces is an osmophilic yeast,
are sensitive to heat and high osmotic pressure which means that it can survive the high osmotic
(high juice concentration); no growth is observed pressures and low water activity of concentrated
in juice above 45 Brix. orange juice. It is frequently associated with
Lactic acid bacteria pose the biggest problem spoilage of concentrates.
during the processing steps prior to concentration.
After extraction, the juice has to be refrigerated
or heat-treated as soon as possible to prevent the
build-up of large populations of these bacteria. It
is also important for fruit processors to maintain
an effective programme of sanitation.
The main species of lactic acid bacteria caus-
ing spoilage are Lactobacillus plantarum, Lacto-
bacillus brevis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides and
Leuconostoc dextranicum.
Yeasts Fig. 4.7 Yeasts showing budding reproduction.
Yeasts (see Figure 4.7) are the most common type
of spoilage organism in both single-strength and
concentrated orange juice. Spoilage of orange
juice by yeasts typically results from an alcoholic
fermentation which leads to off-avours and CO2
production. Yeasts not capable of alcoholic fer-
mentation may cause turbidity, occulation and
clumping in juice.

55
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice

Some moulds that have been isolated from orange

juice are: Aureobasidium pullulans, Aspergillus
Fig. 4.8 Example of niger, Botrytis spp, Fusarium spp, Geotrichum
mould structure. spp, Mucor spp, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladospo-
rium spp and Penicillium spp.
Pathogenic microorganisms
The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in
orange juice is rare. The low pH of juice inhib-
its growth of pathogens, but long-term survival
of some pathogens in refrigerated orange juice
is possible. Outbreaks of disease, particularly
salmonellosis, traced back to orange juice have
occurred as a result of consuming unpasteurised
orange juice, or due to reconstituted juice be-
coming contaminated before serving.
Diseases attributed to orange juice are mainly
Moulds
caused by incorrect product handling and can be
Moulds form colonies of aerial mycelia on the sur-
prevented by carrying out approved sanitary pro-
face of juice, and occulation or oating mycelia
cedures, pasteurising the juice, and by preventing
within juice (see Figure 4.8). They can grow under
product contamination after pasteurisation.
a wide variety of conditions. In general, moulds
grow well in acid media and require abundant Spore-forming microorganisms
oxygen. Moulds that grow in orange juice are Most bacterial spores cannot grow in fruit
generally sensitive to heat treatment and are thus juices with a pH below 4.5. Though very rare,
easily destroyed by pasteurisation. thermoresistant acidophilic bacteria have been
Compared with yeasts and bacteria, moulds isolated from shelf-stable juices. In 1992 these
have only infrequently been associated with strains were classied in a new genus called
spoilage of orange juice. This is because of their Alicyclobacillus. Microorganisms belonging to
aerobic (oxygen-dependent) nature and slow this genus have a preference for thermophilic tem-
growth rates. However, with the advent of long- peratures with an optimum temperature around
term chilled storage of single-strength juice and 45 C, and they will most likely not grow below
extended shelf life of juice in nonaseptic cartons 20 C. The most likely source of contamination
with oxygen barriers, mould growth in citrus juice of fruit juices is fruit contaminated with soil dur-
has become a more important issue. ing harvesting. Such contamination is introduced
Moulds may give rise to concern during juice into the manufacturing process through unwashed
extraction when fruit-handling and juice room or poorly washed fruit. A spoilage characteristic
equipment is not kept in hygienic condition. When of this type of bacteria has been described as an
the correct approach to sanitation is neglected, off-avour like disinfectant or guaiacol. No gas
moulds colonise the surfaces of conveyor belts, production has been observed.
fruit bins, extractors and other equipment. These
conditions promote the contamination of juice or
the surfaces of containers.

56
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice

4.3.2 MICROFLORA OF DIFFERENT Not-from-concentrate juice, NFC

TYPES OF ORANGE JUICE After pasteurisation, NFC is either lled directly
The microora of different orange juice products into consumer packages or, more often, stored in
can vary widely according to the state of raw fruit, bulk for a period of time under chilled aseptic or
and juice processing and storage conditions. frozen conditions. Generally, microbial spoilage
Frozen concentrated orange juice
of pasteurised single-strength juice sold chilled
FCOJ is not aseptic or commercially sterile. It under nonaseptic conditions is due to fermenta-
can contain abundant microora of wide diversity tive yeasts. The most common spoilage organ-
including yeasts, moulds and bacteria. However, ism in this product is Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
frozen orange juice concentrate does not have although other yeasts have occasionally been
any signicant microbial problems because it is isolated as well.
stored frozen. The microora of NFC strongly depends on
Concentrated orange juice quite often has a juice storage temperature. At temperatures 7 C
total microbial population around 100 to 1,000 yeasts are the predominant ora responsible for
organisms/ml. In general, an acceptable microbial spoilage, whereas at 10 C lactic acid bacteria
quality of concentrate is a total viable count lower outgrow the yeasts and become the main spoil-
than 1,000/ml; for yeasts in the range of 100/ml, age organisms.
and for moulds lower than 10/ml. The main species present are lactic acid bac-
When concentrate is exposed to tempera- teria, such as Lactobacillus spp, Leuconostoc spp,
tures above freezing point, osmophilic yeasts and yeasts like Zygosaccharomyces spp and Sac-
like Zygosaccharomyces spp are the primary charomyces cerevisiae.
spoilage organisms. Freshly squeezed orange juice unpasteurised
Reconstituted orange juice from concentrate
The total number of microorganisms in this prod-
As yeasts represent the dominant microora of any uct varies throughout the season and is strongly
consequence in concentrate, it is most likely that dependent on the condition of the fruit and sani-
they will remain so in juice reconstituted from tation of the processing equipment. In general,
concentrate. Nevertheless, if reconstitution is not higher counts are observed with mature oranges
carried out under appropriate sanitary conditions, that have a higher ratio (Brix:acid). Much higher
the type and number of microorganisms in the counts are observed with unsound fruit.
end product will increase. The hygienic condition of the processing plant
Microorganisms normally present in the will also inuence the number of microorganisms
sur rounding air and water, and on equipment, present in juice. In general, freshly squeezed or-
can contaminate juice. Juice should not be ange juice has a total microbial count ranging
held in tanks for long periods of time before from 1,000 to 10,000 organisms/ml. However, this
pasteurisation. number may be as high as 32,000,000 organisms/
Whenever concentrate is reconstituted to ml in juice extracted from poor-quality oranges
single-strength juice, microorganisms that were in processing plants with bad sanitation.
dormant in the concentrate are suddenly provided
with the conditions that allow them to grow rap-
idly. After dilution of concentrate but prior to pas-
teurisation, juice is held in tanks. These require
proper cleaning procedures to prevent them from
becoming a source of contamination.

57
 4.3 Microbiology of orange juice

Juice not from

concentrate Pasteurisation Chilled/ Cold Chilled
frozen storage filling distribution

Juice
extraction Pasteurisation

Pasteurisation/ Reconstitution Aseptic Ambient

Juice from concentration filling distribution
concentrate Frozen storage

Fig. 4.9 Orange juice pasteurisation steps.

4.3.3 INFLUENCE OF RAW MATERIALS The low pH of juice and a rapid juice reconstitution
process usually sufce to prevent the build-up of
Fresh fruit
large microbial populations in juice. Furthermore,
Microorganisms found in nature will enter the
as reconstituted juice is pasteurised before packag-
processing plant via fruit, soil, animals and
ing, microorganisms of concern will be destroyed.
people. Their number will vary depending on
However, if a plant has poor cleaning routines
harvesting method as well as handling on the
and reconstituted juice is held in tanks for a long
way from the groves to the processing plant. Out
time prior to pasteurisation, high populations of
of the large variety of microorganisms, only those
microorganisms can become established. This
species capable of growing during the production
will demand higher pasteurisation temperatures
of orange juice are of prime concern. These are
to completely destroy the microorganisms.
lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
In fruit processing plants, microbial contami-
Fruit grading and washing nation is controlled by three different levels of
There is a correlation between the percentage of cleaning:
defective fruit entering a processing plant and the Frequent cleaning during everyday pro-
contamination of extracted juice. To minimise mi- duction which is necessary to maintain the
crobial contamination within a plant, fruit must be hygienic appearance of equipment.
carefully graded and washed effectively. In some Intermittent-type cleaning while plant is
cases fruit is treated with detergent to minimise in operation, or cleaning parts of the plant
surface microorganisms. All unsound fruit should temporarily taken out of production in order
be removed. to clean them properly.
Washing is usually done with (chlorinated) General cleanup of the plant which occurs
water sprays located at strategic points on con- when the plant is completely shut down.
veyor belts and elevators. The sprays must cover
the entire width of the belt completely, otherwise Flushing with chlorinated water is gener-
microorganisms will accumulate at the edges of the ally performed periodically to control microbial
belt. Washing efciency has a direct bearing on the contamination while the plant is in operation.
microbial population of extracted juice. Floors should not be cleaned during operation
of the production line because this can spread
4.3.4 SANITATION
microorganisms.
Effective cleaning procedures are essential in con-
Cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems that greatly
trolling microbial contamination in production
improve the efciency of cleaning are now gen-
of orange juice concentrate, as well as during
erally used by processing and packaging plants.
reconstitution of concentrate to produce single-
See also subsection 7.9.
strength orange juice.

58
 4.4 Pasteurisation

4.4 Pasteurisation 4.4.2 INACTIVATION OF ENZYMES

Cloud loss of single-strength juice and gelation in
4.4.1 PURPOSE OF PASTEURISATION concentrate are mainly caused by pectin methyl
The purpose of pasteurisation is to make the juice esterase, which is present naturally in fruit.
product stable during subsequent processing and PME is mainly active in the temperature range
storage. Pasteurisation of orange juice is neces- from 5 to 65 C and shows maximum activity at
sary for destroying the microorganisms capable 60 C. Above 60 C its activity gradually decreases.
of growing during storage, and for inactivating The activity of the enzyme at temperatures below
enzymes to prevent cloud loss. Enzymes are pro- 5 C is low, but it is still enough to cause cloud
teins that catalyse biological reactions. They are loss in single-strength orange juice. Even at a
necessary for the growth of all living matter. temperature as low as 18 C the reaction rate
Orange juice is pasteurised at least twice is high enough to cause gelation of concentrates
before it reaches the consumer (except for a during storage.
small amount of NFC that is lled directly into
consumer packages). The rst pasteurisation oc-
curs immediately after extraction prior to bulk
storage, and the second pasteurisation occurs FACTS ABOUT ENZYMES
Enzymes are proteins produced by living
before packaging (see Figure 4.9).
organisms specialised in catalysing biological
The rst pasteurisation is necessary to com- reactions. They are therefore sometimes called
pletely inactivate the enzyme pectin methyl biocatalysts. Enzyme action is specic; each
esterase (PME), also known as pectin esterase type of enzyme catalyses only one type of
reaction. The action of an enzyme is also
(PE), which will otherwise cause cloud loss of strongly inuenced by temperature and pH.
single-strength juice and gelation of concentrate The basic function of an enzyme that breaks
during storage. Microorganisms of commercial down a larger molecule into smaller ones is
illustrated in Figure 4.10.
interest are also killed by this process. The sec- The enzymes in orange juice come from the
ond pasteurisation destroys any microorganisms fruit itself. They are rmly associated with the cell
that may have contaminated juice after the rst wall fractions and therefore are mainly derived
from parts of orange like peel, rag and juice sac
pasteurisation step and survived bulk storage, as tissue (pulp). Enzymes are released from the fruit
well as those which may have contaminated juice solid phase (membranes) into the liquid phase
during its reconstitution from concentrate. (juice) during the extraction process.

A given enzyme will only split The enzyme ts into a particular The molecule splits. The enzyme is
cer tain molecules, and only at spot in the molecule chain, where it now free to attack and split another
certain bonds. weakens the bond. molecule in the same way.

Fig. 4.10 The basic function of an enzyme.

59
 4.4 Pasteurisation

1000 Among orange varieties from Brazil (Pera

Rio, Pera Coroa, Natal and Valencia), PME
in Valencia and Pera Rio juice had the highest
heat resistance, requiring 2 min at 90 C for
100
complete inactivation, whereas PME in Pera
Coroa and Natal varieties was inactivated
D value (sec)

after 1.5 min at 90 C.

Juice with higher pH requires a more inten-
sive heat treatment to inactivate PME than
10
juice with lower pH. The inuence of pH on
thermal inactivation of PME is dependent on
fruit variety. Orange juice from the Pineapple
variety showed the highest sensitivity to pH
1 changes, followed by Valencia.
60 70 80 90 100 110
As PME is associated with cell wall mate-
Temperature (C)
rials, a higher heat load is required in juices
Fig. 4.11 Decimal reduction time (D value) for PME with higher pulp content. An increase of pulp
in Valencia orange juice at pH = 4.1 and with 12 % content from 5 to 10 % increases by about
pulp content. 2.5 times the time required at a given tem-
perature to inactivate PME.
Cloud loss
In order to prevent cloud loss or gelation dur- The most common reason for cloud loss or
ing processing and storage of orange juice, it is gelation in orange juice is the enzymatic break-
necessary to inactivate PME. Although several down of pectin molecules in the juice. Pectin is
methods have been tested, pasteurisation is the a complex organic substance (consisting mainly
only process used industrially to inactivate the of partially methylated sugar units) that exhibit
enzyme. important properties, such as the ability to form
The time-temperature conditions to inactivate emulsions and to increase liquid viscosity. In
PME are dependent on : single-strength orange juice, pectin is one im-
juice pH portant constituent of the cloud. The cloud of
juice pulp content orange juice contributes to its visual appearance
fruit variety/maturity (opacity) and viscosity. Viscosity is essential for
good juice mouthfeel.
From the literature it is known that: The enzyme breaks down pectin by removing
Among the varieties of oranges from Florida methyl groups from the sugar units. The resulting
(Valencia, Pineapple and Hamlin), the heat molecule reacts with calcium (naturally present in
stability of PME was highest in juice from the juice) to create bridges between the sugar units,
Valencia oranges, and similar in juice from see Figure 4.12. The insoluble molecule formed
Pineapple and Hamlin oranges. Figure 4.11 is called calcium pectate. In single-strength juice,
shows the decimal reduction time for PME calcium pectate settles to the bottom of the pack-
in Valencia oranges grown in Florida. The age. This causes separation of the juice into a
D value correspond to 90 % enzyme inac- clear upper phase and a lower sediment phase.
tivation. A heat load corresponding to 23 D This separation is referred to as cloud loss.
values is generally sufcient for inactivation In orange juice concentrate, calcium pectate
of the enzyme. forms gel-like lumps due to the high sugar and
acid content. This gelation makes it impossible to
reconstitute to orange juice of good quality.

60
 4.4 Pasteurisation

Secondary pasteurisation
The second pasteurisation, carried out prior to
O O-CH3 juice packaging, involves NFC after bulk stor-
C
age or juice reconstituted from concentrate. It is
for microbial destruction rather than inactivation
Pectin methyl
esterase of enzymes. Since microorganisms are less heat
Cacium (Ca2+)
Pectin bridges
methylesterase
resistant than enzymes, the second pasteurisation
may be carried out at a lower temperature than
-
O O CH3OH the rst pasteurisation.
C
The required time-temperature combination
for the second pasteurisation will depend on the
total number of microorganisms in the juice to the
Fig. 4.12 The action of the enzyme pectin methyl pasteuriser. This population of microorganisms
esterase (PME). depends on the initial number in the concentrate,
residence time in tanks before pasteurisation and
the standard of plant sanitation.

4.4.3 INACTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS

The heat-resistance of microorganisms is affected FACTS ABOUT THERMAL PROCESSING
by factors like pH, water activity and oxygen. The The use of heat for a given period of time is a
reduction of microorganisms is more efcient un- method of food preservation used to destroy mi-
croorganisms, enzymes and heat-labile toxins.
der conditions not favourable for their growth. Pasteurisation and sterilisation are two types
In general, moulds are less resistant to heat of thermal processing. Sterilisation destroys
than yeasts and yeasts less resistant to heat than all living microorganisms including microbial
spores, whereas pasteurisation kills the
bacteria. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is majority of vegetative microorganisms, par-
the most common spoilage organism in citrus ticularly pathogenic bacteria, but has little or
juices. It can form ascospores that are much more no effect on bacterial spores. Pasteurisation
is generally adequate heat treatment for high-
heat-resistant than its vegetative cells. acid juice foods.
4.4.4 TIME-TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS
Thermal resistance of microorganisms is tradi -
FOR PASTEURISATION tionally expressed in terms of D values and
In orange juice, PME is more heat-resistant than z values. These are dened as follows:
the microorganisms commonly present in orange
D value: D value, or decimal reduction time, is
juice. This means that a more intensive time-tem- the time required at a given temperature to de-
perature treatment is necessary to inactivate the crease the population of a specied microor-
enzyme than to destroy microorganisms. ganism by 90 % or one log cycle. For example,
D80 = 1 min means that it takes 1 minute at
Primary pasteurisation 80 C to destroy 90 % (or one logarithmic re-
duction) of the specied microorganism.
Orange juice should be pasteurised to inactivate
PME as soon as possible after extraction. It is z value: This is the change in temperature
pasteurised above 9598 C for 1030 sec. This needed to alter the D value by one log cycle.
can be done as a separate step or as a rst step For example, if an organism has a z = 5 C and
a D80 C = 1 min, the D85 C = 0.1 min and the
in the evaporator. D75 C = 10 min.

61
 4.4 Pasteurisation

1000
Figure 4.13 shows the theoretical thermal
Sac. cerevisiae Pectin methyl destruction curves of pectin methyl esterase,
esterase and of ascospores and vegetative cells of Sac.
Ascospores cerevisae in orange juice. All temperature/time
100 combinations to the right of the ascospore curve
are sufcient for 10 decimal reductions or more.
Time (sec)

The blue square shows the time/temperature com-

binations used mainly by the industry today.
Vegetative
10 cells
Since microorganisms grow much slower at
chilled than at ambient temperatures, chilled
juice can be sold as a nonaseptic product, i.e.
nonaseptic lling and packaging can be used.
1
However, the pasteurisation step must ensure
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 that microorganisms in the juice will not spoil it
Temperature (C) during its intended shelf life.

Fig. 4.13 Theoretical thermal destruction curves of

pectin methyl esterase, ascospores and vegetative
cells of Saccharomyces cerevisae in orange juice. More intensive time-temperature
treatment is necessary to inactivate
Temperatures from 80 C up to 95 C for 1530 the enzyme PME than to destroy
sec. are commonly used by the industry for the
microorganisms
second pasteurisation of orange juice reconstituted
from concentrate and intended for storage at am-
bient temperature. However, the industry is now

showing an increasing interest in lowering the
pasteurisation temperature and/or holding time.
As already mentioned, Saccharomyces cerevi-
siae is the most common spoilage agent in orange
juice. This species of yeast produces ascospores,
a more resistant form of yeast cell. Based on the
heat-resistance of this microorganism, (D60 =
319 min), a heat treatment of 7580 C for 1520
seconds will be adequate to sufciently reduce
the microbial population (second pasteurisation)
provided that the raw material is of good quality.
When aseptically packed, this product can be
stored under ambient conditions.

62
5
Fruit
processing

In section 5 you will read about:

The production steps in a processing plant. NFC production including heat treatment
Fruit delivery and what is done at the fruit and bulk storage.
reception area to prepare oranges for juice Concentrate production and the need for
extraction. efcient evaporators.
How the maximum amount of juice is The recovery of peel oil. How winterisation
squeezed from fruit and the two principal makes wax drop out.
extractor types. The production of animal feed from waste
Removing pulp by clarication so that streams.
juice can be evaporated to concentrate or Pulp production and the many uses of pulp.
processed to single-strength juice. Washing of pulp to recover valuable solids.

63
5. Fruit processing

Fruit unloading Grading Storage bins Washer

Pulpy juice

Juice extractor Sizer Grading

Concentrate

Concentrate cooler Frozen storage tanks

Finisher Centrifuges Pasteuriser
Evaporator

NFC
Pulpy juice

Pasteuriser Refrigerated aseptic storage

Pulp

Frozen drum storage

Oil emulsion

Defect removal Finisher Pasteuriser Finisher

Peel oil
Wet peel, rag, seeds

Concentrator Polisher Winterisation storage Frozen drum storage

Animal feed

Fig 5.1 Flow chart showing typical processing

Presses Drier Silo steps found in an orange processing plant.

A box of oranges is dened as containing

5.1 Processing plant overview
40.8 kg (90 lb) of fruit. In Florida, the small/
Orange processing plants are located in the vicinity
medium-size plants typically process 510 mil-
of the fruit growing area. Fruit should be processed
lion boxes (200400,000 tonnes) per season,
as soon as possible after harvesting because fruit
the large plants up to 25 million boxes. Most
deteriorates quickly at the high temperatures found
Brazilian citrus plants have much higher capacity.
in citrus-growing areas. Orange products, on the
The worlds largest orange juice plant, Citrosuco
other hand, are produced in a form that allows
at Matao, Brazil, can take in 60 million boxes
them to be stored for extended periods and shipped
(2.4 million tonnes) of fruit during a season.
over long distances.
In most other orange-growing regions, citrus
In the orange industry, the basic unit of re-
processing plants are considerably smaller than
porting crop and plant intake is commonly the
those in Florida and Brazil.
fruit box.
Typical orange processing steps are shown
in Figure 5.1.

64
 5.1 Processing plant overview

Fruit reception Not-from-concentrate juice (NFC) production

Fruit is delivered in trucks which discharge their Instead of concentrate production, juice may be
loads at the fruit reception area. The fruit may be processed at single strength as an NFC product.
prewashed to get rid of immediate surface dirt Claried juice is pasteurised before storage. De-
and pesticide residue before any leaves and stems oiling may be required to reduce oil levels in the
still attached to the fruit are removed. Then fol- juice, and deaeration to remove oxygen is part
lows pregrading by manual inspection to remove of good practice.
any unsuitable fruit. Sound fruit is conveyed to Since the product is consumed year-round but
storage bins. Damaged fruit goes directly to the production is seasonal, NFC may be stored for
feed mill. up to one year. It is stored in bulk either frozen
or under aseptic conditions.
Extraction
Extraction involves squeezing or reaming juice Pulp production
out of either whole or halved oranges by means For pulp recovery, pulpy juice from the extractor
of mechanical pressure. After nal washing and is passed through a system that removes defects
inspection, the fruit is separated according to size where undesirable pulp components, such as seed
into different streams or lanes. Individual oranges and rag, are removed. The clean pulp stream is
are directed to the most suitable extractor in order then concentrated in a primary nisher.
to achieve optimum juice yield. As the extraction After heat treatment, the pulp slurry is typ-
operation determines juice yield and quality, the ically concentrated further before being sent to
correct setting of extractor operating conditions frozen storage.
is very important.
Pulp wash
Clarication If the pulp fraction is not recovered for com-
After extraction, the pulpy juice (about 50 % of mercial sale, pulp from the nal juice nishers
the fruit) is claried by primary nishers which and clariers can be washed with water to recover
separate juice from pulp. The nishing process is juice solubles. This stream is called pulp wash
a mechanical separation method based on sieving. and may, legislation permitting, be blended with
The juice stream is further claried by centrifu- juice before concentration.
gation. The pulp stream, containing pieces of
Peel oil recovery
ruptured juice sacs and segment walls, may then
Recovered peel oil represents some 0.3 % of
go to pulp recovery or to pulp washing.
the fruit intake. The emulsion of oil and water
Frozen concentrated orange juice coming from the extractor section is claried
(FCOJ) production by centrifugation in two steps. The puried oil
From the buffer/blending tanks and after clari- contains dissolved waxes which are removed
cation, juice goes to the evaporator. Within the by winterisation (refrigeration) of the oil for a
evaporator circuit, the juice is rst pre-heated and certain time.
held at pasteurisation temperature. It then passes
through the evaporation stages of the process where Feed mill
it is concentrated up to 66 Brix. During the evapo- It is economically feasible to include a feed mill
ration process, volatile avour components ash off operation in larger processing plants. Rejected
and can be recovered in an essence recovery unit. fruit from grading, peel and rag from extraction,
Juice concentrate is cooled and blended with and washed pulp and other solid waste are sent
other production batches as required to level out to the feed mill where it is dried and pelletised
uctuations in quality. It then goes to frozen stor- for animal feed. Smaller plants usually truck their
age in tanks or drums as FCOJ, sometimes for solid waste to a plant with a feed mill or dispose
several years. of it in other ways, such as landll.

65
 5.2 Orange juice production steps

5.2 Orange juice Picking of fruit

production steps
All production steps for orange juice, from orange
fruit to packaged product, are shown in the block Transport
diagram Figure 5.2. The steps carried out in the
fruit processing plant as highlighted in the gure
are discussed in more detail.
Fruit reception

Main products By-products

Oil emulsion
Juice extraction Peel oil recovery

Peel, rag, seed

Feed mill

Pulpy juice
Pulpy juice Pulp production

Pulp
Clarification Pulp wash
production

Essence recovery

Not from concentrate Concentrate Essence

juice production pr
production

Fig. 5.2 Production steps for orange juice.

Bulk transport

Reprocessing

Packaging

Distribution

66
 5.3 Fruit reception

Truck unloading Prewash Destemming Pregrade Sampling

Final grading Final fruit wash Surge bin Fruit storage

Fig. 5.3 Processing ow for fruit reception.

Fruit storage
5.3 Fruit reception The pregraded fruit is stored in bins specially
After harvesting, fruit picked in the groves is load- designed with inclined multilevel internal baf-
ed onto trucks (typically 20 tonnes in Florida) and es. These distribute the fruit evenly in the bin
taken to the processing plant. Figure 5.3 shows the to prevent too much weight pressing on fruit. The
subsequent processing ow at the fruit reception. procedure of holding the fruit in storage bins in
Truck unloading order to reduce juice acidity and increase the nal
The trucks are unloaded onto a specially designed juice ratio needs to be applied with care, because
tipping ramp. The ramp lifts the front of the truck passing fruit through bins usually reduces the nal
to allow the fruit to roll off the rear of the trailer juice yield compared with direct processing.
directly onto a conveyor. The fruit is then con- Besides the main function of storing fruit
veyed to the prewash station. Alternatively, the with different characteristics to provide process-
truck may be reversed down a ramp so that the ing options and the desired juice quality, correct
fruit is unloaded directly onto a conveyor. management of stored fruit also make it possible
to avoid very wide uctuations in the Brix: acid
Prewashing, destemming and pregrading ratio of raw juice. Such uctuations are usu-
The fruit may undergo initial washing to remove ally the main cause of hesperidin-related defects
dust, dirt and pesticide residues. Some processors formed during evaporator operation and found in
have discontinued washing the fruit before bin the nal juice concentrate. A good procedure is
storage because wet fruit in the bins can make to minimise the time fruit stays in storage bins,
downstream sanitation more difcult. The fruit preferably less than 24 hours. Storage for longer
then moves on to destemming and pregrading. times, however, does occur.
The roller conveyor of the destemming and
pregrading tables allows any leaves or twigs to fall Surge bin
through the conveyor bed. Pregrading by manual Fruit is drawn from the storage bins into the surge
inspection removes rotten and visibly damaged bin where fruit from one or more storage bins
fruit. Rejected fruit, known as culls, may be sent may be combined.
to the feed mill. Water used for prewashing is often Final fruit washing
condensate recovered from the evaporation proc- Thorough washing of the fruit is carried out
ess. There is a strong desire to reduce total water immediately before the extraction process. The
consumption in orange processing plants. wash water may include a mild disinfectant to
Sampling help reduce the microbial population on the fruit
A sample of fruit is taken for analysis from each surface. Fresh water or condensate recovered from
truck. The main parameters analysed are juice the evaporators is used for nal washing.
yield, Brix, acidity and colour. This gives the Final grading
processor an indication of fruit ripeness. As the The fruit passes over a series of grading tables for
fruit goes into bin storage, each load can be tagged nal visual inspection where damaged or unsuit-
and identied. It is then possible to select suit- able fruit is removed.
able fruit from various sources for blending during
the extraction process to achieve the desired nal
product quality. The measured juice yield may also
form the basis for payment to the fruit supplier.

67
 5.4 Juice extraction

Peel oil extraction Extractor, reamer-type

Alt.1 Pulpy juice

Fruit sizer Oil emulsion Wet peel, rag, seeds Clarification

Alt.2 Pulpy juice

Extractor, squeezer-type

Wet peel,
Fig. 5.4 The juice Oil emulsion
rag, seeds
extraction process.

Peel oil recovery Feed mill

5.4 Juice extraction Fruit sizing

The aim of the juice extraction process (see Figure After grading, the fruit passes over the sizing ta-
5.4) is to obtain as much juice out of the fruit as ble which divides the fruit into different streams
possible while preventing rag, oil and other com- according to fruit diameter. A sizing table is
ponents of the fruit from entering the juice. These generally made up of a series of rotating rollers
may lead to bitterness in taste or other defects over which the fruit passes. The distance between
later during juice storage. the rollers is preset, and increases as the fruit
The extraction operation determines product travels over the table. Over the rst set of rollers,
quality and yield, and therefore has a major ef- the smallest fruit drop between the gap onto a
fect on the total economics of the fruit processing conveyor which carries them to an extractor set
operation. Once the fruit has been washed and for their particular size range.
graded (inspected), it is ready for the extraction As the gap increases, larger fruit will pass
process. To optimise extractor performance, the through the rollers onto extractors set for their
raw fruit must be sorted according to size because dened size range. In this way, all the fruit is
individual extractors are set to handle fruit of only selected to suit the individual settings of the
a certain size range. extractors. There are normally 23 different size
settings in an extractor line.
A well-functioning fruit sizer is essential to
producing juice of high quality and/or yield. If
the fruit is too big or small, then (depending on
the extractor type) it will be oversqueezed and
excessive rag and peel will get into the juice with
THREE STREAMS RESULT resulting bitterness. If the fruit is undersqueezed,
FROM THE EX TRACTION SECTION
insufcient yield will result.
5.4.1 EXTRACTOR TYPES
Oil emulsion, containing oil from the peel and
water, goes to peel oil recovery.
Two types of extractor dominate in orange
processing plants, the squeezer type and the
Wet peel together with pulp, rag and seeds, reamer type. For these two types there are two
ows directly to the feed mill.
major brands, FMC (squeezer type) and Brown
Pulpy juice, goes to clarication and then pro- (reamer type). Both extraction systems are dedi-
duction of concentrate or NFC. Pulp intended for cated to citrus fruit.
sale as pulp goes to pulp production. Residual The reamer-type extraction system provides
pulp goes to pulp washing or the feed mill.
excellent separation of the orange components
juice, oil and peel.

68
 5.4 Juice extraction

It works best as 5.4.2 THE SQUEEZER-TYPE EXTRACTOR

regards both product A squeezer-type extractor is shown in Figure 5.5.
quality and yield These are placed in lines in the extractor room
with fruit round in with up to 15 extractors per line. Each extractor
shape and of uniform may be tted with 5 heads, which are available
ripeness such as found in different sizes so that they can handle the
with Florida fruit. type and quality of fruit available. Typical sizes
Fig. 5.5 A squeezer-type Squeezer-type extrac- are 238, 3, 4 and even 5 inches (used mainly for
orange juice extractor. tors are less sensitive grapefruit). The head size for each extractor in a
to the size and shape line is chosen to optimise the handling of sized
of the fruit but can lead to higher oil content in fruit. The extractor separates the fruit into four
the juice and more damaged pulp compared with parts pulpy juice, peel, core (rag, seeds and
reamer-type extractors. Adjustments to the stand- pulp) and oil emulsion.
ard squeezer-type extractor may be needed to keep
oil levels low and/or improve pulp quality. Fig. 5.6 Operation
Globally, squeezer-type extractors are the of the squeezer-type
most common. However, in Florida, the total orange juice extractor.
installed extraction capacity is about equal for Water
both types of extractor. The major share of the
Whole fruit Peel
NFC produced in Florida is extracted using
reamer-type extractors.
Another type of extraction equipment is the ro-
tary press extractor. These are more multipurpose Juice manifold

machines and therefore may also be used to proc-

Oil emulsion
ess other types of fruit.
With rotary press extractors, the fruit is cut
in half and the halves pass between rotating cyl- Pulpy juice
inders which press out the juice. Oil is extracted Core
from the peel in a separate step prior to extraction.
Although the extraction process is simple, both
juice yield and quality are less optimal compared The head of an extractor comprises an upper and
with squeezer-type and reamer-type extractors. a lower cup (see Figure 5.6). The cups have metal
Rotary press extractors, which have a high ngers that mesh together as the upper cup is
capacity per unit and require lower investment, lowered onto the lower cup. A cutter comes up
are popular in the Mediterranean area. However, through the centre of the lower cup to cut a hole
globally they are of minor importance compared through the skin in order to allow the inner parts
with squeezer- and reamer-type extractors. of the orange to ow out. The cutter is part of the
Once installed in a plant, extraction systems perforated strainer tube, sometimes referred to as
are not easily interchangeable due to the different the prenisher.
demands on the surrounding equipment. Once the strainer tube has cut into the fruit,
the upper cup squeezes down on the lower cup.
This pressure initially forces the juice to burst out
There are two major types
of extractor system, squeezer
of the juice vesicles and pass through the perfo-
rations of the strainer tube. Some of the pieces
of the ruptured juice sacs (i.e. pulp) will pass
type and reamer type
through with the juice. The upper cup continues
to squeeze down on the lower cup to extract as
much juice as possible.

69
 5.4 Juice extraction

Eventually, the downward pressure causes the Modications for premium pulp
peel to break up, disintegrate and pass up through As the pulpy juice passes through the holes in the
the ngers of each cup. Juice ows through the strainer tube in the standard extractor, the pulp
strainer tube into the juice manifold. The core tends to be broken up into small pieces, typically
material is discharged from the bottom of the 23 mm in length or less. This is acceptable if the
strainer tube through the orice tube. pulp is intended for pulp wash and as commercial
As the peel is forced through the ngers of the pulp for certain markets.
cups during the last step of the extraction cycle, Market demands in the juice market are
oil is released from the peel. The bits of peel are changing, and the need for more natural pulp
washed with recycled water to extract the oil that has been subjected to less shear is increasing.
from the oil sacs. The oil is discharged from the In a squeezer-type extractor of modied design,
extractors as an emulsion with water. larger pulp pieces, up to 1520 mm long, ow
With squeezer-type extractors, one item of along with the juice stream. The main difference
equipment the extractor separates the fruit in design is the use of a modied strainer tube
into four principal product streams in one basic with larger openings that allow more pulp to re-
step. It is claimed that contact is avoided between main in the juice stream. The pulp is subsequently
the juice and oil, and the juice and peel. separated from the juice and treated in a modied
For successful operation of this equipment, the pulp recovery system.
correct selection of cup size and adjustment of Modications to the squeezer-type extractor to
cup and cutter operation are important. Too much suit premium pulp were introduced in the 1990's
pressure applied to fruit resulting from the use of and today there are several installations in Florida
undersize cups may result in blowing out the fruit and Brazil.
and/or peel entering the juice stream. If too little
Premium juice low-oil extractor
pressure is applied the yield will drop.
Certain fruit varieties (e.g. the Florida Valencia)
The throughput of a ve-head extractor will
will express more oil into the juice stream than
vary according to the quality and size of fruit.
other varieties. This can lead to oil content in
The standard operating speed is 100 rpm, or 500
the juice exceeding acceptable levels (such as
oranges per minute. Fruit will not always ow
0.035 %, the maximum level permitted in Florida
to each cup; 90 % utilisation is a high gure.
for grade A juice).
A typical capacity for medium-sized fruit is
This is a problem with NFC but less so with
5 tonnes/hr of fruit per extractor, corresponding
juice intended for concentrate because most of
to about 2500 l/h of juice.
the oil will ash off in the evaporator. In the low-
Because extractors operate at a xed number
oil version of the squeezer-type extractor, the
of oranges processed per minute, the citrus
design of the strainer tube and orice tube area
processing plant throughput is very sensitive and
are modied. This unit cuts a smaller core and
dependent on fruit size. Processing small fruit (350
puts less pressure on the fruit during extraction,
oranges/box) will result in 1500 l/h juice ow rate
thereby reducing the amount of peel oil getting
instead of 3000 l/h when processing large fruit
into the juice. These modications may also lead
(180 oranges/box), an increase of 100 % related
to a reduction in juice yield. When the top spray
to the quantity of juice and by-products handled
of water is stopped, the amount of peel oil to be
by downstream equipment. These gures show the
recovered is thereby reduced.
importance of correct storage bin management and
As an alternative, hermetic centrifuges or vac-
fruit size in smooth factory operations.
uum ashing can be used for deoiling the single-
strength juice in conjunction with the standard
extractors. This allows a higher juice yield to be
maintained during extraction, while excess oil is
removed after the extraction process.

70
 5.4 Juice extraction

5.4.3 THE REAMER-TYPE EXTRACTOR

The reamer-type extractor is based on the same
principle as a typical manual kitchen squeezer
used to prepare orange juice for breakfast. An Fruit

extraction line comprises several extractors, and

it is very important to set up each extractor to
suit the size of fruit fed into it. A reamer-type
extractor is illustrated in Figure 5.7.
Fruit is fed into the feed wheel and cut in half.
The halves are oriented and picked up in syn-
thetic rubber cups mounted on a continuous belt
system. A series of nylon reamers (cone-shaped Juice
inserts that have ridges moulded into the form
from tip to base of the reamer) are mounted on
a rotating turntable.
The reamers, in the vertical plane for most Fig. 5.7 A reamer-type orange juice extractor.
models, enter each fruit half and rotate as they
penetrate them. The speed of rotation varies as the The oil extraction system
reamer penetrates the fruit, being slower towards Peel oil can be recovered from the peel using a
the end of the operation. Juice, pulp, rag and seeds separate oil extraction system which is placed
pass out through one outlet, and the remaining upstream of the juice extractors. It operates
peel passes out through the peel chute. on the principle of puncturing oil sacs in the
The juice and pulp are separated from the rag avedo and washing the oil out to make an
and seeds by a strainer, then pass on to the nish- emulsion (see Figure 5.8). In the rst stage of
ers. The size, pressure and rotation speed of the the oil extraction system, whole fruit passes
reamer can be adjusted to suit the maturity, size over a series of rollers with small but sharp nee-
and quality of fruit. dle-like projections. The oil glands are pricked
The reamer-type system typically gives a better rather than scraped open so that little damage
quality of pulp (longer and larger cell fragments) is done to the peel. Therefore, the amount of
than standard squeezer-type extractors. Juice contaminating material washed away with the
yields between the two systems are comparable. oil is minimal. This, in turn, makes the water
stream separated from the emulsion cleaner and
easier to recycle.

Water
Fruit

Water

Oil emulsion Oil emulsion

Fig 5.8 An oil extraction system.

71
 5.5 Clarication

The rollers conveying fruit are

Pulpy juice
placed in a water bath and the oil from extractors
from the pierced glands is washed
out with water. After a nishing
(straining) stage to remove any
large particles of peel, the oil-water
emulsion can be concentrated and Pulp
polished in a series of centrifuges Finisher 1 Finisher 2 Pulp wash
production/
(see subsection 5.8 on peel oil re- Juice Juice
feed mill
covery). The water is recycled to a
large degree.
Instead of more recently de-
veloped oil extraction system
upstream of juice extraction, older Clarifying centrifuge
installations incorporate peel shav-
ers placed after the juice extraction
stage. The outer layer of avedo is Product chiller
literally shaved off from the peel
mechanically. It is washed and
pressed to remove the oil. The Buffer storage tank
emulsion is then centrifuged in
the conventional manner.
The reamer-type extraction sys-
tem requires two separate steps to
extract juice and oil from the fruit.
Concentrate production NFC production
Nevertheless, the oil emulsion is
often considered cleaner, easier to
centrifuge compared with other types oil recovery Fig. 5.9 The clarication process.
system, and the extracted juice has less contact
with the oil.
5.4.4 DOWNSTREAM OF THE JUICE
EXTRACTORS 5.5 Clarication
The juice streams leaving either a squeezer-type The juice leaving the extraction process is clar-
extractor line or reamer-type extractor system ied as it contains too much pulp and membrane
ow to clarication and then evaporation, or material to be processed in the evaporator or as
pasteurisation if the end-product is NFC. The oil NFC. Typical process steps in juice clarication
emulsion ows to peel oil recovery for separation are shown in Figure 5.9.
by centrifugation. Peel, rag, seeds and other solid Pulp levels in pulpy juice from the extractors
material are conveyed to the feed mill. are generally around 2025 % of oating and
sinking pulp. The juice is therefore nished, that
is, pulp is removed from the juice. A nisher is
basically a cylindrical sieving screen. There are
two types of nisher screw-type and paddle.
Their operating principles are shown in Figures
5.10 and 5.11.

72
 5.5 Clarication

Screw-type nishers The standard squeezer-type extractor includes a

These include a stainless-steel screw that conveys prenishing tube in the extractor and the pulpy
the pulpy juice through the unit and presses the juice ows directly to the primary nisher.
pulp against the cylindrical screen. The juice
Centrifugal clarication
ows through the screen holes.
Typically, the pulp content in juice leaving the
The pulp is consequently concentrated
secondary nisher is about 12 %. This pulp is pre-
inside the screen and is discharged at the end
dominately sinking pulp. If the market requires a
of the nisher. As pulp is discharged through a
juice with lower sinking pulp content, the juice can
restricted opening, the resulting back-pressure in
be further claried by centrifugation. A two-phase
the nisher helps to squeeze out more juice from
clarier is normally used for this application.
the pulp mass.
Separation in the disc stack centrifuge takes
Paddle nishers place in the spaces created between a number of
These incorporate a set of paddles rotating on conical discs stacked on top of each other to pro-
a central shaft within the cylinder. The pulp is vide a large separation area. Most models rotate at
pushed against the screen by the paddles. Pad- between 4,000 and 10,000 rpm. The accumulated
dle nishers apply centrifugal force rather than solids can be discharged, without having to stop
pressure to separate the pulp from the juice. This the centrifuge, by rapidly opening an annular slot
usually provides gentler pulp treatment and higher at the periphery of the rotating bowl. The claried
ow rates than screw nishers. juice leaves the centrifuge under pressure. Clari-
Two nishers are often placed in series at cation by centrifugation often leads to improved
the end of the extraction line. The upstream operation of the evaporator system by providing
primary nisher is not set as tight as the down- consistent pulp levels in the juice.
stream secondary unit and so will have a higher In order to meet recent demands for FCOJ with
ow capacity. very low and low pulp content (<1 and <3 % pulp
The exact conguration of the clarication respectively) for use in the production of orange
stage depends upon the manufacturer of the ex- nectars and drinks, a new type of hermetic cen-
tractor system and the type of pulp that the proc- trifuge with continuous pulp discharge is applied.
essor wishes to recover. The pulpy juice stream Usually this type of machine is located within
from a reamer-type system or premium pulp the evaporator system, between stages, in order
squeezer-type extractor may rst pass through a to centrifuge warm juice. This type of hermetic
classifying nisher (with larger holes) to remove centrifuge can reduce pulp levels to less than 1 %
peel and membrane pieces before pulp recovery. without frequent intermittent discharges.

Pulpy juice Pulpy juice

Pulp Pulp

Finished juice Finished juice

Fig. 5.10 Operation of screw-type nishers. Fig. 5.11 Operation of paddle nishers.

73
 5.6 NFC production

Juice from
clarification

Buffer tank

Deoiling centrifuge

Pasteuriser Deaerator

Frozen drum Chilled aseptic Chilled aseptic

storage tank storage bag-in-box storage

Fig. 5.12 NFC production through to bulk storage.

Turbolters 5.6 NFC production

Turbolters were introduced in Brazil during the The aim of NFC processing is to produce orange
mid-1990s as an alternative to screw and paddle juice using the minimum of thermal processing.
nishers. Turbolters are claimed to give a more Nevertheless, the thermal treatment should be suf-
stable level of sinking pulp in the nished juice cient to ensure that the product is physically and
than conventional nishers. They incorporate microbiologically stable. Since fruit harvesting
a stainless-steel conveyor, rotating faster than is seasonal and juice consumption is year-round,
screw nishers, which pushes the pulpy juice the product must be stable enough to be stored
against a plastic screen. The pulp content of the for several months up to one year so that seasons
juice can be adjusted by changing the inclination can be bridged.
of the turbolter. In some instances during the season, NFC is
Blending pasteurised and packaged for the retail market
After clarication, the juice often undergoes some without long-term bulk storage. When this is the
degree of blending with juice from other batches case, some blending may occur following the
in order to balance its avour, colour, acidity and clarication step to minimise hourly variations
Brix levels before further processing. If intended in acidity and Brix. Some pulp may also be added
for NFC production, the juice leaving the clarica- depending upon market demands.
tion section should be cooled to 4 C to minimise More commonly, the juice is processed and
the potential of microbiological activity before stored in bulk under aseptic or frozen conditions
being passed into the buffer/blending tanks. for some months until it is reprocessed and pack-
aged. For large-volume NFC production, such as
found in Florida and Brazil, aseptic tank farms are
the most common form of NFC storage.

74
 5.6 NFC production

Juice oil
Reduction of oil can be achieved in different
Deoiled juice
ways:
Adjusting the extractor. Less pressure is applied
to fruit during extraction or a low-oil extractor
(squeezer-type) is used. Both alternatives are
likely to reduce juice yield.

Vacuum ashing of preheated juice. This

method can remove desirable volatiles from the
juice along with the oil.

Centrifugal separation of the oil phase from

the claried juice. With this method juice yield
from the extractors can be maintained at a high
level and there is no heating of the juice.
Fig. 5.13 Operational principle of a hermetic Deoiling with centrifuges
centrifuge for deoiling juice. Removal of oil from single-strength juice with
centrifuges has been practised for years. It is a
The reprocessing often involves the blending of difcult separation task because the oil droplets
juice from early and late season fruit in order to are well emulsied, particularly in juice from
standardise Brix, ratio, colour, etc. The addition of squeezer-type extractors. Hermetic centrifuges
pulp to the consumer product may be done at this give good results in separating oil even from juice
stage. Sometimes, if volatiles have been removed coming from squeezer-type extractors.
from the juice prior to storage, these are added back In a hermetic centrifuge the rotating bowl is
to the juice during the blending step. completely lled with liquid. This means that
The steps for NFC production up to bulk stor- there are no air pockets and thus no free liquid
age are shown in Figure 5.12. After clarication, surfaces in the bowl, which in turn avoids air
but prior to buffer storage, the product should be entrainment and high shear forces.
cooled as soon as possible to prevent microbio- The feed enters the centrifuge bowl from
logical growth or enzymatic reactions. underneath through a hollow spindle. (See Figure
A plate or tubular heat exchanger can be used 5.13).The smooth acceleration of the product as
for cooling, the choice of which will be dictated by it enters the centrifuge prevents scattering of
the type and quantity of pulp present in the juice. the oil globules, thereby enhancing separation.
However, cooling is seldom done before pasteuri- The hermetic (gastight) design also prevents loss
sation in a traditional citrus processing facility. of volatile components in the juice and ingress
of oxygen.
5.6.1 OIL REDUCTION
In the deoiling of single-strength juice with her-
Depending upon fruit variety and extractor op-
metic centrifuges, oil concentrations can typically
eration, the oil content in the juice from extraction
be reduced from 0.040.08 % to 0.020.035 %.
may exceed acceptable amounts. The levels may
In terms of juice yield, the use of a deoiling cen-
be specied by a legal standard, for example Flor-
trifuge in combination with standard extractors
ida grade A juice should have a maximum oil
gives a yield increase of 24 % compared with
content of 0.035 %. Alternatively, the oil content
an extractor tted with low-oil components.
may be decided on the basis of consumer prefer-
The deoiled juice is buffer-stored for a short
ence. Acceptable levels of oil in juice ready for
period prior to pasteurisation. Some blending to
consumption range from 0.015 to 0.030 %.
level quality variations may be carried out.

75
 5.6 NFC production

5.6.2 PRIMARY PASTEURISATION dissolved oxygen. It also contains some free air.
Pasteurisation prior to storage, the primary pas- During product storage, oxygen present in juice
teurisation, must achieve two goals to deactivate in the dissolved state and as free bubbles may de-
the enzymes present in the juice and to make the stroy a signicant amount of the available vitamin
juice microbiologically stable. (See also subsec- C by oxidation (see also Section 4). Air bubbles
tion 4.4). It is carried out using tubular or plate present in the product during pasteurisation may
heat exchangers. The choice of heat exchanger also lead to insufcient heat treatment.
depends on the amount and type of pulp in the Deaeration as part of the pasteurisation proc-
product and on the processors preference. Tubu- ess is therefore recommended for the production
lar heat exchangers are best for juice containing of NFC. Deaeration is usually carried out by pass-
oating pulp (see also subsection 7.5). Normally, ing the product through a vacuum chamber. Free
after bulk storage the juice is pasteurised at least a air bubbles expand in a vacuum and tend to escape
second time prior to lling into retail packages. quite easily from the juice, although dissolved
The long shelf life required for NFC going to oxygen is more difcult to remove.
bulk storage demands strict attention to hygiene. The deaeration efciency, or reduction of
Single-strength juice is more sensitive to micro- dissolved oxygen, depends on several operating
bial contamination than concentrate (where the factors, such as the vacuum applied and juice
high osmotic pressure resulting from high sugar surface area in the deaerator. Deaerator operation
content retards microbial growth). The use of and equipment are described in subsection 7.5.
chilled storage instead of frozen storage also Volatiles which ash off during deaeration
imposes much stricter hygiene requirements for are condensed and returned to the juice stream.
NFC production than what FCOJ producers may Alternatively, they are sometimes removed and
be accustomed to. stored separately from the bulk juice.
Good manufacturing practice demands that the
pasteuriser system should be presterilised at 95 C
or higher prior to production, and that a CIP pro-
gram be integrated with the control system. NFC
Dissolved oxygen in juice causes
loss of vitamin C during storage
volumes to be processed are normally large, so a
high degree of energy recovery is advisable.

5.6.4 LONG-TERM FROZEN STORAGE
Thermal treatment is a concern among many After primary pasteurisation orange juice is stored
NFC producers. Excessive heat load on the juice in bulk under either frozen or aseptic conditions.
should be avoided. Careful control of temperature NFC production involves large product volumes.
and residence time using well-designed heat ex- For the same amount of nal juice, NFC volumes
changers is important. Low temperature differ- are 56 times larger than FCOJ.
entials between the heating medium (hot water) Vitamin degradation and changes in avour
and product minimises shock to the product. during the storage period are minimised by freez-
ing, but the energy and warehouse costs of freez-
ing and storing frozen NFC are high.
THE PURPOSE OF PRIMARY
PASTEURISATION IS TWO-FOLD
Freezing of NFC leads to handling problems
- to deactivate enzymes
because it freezes solid, whereas frozen orange
- to make the juice microbiologically stable concentrate is very viscous but still pumpable.
Frozen storage of NFC is more appropriate to
low NFC volumes. Large-volume producers store
5.6.3 DEAERATION NFC aseptically in very large tanks.
Air tends to get mixed into the juice in the ex- Juice to be stored frozen is lled into mild steel
tractors and nishers. Some of the entrained air 200 l (55 US gal.) drums lined with a polyethylene
may escape during buffer storage, but juice go- plastic bag. As the product is to be frozen, the net
ing to pasteurisation is normally saturated with lling volume is about 170 l (45 US gal.).

76
 5.6 NFC production

Normally, when product is required from these

THERE ARE THREE MAJOR OPTIONS FOR tanks, it is drawn off, blended with juice from
LONG-TERM STORAGE OF NFC JUICE another part of the season (and perhaps pulp)
- frozen storage and repasteurised.
- aseptic storage in tanks In Florida, a large share of NFC is stored in
- aseptic storage in bag-in-box bulk containers
tank farms with very large aseptic tanks. This
technology was pioneered in Florida and gave
rise to rapid growth in storage capacity during
Alternatively, the juice may be poured into block the 1990s with still more capacity being added
formers and then frozen (mainly for on-site today. Growth in NFC production in Brazil after
storage).The frozen product is usually kept at 2000 has also led to the construction of large
18 C or lower. storage tanks. But unlike Florida, where NFC is
Thawing of NFC to make it ready for nal mainly stored and utilised on a processors site,
processing also leads to some logistical and hand- NFC produced in Brazil is primarily intended
ling difculties. It takes several days or weeks for for export. The aseptic tank farms are therefore
bulk product in drums to thaw at ambient tem- installed at the dockside export terminal instead
perature. The outer layer of juice may be exposed of at the juice factory.
to microbiological contamination during thawing In this case, claried juice is pre-pasteurised
with subsequent negative impact on product qual- and cooled down to 0 C at the processing site
ity. Crushing systems enable more rapid handling and then transported by road tanker to juice fa-
but entail higher energy consumption and capital cilities at the export harbour (the distance from
investment. one of the major citrus processing sites to Port of
Systems for freezing larger blocks of juice Santos is 450 km). Full pasteurisation of juice
incorporating novel techniques for rapid freezing takes place at the terminal before it is transferred
and thawing have been introduced, but so far have to the large aseptic storage tanks for long-term
limited commercial use. storage to bridge the seasons.
To avoid repasteurisation of juice before
5.6.5 ASEPTIC STORAGE IN TANKS
overseas transport, relevant technology has been
As an alternative to frozen storage, NFC may be
developed that allows the aseptic transfer of juice
stored chilled in aseptic tanks. Technology exists
to sea vessels tted with bulk aseptic tanks. Juice
to build very large tanks, up to 4 million litres
is transported to the US and Europe under chilled
capacity, for the aseptic storage of juice. Unique
aseptic conditions on board specially designed
fabrication techniques are used to coat the internal
ships (see also subsection 6.3.3). On arrival at its
surfaces of the carbon steel tanks with an expoxy
destination, the juice is aseptically transferred to
lining. While lined tanks are common in Florida,
aseptic dockside tanks at the reception terminal
Brazilian producers use mainly stainless-steel
using similar technology to that at the export
tanks for NFC storage. The tanks are sterilised
facilities.
prior to lling by ooding them with a sterilising
The aseptic NFC technology requires a sub-
uid (e.g. iodoform). Rather than tting the tanks
stantial initial investment, and the value of product
with cooling jackets, they are installed within a
at risk when stored in such large tanks is consid-
large refrigerated building. The preferred storage
erable. Today, however, risks are minimised by
temperature is about 1 C, just above the freezing
eld-proven designs, advanced aseptic technology,
temperature of the juice.
and more than ten years of experience with the
The juice must be agitated periodically to
many large tank systems installed.
avoid separation of sinking pulp and to maintain
Brix uniformity. Pressurised nitrogen above the
juice surface is often maintained to minimise
the risk of vitamin C loss through oxidation.
As an alternative to frozen
storage, NFC may be stored
chilled in large aseptic tanks

77
 5.6 NFC production

5.6.6 ASEPTIC STORAGE IN BAG-IN-BOX

BULK CONTAINERS
As an alternative to aseptic tanks, the juice may
be lled into 1,000 l (300 gal.) aseptic bag-in-box
containers (see Figure 5.14). The bags, placed
in bins usually made from wood, are then stored
under refrigerated conditions. After storage, the
product is accessed by opening the bag and pump-
ing out the product. Alternatively, the bag can be
emptied and the juice transferred aseptically to
the ller.
The use of one tonne aseptic bag-in-box
containers for NFC storage requires more la-
bour for lling and emptying the containers
compared with large tanks. However, it gives Fig. 5.14 A ller for bag-in-box containers.
added exibility regarding storage capacity as the
investment required to store additional volumes Other systems were developed specically for
of juice is moderate. A drawback of the aseptic aseptic lling. An example of the latter type is
tank approach is nite storage volume unless a shown in Figure 5.14. It incorporates a simple
major investment is undertaken to have reserve lling system (spout and lling valve) and steam
capacity. Consequently, the bag-in-box solution is used as the sterilising agent.
is often preferred for start-up operations for NFC
5.6.7 REPROCESSING OF NFC
production. NFC processors who already have
In the USA, some NFC is moved in bulk by road
aseptic tanks installed may also use bag-in-box
and rail tankers to juice packers across the coun-
containers to provide additional storage capacity
try, but most NFC is lled into retail packages in
and shipment of NFC.
Florida and distributed from there. Shipping from
Aseptic security during product lling and
Florida to Europe in bulk is done in frozen drums
storage in the bag must be high. For long-term
and aseptic bag-in-box containers. For Brazilian
storage of juice (6 months or more), bag material
NFC, overseas shipping also occurs by bulk sea
with a very good oxygen barrier is recommended.
tanker. Overseas shipping of packaged product
Bags made with foil-based aluminium laminate
is at a cost disadvantage compared with ship-
offer higher protection against oxygen compared
ping bulk juice. Moreover, the additional delay
with metallised laminates where the aluminium
in transport time adds to difculties with logistics
layer is much thinner.
and forecasting for the packaged product.
Aseptic security during product lling and
Traditionally, NFC taken from storage at the
storage must be high. Any contamination may
fruit processors site for reprocessing is blended
lead to blown bags during storage and shipment.
with juice from a different part of the season and/
Needless to say, a single blown bag during ship-
or with pulp. The juice blend is then repasteurised
ment can cause a lot of trouble.
prior to lling into consumer packages.
There are several lling systems for aseptic
Alternatively, specially designed equipment
bag-in-box (BiB) containers. Some evolved
can be used to transfer juice from aseptic bulk
from conventional (nonaseptic) BiB systems. A
bags to consumer packages, via an aseptic tank,
sterile chamber surrounds the lling head, and
without the need for repasteurisation.
chemical sterilants are used for sterilisation.
When NFC is shipped overseas, blending
with other orange juice varieties and pulp may
take place at the juice facilities at the reception
terminal or at a blending house.

78
 5.7 Concentrate production

Juice from
clarification

Evaporator Condensate to
fruit washing
Essence recovery

Concentrate blend tanks

Plate cooler

Frozen concentrate
storage Fig. 5.15 Flow chart of
concentrate production.

5.7 Concentrate production During the 1970s and 1980s, there was a large
Globally, most orange juice is produced as expansion in concentrate capacity in the major
concentrate. Juice from the clarication step citrus markets of Brazil and Florida. Today, little
is evaporated to remove most of the water (see increase in evaporator capacity is needed in these
Figure 5.15). Currently, the most widely used cit- regions, but new evaporators are being installed
rus evaporators are of tubular design, although to satisfy the requirements of other expanding
plate and cassette evaporators are also installed orange-producing regions.
in citrus plants. 5.7.1 TUBULAR EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS
The evaporators are designed for the enormous The most common type of tubular evaporator
juice volumes commonly processed in large citrus system used for orange juice is the TASTE
plants, where evaporator capacities can exceed evaporator. It is generally described as a con-
100,000 kg/h (about 220,000 lbs/h) of water evapo- tinuous, high-temperature short-time evaporator
rated. Versions with as many as seven effects are of the long, vertical tube falling-lm type. The
installed (seven effects means basically that the name is an acronym for Thermally Accelerated
steam is reused to evaporate water in seven steps). Short-Time Evaporator. It was designed and
Such systems have a very low specic steam con- developed in Florida, and today this type of
sumption; only 1 kg (2.2 lbs) of steam is used to evaporator is manufactured in many different
evaporate 6 kg (13.2 lbs) of water. However, ad- countries. These evaporator systems are dedi-
ditional effects increase the residence time for the cated to citrus fruit.
product in the evaporator accordingly.

79
 5.7 Concentrate production

Preheated juice

3 5 1
Steam

4 6 2

Steam

Steam

1 Condensate
= Product stage
Concentrate
65 Brix Juice 12 Brix

Fig. 5.16 A simplied ow diagram of a tubular evaporator.

A ow diagram of an evaporator with seven product 50 metres/second on leaving the tube bundle! The
stages is presented in Figure 5.16. The juice is rst high degree of turbulence increases heat-transfer
preheated to 9598 C. Holding at pasteurisation rates and reduces burn-on, which helps to achieve
temperature stabilises the juice by means of mi- long operating runs.
crobial and enzyme inactivation. The product then
Other tubular evaporation systems
passes through a number of stages under vacuum
There are also other tubular evaporator sys-
until a concentration of up to 66 Brix is achieved.
tems of similar design for citrus plants, which
By this time the product temperature has fallen to
include a conventional mechanical method of
about 40 C. The residence time in the evaporator
distributing product across the tube bundles.
is typically 57 minutes or longer.
They in cor po rate thermal recompression to
Good distribution is of primary importance in
increase steam economy without increasing
the design of an evaporator. It ensures that all the
residence time. Relatively few of these evap-
product is uniformly treated and that the heat ex-
o ra tor sys tems have been installed for high
change surface is used to its maximum potential.
product capacities.
A special feature of the TASTE evaporator
is the way in which the product is distributed 5.7.2 PLATE AND CASSETTE
across the tube bundle. The juice is fed into the EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS
distribution section at a temperature and pressure In addition to tubular systems, plate and cassette
greater than in the entry zone of the tube bundle. evaporators are also used for concentrating or-
The liquid is fed through a diverging expansion ange juice. As the name implies, plate evapora-
nozzle which converts all the product into a tors consist of plates clamped together in a frame
liquid/vapour mixture. The expanding vapour with gaskets between them. It is more common
accelerates the liquid/vapour mixture through a to use cassettes (welded double plates) instead of
second nozzle and cone assembly. Further ash single plates because they further simplify main-
expansion of the vapour causes atomisation of tenance. The heating medium (steam or vapour)
the liquid phase into a turbulent mist. The accel- ows through the space between the welded plates
eration effect can cause mist velocities to exceed that make up the cassette.

80
 5.7 Concentrate production

Fig. 5.17 A rising lm cassette evaporator.

Product channels are formed between individual The lm ows upwards in a homogenous ow
cassettes separated by gaskets. This conguration thus giving a very short retention time over the
allows ready inspection of product. heating surface. The liquid/vapour velocity at the
Some advantages of plate/cassette evaporators outlet of the very short heating channel is very
when compared with other types of evaporator high. It is possible to evaporate products of higher
are that capacity increases are easily achieved by viscosity and higher pulp content than in a falling
adding more cassettes, and that maintenance and lm evaporator.
inspection are easily carried out by opening the As plate systems can be designed for exibility,
frame. Furthermore, as cassette evaporators are some installations installed in citrus plants are
more compact, they eliminate the need for several used to process other types of juice outside the
walkways at different levels used to access the orange juice season.
equipment as found with tubular systems. The one-
5.7.3 HOMOGENISATION
level conguration offers easy operator control
Sometimes, homogenisation of concentrate is car-
and ready access for maintenance activities.
ried out within the evaporator system. Product
A small temperature difference between the
then normally passes through a homogeniser be-
product and heating medium is sufcient in this
fore the last effect. At this stage the concentration
type of evaporator. This allows lower operating
is approximately 4042 Brix. Homogenisation
temperatures to be used than with traditional
breaks down the pectin, thereby lowering the
tubular evaporators. The main type of cassette
viscosity of the concentrate. This increases the
evaporator is the rising lm unit.
efciency of the nal stage of the evaporator.
Rising lm cassette evaporator It is also claimed that homogenisation reduces
In the rising lm cassette evaporator the product the sinking pulp level in the product. This could
enters the bottom of the cassette and rises up over permit juice with higher pulp levels to be fed to
the heating surface as it boils (Figure 5.17). No the evaporator.
mechanical feed distribution device is needed and In the case of special requirements of concen-
even distribution is achieved through gravity. trate with very low pulp content (<1 %), specially
designed hermetic clarifying centrifuges may be
included in the evaporator system.

81
 5.7 Concentrate production

Concentrate Juice feed

5.7.4 THE CENTRIFUGAL EVAPORATOR

Very gentle product treatment during evaporation
is achieved in the centrifugal thin-lm evaporator
(Figure 5.18). The heating surface consists of
rotating cones. By combining heating and cen-
trifugal force, a high degree of concentration takes
place in one single pass, in a very short time and
at a very low temperature. A typical residence
time for concentrating orange juice from 12 to Vapour
65 Brix is about 10 sec at a temperature of 50 C.
These gentle conditions give the lowest possible
thermal impact on the product.
The centrifugal evaporator (Centritherm) Condensate
handles capacities from 50 to 5,000 kg/h of
evaporated water. It is congured in one effect Fig. 5.18 The operational principle
and consequently has a specic steam con- of a centrifugal evaporator.
sumption of approx. 1.1 kg steam per kg water
evaporated. Although its capacity is too low and
steam consumption is too high for cost-effective Some recently designed essence recovery sys-
production of standard concentrates, the superior tems use structured packing in the distillation
heat-transfer efciency and gentle product treat- column instead of the traditional perforated plate
ment of the centrifugal thin-lm evaporator are device. This new approach results in less aroma
desirable features of units sometimes used for liquid hold-up volume and residence time as well
producing premium concentrates that command as increased separation efciency. These features
a high market price. help to improve the yield of both water phase
aroma components and essence oil.
5.7.5 ESSENCE RECOVERY
During evaporation volatile juice components are Water phase aroma and essence oil
stripped from the juice together with the water. The aqueous phase (called water phase aroma or
These are often recovered in an essence recovery essence aroma), contains the avour top-notes. It
system connected to the evaporator. The essence has an alcohol strength typically standardised at
process usually forms an integral part of the mass 1215 %. The oil phase (essence oil) holds the
and thermal balance of the evaporator system. Dr. fruity and sweet-tasting avours of fresh juice. It
James Redd of Florida pioneered the development has different properties to those of peel oil (see
work in the design of essence recovery units, the Section 8). Add-back of water phase aroma and
rst commercial system being installed in 1963. essence oil to concentrate has replaced the previ-
The vapours from the early product stages ous practice of adding single-strength juice (called
of the evaporator contain most of the volatiles cut-back) to improve the avour of concentrate.
from the juice. These are captured and sent to a In Florida, Valencia oranges are used to pro-
still mounted on the evaporator. The important duce the best essence, but little essence can be
volatiles are separated from the water by distil- derived from early varieties of fruit, and it is often
lation under vacuum and condensed by chilling. of poorer quality.
The product essence is a concentrated mixture of Aroma and essence oil are either sold as sep-
aqueous and oil-soluble aroma compounds. This arate products to concentrate blending houses or
essence is separated into oil and aqueous phases juice packers, or alternatively purchased on contract
by either decantation or centrifugation. by speciality avour manufacturing companies.

82
 5.7 Concentrate production

5.7.6 CONCENTRATE STORAGE Freeze-concentration

After evaporation, the 65 Brix concentrate is This method is based on the fact that during the
chilled to 10 C. It is then routed to storage. freezing of sugar solutions, ice crystals are rst
Blending of different production lots and addition formed which can be separated out from solution,
of peel oil and essences may be done on the way thereby increasing the sugar concentration. When
to concentrate storage. Storage takes place in freeze-concentration is applied to juice, inactiv-
bulk storage tanks or 200 l drums with plastic ation of enzymes is necessary. This may be car-
liner. Drum storage is normally maintained at ried out by pasteurising the juice before freezing
20 to 25 C, bulk storage in large tanks often at or pasteurising the resulting concentrate.
10 C. Just prior to dispatch from the plant, con- Several studies have shown that, compared
centrate drawn from different bulk storage tanks with conventional evaporation, freeze-concen-
is often blended to meet product specications. tration yields superior avour quality. However,
Concentrates are sometimes diluted with pulp, the low temperatures involved lead to high vis-
for example, to reduce the Brix level. Shipping cosities of the concentrated products, which limit
of frozen concentrate involves drums, tank cars the degree of concentration that can be achieved
or bulk tanker ships. and the amount of pulp and insoluble solids that
Concentrate is traded as FCOJ. The term fro- may be present in the juice to be concentrated
zen may be misleading as concentrate at 65 Brix (Braddock and Sadler, 1989). Concentrates of up
does not freeze solid at 10 C due to its high to 40 Brix can be obtained with this method.
sugar content. 6566 Brix is the most common
Membrane ltration
concentration for FCOJ but bulk concentrates of
Membrane ltration is another method evaluated
lower Brix are also available. FCOJ of 5558 Brix
for concentrating orange juice without using heat,
is typically supplied to dairies.
but the resulting high viscosity of concentrate
5.7.7 ALTERNATIVE CONCENTRATION reduces ltration efciency and limits the degree
METHODS of concentration that can be achieved. To mini-
Alternatives to evaporation for concentrating or- mise viscosity, the pulp is rst separated from
ange juice have been developed and tested, but so the juice, e.g. by ultraltration (UF), to leave a
far their commercial application is limited. Lower clear liquid (serum) which is concentrated by
Brix levels of the concentrate and often high op- reverse osmosis.
erational costs compared with evaporator systems The pulpy stream, rich in enzymes, is pasteur-
in common use hinder the commercialisation of ised before being recombined with the serum con-
the new systems. centrate. Mixing back of the insoluble solids stream,
Two methods which do not use heat for con- essentially at single-strength juice concentration,
centration are freeze-concentration and membrane reduces the Brix value of the concentrate. Concen-
ltration. trations up to 42 Brix have been reported.
Concentration systems using other membrane
processes have also been tested. However, the
necessity to retain the sugars, acids and aroma
compounds in order to maintain a balanced citrus
juice avour puts tough demands on potential
membrane systems.

83
 5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery

Peel oil emulsion

from extractors

5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil)

recovery Oil finisher
The oil-water emulsion, or oil frit, from the ex-
traction process is sent to the peel oil recovery
section. Apart from the oil and water, other fruit
First stage centrifuge Reclaimed water
substances are present in the emulsion. These returned to extractors
include particles of peel and pulp, and soluble
pectin and sugars. The aim of the peel oil recovery
system is to recover pure oil by removing all other Second stage centrifuge
substances with as little oil loss as possible.
Peel oil is commonly referred to as cold-
pressed oil. Winterisation tanks
5.8.1 STRAINING AND CONCENTRATION STEP
The rst step involves using a nisher as a strain-
ing method to remove large bits of peel and other
parts of the orange that must not enter down-
stream centrifuges (see Figure 5.19). After Drum storage Bulk transport
straining, the oil emulsion containing about
0.52.0 % oil enters the rst stage centrifuge Fig. 5.19 Flow chart of peel oil recovery.
(also called a desludger or concentrator). The
centrifuge concentrates the oil up to 7090 %.
The rst centrifuge is a three-phase machine. The centrifuged water also contains microscopic
The light phase is concentrated oil, the heavy particles of oil that are too small to be separated
phase is water, and the third phase is residual by the centrifuge. As this level of oil builds up
particulate matter. The control of solids discharge with water recycling, the effectiveness of the
from the sludge space is critical to the overall water to extract oil from the peel decreases. This
performance of the oil recovery system. If the will also lead to an overall drop in efciency of
discharge frequency is set too high then product oil recovery.
is lost, but if the sludge space is allowed to ll The type of oil extraction used and the per-
up then separation efciency is lost. formance of the centrifuges will determine the
The water stream is often recycled back to the amount of water that can be recycled. The cleaner
oil extraction system as spray water, although it the peel oil emulsion, the higher the oil yield of the
is important that some water is removed from the peel oil recovery system and the larger the recy-
system to allow additional fresh water to enter it. cling of water. The oil extraction system upstream
Microbiological problems may occur if the same of the reamer-type juice extractor is claimed to
water is continuously recycled. Moreover, the cen- give a less contaminated oil emulsion than the
trifuged water contains undesirable components one-step squeezer-type extraction system.
such as soluble pectin. For oil recovery, the hermetic centrifuge
As the concentration of these components has several advantages over the open bowl type
builds up in the emulsion, the oil separation design. The fully ooded bowl in the hermetic
efciency decreases, thereby resulting in lower machine ensures that oil does not come in contact
oil yields. Again, this limits the amount of water with air. The precise manner in which the interface
recycling possible. between oil and water is controlled leads to higher
separation efciency.

84
 5.8 Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) recovery

The winterisation process involves precipitating

the wax by causing it to crystallise and then settle.
The oil is stored in tanks at 1 C or lower, which
causes the waxes to come out of solution and
sediment. The process typically takes 30 days or
more, although at lower temperatures this period
may be considerably shorter. The winterised oil
is then decanted from the tank. Larger processors
collect the sludge from different winterising tanks
so that once sufcient material has accumulated,
the waxes can be removed by centrifugation to
recover residual oil.
Fig. 5.20 Hermetic centrifuge for The winterised oil is packed in 200 l (55 US
peel oil concentration. gal.) drums or road tankers. Normally the oil is
stored under refrigeration (10 C) and is traded
as Cold-Pressed Oil, CPO. Sometimes it is called
A hermetic centrifuge for concentration of peel Cold-Pressed Peel Oil, CPPO. It is used as a raw
oil emulsion is illustrated in Figure 5.20. material in the avour manufacturing industry,
and by concentrate blending houses and drink-
5.8.2 POLISHING
base manufacturers.
The concentrated oil stream then passes to a
second stage centrifugation process (polishing). 5.8.4 D-LIMONENE RECOVERY SYSTEMS
Within this machine the oil is further concentrated The heavy phase from the peel oil rst-stage
to >99 % purity. The ow rates are extremely small centrifuge is usually recirculated to extractors
(12 %) compared with the ow rates in the rst as yellow water. Part of this ow (10 to 50 %)
stage, or with ow rates used in juice clarication needs to be replaced with fresh water in order not
and deoiling of single-strength juice. to concentrate too much insoluble material like
Since the product has already undergone one pectin present in this poor oil emulsion before
centrifugation process, virtually no solid particles its sent back to the juice extractors.
remain in the product. For smaller capacities, a The nonrecirculated fraction of the yellow
solid bowl machine is used and the water and oil water has some residual oil content (0.51.0 %)
are continuously discharged. Periodic takedown that, instead to be sent to the feed mill or waste
removes any material that collects in the bowl water treatment, is separated using specic equip-
periphery. For larger ow rates, a solids-ejecting ment dedicated to recovering the residual oil. A
polisher is used in which water and oil leave the traditional d-limonene recovery system heats the
machine under pressure. Accumulated solids are yellow water and further vaporises a mixture of
discharged about once or twice per hour. water vapour and d-limonene in one or more in-
One tonne of fruit typically yields 200300 l series ash chambers. The vapour is subsequently
emulsion to the rst centrifuge and 36 l of con- condensed to recover the terpenic fraction.
centrated oil to the polisher. A more efcient new design eliminates the in-
dividual ash effects by incorporating a specially
5.8.3 THE WINTERISATION PROCESS
designed fractionation column to perform the va-
The polished oil contains trace amounts of dis-
pour enrichment. This results in better d-limonene
solved wax derived from the peel of the fruit. At
quality and yields, and a more compact recovery
temperatures above 15 or 20 C, the wax is totally
unit. Both systems can usually be fed with sludge
dissolved. However, at lower temperatures it may
discharge from the rst-stage centrifuge as well
give a haze to the product. To avoid this problem
as from the polisher (second-stage) centrifuge in
the polished oil is dewaxed, or winterised as
the peel oil recovery unit.
it is called.

85
 5.9 Feed mill operations

Peel, pulp, rag and

seeds from extractors

Hammer mills

Fig. 5.21 Flow chart of Reaction screws

feed mill operations.
Lime

Peel presses

Static screens Reaction screws

Press liquor tanks Peel presses

Waste heat evaporator Peel drier

Pelletiser Silo storage

Molasses tanks d-Limonene tank

5.9 Feed mill operations Feed mill process steps

After extraction of juice, about 50 % of the fruit The feed mill receives rejected fruit from the grad-
remains. Much of this residual fruit matter is ing tables in the reception area and waste mate-
seemingly low-grade material in the form of peel, rial from juice processing. The overall moisture
rag, core, seeds and pulp not used for commercial content of this combined material is about 80 %.
purposes. This waste is sent to a feed mill installed It is conveyed by screw conveyors to the wet peel
in most larger processing plants. bins of the feed mill. From here it is broken down
Feed mill operations (see Figure 5.21) repre- to small pieces by hammer mills. Small amounts
sent a signicant part of the total plant running of lime (0.15 to 0.25 %) are added after this step
costs. The drying of solids and evaporation of the to aid the dewatering process. After a dwell time
liquid stream are energy-intensive. Less waste of 1015 minutes the mixture is conveyed or
and increased recycling of liquids in other parts pumped to the peel presses.
of the plant are desirable for both economical and In the primary peel presses some 10 % of the
environmental reasons. Legislative pressure for moisture is removed. Continuous screw presses
environmental control in citrus plants continues have largely replaced hydraulic batch presses for
to increase. this task. Further addition of lime and secondary
The revenue from the sale of by-products from pressing can remove 2 or 3 % extra moisture.
the feed mill makes a signicant contribution to The liquid from the presses, press liquor, con-
the overall protability of orange processors. tains approximately 915 % soluble solids, much
There is continuous development in nding ad- of which are sugar solids. The oil content can be
ditional products that can be recovered from peel between 0.2 to 0.8 %. The press liquor normally
and other waste streams. ows over static screens to remove peel solids and
then on to the waste heat evaporator.

86
 5.10 Pulp production

The press liquor is usually concentrated to In the past, most pulp went to pulp washing and
50 Brix and added back to the peel residue prior the feed mill. However, now that the current mar-
to pressing. Alternatively, it may be concentrated ket trend is to add more pulp cells to the nal juice,
up to 72 Brix and used as raw material for a the proportion of pulp from the extractors going
fermentation process to make citrus alcohol. to commercial pulp production is increasing. For
The press liquor contains a high amount of most processors, however, more pulp is obtained
suspended materials and often includes sand- from the fruit than is required by the juice industry
like matter. When decanter centrifuges are used for add-back to juice.
for clarifying the press liquor, they should be The extractor type and operation will inu-
equipped with special internal tiles to minimise ence the quality of the pulp produced. In some
erosion. Clarication of the press liquor can pro- plants, the extractors used for pulp production
long the running time of the waste heat evaporator are adjusted to optimise pulp quality rather than
and reduce cleaning time substantially, thereby to maximise juice yield. The visual difference be-
contributing to greater cost-efciency in running tween pulp from reamer-type extractors (Brown)
the feed mill. d-Limonene is stripped off in the and standard squeezer-type extractors (FMC) is
waste heat evaporator and can be recovered as a illustrated in Figure 5.22.
separate stream from the vapour phase.
The pressed peel is dried in a rotary drier
to a moisture content of about 10 % and then
pelletised to make animal feed. The vapour that
comes from the peel drier is used as heating me-
dium in the waste heat evaporator.

5.10 Pulp production

Floating pulp, i.e. the larger solid particles in the
Standard squeezer-type extractor
juice, mainly consist of small pieces of ruptured
cell sacs and segment walls. They are separated
from the juice in nishers. (The very small pulp
particles ow with the juice stream from the n-
isher. These ne particles tend to sediment at the
bottom of the juice and are referred to as sinking
pulp.) The pulp stream from the nisher is handled
in different ways depending on the end use of the Reamer-type extractor
pulp. The alternatives are:
Recovery for production of commercial pulp. Fig. 5.22 Illustration of relative pulp
sizes after extraction.
Pulp is used as add-back in juice and juice
drinks.
Production of pulp wash, the juice sugars
obtained by washing pulp with water. The
remaining material is sold as washed pulp
or taken to the feed mill.
Routing to the feed mill for drying into pel-
lets for animal feed.

87
 5.10 Pulp production

TABLE 5.1 INFLUENCE OF PROCESS CONDITIONS ON PULP PROPERTIES

Pulp properties Process conditions
Cell length and - fruit variety and fruit maturity
fragmentation degree - size of the holes in the strainer tube (squeezer-type ex tractors)
- extraction pressure
- use of paddle or screw nisher
- back-pressure applied to the primary and nal nishers (screw type)
- equipment and operating conditions for the pulp stabilisation step.
Oil content - extraction pressure. High pressure gives higher juice yield but also
higher oil content in the pulpy juice stream.
Defects in nal product - depends on what type of equipment is used to separate defects from
the pulpy juice stream.
Pulp concentration - tightness applied in the nishers.
(i.e the concentration
of pulp particles in
pulp slurry)

5.10.1 PRODUCTION FACTORS WHICH Extraction

AFFECT COMMERCIAL PULP QUALITY During the juice extraction process, segment
Some of the process conditions which have a sig- walls and cell sac walls are torn into pieces. Both
nicant inuence on pulp properties are given in the reamer-type extractor and specially designed
Table 5.1. squeezer-type extractor used for premium pulp
5.10.2 PROCESS STEPS IN
put less shear force on the pulp compared with
PULP PRODUCTION the standard squeezer-type extractor. This results
The exact conguration of the pulp line will vary in larger and less fragmented pulp pieces. How-
from plant to plant, and its design will depend ever, defects such as core and seeds also end up in
on the type of extraction system and processor the pulpy juice from the extractors. This imposes
preference. The basic pulp production steps are greater demands on the defect removal system.
shown in Figure 5.23. Sometimes, pulp from the primary nishers in
Instead of pulpy juice from the extractors, pulp juice clarication is conveyed to feed the pulp
from the primary nishers in juice clarication is production line. Dilution with juice prior to defect
sometimes taken as feed to the pulp production removal may then be required.
lines. Dilution with juice prior to the defect re-
moval step may then be needed.

Pulpy juice from Reclaimed juice to evaporator

extractors

Defect removal Primary finisher Pasteuriser Drying finisher

Fig. 5.23 Pulp production steps. Aseptic bag filler Box/drum filler

Aseptic pulp Frozen pulp storage

chilled storage

88
 5.10 Pulp production

Cleaned pulp slurry through the underow orice while the majority
changes its direction and ows upward to the
cyclone overow, taking an inner spiral path. If
the density of the particles is higher than that
Pulp slurry
of the liquid, the centrifugal force presses the
particles against the cyclone wall from where
they are pushed down and out through the bot-
tom opening.
Separation in a cyclone is improved with
lower solids concentration and lower liquid vis-
cosity. As small immature seeds are lighter than
pulp slurry they are difcult to remove. Thus
the quality of fruit delivered to the processor is
Fig. 5.24 A hydrocyclone used important for the results of defect removal.
for removing defects. Concentration (primary nishers)
The cleaned stream from the defect removal
Defects stream
system is normally concentrated prior to heat
treatment. The reasons for this are two-fold:
Defect removal energy is saved by heating/chilling
Defects are normally described as small frag- less product
ments of peel, membrane or seed. As the absence less juice is subjected to additional
of defects in the nal product is an important heat treatment
quality parameter, they have to be removed from
the pulp/juice slurry. Concentration is done in a screw-type or paddle-
Defects are removed in a series of separa- type primary nisher. Paddle nishers treat pulp
tion steps. The rst step may be a classifying particles more gently. The operation of the nisher
nisher. This is a paddle-type nisher incor- can be adjusted so that the pulp concentration of
porating screens with large perforations that the discharged pulp slurry is at the required
will allow juice and cells to pass through but strength for the downstream pasteurisation step.
retain large seeds and pieces of membrane. The In Florida, most processors operate so that the pulp
pulpy juice stream then goes to one or more slurry from the primary nisher has a typical pulp
hydrocyclones. If there are a lot of defects, concentration of 400500 g/l. In Brazil, there is a
two or more hydrocyclones are used in series. difference between plants from 150-200 g/l up to
Hydrocyclones are based on gravity separation 500 g/l pulp concentration. The lower range is due
and remove defects which have a higher density to using plate heat exchangers in the pasteuriser.
than the pulp slurry. The pulp stream from the primary nisher
Figure 5.24 shows the liquid and particle to pasteurisation cannot be kept constant, but
ow in a cyclone. The infeed, which is tangen- will vary in both ow rate and pulp concentra-
tially introduced into the cone, starts moving in tion (1015 %) during a production shift. Over
a downward spiral along the cyclone wall. As it a season, different fruit varieties and extractor
nears the cone outlet, some of the product leaves settings will give wider variations.

89
 5.10 Pulp production

Heat treatment
The two objectives of pulp slurry The enzyme concentration is
higher in pulp slurry than in
pasteurisation are:
to inactivate enzymes claried juice
to destroy relevant microorganisms
The necessary degrees of enzyme inactivation
and microbial reduction depend on how the pulp Which heat exchanger?
will be further processed and stored. The required The heat exchangers used for pasteurisation of
inactivation determines the pasteurisation condi- pulp slurry are typically of tubular type. Any
tions (temperature and time). obstructions on the product side, such as con-
As the enzymes in oranges are located in tact points in a plate heat exchanger, should be
the fruit cell walls, the enzyme concentration is avoided. Often the heat exchangers incorporate
signicantly higher in pulp slurry than in clari- a single product tube. With this type there is no
ed juice. To achieve complete inactivation of risk of uneven product ow. However, throughput
enzymes, more intensive heat treatment is needed is limited due to the pressure drop.
for pulp slurry than for juice. However, complete A multitube heat exchanger (see Figure 7.12)
enzyme inactivation is normally not required. En- can process high pulp ow rates without the
zyme activity should be reduced to such an extent drawback of excessive pressure drops. The inlet
that the pulp: to the parallel tubes requires careful design to
is stable during bulk storage ensure that pulp does not stick to tube entrances
will not lead to cloud separation in reconsti- thereby causing blockage and uneven ow rates
tuted juice through the tubes.
Heat treating pulp at concentrations much
If the downstream handling of heat-treated pulp above 500 g/l is not really feasible in tubular
is nonaseptic (e.g. the drying nisher), complete heat exchangers because heat transfer coefcients
killing of microorganisms is not required. This is rapidly decline above this concentration. Efcient
the case for pulp stored frozen, the most common heat transfer is inhibited by the high cellulose
storage method. In this case the heat treatment content of the product. If tubular heat exchang-
is referred to as stabilisation. Typical heating ers are used for higher pulp concentrations, they
conditions are 90100 C for 30 seconds. become very large, which entails slow heat-up
When pulp is to be stored chilled in aseptic bag- and cool-down times resulting in a loss of product
in-box containers, heat treatment may be referred to quality. A pasteurisation system for pulp using
as pulp stabilisation/sterilisation. Temperatures multitube heat exchangers can also have the dual
in excess of 100 C are normally used. A higher de- function of pasteurising NFC.
gree of enzyme inactivation is required for chilled The nature of the pulp recovery process
storage compared with frozen storage. Aseptic tends to entrain air into the product stream.
storage also requires that heat-treated pulp has This has to be considered in the design of the
no microbial activity. Furthermore, downstream heat treatment process.
equipment must not recontaminate the product.

90
 5.10 Pulp production

Pulp
Pulpfrom
fromjuice
juice Multistage counter Pulp wash heater Enzymatic reactor
clarification
clarification current wash system

Washed pulp
Water Enzymes
Pasteuriser
Box/drum filler

Drum filler Evaporator Evaporator feed tanks Clarifier

Blending Orange juice concentrate Debittering

Fig. 5.25 Flow chart of pulp wash production.

Concentration (drying or nal nisher) Packing in aseptic bag-in-box containers

Traditionally, the heat-treated pulp is further for chilled storage
concentrated up to 9501,000 g/l using a nal If the stabilisation process is modied to become
or drying nisher. Although still wet it is called a stabilisation/sterilisation process, it is possible
dry pulp because it will not release any free to pack pulp aseptically and store it refrigerated.
liquid when pressure is applied to it. The residual Packing is done directly after heat treatment.
liquid is mainly adsorbed onto the cellulose Hence, the aseptic pulp will be bulk stored at a
membranes. much lower concentration than frozen pulp.
The concentration of dry pulp is measured The disadvantage of packing pulp aseptically
for product specication by a special method at 500 g/l concentration is that a larger storage
called Quick Fibre (described in Section 8). The (and shipping) volume is needed for the same
liquid in the pulp, essentially NFC, typically amount of dry pulp. The advantage is that the
cor responds to 58 % of pulp mass for standard pulp is much easier to handle as it is pumpable
pulp, and 913 % for premium pulp. Thus when and needs no thawing or crushing. It also gives
pulp is added during reconstitution at the juice the possibility of enhancing the nal product.
packer, the juice still present in the dry pulp When the aseptic pulp is added back to juice
will provide additional NFC. reconstituted from concentrate, juice present in
the aseptic pulp (effectively NFC) may provide
Packing in boxes/drums for frozen storage some of the desired avour associated with NFC
The concentrated pulp is normally packed in products. Aseptic pulp is produced by several
20 kg corrugated cardboard boxes lined with a processors in Florida.
polyethylene bag which are then frozen. Freezing
can take several days. Pulp may also be packed in
drums (200 l/55 gal.) for frozen storage. However,
drums are not often supplied to juice packers as
they are usually too large for the batches of re-
constituted juice.

91
 5.11 Pulp wash production

5.11 Pulp wash production The high content of pectin in pulp wash leads
Pulp washing is carried out to recover juice solu- to a greater increase in viscosity during evapo-
bles in pulp coming from the juice nishers and ration compared with pure juice. This can lead to
from the centrifuges in the clarication or deoiling a limit of 40 Brix for pulp wash concentration.
process. Thorough pulp washing can increase the Therefore, breaking down pectin by enzyme
total yield of soluble solids by 47 %, which con- treatment is often included in the pulp washing
tributes signicantly to overall plant economics. process. Typical conditions are a retention time
The process steps are shown in Figure 5.25. of up to one hour at 45 C in the reactor tank.
The juice sugars are reclaimed by a counter- After centrifugation, enzyme-treated pulp wash
current washing system. The pulp/water slurry is can be concentrated to the normal 65 Brix level
strained through a nisher between the washing and then blended with orange juice concentrate
stages and the separated juice is called pulp or packed in 200 l drums and frozen.
wash. Process development includes the use of Washed cells
static mixers to blend and allow equilibrium of Washed cells can either be sent to the feed mill
soluble juice and pulp components during washing. or be bulk packed in 25 kg cardboard boxes or
The pulp stream is concentrated by evaporation. It 200 l drums which are stored frozen. The product
is added back to concentrated orange juice (if the is traded as washed pulp or washed cells and used
law permits) or used as a base for juice drinks. in some drink applications.
Regulations for and use of pulp wash

Pulp washing can increase

the total yield of soluble
Pulp wash is often used as a source of fruit solids
in formulated beverages and juice drinks, and as
a clouding agent for providing body and mouth-
solids by 47 % feel. Pulp wash may be included in orange juice
concentrate in Brazil and Florida provided that it
is produced along with the juice extraction proc-
The number of stages in a pulp washing system is ess. In Florida, pulp wash addition is limited to
chosen according to cost-effectiveness. A maximum max. 5 %. Nevertheless, the quality standards
of four stages can recover up to 50 %, 63 %, 75 % and marketing approach of some processors or
and 80 % respectively of the available juice sugars. organisations may still preclude the addition of
The amount recovered depends on the water to pulp pulp wash.
ratio as well as fruit variety and maturity. While the previous Fruit Juice Directive of
the European Union did not allow a product
Debittering and enzyme treatment
containing pulp wash to be called orange juice,
Pulp wash is high in limonin, which causes bit-
the new Directive of 2001 allows in-line water
terness. Consequently, nontreated pulp wash has
extraction of pulp for the production of orange
limited use as add-back into high quality juice
juice concentrate.
drinks. However, the bitter taste can be removed
Pulp wash is also referred to as water-extracted
by a debittering process involving ultraltration and
soluble orange solids, WESOS.
adsorbing separated bitter components onto resin.

5.12 Essence recovery

Essence recovery is an integral part of the evapo-
ration process and is described in the section on
concentrate production.

92
6
Transport
and handling
of bulk
products

In section 6 you will read about:

Which packing and shipping methods are The advantages of shipping NFC in bulk
preferred for orange juice products. rather than in retail packages.
The alternative ways bulk FCOJ is shipped The factors that determine shipping costs.
over land and sea. Dedicated terminals for receiving bulk
What happens to bulk FCOJ en route from FCOJ and NFC.
Brazil to Europe. Operations carried out by blending houses.
How overseas shipments of frozen and
aseptic NFC are handled.

93
6. Transport and handling
of bulk products
FCOJ
Tank car Terminal Bulk tanker Terminal Tank car
frozen frozen frozen frozen frozen
Fruit processing
plant

FCOJ/NFC

Truck Terminal Cargo vessel Terminal Truck

frozen/chilled frozen/chilled frozen/ambient frozen/chilled frozen/chilled

NFC

Tank car chilled Terminal Bulk tanker Terminal Tank car chilled
aseptic chilled aseptic chilled aseptic chilled

Fig. 6.1. The transport

chain for the bulk Juice packers

shipping of orange
Soft drink producers
concentrate and NFC.
Blending house Chilled/frozen
transport

SUMMARY Receiving and blending juice

Shipping of orange juice products is domi- Shipping costs depend on the modes and
nated by bulk shipments, mainly frozen current rates of shipment. The sales price
concentrate. In Florida, bulk not-from- for the bulk product usually includes the
concentrate juice (NFC) is moved between cost of the bulk package, and often the
processors and to packers in other states. transport costs to the import harbour.
However, signicant quantities of NFC is Dedicated terminals for bulk FCOJ are
lled into consumer packages in Florida found in Brazil and major juice importing
before distribution. regions. Some terminals now also have
Frozen concentrate is shipped in tanker facilities to handle bulk NFC under aseptic
ships, conventional cargo vessels, railway conditions. Products in storage tanks are un-
tanker wagons, road tankers and drums. der nitrogen atmosphere to protect them from
Some concentrate is lled into aseptic bag- oxygen. Operation of a terminal needs to be
in-box containers. Transporting FCOJ from controlled by a modern automation system.
Brazil to Europe is now a very streamlined, Blending houses supply concentrates
cost-effective and time-saving process. (and NFC products) of dened and consist-
Bulk NFC is stored chilled under aseptic ent quality to juice packers. A wide range
conditions or frozen. Aseptic product may be of raw materials are used to prepare the
shipped under chilled or non-refrigerated concentrates and bases, often made to
conditions. Special ships with refrigerated customer-specic recipes.
aseptic tanks transport NFC from Brazil to
the US and Europe. Shipping bulk NFC for
retail packing in overseas consumer mar-
kets is more economical than shipping NFC
products in retail packages.

94
 6.1 Packing and shipping preferences

6.1 Packing and shipping 6.2 Bulk shipping of FCOJ

preferences Notable developments in the transport systems
Orange juice consumption in Europe, the Far East followed the large expansion of concentrate
and the USA (with regard to imported Brazilian exports from Brazil in the 1970's and 80's. Ship-
juice) requires shipping large quantities of juice ping of orange concentrate is done in tanker ships,
products over long distances. Transport costs road tankers and drums. For shipping in tankers,
constitute a signicant part of the bulk product the product is typically kept at 8 to 10 C. For
price, typically 1520 %. Hence, efcient control drums, the product is commonly packed in 200
of the transport chain is important. l (55 gal) steel drums with double polyethylene
Outside the US market by far the dominant liners and stored frozen at 18 to 25 C.
product shipped is bulk frozen concentrated Some concentrate, in limited quantities, is also
orange juice, FCOJ. Although overseas exports packed in aseptic bags using drums or wooden bins
of not-from-concentrate orange juice, NFC, are for outer support. Aseptic bags of concentrate are
increasing, they are still relatively small on a glo- typically put into frozen or chilled storage at the
bal scale compared with FCOJ shipments. When producer site. However, as aseptic bags do not re-
NFC is shipped overseas it is predominantly in quire frozen conditions, they allow more exibility
the form of bulk product, either frozen or aseptic and possible cost-savings in the transport chain.
bag-in-box. Dedicated ships tted with bulk tanks In some markets, frozen conditions cannot be guar-
also now transport NFC under aseptic chilled con- anteed throughout the entire transport chain.
ditions from Brazil to the US and Europe. Alternative ways of transporting concentrate
Long-distance overseas shipping of juice by land and sea are listed in Table 6.1.
products in retail packages is not common for rea-
sons of cost and logistics. However, some Florida
juice and some juice products from South Africa, TABLE 6.1 DIFFERENT WAYS OF
TRANSPORTING CONCENTRATE
Australia and elsewhere are exported overseas in
retail packages. Land transport at producer and receiving end
In the US market the situation is different. - Road tankers
- Frozen drums in refrigerated trucks
Most orange juice is produced in Florida, fol- - Aseptic bag-in-drum in refrigerated or dry
lowed by California, and the area of largest juice container
consumption is northeast USA. Some ready-to- - Railway tanker wagons
drink juice is reconstituted from concentrate Overseas shipping
and packed in retail packages at the processors - Tanker ships
in Florida, although most is transported as bulk - Drums as frozen break bulk
- Drums in refrigerated containers
FCOJ to packing plants around the USA. NFC in - Aseptic bag-in-drum in refrigerated or dry
liquid bulk form is transported chilled by road and container
rail tanker in Florida and to juice packers in other
parts of the USA. Nevertheless, the majority of
Florida NFC is still packed in consumer packages
at fruit processing sites and distributed by truck The transport of FCOJ in bulk tanker ships is
or train under refrigeration. made easier by special port terminals. Such
Frozen concentrate for home dilution is still dedicated quayside facilities can now be found
a common retail product in the USA. It is retail in the major export and import regions for orange
packaged (typically in 12 ounce composite can) concentrate, such as New Jersey, Western Europe
in Florida and distributed frozen. and Japan. The major Brazilian processors have
The international transport chain for bulk built their own terminal facilities in Brazil, Eu-
orange product is shown in Figure 6.1. rope and Japan.

95
 6.1 Packing and shipping preferences

Today there are a number of large tanker ships Nevertheless, drums are likely to remain the
which have been constructed solely for trans- most appropriate shipping container for smaller
porting FCOJ and other citrus products in bulk. producers, regions with low production levels,
Tanker capacities are in the range of 6,000 to special quality concentrate, etc.
15,000 tonnes of product. Some of the major
6.2.1 FROM BRAZIL TO EUROPE
Brazilian processors run their own ships for
Today, from a logistical standpoint, transport-
bulk orange product.
ing FCOJ from a production site in Brazil to
Drummed concentrate can be shipped in con-
a European juice packer is a very streamlined,
ventional cargo vessels. Two common ways of
cost-effective and time-saving process.
shipping FCOJ in drums are as break bulk and
Most orange production in Brazil takes place
in freight containers. With frozen break bulk, the
in the state of So Paulo. The distance from the
drums are loaded individually into a refrigerated
fruit processing plants to the export harbour, Port
compartment in the vessel. Alternatively, drums
of Santos, is 400800 km. The FCOJ is trans-
(often on pallets) are put into refrigerated con-
ported to Santos by road tanker, and a continuous
tainers (reefers) which are loaded into the ship. At
eet of dedicated trucks can be seen around the
the importing end the same container can be used
clock making the journey to and from Santos.
for land transport by truck to the end user.
When unloaded from road tankers, the prod-
uct is stored in dockside tanks at 10 C under
nitrogen atmosphere. The scheduling of the or-
TYPICAL SHIPPING CONTAINERS ange concentrate vessels is precisely controlled.
Refrigerated container (reefer)
As soon as the bulk tanker ship arrives at Santos,
An insulated container with a refrigeration unit the stored product is pumped on board. Total load-
which can be set at the desired temperature ing of a ship is completed within 2436 hours.
(chilled or frozen).
The ships tanks are lled completely to allow
Dry container little or no headspace.
A regular container for transportation at ambient The crossing to Europe typically takes 13
temperature or under non-refrigerated conditions. days. En route the product and its environment
are continuously monitored. The ships arrive in
Europe at ports with dedicated dockside facilities
Shipping rates are lower for break bulk than to receive FCOJ. Large positive displacement
for refrigerated containers, but drums in break pumps (for 8 inch piping) on board the ship
bulk require more handling at the exporting and pump out the FCOJ directly into storage tanks
importing ends. on land. Unloading a full vessel can be done in
The handling of FCOJ in bulk tankers requires 2436 hours. After unloading, the ship takes in
heavy investment in infrastructure such as ships ballast and starts its return voyage to Santos. The
and special dockside terminals. When these are ship may also take freight containers on deck for
in place, however, it is a more efcient way of the return voyage.
transporting large product volumes compared Except for the transport by road tankers in
with drums or returnable containers. The total Brazil, juice concentrate is maintained under ni-
cost for drum transport should take into account trogen atmosphere from processing plant storage
both the cost of manufacturing or reconditioning to European terminal storage. For the return trip
drums and possible charges to dispose of the to Brazil, the ships empty tanks are not cleaned
drums. There is often no use for the drums in out but kept under nitrogen.
the importing region, in which case the juice
packers must pay to dispose of them.

96
 6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC

6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC

There are two alternative ways of storing bulk NFC
chilled under aseptic conditions, or frozen. Also,
shipping of aseptic product is usually carried out
under chilled conditions, although sometimes re-
frigeration is not used. Frozen (nonaseptic) prod-
uct must be transported under freezing conditions.
Unlike concentrate, which is still pumpable when
frozen although it is highly viscous, NFC freezes
solid. Because pumping frozen NFC into or out
of tanks is impossible, it must be frozen, stored
and transported in individual containers.
Fig. 6.2 Wooden bin and drums for aseptic bags.
The expansion of NFC production in Brazil at
the end of the 1990's led to the development of
bulk sea transport for chilled aseptic NFC.
6.3.2 BULK UNITS FOR ASEPTIC
6.3.1 FROZEN NFC SHIPMENTS NFC SHIPMENTS
For frozen shipments, NFC is usually lled into There are several different types of bulk units for
200 l (55 gal) drums with plastic inner liners. It shipment of aseptic NFC. The one tonne aseptic
takes several days or even weeks for NFC in bag-in-box units are the most commonly used.
drums to freeze solid. Larger unit sizes would The units are normally shipped in freight contain-
be desirable for economical reasons, but the tech- ers, either refrigerated or dry.
nology for quick freezing/thawing of larger unit The aseptic bags are multilayer plastic bags
sizes of NFC for shipping has not gained wide with a barrier layer normally aluminium foil
commercial acceptance. to minimise oxygen ingress during storage and
Single-strength juice starts to freeze at transportation. The bags require an outer support,
around 2 C. Freezing of NFC in drums does usually a bin made of wood or cardboard. The
not occur homogenously throughout the product. wooden bins are collapsible and returned for reuse
As water forms ice crystals, a gradually more (see Figure 6.2). The cardboard bins are normally
concentrated juice solution is left behind with used only one-way.
an accompanying slow decrease of the freez- The dimensions of the bins are chosen so that
ing point. The reverse process occurs when the they can be efciently stacked into the freight
product thaws out in drums. As a result, the rst containers used. The unit size may therefore
melted portions have a lower Brix content than vary between different bag-in-bin users, but lies
completely liquid juice. typically in the range 9001,200 l (240320 gal).
Freezing causes NFC to expand, thus stand- There is little or no headspace in the bags.
ard 55 gal drums are typically lled with NFC Stringent demands must be placed on the in-
to only 45 gal. As with drummed FCOJ, NFC tegrity of aseptic bags used for NFC. It is a liquid
in drums is shipped as frozen break bulk or in that ows freely inside a bag restrained by an
refrigerated containers. outer support, unlike, say, tomato paste which is
highly viscous and hardly moves. Whether chilled
or ambient conditions are used, asepticity must
Single-strength juice starts
to freeze at around -2 C
be maintained throughout the transport chain
because reinfection of an individual bag may
lead to blowing of the bag. Therefore the good
handling procedures in common practice today
must be followed closely.

97
 6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC

Extracted juice

Frozen route Aseptic bag-in-box route Aseptic bulk sea vessel route

Pasteurisation Pasteurisation Pasteurisation

Packing in lined Packing in aseptic Aseptic chilled

steel drums bag-in-box storage at port

Freezing Aseptic transfer to

bulk tanks on ship
Frozen storage Chilled storage
Chilled transport
Frozen transport Ambient transport
Aseptic unloading
to dockside tanks
Thawing and crushing
Aseptic transfer Chilled transport
Blending and (or blending and by road tanker
repasteurisation repasteurisation)
Blending and
Retail package lling Retail package lling repasteurisation

Retail package lling

Fig. 6.3 Different handling routes for NFC.

When a product is required at the juice packer, before lling. They may be used for the storage
NFC is emptied from the aseptic bag either by and transport of NFC. However, totes are mainly
cutting open the bag and removing the juice with used for short-term storage and transport over
a hose pump placed inside the bag, or by pump- short distances because of the high investment and
ing out the product through a separate emptying freight costs (including return freight) involved.
spout (controlled emptying). Much larger juice quantities can be packed
Alternatively, with an aseptic unloading sta- in aseptic transport containers. These are mobile
tion, juice can be pumped out from the bag under aseptic tanks of 20,000 l (5,000 gal) or more and
aseptic conditions followed by aseptic transfer of varying designs. Some are built inside a freight
to retail packaging. As product sterility is main- container and transported as such; another design
tained, the juice does not need to be repasteurised takes the form of self-contained tanks sized to t
prior to retail packaging. into trucks, ships and trains.
The handling and processing steps for NFC Aseptic transport containers can also be used
via the frozen route and the aseptic bag-in-box for on-site storage of juice product before it is
route are shown in Figure 6.3. shipped from the processing plant. Although the
Aseptic totes are an alternative to aseptic bag- large unit sizes of transport containers provide
in-box containers. The totes are mobile stainless better economy of scale for handling aseptic NFC,
steel tanks (1,0003,000 l product volume). They the cost risks associated with faulty operation or
are steam-sterilised and pressurised with nitrogen unsterile juice are much larger.

98
 6.3 Bulk shipping of NFC

6.3.3 BULK SHIPPING OF ASEPTIC

Investments in the port facilities
provided the technical solutions
NFC BY SEA
While NFC (single-strength orange juice) pro- required to integrate juice storage
duced in Florida is mainly packaged locally or
with aseptic shipping conditions
delivered overland to juice packers in the rest
of the US and Canada, NFC from Brazil and
other regions is mainly destined for bulk export The orange concentrate is loaded and transported
overseas. During the late 1990s, the desire to at 10 C while NFC is shipped at a nominal
increase the export of NFC orange juice from 0 C. Individual bulk tanks are maintained un-
Brazil by sea led to advances in technologies der continuous nitrogen pressure, even during
enabling the integration of NFC seasonal stor- loading/unloading when nitrogen is exchanged
age and export by bulk sea vessels. This now with dockside tanks. For the return trip to Brazil
facilitates the efcient handling and shipping the empty tanks are lled with nitrogen.
of large volumes of bulk NFC from Brazil to Each ship is equipped with its own sterilisa-
the US and Europe. tion system for the bulk tanks, and the piping
The major Brazilian juice producers are very system is sterilised before juice transfer. Aseptic
large companies that have developed the logistics seals are maintained on tank valves throughout
expertise needed for large-scale operations. They the journey. The import terminals have special
have their own port terminals and for many years facilities to allow aseptic unloading of NFC and
have run a eet of citrus tankers dedicated to routing it to dockside aseptic storage (see sec-
shipping frozen concentrated orange juice. tion 6.5.2). To reduce the costs of empty return
Today, some companies also have aseptic stor- voyages, the citrus tankers can also take on-deck
age capacity at ports for exporting NFC instead freight containers (dry and refrigerated).
of at their processing plants. After extraction Although these dedicated ships and specially
at the processing plant, prepasteurised juice is equipped terminals require large investments, they
cooled to 0 C and then transported by insulated result in more cost-effective storage and transport
road tanker (25 tonnes) to the dockside storage of large NFC volumes.
facilities. And after nal pasteurisation, the juice
6.3.4 TRANSPORT OF BULK PRODUCT
is stored in enormous aseptic tanks each of nearly VERSUS RETAIL PACKAGED PRODUCT
4 million litres volume (1 million US gallons) For concentrate, it is obvious that bulk shipping
until exported. The aseptic tanks are located in is more cost-effective than shipping reconstituted
insulated refrigerated storage areas where the juice in retail packages because shipping volumes
temperature is maintained at 0 C. are 56 times smaller with concentrate.
Investments in the port facilities provided the For NFC, however, the volumes are about the
technical solutions required to integrate juice stor- same whether shipped in bulk or retail packages.
age with shipping conditions. Nevertheless, for long-distance overseas trans-
Initially, existing ships were rebuilt for trans- port, shipping of bulk product for retail packing
porting bulk aseptic NFC, but in the early 2000s in the consumer market provides economical
new ships were built and launched specically advantages.
for carrying NFC along with FCOJ. These new Bulk packaged NFC can maintain a long shelf
ships can take up to 35,000 tonnes of FCOJ and life, whereas after retail packaging in nonaseptic
NFC each. They are more than 200 m long (about packages its shelf life is relatively short. A month
the length of two soccer pitches) and 30 m wide. of the shelf life in retail packaging is eliminated
Each ship contains four insulated refrigerated by the transport chain. Shipping of retail pack-
holds with several freestanding cylindrical tanks ages requires additional outer packaging to protect
in each hold. Some tanks are dedicated to NFC the packages. In addition, it is not possible to
and others can carry either frozen concentrate or respond quickly to market demands due to the
NFC. Sloping bottoms ensure that the tanks can long lead time required to get retail packages to
be completely drained. the consumer.

99
 6.4 Shipping
6.4 Shipping costs costs

6.4 Shipping costs 6.5 Terminals for receiving

Shipping costs for bulk packages depend on the orange juice
method of shipment and the rates applicable
at the time of shipment. The following factors 6.5.1 TERMINALS FOR BULK FCOJ
should be taken into account in estimating total Dedicated terminals for receiving bulk frozen
shipping costs: concentrate are found in large ports in the Neth-
type of bulk package erlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam) and in Bel-
transport to the export harbour gium (Ghent, Antwerp). Such terminals are also
handling at the export harbour found in Florida, New Jersey and in a few major
sea freight ports in Japan. Below, an example of a terminal
handling at the import harbour (Ghent in Belgium) equipped to handle bulk
transport to the juice packer(s) FCOJ from a tanker ship is described with refer-
ence to Figure 6.4.
The product sales price usually includes the cost From the tanker ship, orange juice products
of the bulk package, and often the transport costs are pumped into six reception lines which feed
to the import harbour (e.g. cif Rotterdam). The the 34 storage tanks on land (the largest of which
rates for sea freight depend on current supply and has a capacity of 2,000 tonnes). From bulk stor-
demand, and may vary signicantly over time. For age in the tank farm, the juice products are
product which can be stored, shipment planning pumped to six blending stations. Here concen-
aims for periods of low freight demand and hence trates of different types are mixed to ensure that
lower rates. products meet customer specications. Peel oil
Generally, rental rates for refrigerated con- and other avour fractions may also be added.
tainers are double those for regular (dry) con- The concentrate is then pumped to one or more
tainers. Calculated per tonne of product, freight of nine discharging lines used for lling road
costs for frozen break bulk (in 200 l drums) are tankers for product distribution around Europe.
between the respective costs for refrigerated and In addition to concentrate, specialty products
dry containers. such as peel oil are also pumped from the tanker
Rates for 40 ft containers are typically 2040 % ship to storage tanks at the terminal, although in
higher than rates for 20 ft containers. Although smaller volumes.
40 ft containers provide twice the shipping vol- A nitrogen system at the terminals is used to
ume, their maximum weight load is typically ensure that storage tanks always contain a ni-
26 t compared with 20 t for 20 ft containers. In trogen atmosphere, both when empty and when
assessing the alternative giving the lowest ship- being lled with product from a tanker ship.
ping cost per tonne product, weight limitations The terminals normally also store large vol-
need to be taken into account. The density for umes of raw material and nished product in fro-
single-strength juice, such as NFC, is about zen drums. Raw materials from emptied drums are
1.04 t/m3 but about 1.3 t/m3 for concentrate. More- blended in the blending stations with concentrate
over, drums make less efcient use of shipping vol- from tank storage. Blended products are packed in
ume than rectangular bins. For this reason, drums drums and distributed frozen to juice packers.
of frozen NFC are usually shipped in 40 ft con- Operation of a terminal, as described in the
tainers because a 20 ft container would not reach example above, requires a practically unlimited
the maximum weight limit when fully loaded. choice of product routes. Therefore it needs to be
controlled by a modern automation system which
allows the operators to get a rapid overview of
pumping operations at all times.

100
 6.5 Terminals for receiving
6.4 Shippingorange
costs juice

Reception lines Tank farm Blending stations Discharge lines

Fig. 6.4 Terminal handling of FCOJ.

Drum storage/emptying Drum lling

On-line communication of the control system In a similar way to FCOJ terminals, a nitrogen
with the scheduling and commercial departments system ensures that the entire system of tanks
is also important for this type of operation. and piping is under nitrogen pressure during
juice transfer.
6.5.2 TERMINALS FOR BULK ASEPTIC NFC
In the juice reception area there is a stand-by
NFC in frozen drums and aseptic bag-in-box bulk
pasteuriser used when necessary to pasteurise
containers can be unloaded at standard terminals
incoming juice or the content of a storage tank.
having refrigerated and frozen warehousing. How-
But in well-designed and well-functioning facili-
ever, special terminal facilities are required for
ties, this emergency pasteuriser should never need
NFC transported in bulk aseptic tanks on ships.
to be used. Juice in dockside tanks is sampled
In response to the use of bulk aseptic seagoing
regularly to verify that their contents are micro-
vessels, facilities for the aseptic unloading of or-
biologically acceptable.
ange juice were installed in Florida and Europe
The juice from tank storage is dispatched by
in the early 2000s.
road tanker, hygienic but not aseptic, to juice
In a similar way to juice export ports, aseptic
packers. Blending of NFC may take place before
storage tanks usually in stainless steel are
dispatch (see section 6.6). At the juice packing
installed at the dockside, but the total number of
plant, blending of orange juice and the addition
tanks and the size of individual tanks are smaller
of pulp may be carried out before repasteurisation
because storage is only required to cover produc-
and retail packing.
tion between ship arrivals.
At a NFC port terminal in Belgium, facilities
Before unloading the ship, juice samples from
for retail packaging of the juice are located at the
onboard tanks are checked to conrm that the
same site, thereby eliminating the extra bulk road
juice is microbiologically acceptable. The piping
transport step and reducing the costs of delivering
system is sterilised before aseptic juice transfer
NFC juice products to consumers in Europe.
from onboard tanks to dockside storage.

101
 6.4 Shipping costs

The design requirements for terminals hand- Sometimes the nal product is pasteurised after
ling bulk aseptic NFC are high. Operations are blending but prior to distribution (e.g. in aseptic
complex and much effort is spent in minimising bags). More commonly, pasteurisation is not
the inherent high risks. Experience gained from carried out but raw materials are maintained at
aseptic processing plants and NFC storage facili- low temperature (<0 C) during blending and
ties in Florida has been vital in the construction nished products are distributed frozen. Soft-
of European terminals. drink bases may include preservatives to make
Modern control system and automated valve them shelf-stable.
congurations ensure correct operation. On-line Strict quality hygiene control and cleaning-
networking between all de-partments of dock- in-place are indispensable to blending house op-
side juice-handling facilities is also important to erations. They are necessary to avoid an increase
ensure smooth operations. And as with export in microbial load on products, and to prevent a
terminals, initial investments are high, but once batch of juice of poor microbial quality from
the installations are in place cost-effective han- contaminating subsequent batches.
dling of bulk NFC volumes results. Laboratory analysis plays an important role.
Quality control procedures include authentic-
6.6 Blending house operations ity testing of the wide range of incoming raw
Blending houses supply concentrates (and NFC) materials. Finished blended products also un-
of dened and consistent quality to juice packers. dergo testing to ensure they meet the agreed
They also prepare bases for beverage producers. specications.
Products supplied from blending houses are often Blending procedures require specialist know-
made to customer-specic recipes. how on the products manufactured and their
A wide range of raw materials is used by intended use. This competence forms a valuable
blending houses to prepare the concentrates and part of the service offered by blending houses to
bases, such as different fruit juice concentrates, their customers, along with the development of
avour fractions, oils and pulps. High-volume proprietary recipes.
fruit juices, such as orange and apple, are taken Some of the FCOJ terminals also include the
in from bulk storage tanks while other raw ma- functions of blending houses and manufacture
terials come in frozen drums, aseptic bags and products according to customer specications.
various smaller containers. Normally, the orange
products used by the blending houses come from
a larger number of countries than those used by
the terminals.
Blending houses supply
concentrates (and NFC) of
Blending stations form the heart of blending
operations. As at the terminals, blending of FCOJ
dened and consistent quality
and other very viscous concentrates requires very to juice packers
powerful mixers. Raw material supply to the
blending units comes from tank storage, drum

emptying and from drum crushing (if the product
in the frozen state is not pumpable). After blend-
ing, the product is packed in drums or pumped
into road tankers.

102
7 Processing at
the juice packer

In section 7 you will read about:

An overview of different process lines at Different aspects of the pasteurisation
the juice packer. process, including choice of heat exchanger,
In what form raw materials arrive at the juice deaeration and process control.
packing plant and how they are handled. How buffer tanks ensure smooth lling
The water quality required for juice operations and avoid product recycling.
reconstitution and water treatment methods. Hot lling of nonsterile packages.
The importance of accurate blending, and a The aseptic transfer of NFC juice from
comparison of different blending methods. aseptic bags to lling machines.
How Brix and density are measured and the Cleaning-in-place (CIP) routines and the
relationship between them. major parameters involved.
Quality control of the packaged product.

103
7. Processing at
the juice packer
SUMMARY Maintaining juice quality
Juice packers process concentrate and NFC Pasteurisation, with either plate or tubular
juice and ll the end product into consumer heat exchangers, is carried out to destroy
packages. Cost-efcient operation and gen- microorganisms in juice before lling. A
tle product treatment are essential. deaerator may be included in the system.
During raw material storage and hand- An aseptic buffer placed between the pas-
ling, it is important to maintain conditions teuriser and the lling machine(s) smoothes
that prevent microbial growth in products. product lling and increases production ef-
The quality of water used for concentrate ciency. In the hot lling method, hot prod-
reconstitution must be high. Water treat- uct kills microoganisms on the surface of
ment methods aim to remove or destroy the nonaseptic container after lling.
undesirable substances. Examples of these Effective CIP is essential for the high
are organic matter, salts, chlorine and mi- standard of hygiene demanded at the juice
croorganisms. packer. The most suitable combination of
Reconstitution involves diluting one or a temperature, time, type of detergent solu-
mix of different concentrates with water to tion and ow rate is selected for a particu-
the right Brix level. Although NFC juice is lar cleaning cycle.
not diluted, NFC juices of different origins Quality control of the packaged prod-
may be blended to produce juice with the uct is determined by two prime factors, the
desired properties. The more accurate the properties of the juice and its microbiologi-
blending process, the greater the cost-sav- cal status. Product sampling and analysis
ings achieved. In-line continuous blending are regularly carried out, which also helps
offers advantages in certain respects com- to dene the processing conditions needed
pared with batch blending. to maintain juice quality.

Tank car frozen Storage

Blending tanks Pasteuriser

Truck frozen Drum Buffer
emptying

Filling machines Storage Distribution network

Fig. 7.1 Juice packer operations.

104
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations

7.1 An overview of juice Gentler product treatment is promoted by proc-

packer operations ess control, which allows close monitoring and
Juice packers take in bulk raw materials (concen- control of operating parameters, and careful
trate and/or NFC), treat them and then ll the nal equipment design.
product into consumer packages. Sometimes the To supply products at competitive prices re-
distribution of packaged products is also carried quires cost-effective operation. High energy re-
out by the juice packer. Typical operating steps at covery that reduces heating and cooling costs, and
the juice packer are illustrated in Figure 7.1. minimising product losses in the plant, are two
This section discusses the processing steps major ways of reducing operating costs. Together
that take place in a juice packing plant up to the with reducing waste from cleaning procedures,
lling machine. Packaging activities are covered these measures also minimise the impact on the
in Section 9, packaging and storage of orange environment.
juice, and the distribution of products to retail- High-acid products put different demands on
ers is outlined in Section 10, from juice packer processing equipment compared with low-acid
to consumer. products like milk. Consideration must be given
Capacities of juice packing facilities vary to the fact that fruit juices differ in viscosity and
greatly from small plants producing 5,000 l/h often contain particles (pulp). For both aseptic
packaged juice to large plants with an output products and nonaseptically lled (chilled) prod-
exceeding 150,000 l/h. The larger facilities are ucts with long shelf life (>20 days), high hygiene
built up of multiple processing and lling lines. standards and safety measures are applied to the
One line of processing equipment can feed several pasteurisation process and downstream equip-
llers. Conversely, one ller can be alternately ment in order to prevent any microbiological
connected to several processing lines handling recontamination of the product.
different types of product. The juice packing plant is normally designed
Unlike the fruit processors seasonal yet non- to process and package a range of fruit juices and
stop operation, production at juice packers is juice-based still drinks. The equipment described
year-round and typically involves 23 shifts/day, in this section is not used only for processing or-
57 days a week. Production throughput is not ange juice. However, comments made regarding
uniform throughout the year. Peak output occurs equipment requirements and performance relate
normally in the run-up to the summer months and to orange juice.
the Christmas period. 7.1.2 PROCESS LINES
7.1.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS The process line from the reception of raw ma-
FOR JUICE PACKER LINES terial up to product at the ller involves a number
Pressure on juice packers from the market is of process steps. Which steps are required depend
steadily increasing. They are required to supply on the type of raw material and product to be pro-
a wider choice of products, better quality and duced. Figure 7.2 illustrates the process steps for
convenient packaging at even more competitive production of orange juice starting from frozen
prices. Increased product diversication means orange concentrate as raw material (Lines 1 and
smaller volumes of each product. In turn, this 2). Ingredient preparation for the production of
demands greater equipment exibility and plant orange nectar and fruit drinks is also included. In
designs that minimise product losses and down- lines 3 and 4, the raw material is NFC.
time when products are changed.
From a plant operation viewpoint, better prod-
uct quality means avoiding overprocessing.

105
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
Drink preparation

Water treatment

Concentrate storage and preparation Batch blending

LINE 1

Concentrate storage and preparation In-line blending

LINE 2

Concentrate storage and preparation the quality of water supplied to the plant. Treatment
Concentrate received in tank cars is pumped into methods commonly used include sand ltration to
large storage tanks. The storage area is refrig- remove insoluble solids, active carbon ltration to
erated or the tanks are equipped with cooling remove colour, and membrane ltration to reduce
jackets. The concentrate should be kept at less dissolved salts (and organic matter). Ion-exchange
than 0 C. Concentrate received in drums is placed techniques may be used to soften the water or
in frozen storage. reduce its alkalinity. When there is high water
From the storage tanks, concentrate may be consumption in a plant, e.g. during start-up and
pumped directly to the blending area for recon- cleaning cycles, treated product water is routed to
stitution with water. If concentrates of different a buffer tank to ensure a sufcient supply.
origins or fruit types are to be blended, this may
Batch blending
take place in a separate tank prior to dilution with
The reconstitution step, referred to as the blend-
water. Concentrate in drums is warmed up to 5 C
ing step, is carried out batchwise in Line 1. The
or higher before it is poured or pumped out.
concentrate is diluted with water in large agitated
Water treatment tanks. A batch is prepared in one tank while prod-
The required treatment of product water, used for uct is pumped from another tank to pasteurisation
diluting concentrate to nal product, depends on after sampling to check Brix value. Pulp slurry

106
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations
Cleaning in-place

Automation
Filling

Pasteurisation Aseptic buffer

Pasteurisation Aseptic buffer

Fig. 7.2 Processing lines using concentrate

as raw material.

(and sugar solution for nectars and fruit drinks) Pasteurisation and deaeration
are added in the batch tank along with the con- In the pasteuriser, juice is heated in tubular or
centrate. Other ingredients may be added directly plate heat exchangers to pasteurisation tem-
to the batch tank but are often prepared as a pre- perature (8095 C), which is maintained as the
blended mixture in the drink preparation area. product passes through the holding cell. The juice
is then cooled to lling temperature and routed
In-line blending
to the ller. Free air and dissolved oxygen are
In Line 2, treated water and concentrate (and
removed from the juice in a deaerator.
other ingredients) are fed continuously to the in-
Most of the heat used is recovered from cooling
line blending system and mixed en route to the
pasteurised juice and additional energy is supplied
pasteuriser. The critical parameter, usually Brix
by circulating hot water heated by steam. During
of the nal product, is monitored constantly. Flow
cleaning, start up, and any operating failure, the
rates of the respective components are adjusted
ow is recirculated over the pasteuriser.
by the control system to maintain the target Brix
value. The total ow of blended product, routed
via a buffer tank, is adjusted to suit pasteurisa-
tion capacity.

107
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations

NFC frozen storage Thawing and crushing Blending and buffer

LINE 3

NFC chilled storage Juice emptying Blending and buffer

LINE 4

Aseptic buffer Drink and nectar preparation

In most cases pasteurised product goes directly Sugar supplied to a plant in liquid form can go
to the ller from where any overow is returned directly to on-site buffer storage, whereas granular
to the pasteuriser. A buffer tank ensures that vari- sugar has to be dissolved in water to obtain a so-
ations in ller operation do not affect upstream lution of specied Brix content. Small quantities
processing, and that continuous adjustment of of ingredients for the production of nectars and
pressure and ow can be made to suit the lling fruit drinks may be premixed before routed to the
capacity. Buffer capacity is required for certain blending section. Sugar dissolving and ingredient
types of ller. Buffer tanks should be of aseptic mixing are usually carried out batchwise.
design to avoid recontamination of product.
Cleaning-in-place
Filling Effective cleaning of all process line equipment
One pasteuriser system can feed product to one is essential for good operational results. The
or several llers. The same type of pasteuriser cleaning unit supplies the required solutions and
yielding commercially sterile product is used controls the cleaning sequences. A large central
for both aseptically lled juices and nonaseptic unit may clean the whole plant, or there may be
juices intended for long shelf life under chilled locally placed units for cleaning different parts
conditions. A different pasteuriser design is used of the line.
for hot lling.

108
 7.1 An overview of juice packer operations

Pasteurisation Aseptic buffer Filling

Pasteurisation Aseptic buffer

Fig 7.3. Processing lines using NFC as raw material.

Automation and process control NFC preparation

Operators control individual processing units Solid frozen NFC is liqueed before processing.
via panels located near the equipment or from a Rapid thawing is achieved by initial heating in
central control room where the whole process line a tunnel followed by tipping the drum contents
is supervised. The automation system may supply into an ice-crusher. The ice slurry is then melted
on-line information to management along with in a tubular heater.
regular reports, and may be directly linked to the Juice in tanks and aseptic bags is liquid and
production scheduling department. can be pumped directly to buffer tanks. Aseptic
bags are emptied via a hose pump inserted into
NFC storage
the top of the bag, or with a pump connected to
Processing lines using Not From Concentrate
the emptying spout at the bottom of the bag.
(NFC) as raw material are shown in Lines 3 and
Liquid NFC goes to buffer tanks. Here juice of
4. Frozen NFC, usually in 200 l drums, is stored
different origins may be blended and pulp added.
at 18 C. Aseptic bulk NFC, typically in aseptic
Pasteurisation and other downstream process-
storage tanks or aseptic bag-in-box containers, is
ing steps are carried out in the same way as for
stored at 0 C or higher.
reconstituted juice shown in Lines 1 and 2.

109
 7.2 Raw material reception and handling

7.2 Raw material reception

and handling TABLE 7.1 QUALITY CONTROL OF
INCOMING CONCENTRATE
A certain on-site stock of raw materials is required
to ensure smooth production and avoid unplanned Sampling of road tankers
stops. Stocks are generally kept as small as pos- one representative sample per compartment
taken at 10 cm minimum below the surface
sible to minimise storage space and inventory one microbiological sample
capital. However, stocks are also used to take temperature
advantage of the market situation when changes
Sampling of drums
in supply prices are forecast. one representative sample per batch
Raw materials arrive in several different forms. At >55 Brix direct sampling
Concentrate for high-volume production arrives At <55 Brix sampling after thawing and mixing
by road tanker. Other raw materials may arrive in Testing of concentrate
frozen drums and aseptic bag-in-box containers. Brix by refractometer Acid content
Specialty and add-back products come in various Brix corrected for acid Brix/acid ratio
smaller containers, such as drums, boxes and cans. Total microbial count

Sugar, for production of nectars and juice drinks, is Testing of nal product
delivered in granular form or as a liquid solution. (prepared in lab. according to own formula)
Sampling and lab analysis to check that in- Brix dilution Taste
Acid content Appearance
coming raw materials meet agreed specications Colour - Flavour
is carried out regularly. Such routine checks for Defects
orange concentrate are described in Table 7.1. Sinking and oating pulp
Authenticity checks to ensure product origin are Source: Dhler-Eurocitrus
carried out as deemed necessary.
Analyses to control product authenticity are
quite elaborate and require sophisticated ana-
lytical equipment (see also Section 11).
If this leads to microbial problems, a UV lamp
7.2.1 TANKS FOR CONCENTRATE STORAGE can be tted in the top of the tank to inactivate
Concentrate arriving in refrigerated road tankers microorganisms.
is pumped directly to storage tanks (2050 m3) The concentrate tanks, which are vented, are
located in a refrigerated area. The refrigerated equipped with slow and gentle agitators to avoid
area is preferably maintained at 5 C to 0 C, al- layering of product. For relatively short on-site
though this is not always the case. The maximum storage periods, the concentrate tanks are not al-
storage period depends on the actual refrigeration ways equipped with nitrogen blanketing. However,
temperature. There should be no signicant in- measures should be taken to prevent air from be-
crease in microbial load of the concentrate while ing mixed into the concentrate during agitation
in on-site storage. or tank emptying.
Instead of using standard tanks stored under Concentrate is pumped from storage tanks
refrigeration, individual storage tanks may be to the blending system area, typically by using
equipped with double walls with a coolant ow- positive displacement pumps. Concentrate at low
ing in the jacket. temperatures is very viscous and therefore the
Microbial growth is slow in orange concen- tting of valves between the tank and pump is
trate due to its high sugar content, i.e. high os- avoided as they cause high pressure drops. Pipe
motic pressure. Basically, there is no microbial routing for product transfers made in the concen-
growth in concentrates of 66 Brix at tempera- trate room is usually carried out manually using
tures below 0 C. However, a liquid layer of low swing bend panels or exible hoses. Automated
sugar concentration may form on top of the routing systems are not common because of the
concentrate inside the storage tank due to con- large number of routing options and the desire to
densation of water vapour on the cold product. avoid valves in concentrate lines.

110
 7.2 Raw material reception and handling

Water ushing and cleaning-in-place of the con- The drum contents are then emptied into a vessel
centrate lines are carried out less frequently than having rotating knives which chop up the frozen
in the downstream part of the plant. This is be- product into a slurry of ice. The slurry then passes
cause good operating routines, and the high Brix through a tubular heater to melt. The liquid prod-
values and low temperature of the concentrate, uct is collected in a buffer tank.
hinder microbial growth. Moreover, during ush- A quick-thawing line can process a large
ing, the water/concentrate interphase and possible number of drums per hour (up to 60 drums per
residual pockets of liquid at low Brix values cre- hour equivalent to 10,000 l/h of product). As hot
ate conditions for spoilage organisms to multiply air and steam are used to heat and melt the ice,
rapidly. The water from ushing is collected in it is an energy-intensive system that entails a
separate tanks to be used for the reconstitution signicant investment. Juice packing plants that
of juice products. receive only a limited amount of frozen product in
drums have often developed their own less costly
7.2.2 DRUMS WITH FROZEN CONCENTRATE
solutions for thawing.
Product frozen in 200 l drums (typically frozen
Partial thawing of the drum contents at am-
concentrate, NFC and pulp) is placed in frozen
bient temperature is followed by crushing with a
storage at 18 C or lower. As FCOJ at 18 C is
smaller chopper before the slurry is added to
practically not pumpable, its temperature is raised
the blending tank. As there is a risk of microbial
to about 5 C or higher at the time of use. This
growth while the juice or pulp slowly thaws at
is achieved through several methods, such as a
ambient temperature, this method must be care-
hot jacket around the drum, hot air circulation
fully monitored.
or simply leaving the drum in a nonrefrigerated
area. The preferred method depends on the daily
production volume and how much advanced
notice is received from scheduling.
Concentrate is either pumped out of a drum Drums from frozen storage
using a submersible hose pump, or emptied into
an open vessel connected to a discharge pump (a
quicker method). Concentrate ows either directly
Pre-thawing
to the dilution tanks for blending with water or to
a concentrate buffer tank for mixing with other
concentrate(s). As some product remains inside
the bag, it is recovered by mangling the plastic Drum tipper
bag or rinsing it with water which is then added
to the blending tanks.
7.2.3 DRUMS CONTAINING SOLID Ice-chopper
FROZEN PRODUCTS
Raw products such as NFC, pulp and concen- Ice akes
trates of lower Brix freeze solid at 18 C. These
are prepared for processing by placing them to Ice-slurry melter
thaw out in a nonrefrigerated area or by using a
system for quick thawing and crushing of product
in drums. Figure 7.4 shows the principal steps for
Liquid juice to buffer tank
rapid thawing of frozen product.
The drum passes through a hot air tunnel to
allow the outer layer of the product to melt.
Fig. 7.4 The thawing and crushing
of solid frozen product from drums.

111
 7.2 Raw material reception and handling

7.2.4 ASEPTIC BAG-IN-BOX CONTAINERS 7.2.6 RECLAIM PRODUCT

Orange concentrate in aseptic bag-in-box con- Although reclaim, or rework, product is not a raw
tainers (200 l drums) is placed in cold or frozen material supplied to the gate of the juice packing
storage on site. Long-term storage should be at plant, it is still used as a basic ingredient in juice
max. 5 C to limit quality deg radation. When production.
required for processing, concentrate is pumped At many points in the juice packing plant,
from bags in a similar way to FCOJ in drums. product is collected which, for some reason, is
(See subsection 7.2.2.) not allowed to be routed further in the process or
While aseptic bags are not often used for packaging sections. This reject product can be:
orange concentrate, large volumes of NFC are liquid rinsed out from concentrate containers
stored and transported in aseptic bags typically and delivery trucks
about 1,000 l (300 gal) juice per bag. product/water interphase from water ushing
There are three methods of emptying juice at the start of cleaning cycles
from aseptic bags: juice left in a batch blending tank at the end
Manually with a hose pump inserted through of a production run
the lling spout or through a cut at the top of juice of too low (or too high) Brix level at
the bag. the start of in-line blending operation
Controlled emptying by connecting a pump juice rejected from the pasteuriser due to
to an emptying spout at the bottom of the bag. underpasteurisation
In this way the product may be less exposed juice rejected from the pasteuriser due to
to air. overprocessing caused by (excessive) recircu-
Aseptic withdrawal of juice through an asep- lation through the pasteuriser
tic connection to the emptying spout. If this is juice lled into unacceptable containers
followed by aseptic transfer, the juice does not
require repasteurisation prior to packaging. The reclaim juice is too valuable to be sent to
drain. It has incurred costs in the form of raw
After emptying, NFC is sent to a buffer tank prior material, import duty, freight charges and process-
to pasteurisation. Blending of NFC of different ing up to the point of collection. Moreover, its
origins may also take place here. discharge as efuent would not be acceptable for
environmental reasons.
7.2.5 TANKS FOR NFC
As far as possible the reject product is used
NFC may also be delivered to the juice packer by
to produce the same type of juice as it was
refrigerated tank car, either prepared by crushing
collected from. This, however, is not always
at a blending house or transferred from aseptic
possible for products demanding strict qual-
storage tanks at a juice processing plant or a re-
ity specications. In this case the reclaimed
ception terminal. Transport in tank cars is done
juice is used in orange products not intended
under hygienic but not aseptic conditions. Upon
as premium brands, or in the manufacture of
arrival at the juice packer, NFC should be kept in
multi-fruit juices and fruit drinks.
refrigerated tank storage at 04 C for a limited
Operating procedures and equipment design in
time before blending, pasteurisation and lling
the juice packing plant should aim at minimising
consumer packages.
reclaim volumes. Rework product not only entails
reprocessing costs but often ends up in a nal
product of lower value than that it was originally
intended for.

112
 7.3 Water treatment

7.3 Water treatment

Water is the largest ingredient in reconstituted TABLE 7.2 SOME
SPECIFICATIONS FOR WATER USED
orange juice and orange-based drinks, cor re-
IN BEVERAGE PRODUCTION
sponding to 8085 % of the nal juice. The quality
of reconstitution water signicantly inuences the Smell none
nal product. The water removed from the juice Taste none
Colour none
when it is concentrated is in principle distilled or Turbidity 1 unit or less
pure water. But distilled water is not normally Dry matter, mg/l <500
used for reconstitution. Water from municipal Total hardness
(as CaCO3), mg/l <100
supplies or from private wells normally needs Alkalinity
further on-site treatment to make it suitable for (as CaCO3), mg/l <50
reconstitution of good quality juices. Chlorine, mg/l <0.05
Iron, mg/l <0.1
7.3.1 WATER QUALITY Manganese, mg/l <0.1
Trihalomethane (THM) none
There are no regulatory standards specifying
water quality for beverage production other Source: Tetra Pak

than that it should full individual national

standards for drinking water or those of the
WHO (the World Health Organisation run by
the United Nations). Council Directive 98/83/ In everyday language, water hardness is simply
EC provides legislation on water quality for described as soft or hard water. However, the
human consumption for the European Union. ranges from soft to hard vary between countries.
However, although water may be of accept- Typical ranges expressed in different units are
able drinking quality, it may be unacceptable given in Table 7.3. Water for juice production
as reconstitution water, giving rise, for ex- should be soft, <6 dH.
ample, to off-avours in reconstituted juice.
A list of some recommended specications for
water used in beverage production, also referred TABLE 7.3 WATER HARDNESS
to as product water, is in Table 7.2. The effects
of various water impurities on juice quality are Degrees Millequi-
German valent
discussed in subsection 4.1.1. CaCO3 hardness /litre
Water hardness is an important quality pa- mg/l dH meq/l
rameter. It is caused by dissolved calcium and
magnesium salts. Temporary hardness results from Very soft <50 2.8 1
Soft 50100 2.85.6 12
calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, permanent Moderately
hardness results from chlorides and sulphates. To- hard 100200 5.611 24
tal hardness, the sum of temporary and permanent Hard 200400 1122 48
Very hard >400 >22 >8
hardness, may be expressed in different ways.
In North America it is expressed as calcium Conversion factors:
carbonate, CaCO3, in water (i.e. the concentration 1 dH = 17.9 CaCO3 mg/l
1 meq/l = 50.0 CaCO3 mg/l
of different salts calculated as the corresponding
1 f = 10.0 CaCO3 mg/l
quantity of CaCO3). In Europe the expression 1 Clark = 14.3 CaCO3 mg/l
dH, degrees German hardness, is commonly used 1 grain/US gal = 17.1 CaCO3 mg/l
along with f (France). The concentration of ions
The ranges for soft and hard water may vary
in water (expressed as meq/l) is often used in East between different geographical regions.
European countries.
Source: Vattenteknik

113
 7.3 Water treatment

Raw water

Activated
Bag/cartridge lter Softening carbon lter

Ultraviolet light Buffer storage Reverse osmosis

Product water Fig. 7.5 A typical water treatment system

to storage used in a juice packing plant.

7.3.2 WATER TREATMENT METHODS Sand ltration

The quality of incoming water determines the This involves passing water through a sand lter
types of water treatment carried out at the juice held in a tank to remove insoluble solids. A sand
packer. To full water quality recommendations, lter consists of several layers of sand which vary
on-site water treatment should aim at: in coarseness. It may be used as nal ltering after
removing organic matter occulation or iron-manganese oxidation.
reducing hardness
Iron and manganese removal
removing salts
Under appropriate conditions, iron compounds in
removing chlorine
water form ocs when oxidised by air. The ocs are
removing iron and manganese compounds
subsequently removed in a sand lter. Manganese
destroying all microorganisms
and iron compounds are removed by a combination
maintaining a consistent pH value
of oxidation and ltration through a sand lter with
a manganese-treated lter bed. The latter is re-
Several common water treatment methods are
generated by potassium permanganate.
described below. Some treatments such as ion-ex-
change, reverse osmosis and nanoltration tech- Dealkalisation by ion-exchange
niques may be used on a partial stream followed A method used to reduce the alkalinity of water.
by blending with the rest of the water stream to This may be required as high alkalinity neutralises
achieve the desired water quality parameters. the acidity of fruit juices. The presence of carbon-
Figure 7.5 shows a combination of treatment ates and hydroxides, e.g. of calcium and magne-
steps for product water. However, depending on sium, in water makes it alkaline (pH >7). These are
water quality and juice packer preference, several removed by an ion-exchange process. When water
alternative combinations may be worked out. is passed through a resin bed (consisting of small
beads of appropriate polymer) the calcium and
Flocculation
magnesium ions attach to the resin, and water and
A method for removing suspended particles, such
carbon dioxide are produced. Reducing alkalinity
as organic matter and humic acids from water. The
also reduces the hardness of the water.
addition of appropriate chemicals (occulants) to
incoming water aggregates the particles to form Softening by ion-exchange
ocs which settle on the bottom of the reaction In this method, calcium and magnesium ions are
tank. Flocculants commonly used are aluminium replaced by sodium ions by passing water through
sulphate and iron sulphate. a bed of resin in a similar way to dealkalisation.
Flocculation is normally not needed for a The hardness of the softened water is virtually
municipal water supply because organic mat- zero. Often only part of the water is softened so
ter has already been removed in the municipal that when it is blended back with the main water
waterworks. stream the desired hardness is obtained.

114
 7.3 Water treatment

Reverse osmosis Ultraviolet light

A membrane ltration system for removing small Passing water under ultraviolet (UV) light is a
dissolved molecules including salts. It produces method of destroying microorganisms in water. It
virtually pure water (>95 % of dissolved salts and is a relatively simple technique of low energy us-
>99 % of organic matter are removed). Despite age. UV light effectively kills all microorganisms,
higher costs, the reverse osmosis method, which but ultraviolet radiation is impeded by insoluble
also reduces bicarbonate content, is sometimes material in water. It should therefore only be ap-
preferred to dealkalisation by ion-exchange. plied to claried water.
Nanoltration Ozone treatment
A membrane ltration system having slightly A method of water sterilisation using ozone gas.
larger pores than those used for reverse osmosis. Being a very strong oxidising agent, ozone may
It removes par ticles larger than 1 nanometer also be used to remove off-taste, colour and iron
(0.000 001 mm). This means that hardness and and manganese compounds. Ozone is generated
colour are removed together with >90 % of dis- on-site from air. Control of the system includes
solved salts and >99 % organic matter. Nano- and converting residual ozone gas to oxygen by heat,
ultraltration are being increasingly used as alter- activated carbon or ultraviolet light.
native methods to occulation. (Microltration
Particle lters
and ultraltration methods incor porate mem-
Safety lters used for incoming water to protect
branes with cor respondingly larger pore sizes.)
downstream equipment. They are typically bag or
Chlorination cartridge lters of 510 m pore size.
Chlorine is the most widely used sterilant for
7.3.3 IN-PLANT DISTRIBUTION
water. Nevertheless, it should not be added to OF PRODUCT WATER
water containing humic organic matter because From the water treatment section, product water
trihalomethanes (THMs) are formed. Chlorine is distributed through pipes to the point of use
is most efcient as a disinfectant at pH <4. As in the plant. Short but intensive periods of water
it reacts with several substances in water, suf- usage may occur simultaneously at several out-
cient chlorine must be added to ensure enough let points, exceeding the output from the water
is available to destroy any microorganisms. The treatment plant. Buffer storage of treated water is
chlorination step must be followed by the removal therefore recommended with a volume typically
of residual chlorine. cor responding to two hours water production.
Chlorination is normally not needed for mu- It is advisable to recirculate water in the stor-
nicipal waters. However, residual chlorine left in age tank through a UV disinfectant unit to limit
the water should be removed as it will otherwise bacterial growth.
react with orange avour and result in reconsti- The water distribution system must be capable
tuted juice with a at taste. of handling high peaks of water consumption
Activated carbon lter while maintaining high water supply pressure.
Activated carbon is a highly porous material with An increase of production capacity in the juice
a very high adsorbent capacity. Filtering water packing plant may make the water distribution
through activated carbon removes colour and system inadequate. In this case, a pressurised
odour. When there is a risk of microbial contami- tank of a few m3 can overcome the problem of
nation of lters, UV treatment on the outlet ow drop in supply pressure during periods of peak
is recommended as a safeguard. An alternative is water consumption.
to equip the lters for steam sterilisation, although
this makes the lter system considerably more
complex and increases the investment. Chlorine
adsorbed to the active carbon is regenerated dur-
ing steam sterilisation.

115
 7.3 Water treatment

Water feed
Vacuum

7.3.4 DEAERATION OF WATER

The amount of air or more precisely the oxygen
content in water greatly inuences the oxygen
content of reconstituted juice. Treated product Fig. 7.6 The operating principle
water may contain both free and dissolved air. of a water deaeration system.
Free air (bubbles) may be released by holding
the water in a buffer tank for a certain time, but
the removal of dissolved oxygen requires a de-
Deaerated water
aeration process.
Dissolved oxygen levels in cold water are
typically 1012 ppm, depending on temperature
and pressure. The solubility of oxygen in water
is shown in subsection 4.2. 7.4.1 BLENDING OF NECTARS
Provided that the concentrate has been handled AND FRUIT DRINKS
carefully (without mixing in air) and that blending Several different concentrates can be premixed
with water is done in the absence of air, reconsti- prior to the blending step or they can be added to
tuting with deaerated water results in a packaged the blending tank (in the case of batch blending).
juice with very low oxygen content. When oil fractions are added at site, they should
There are several different water deaeration be thoroughly mixed into the concentrate prior
systems intended for preheated water or water to the blending step. Alternatively, they can be
at ambient temperature. Figure 7.6 illustrates a prepared as a water-oil emulsion added at the
deaeration system working under vacuum suitable blending step. Moreover, pulp and water-soluble
for both preheated water and water at ambient avours may be added at the blending step.
temperature. Water passes down through a column As the name implies, NFC is not diluted with
with internal packing. The large contact area be- water, although NFC having different charac-
tween water and vapour phase makes it easier for teristics are often blended before pasteurisation.
the dissolved oxygen to leave the water. Dissolved Essence aroma may also be added to NFC at this
oxygen in the outgoing water is about 0.5 ppm. stage if legally permitted.
Water deaeration is common practice in brew- If the end product is a nectar or fruit drink,
eries and carbonated soft-drink production, as it other ingredients are added at the blending step.
facilitates the subsequent carbonation step. It is When sugar is added to orange juice it may no
not yet so common in juice production, where longer be called juice but becomes a fruit nectar.
juice deaerators dominate. In juice packing plants Regulations stipulate what may be added to fruit
today, the equipment used upstream of pasteurisa- nectars. For example, EU Council Directive 2001/
tion often allows the product to come into contact 112/EC denes fruit nectars as fruit juice to which
with air. Oxygen is thereby reintroduced into al- water and sugar have been added. The fruit juice
ready deaerated product. can be as juice, concentrate or powder, and sugar
may be substituted by honey or sweetener.
7.4 Blending Minimum juice contents are specied for each
In the context used here, the term blending type of fruit, which for orange nectar in Europe
means the actual reconstitution step whereby is 50 %.
concentrate is blended with water to make a
ready-to-drink juice. Blending takes place just
prior to pasteurisation.

116
 7.4 Blending

Fruit juice regulations do not cover fruit drinks, The required hourly output from the blending
which fall under general food legislation. In addi- section is determined by the downstream lling
tion to what may be used for nectars, ingredients rate and the total volume of juice to be pack-
for still fruit drinks include: aged. The quantities of concentrate and water to
articial avours be blended can be calculated approximately from
natural and articial colour the Brix value of the concentrate and that of the
stabilisers and antioxidants nal product. A calculation example is shown in
preservatives the fact box.
Certain tables with density values for pure
Stabilisers used to maintain product consistency sugar solutions at different concentrations are
are, for example, pectin and guar gum, and some used in the citrus industry as a common reference
preservatives used are benzoic acid, sorbic acid to determine the weight of solids in juice and
and sulphur dioxide. Examples of antioxidants are concentrate. (An abstract is given in Section 13,
ascorbic acid and sulphur oxide. For orange drinks Abbreviations weights and measures.)
with low juice content, acid needs to be added. In practice, the density values are approximate
Brix level and Brix:acid ratio are typically higher for orange juice because it is not a pure sugar
for nectars and drinks compared with pure juice. solution but contains varying amounts of in-
Preservatives are not required when the product soluble solids and acid. The actual Brix value of
is pasteurised and aseptically packed. concentrate may differ from the specication by,
Several of the ingredients for drinks (and say, 0.5 Brix. Hence, in the case of orange juice,
nectars) are added in very small quantities. They the exact Brix value of the nal juice cannot be
may be added directly to the blending tanks or calculated from a formula, but for high accuracy
preferably a premix of these ingredients is pre- it must be determined by laboratory or in-line
pared separately. Dissolving granulated sugar to measurements.
give a sugar solution of dened concentration is
often done at the juice packing plant. Sugar may
be dissolved batchwise or continuously. Alter- QUANTITY OF CONCENTRATE NEEDED
natively, sugar may arrive as a liquid solution by TO MAKE 1 LITRE JUICE
tank car and pumped to storage tanks on site. The Basis:
choice depends on the amount of sugar used and Final juice: 11.2 Brix
the proximity to sugar suppliers. Concentrate: 65 Brix, corrected

7.4.2 DEFINING THE BLENDING FORMULA Calculation:

Juice of 11.2 Brix has a specic gravity of ap-
The Brix value of the reconstituted juice is the prox. 1.045 kg/l. In other words, 1 litre juice at
key parameter for the blending operation. Ap- 20 C weighs about 1045 grams.
propriate regulations stipulate minimum concen-
1 litre nal juice of 11.2 Brix contains 1045 x
trations of soluble solids for reconstituted juice.
11.2/100 = 117 grams soluble solids.
The EU demands a minimum value of 11.2 Brix 1 kg concentrate of 65 Brix contains 1000 x
for orange juice made from concentrate, whereas 65/100 = 650 grams soluble solids.
the USA sets a minimum value of 11.8 Brix.
Result:
The Brix value is measured by a refractometer To prepare 1 litre of juice you therefore need
and cor rected for temperature, and also for acid Concentrate: 117/650 x 1000 = 180 g
content for concentrates. The Brix value can also Water: 1045180 = 865 g
be measured with a density meter. These values are approximate because juice is
not a pure sugar solution.

117
 7.4 Blending

7.4.3 SAVINGS MADE BY ACCURATE 7.4.4 COMPARISON OF BLENDING METHODS

BLENDING There are two principal methods for reconstitut-
The stipulated Brix values for reconstituted juice ing juice:
are minimum values and so actual values must the batch method for preparing a certain
not fall below the stipulated value. To allow for quantity of juice in a tank
variations and inaccuracies in commercial produc- continuous, in-line blending
tion plants, the target Brix level for juice from
the blending room is set a bit higher than the Tank blending, or batch blending, is the traditional
ofcial minimum value. The necessary safety method carried out manually or with the help of
margin depends on the accuracy of the blending automation systems. In-line blending systems,
operation. Blending as close as possible to the which are more recent, incorporate a high degree
stipulated Brix value saves a signicant amount of automation and process control.
of raw material. Process control equipment and
blending system design may improve the blending Features of batch blending
accuracy. An estimation of the savings involved Preparation in advance: As blending of a
is shown in the fact box. batch typically requires 12 hours preparation,
blending room personnel need to come early to
complete the rst batch before the start of daily
production.
EXAMPLE OF SAVINGS Fixed volume production: It is difcult to
IN RAW MATERIAL prepare exactly a predetermined batch volume.
This may result in insufcient juice volume for
Blending the nal juice 0.1 Brix closer to the
minimum specication corresponds to the
packaging or juice left over after the production
following annual savings: run, for which an alternative use must be found
in the plant.
Basis:
Labour-intensive: Manual or semiautomatic
Line capacity: 20,000 l/h
Daily production: 10 h/day blending requires the frequent attendance of
Operating days: 200 days/year blending room personnel.
Annual production: 42,000 tonnes juice Variation of Brix concentration: Achieving a
Final juice (min. conc.): 11.25 Brix
Cost of raw material: 1,300 USD/tonne value close to the target Brix for the blended juice
(Orange concentrate 65 Brix) usually requires several laboratory Brix measure-
ments followed by water additions to the blend-
Savings:
A reduction by 0.1 Brix, e.g. from 11.35 Brix ing tank. In practice, however, a shortage of time
to 11.25 Brix, gives a reduction in raw material and/or labour may prevent the standard routine of
consumption of 0.1 Brix/11.35 Brix = 0.9 %. repeated Brix checks from being carried out.
Annual savings in concentrate will be:
Low investment: Manual and semi-automatic
42,000 x 0.1 Brix/65 Brix = 65 tonnes equal to tank blending systems require a comparatively
a value of 84,000 USD. low investment. Additional raw materials may be
added without the need for further equipment.

118
 7.4 Blending

Features of in-line blending 7.4.5 BATCH BLENDING SYSTEMS

Labour-saving: No advanced preparation, auto- Each batch blending line incorporates two blend-
matic ow control and continuous in-line Brix ing tanks. While one tank is used for preparing a
measurements free personnel for other duties. new batch, juice is pumped from the other tank
Variable juice volumes: Blending is carried out to the downstream pasteuriser. Both tanks are
to the exact juice volumes required. equipped with agitators for effective mixing of
Consistent accuracy: Process control and in-line the ingredients. However, agitation should be car-
Brix monitoring maintain consistent measurement ried out in such a way as to avoid entrainment
accuracy close to the target Brix value. of air into the juice, which may otherwise cause
Compact equipment: In-line blending requires operational problems in downstream processing.
less space as large tanks for blending product Efcient tank cleaning-in-place is also important
are eliminated. Moreover, less product is lost to prevent microbial contamination of juice for
during CIP. the following production run.
Small volumes of blended product: No large In a manual system, the quantities of con-
product volumes are at risk from, for example, centrate and water (plus any other ingredients)
power failure. Less and more compact equip- required for a batch are calculated. First, a pre-
ment, and short residence times reduce the risk determined quantity of water (majority of the
of microbial contamination. calculated volume) is fed into the blending tank
No exposure to air: Closed in-line blending followed by concentrate. The volume of concen-
system avoids exposing the product to air. trate is often measured as a number of drums.
Less concentrate usage: Blending closer to Other ingredients, including ushing water from
minimum Brix levels and no excess product left drum rinsing, are then added to the tank.
in tanks after a production run result in lower The Brix value of reconstituted juice is
concentrate consumption. checked after thorough mixing in the tank. More
High investment: Automatic systems for in-line water is then added to get nearer the target Brix
blending require a relatively high investment, par- value. When the desired Brix value has been
ticularly when many separate ingredients have to reached, the product is ready for pasteurisation.
be blended. Changeover to the full tank takes place when the
other tank becomes empty. Product is pumped
General conclusions
from the full tank to the pasteuriser section.
The choice of blending system depends on several
In the semi-automatic batch blending systems,
factors, but the major conclusions are:
recipes are preprogrammed in a process control
Batch blending is best suited to small production
unit. When a recipe is selected, together with
runs and/or many ingredients as found with spe-
relevant data for the production run in question,
ciality beverages, for example.
the control unit calculates the quantities of ingre-
In-line blending is best suited to large volumes
dients to be blended.
of products requiring few ingredients, e.g. high
turnover consumer products like pure juices.
A combination of the two blending principles
may be applied to fruit nectars and fruit drinks
containing several ingredients. The smaller
quantity ingredients are pre-mixed batchwise
followed by in-line blending with water and juice
concentrate. The two blending principles involve
different features.

119
 7.4 Blending

Treated water

Concentrate
The addition of water and concentrate (and per-
haps syrup) is automatic and controlled through
weighing the tank contents (by load cells in the
tank legs) or by mass ow meters. Sampling to
check Brix values is done manually. The actual
Brix value is entered in the controller and the water
volume needed to make the correct adjustment to
the tank contents is calculated and the water then
added. After thorough mixing, the Brix value is
again checked manually and further adjustments Fig. 7.7 The operating
principal of a typical batch Blended
made to the tank contents if necessary. juice
blending system.
In a fully automatic tank batch blending sys-
tem, the Brix value of blended product is checked
continuously by an in-line meter. Adjustments are In-line blending based solely on volumetric meas-
then calculated and carried out through the control urements achieves limited blending accuracy. This
system. The in-line Brix sensor is placed in a cir- is due to variations in density and Brix of the
culation loop over the tank to make sure that the concentrate caused, for example, by air bubbles
sample is representative of the tank contents. trapped in the viscous concentrate and Brix vari-
Figure 7.7 shows the operational principle of ations of the concentrate in the tank.
a batch blending system. Semi-automatic systems Thus volumetric blending, for example with
are widely used for batch blending, but fully auto- piston pumps, needs to be combined with an exact
matic systems, which require signicantly higher Brix measurement system for the blended juice,
investment, are less common. in order to obtain high blending accuracy.
Mass ow meters, which are highly accurate,
7.4.6 IN-LINE BLENDING SYSTEMS
measure both mass ow and actual density of
The operational principle behind in-line blending
the ingredient streams. The Brix value of nal
is that the ingredients are continuously fed and
juice is calculated from the ratio of the two ows.
mixed in-line on the way to pasteurisation.
For FCOJ, however, ow meters are deliberately
Critical factors for the high performance of in-line
overdimensioned to avoid excessive pressure
blending systems are:
drops on the very viscous uid. In this case the
high blending accuracy
ow meters may be less accurate as they operate
effective mixing of concentrate and water
outside their optimal ow range.
ability to adjust the ow rate through the
In-line Brix measurement of blended product
blending unit to suit that required by down-
by refractometry is a direct measurement of the
stream equipment (pasteurisers and llers).
nal juice. As it is the same measurement method
as specied for the nal product, deviations due
There are three methods of measuring and control-
to inaccurate conversion factors are avoided.
ling the ow rate of the ingredient streams, which
If, however, the in-line analyser is a density
in turn determines the blending accuracy:
meter, which gives higher accuracy, and the lab
by volume (piston pumps)
analyser is a refractometer (common in a juice
by weight (mass ow meters)
plant) there is a slight difference between the
by Brix values in blended juice
measured Brix values due to citric acid and aroma
(in-line Brix meter)
content. This deviation is adjusted to zero by using
a correction factor in the in-line density meter.
FCOJ from cold storage is very viscous and
does not mix easily with water, so effective in-line
mixers are required to obtain a homogenous mix.

120
 7.4 Blending
N2 /CO2
Concentrate
or premix

Brix meter

Mixer

Figure 7.8 Flow diagram of a two- Brix meter

stream in-line blending system.

Treated water

Blended juice

An example of an in-line blending system is partly reected to the liquid. Rays with a gentle
shown in Figure 7.8. Brix control is achieved by angle are totally reected to the image detector.
combining an in-line Brix meter (density meter) The angle at which the total reection starts is
located in the juice stream and ratio control of water called the critical angle.
to concentrate ow. The total ow rate through the The critical angle is determined from the
blending unit varies to match ller demand, but the borderline between the light and dark areas on
ratio of water to concentrate is maintained constant. the detector, which corresponds to the refractive
Other raw goods, including reclaimed product, are index. The measured value, expressed as Brix
added at a certain percentage of the total ow. value, must be cor rected for temperature. This is
On the way to the pasteuriser section, blended often done automatically by a temperature sensor
juice ows through a small buffer tank which al- in the instrument.
lows operational exibility and enables smooth The measurement accuracy depends on the
adjustments to the ow rate of blended juice. sensitivity of the instrument. Advanced refrac-
tometers for use in a controlled laboratory en-
7.4.7 HOW A REFRACTOMETER WORKS
vironment are far more accurate than hand-held
The most common way to measure Brix in juice
units used for quick checks in the plant. Refrac-
plants is by refractometry. This is carried out by
tometers placed in-line of a process are calibrated
using either hand-held, laboratory or in-line re-
against laboratory refractometers. High accuracy
fractometers. These measure the refractive index
of the latter is therefore important.
of a liquid by detecting how much of the emitted
light is reected by the liquid. (The refractive
index of a liquid depends on its concentration of
Optical
soluble solids. Refer to subsection 2.2.) image
The measuring unit of a refractometer con- Light Prism
Source
sists of three main components a light source,
a prism and an image detector. The measuring
unit illustrated in Figure 7.9 detects the critical Liquid
angle of light.
The light source directs light rays through
the prism into the liquid. The light rays meet the
liquid surface at different angles. Rays with a
steep angle are partly reected to the detector and
Fig. 7.9 The working principle of a refractometer.

121
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

7.4.8 HOW A DENSITY METER WORKS

Density (Greek letter ) is the quotient of the mass
m and the volume V of a substance:

= m/V (kg/m3)

As density depends on temperature, a measured

density must be stated together with the surround-
ing temperature. Compensation to express density
values at a reference temperature (usually 20 C) is
necessary to allow comparison of measurements
taken at different temperatures. There is a correla-
tion between density and sugar concentration, or
Brix. The relationship density/Brix for sugar solu-
Cold product
tions has been determined and published.
One common method of measuring the den- Hot product
sity of a liquid is to feed the sample through an
oscillating tube. When the liquid enters the tube, Fig. 7.10 Principles of ow and heat transfer
the frequency of the oscillation decreases, and in a plate heat exchanger.
the density can be calculated from the difference
in oscillation between the empty and full tube. General aspects of microbiology and pasteuri-
Temperature and density signals from the density sation are discussed in subsections 4.3 and 4.4
meter are used in a calculation needed to express respectively.
density values at the reference temperature. It is recommended that juice intended for
The accuracy of a density meter is generally nonaseptic packaging, chilled distribution and
higher than that of a refractometer. Although den- long shelf life (> 20 days) is commercially sterile
sity meters are frequently used to measure Brix as it leaves the pasteurisation process. It should
in carbonated soft drink production, they are not therefore be processed in the same equipment
commonly used in the juice industry as yet. and under the same hygiene conditions as juice
For orange juice, a correction factor is re- to be lled aseptically. However, the combina-
quired when converting density measurements tion of temperature and residence time may be
to Brix values to compensate for solids other than chosen closer to the theoretical minimum level,
sugars in the juice. See subsection 13.3. i.e. a lower safety margin to take care of raw
material variations.
7.5 Pasteurisation and Conversely, the misconception is sometimes
deaeration found in the industry that juice for aseptic lling
requires considerably more heat load than chilled
The pasteurisation of reconstituted juice and NFC
(nonaseptic) juice. However, orange juice, along
at the juice packer is carried out to destroy any
with other high-acid products, requires heat treat-
microorganisms that have entered the concentrate
ment of 8095 C for 1530 sec. to be made micro-
or NFC after the heat treatment(s) earlier in the
biologically stable for chilled storage or storage
production chain. Enzymes in the juice were
at ambient temperature. (Ultra high temperature,
inactivated by the rst heat treatment at the fruit
UHT, is not required). The most important crite-
processors plant.
rion for selecting pasteurisation conditions is the
microbial load of the juice to the pasteuriser.

122
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

7.5.1 SELECTING THE HEAT EXCHANGER Product tubes

Plate and tubular heat exchangers are the most
commonly used equipment for heat treating juice
(and other fruit drinks). Both types of heat ex-
changer enable good heat recovery, thus keeping
down operating costs.
A plate heat exchanger consists of a series of
stainless steel plates clamped together in a frame
(see Figure 7.10). Product to be heated ows on Fig. 7.12 A multitube
one side of the plate, while the heating medium tubular heat exchanger.
usually ows in the opposite direction on the other
side. The heating medium may be product being
cooled down or circulating hot water.
Characteristic features of plate heat ex- There are no obstructions or contact points for
changers are compact design, high heat transfer product within the tubes.
rates, very high degree of heat recovery and low An example of a multitube heat exchanger,
hold-up volumes. with a oating end design that allows for ther-
Plates are designed with different corrugation mal expansion of the tubes, is shown in Figure
patterns. Patterns which result in few contact 7.12. The tubes are corrugated to increase the
points between the plates yet cause good liquid heat transfer rate.
turbulence are recommended for juices with a Another type of tubular heat exchanger is the
high content of suspended solids or containing triple tube. This consists of three concentric tubes
short cells. This is important for effective cleaning- placed inside each other to form channels for the
in-place and preventing particles from sticking alternating ow of product and heating medium.
to the contact points. Such a plate is shown in Typically, product ows through the intermediate
Figure 7.11. For products with suspended solids, channel, while heating/cooling medium ows
reversing the direction of ow back-ushing through the inner and outer channels.
is recommended during cleaning. Tubular heat exchangers are commonly de-
Multitube-type tubular heat exchangers are signed for indirect heat regeneration (as opposed
based on the classic shell and tube principle. The to direct product-to-product heat regeneration)
product ows through a group of parallel tubes using a circulating water loop to transfer heat
and the heating (or cooling) medium ows be- from hot to cold product.
tween and around the tubes in the opposite direc- Characteristic features of tubular heat ex-
tion. Both ends of the parallel tubes are welded changers are their ability to handle juice with
into circular end plates which are sealed into the cells or other liquid foods containing particles,
outer shell, usually with rubber O-rings. The tube and their low fouling rate which allows long
end plate directs incoming liquid into the tubes. production runs between CIP. Compared with
other types of heat exchangers, the maintenance
and service requirements of tubes are reduced
because they have fewer seals and other parts that
Fig. 7.11 The pattern of
need replacement. The level of heat recovery is
a widestream-type heat
exchanger plate. normally lower for tubular heat exchangers com-
pared with plate heat exchangers.

123
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

For the nal heating of product to pasteurisation From the balance tank juice is pumped to the heat
temperature, a small temperature difference exchanger where it is heated by outgoing juice
between product and the heating media may be or by a circulating water loop. An intermediate
chosen for both plate and tubular heat exchangers, water loop, as shown in Figure 7.13, is used
thereby avoiding overheating the product. when there is no direct product-to-product heat
The choice between plate and tubular heat ex- recovery in the heat exchanger. Preheated juice
changers depends on the properties of the product then passes to the deaerator, if included in the
to be processed. Table 7.4 is a guideline for select- pasteurisation system.
ing the most suitable type of heat exchanger for Deaerated juice is heated further to pasteuri-
a particular application. Generally, tubular heat sation temperature, typically 8095 C. The ad-
exchangers are more versatile in application than ditional energy needed, i.e. that not obtained by
plate heat exchangers, although they entail higher heat recovery from outgoing product, is supplied
capital investment. During recent years tubular by steam. The steam heats hot circulating water
heat exchangers have become the preferred so- in a separate heat exchanger. The temperature
lution thanks to application exibility and low of the hot water must be maintained close to the
service need. juice pasteurisation temperature to avoid over-
heating the product. It is not recommended to
7.5.2 THE PASTEURISATION PROCESS
use steam directly in the juice heat exchanger
Although the heat exchanger is the heart of the
as it creates product burn-on and temperature-
pasteuriser, balance tank, valves and pumps are
control difculties.
required to build a properly operating pasteuriser
Juice at pasteurisation temperature ows to the
system. A diagram of a pasteuriser system and the
holding cell. This ensures that the juice is held
ow of juice through it is shown in Figure 7.13.
at the pasteurisation temperature for a dened
Juice from the blending room enters via the
period, typically 1530 sec. The pasteurised juice
balance tank. This tank makes the pasteurisation
then returns to the heat exchanger where it is
process independent of ow uctuations in the
cooled down by regenerative heat transfer. Juice
upstream feed line and keeps the conditions in the
to be packed at ambient temperature then ows
pasteuriser stable. Circulation during start-up and
directly to the ller. Juice for chilled distribution
presterilisation is through the balance tank.
is rst chilled by cooling water (or other coolant)
in an additional heat exchanger section before
being routed to the ller.

TABLE 7.4 A GUIDE TO SELECTING THE MOST

SUITABLE TYPE OF HEAT EXCHANGER

PRODUCT HEAT EXCHANGER

Standard plate Widestream Tubular
Clear juices and drinks +++ ++ ++
Juices with high content of suspended solids + +++ ++
Juices with cells + +++
Concentrates without cells +++ ++
Concentrates with cells +++

Key:
+++ Best choice
++ Good, but higher investment than best choice
+ Good, but with limitations (such as cell length)
Not suitable

124
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

Product reject

Filler or
Cooling aseptic
water buffer

Holding Vacuum
cell

Juice

Circulating
water

Fig. 7.13 Flow diagram of

a pasteurisation process.
Steam
Condensate

The holding cell and all equipment downstream 7.5.3 DEAERATION

of it must be aseptic, i.e. must not cause any Juice from blending is normally saturated with
microbiological recontamination of the juice. dissolved oxygen, typically at 810 ppm (the
Equipment and controls must therefore be de- exception being when deaerated water is used
signed accordingly. for reconstitution and a nitrogen blanket protects
Prior to taking in product at the start of the the blending operation, which result in very low
production run, the pasteuriser system is pres- oxygen level in the blended juice).
terilised. During sterilisation, water heated to If oating cells (pulp) have been added, small
95110 C is circulated through the system for air bubbles may also be adsorbed to the surface
2030 minutes. Where applicable, the circulating of the particles. As orange juice is sensitive to
water is cooled to below 100 C as it returns to oxygen, it is recommended that a deaerator is
the balance tank. included in the pasteurisation process. The effects
After the production run, residual juice is of oxygen on orange juice quality and different
ushed out with water and the pasteuriser system operating principles of deaerators are discussed
cleaned in place. Detergent may be dosed into the in subsection 4.2.
balance tank and circulated through the pasteur- Deaeration of reconstituted juice is similar to
iser, or it may be connected to a central supply of deaeration of NFC. It is usually carried out by
cleaning liquids (see subsection 7.9). The regular passing the product through a vacuum chamber.
cleaning routine, once every 13 days, should Free air bubbles expand under vacuum and tend to
include a wash with a caustic or similar solution. escape readily from the juice, whereas dissolved
Rinsing with a mild acid solution is carried out, oxygen is more difcult to remove.
for example, on a weekly basis. The deaeration efciency or reduction of
dissolved oxygen depends on a combination of
operating factors. These are:
applied vacuum
product temperature
surface area of juice
juice lm thickness
product residence time

125
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration
CIP
Coolant

Vacuum

For juice preheated to 5060 C, which allows

the juice to ash in the vacuum chamber, good
deaeration efciency (oxygen typically reduced to
0.5 ppm) is achieved using very short residence
times. At lower deaeration temperatures and with
no product ashing, the removal of oxygen is Juice in
much slower. Correspondingly, a larger surface
area and a longer residence time are required to re-
duce the dissolved oxygen to acceptable levels. Fig. 7.14 Vacuum vessel
Some volatile components in the juice will for a juice deaerator.
vaporise in the vacuum chamber, both with or Deaerated
without product ashing. Effective condensation juice out

of these volatiles and returning them to the juice

are therefore important to avoid avour losses. without any time delay ensuring consistent prod-
A vacuum chamber for a juice deaerator sys- uct quality throughout the run. Deaerated juice is
tem with in-line aroma recovery is illustrated in pumped out of the bottom of the vessel carefully
Figure 7.14. Juice entering the vacuum chamber so as to avoid entrainment of gases from the vac-
is sprayed in an umbrella-shaped thin lm to pro- uum chamber (oxygen) into the liquid.
duce a large area of thin-layer liquid. As it enters
7.5.4 SYSTEM DESIGN
the vacuum vessel, the product ashes (i.e. some
The pasteuriser may be assembled on-site or
water boils off) and its temperature drops a few
purchased as a pretested and preassembled
degrees. The pressure in the vacuum chamber, or
frame-mounted unit, including all piping and
the juice inlet temperature, is adjusted so that the
control wiring, as shown in Figure 7.15. The lat-
inlet temperature is 25 C above the boiling point
ter choice is gaining preference dut to its proven
of the juice at the actual pressure. This ne-tuning
machine quality, particularly for systems with a
may be carried out manually or, preferably, as part
high degree of automation. It shortens installation
of the control system.
time and start up.
Vapours are condensed by an internal con-
A combination of eld-proven engineering
denser and returned to the liquid in the vessel
solutions and the continuous improvement of
machine features is essential for the design of
high-performance aseptic pasteuriser systems.
The design requirements are much stricter than
those found with conventional pasteurisers.
7.5.5 PROCESS CONTROL
The control system is one of the most important
features of the pasteuriser system. Orange juice
pasteurisers in operation today range from man-
ually operated units to fully automatic systems.
The minimum requirements for control func-
tions, to provide a certain degree of microbio-
logical safety, are:
control of pasteurisation temperature
in the holding cell
control of ow rate through the pasteuriser
prevention of juice ow to the ller if the
Fig. 7.15 Preassembled pasteurisation unit. pasteurisation temperature is too low

126
 7.5 Pasteurisation and deaeration

7.5.6 CONTROL OF PASTEURISATION UNITS

DEFINITION OF PASTEURISATION UNITS The effect of heat treatment on the destruction of
TTref microorganisms depends on the combination of
General denition: PU = t x 10 Z
Key:
temperature and time. With a longer residence time,
PU = Pasteurisation Units a lower temperature level is sufcient to achieve the
t = Holding time, minutes same microbial reduction (see subsection 4.4.4).
T = Effective holding temperature, C
Pasteurisation Units, PU, is a way of cor-
Tref = Reference temperature, C
z = Temp. coefcient of microora heat relating thermal effect with different time/tem-
resistance, C perature combinations. It is commonly used for
tunnel pasteurisation and in the brewing industry.
Calculated example for fruit juice:
For microorganisms commonly found in fruit One PU is dened as the thermal effect of hold-
juices z values are typically 57. ing the product for one minute at a dened refer-
ence temperature.
With Tref = 80 C and z value = 7 the PU
formula is: In the case where the ow rate through the pas-
T80
teuriser is reduced but the pasteurisation tempera-
PU=t x 10 7 = t x 1.39 (T80) ture is maintained, the increased residence time
On this basis:
makes the juice subject to overpasteurisation.
1 min. hold at 80 C = 1 PU For pasteurisers equipped with holding cells
20 sec. hold at 90 C = 9 PU of xed volume but which operate at multiple
At constant hold temp:
capacities or process juice at constantly varying
reduction of ow to 50 % increase of PU by ow rates, PU control may be incorporated into
factor 2 the control system. In this case, the desired PU
For constant PU:
value is selected by the operator. The control
reduction of ow to 50 % decrease of hold
temp. by 2 C system will automatically adjust the pasteuri-
sation temperature to cor respond to the actual
Source: Shapton et al.
juice throughput (and effective holding time) to
maintain the specic PU.
The pasteurisation effect depends on the
residence time in both the holding cell and the
For systems supplying commercially sterile pro- heat exchanger. Typically 1030 % of the total
duct, more advanced process control is required pasteurisation effect takes place in the heat ex-
to minimise human error and equipment failure. changer, which can be taken into account by the
Such systems incorporating microprocessors or control system.
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) also take
care of recipe handling, production sequencing,
automatic valve switchover and the supply of
management information.
The benets of PLC control include improved
product quality and safety, high process repeat-
ability, increased production efciency and
reduced labour costs.
Frame-mounted pasteuriser units are typically
equipped with a control panel with PLCs and
an operator unit for manual input of data to the
pasteuriser control system. The control system
can also be connected to a central control room
for remote communication.

127
 7.6 Aseptic buffer

7.6 Aseptic buffer

Pasteurised juice is ready for lling. In most cases
the pasteuriser is linked directly to the ller(s),
which makes the two systems interdependent.
However, the two systems can be operated inde-
pendently by installing an intermediate aseptic
Blanketing gas
buffer downstream of the pasteuriser.
The buffer tank is generally connected to
Cooling water
the product line as a oating buffer. Most of
the juice ows directly from the pasteuriser to
the ller, and only juice which is in excess (or
shortfall) for the ller demand ows into (or out Barrier steam
of) the buffer tank. In the case where blending
of several juice streams is desired, and the buffer
Juice from Juice to ller
tank is used for blending, product may enter the pasteuriser Valve cluster
tank through a separate inlet and leave via a
separate outlet. Fig. 7.16 Aseptic tank for juice buffer
A constant positive pressure is maintained between the pasteuriser and ller(s).
in the buffer tank by a blanket of sterile gas (air
or nitrogen). The juice is fed to the ller by the
positive pressure.
An aseptic buffer tank system adds to the capital
The benets of using an aseptic buffer between and operational investment of a lling plant. On
pasteuriser and ller(s) are: the other hand, a well-designed aseptic buffer sys-
Avoiding recycling product through the pas- tem saves production time, reduces production
teuriser during interruptions to lling. losses, provides exibility in scheduling, reduces
Avoiding product recycling through the energy consumption, and eliminates overprocess-
pasteuriser in order to maintain constant feed ing of heat-sensitive products.
pressure to the ller. Conventional tanks (equipped with CIP)
Smooth changes in pasteuriser throughput are sometimes suggested for use as buffer ca-
when one of several llers (served by the pacity downstream of pasteurisation. However,
same pasteuriser) is taken into or out of for aseptically lled juices, and for nonaseptic
operation. chilled juices of long shelf life, such a tech-
Smooth ller operation by close control of nical solution provides an unacceptable risk of
constant feed pressure to the ller. microbiological recontamination. The savings
Automatic and smooth adjustment of pasteur- in investment costs do not compensate for the
iser capacity for llers of varying speed, such high product value at risk.
as bottle llers.
Reduced product losses at changeovers (water
to product and product to water).

128
 7.7 Hot lling

7.6.1 OPERATIONAL STEPS 7.7 Hot lling

For aseptic tanks oating on the production line,
As the name implies, in hot lling the package is
a buffer capacity equal to one hours production or
lled with hot (>84 C) pasteurised juice. Unlike
more is recommended. Tanks for single-strength
aseptic lling at ambient temperature, the pack-
juice may have round-shaped bottoms while conical
age is not aseptic when lled and the hot juice is
bottoms are preferred for handling high-viscos-
used to kill the microorganisms on the surface of
ity concentrates. Tanks of heavy-duty design are
the container. The necessary ll temperature and
needed to withstand overpressure during production
holding time in the package depend on the type
and steam sterilisation, and full vacuum. A cool-
and size of container and its degree of initial mi-
ing jacket enables rapid cooling after sterilisation.
crobial contamination (see also subsection 9.6.3).
Figure 7.16 shows an aseptic tank including the
Containers used in hot lling are typically glass
connections for product ow and service media.
and plastic bottles, and cans.
Prior to taking in product, the tank is prest-
The hot lling technique is old. Simpler
erilised with steam at a minimum 110 C for 30
processing and lling equipment may be used
minutes. The tank is then cooled down by water
than for aseptic cold lling, but the energy
circulating through the cooling jacket. During
consumption and heat load on the product are
cooling, sterile gas is fed into the tank to prevent
higher. Recent designs for hot ll systems aim
the creation of a vacuum. The piping system is
to speed up cooling of the packaged product and
sterilised together with upstream and downstream
increase heat recovery. Nevertheless, the choice of
equipment.
hot lling is not based on product quality but on
During production sterile gas lls the tank
other factors, such as package type, distribution
space above the product level. Positive pressure
methods and availability of equipment.
is required in the tank at all times, otherwise the
system is not considered sterile. The pressure is
controlled to maintain the feed pressure required
by the lling machine. Juice is not pumped but
ows to the ller by means of pressure differential.
For deaerated juice, the use of nitrogen as blanket-
With hot lling the hot juice is
used to kill the microorganisms
ing gas is recommended to prevent reintroducing
on the surface of the container
air into the juice.
A valve cluster directs the product ow, clean-
ing liquids and steam to and from the tank. The
valves should be of aseptic type and shielded
with barrier steam to prevent reinfection. For
juice with added oating cells, it is preferable
that the aseptic tank is equipped with a variable-
speed agitator to maintain a homogenous mix
in the tank. Moreover, the agitator should be of
steam-shielded aseptic design.
Operation of the aseptic buffer tank system
may be automatic or manual. The former is
preferred as it ensures high safety levels and the
correct timing of process steps.

129
 7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC

Juice from
blending room

Hold in
Heating holding cell Trim cooling

Drying Tunnel cooling In-package hold Filling

Packages for labelling

and distribution
Fig. 7.17 Basic steps of a hot lling system.

7.7.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The lled packages are held at ll temperature

The basic steps in pasteurisation and lling are for a certain time period and then cooled down
shown in Figure 7.17. The pasteuriser for hot ll- in the cooling tunnel by a spray of cold water.
ing is quite similar to that used for lling juice at The cooling water ow is usually counter-current
ambient temperature. The heat exchanger, however, to increase heat efciency and reduce thermal
is more compact as there is only little cooling of shock, particularly with glass bottles. After cool-
pasteurised product. Figure 7.18 shows a owchart ing, the containers pass through an air blower
for a pasteuriser with tubular heat exchangers used for drying before being sent to labelling and
for hot lling. Plate heat exchangers are also com- secondary packaging.
monly used for hot ll systems.
Incoming juice is heated to pasteurisation 7.8 Aseptic transfer of NFC
temperature (typically 9098 C) in the heat For NFC supplied in aseptic bags to the juice
exchanger and then held at this temperature as it packer, there are several different ways of un-
passes through the holding cell. Juice then ows loading the juice from the bags (see subsection
to the trim cooler where it is cooled down to the 7.2.4.). By means of an aseptic transfer system,
desired ll temperature (typically 8495 C) be- orange juice may be transferred from the bags to
fore entering the ller. consumer packages under aseptic conditions. This
The pasteuriser system usually includes a eliminates the need for repasteurisation and avoids
return cooler for overow of juice and to avoid additional thermal treatment of the juice.
overheating juice which is recirculated during In an aseptic transfer system, the complete pip-
ller stops. ing and valve system from the emptying valve at
Fillers for hot lling normally work with the unloading station to the ller valve is sterilised
a pressurised lling tank, although llers of before the production run.
less complex design may work at atmospheric After connecting each new bag to the unloading
pressure. The type of ller will determine the station but prior to withdrawal of juice, the emp-
need for a deaerator unit within the pasteuriser. tying valve and bag connections are sterilised.
Upstream deaeration of juice prevents problems The nature of an aseptic transfer system does
with foaming in the containers. The solubility of not allow inspection of the incoming raw material
oxygen and other gases in juice is low at the high in the same way as for other production processes
lling temperatures. at the juice packer. Hence, high and consistent
product quality is particularly important.

130
 7.9 Cleaning-in-place

Product reject

Cooling water

Filler

Holding Opional heat recovery

cell from tunnel cooler water

Juice

Warm water

Circulating
water

Fig. 7.18 Typical process ow for

a pasteuriser used for hot lling. Steam
Condensate

7.9 Cleaning-in-place The cleaning unit also provides hot water to pres-
For good operational results, effective cleaning terilise the equipment prior to production start.
of plant equipment used for juice packing is es- There are three principal approaches to clean-
sential. Depending on the size of the plant and ing at the juice packing plant:
its automation level, cleaning-in-place (CIP) is No separate cleaning unit but detergent is
carried out in different ways. added, often manually, to the processing
The cleaning unit is a dedicated system, equipment to be cleaned, e.g. to the balance
frame-mounted or assembled on site, for pre- tank in a pasteuriser system.
paring and supplying cleaning solutions to Small cleaning units installed locally in the
the processing equipment according to spec- plant serving a couple of processing units each.
ied cleaning programs. The programs include A large central cleaning unit that provides
selection of liquid, predened temperatures and cleaning media for the whole or part of
time periods. More advanced programs also the plant.
allow selection of ow rates.
Cleaning solutions are returned to the cleaning
unit for reuse. Conductivity meters for measuring
the concentration of detergent in solution may be
used to check this concentration and to differenti-
ate between the detergent solution, rinsing water
or product.

131
 7.9 Cleaning-in-place

Temperature
Choosing the correct temperature for the cleaning
agent used and type of fouling is a major factor
in achieving effective CIP.
Time
The longer a cleaning liquid is allowed to cir-
culate, the better the result. However, after a
certain period of time, the effect of additional
time is negligible.
Chemical
This means choosing the right type of detergent
Fig. 7.19 Cleaning unit for cleaning-in-place of juice at optimal concentration. Too weak solutions will
processing equipment and lling machines. not work properly, while too strong solutions in-
crease cost and may be corrosive to equipment.
Mechanical
An example of a small self-contained cleaning
unit is illustrated in Figure 7.19. Increased ow rates give higher turbulence and
In the design of processing equipment care- better mechanical removal of deposits. Insuf-
ful consideration must be paid to its cleanability. cient ow rates are often the cause of unsatis-
This is not only to allow cleaning of all surfaces, factory cleaning results.
such as carefully dimensioned spray nozzles, but Caustic soda is a traditional cleaning liquid
also to minimise the interphase volumes because for daily use at the juice packing plant. It is com-
they result in product losses and additional use monly used as a water solution of 12 % con-
of cleaning agents. Efcient CIP gives good centration. This solution dissolves and removes
hygienic results as well as minimum costs for coatings of organic matter. Caustic soda is also
cleaning and lost product. referred to as lye or its chemical name sodium
The use of automation in cleaning also im- hydroxide, NaOH. It is strongly basic.
proves efciency. It ensures consistent results
as every cleaning cycle is repeated as specied.
Detergent is recovered for reuse, which also con-
tributes to reduced costs and less environmental
pollution.
7.9.1 CIP PROCEDURES
In determining cleaning procedures, four clean-
ing parameters are considered temperature,
time, chemical and mechanical. The interaction Temperature Time
between these parameters determines the cleaning
result. This is illustrated in the cleaning circle
(see Figure 7.20.) Examples of cleaning cycles
Chemicals Mechanical
are given in Table 7.5.

Fig. 7.20 The cleaning circle.

132
 7.9 Cleaning-in-place

TABLE 7.5 EXAMPLES OF CLEANING CYCLES

An example of cleaning cycles for different processing equipment in an orange juice packing plant:

Cleaning step Temperature, C Duration, minutes

Daily cleaning for nonheated surfaces (e.g. tanks and pipes)
- Water rinse cold 35
- NaOH circulation (1.5 %) 70 10
- Water rinse cold 5

Daily cleaning for heated surfaces (e.g. plate heat exchangers)

- Water rinse cold 35
- NaOH circulation (1.5 %) 70 20
- Water rinse cold 10

Weekly cleaning for heated surfaces (e.g. plate heat exchangers)

- Water rinse cold 5
- NaOH circulation (1.5 %) 70 20
- Water rinse* cold 5
- Acid circulation (1 %) 65 10
- Water rinse cold 10

* Use of preheated water reduces cooling down of the equipment during the intermediate water rinse.

An acid solution (e.g. 1 % nitric acid) is required 7.9.2 PIGGING

to remove calcium deposits and other mineral To reduce interphases with water at product
salts. It is used less frequently than caustic soda changeover or at the start of cleaning cycles,
as the high acid juice retards build up of such pigging may be car ried out in some parts of the
deposits. In addition to these primary cleaning processing plant. During pigging, an object the
solutions, various kinds of complex detergents same size as the internal pipe diameter is forced
containing surfactants, emulsiers or other useful through the piping by compressed air or ushing
additives are available from speciality suppliers. water. The object is often similar to a ball or large
After use, cleaning solutions of high pH may cigar but referred to as a pig.
be routed to a tank where they are neutralised The pig pushes any residual product in the
with acid before being discharged. In this case, pipes forward to downstream processing equip-
spent cleaning solutions and ushing water from ment or to a collection tank. Pigging systems can
the cleaning unit ow past an in-line pH meter. be useful for recovering high-value products like
Liquids with a pH value exceeding a preset value concentrates and aromas but they require special
are diverted to the neutralisation tank in order engineering solutions for valves.
to prevent the efuent stream from being too
alkaline before discharge.

133
 7.10 Quality control of nal product

7.10 Quality control Some strains of acid-tolerant Lactobacillus grow

of nal product faster under low oxygen pressure. They break
There are two major quality factors for the - down sugars to lactic acid without formation of
nal product the properties of the juice and its gas. Spoilage caused by Lactobacillus spp usually
microbiological condition. Most of the properties results from insufcient cleaning and presterilisa-
of the nal juice are not inuenced by the juice tion of processing equipment. Such spoilage will
packing operations but result from the raw mate- normally occur at the start of a production run.
rial. The quality specications for this are dened The action of these bacteria usually results in a
at purchase. high level of defects.
For reconstituted juice, the most important Sampling to detect yeast spoilage is rec-
quality control parameter is the concentration, ommended throughout a production run, while
or Brix level, of the juice. When pulp has been checks to detect any spoilage by Lactobacillus spp
added, the concentration of oating pulp in the should be carried out at the start of production.
juice must be checked. For NFC, Brix level is Some procedures for microbiological control
checked for unintentional dilution and content of the end product are given below. However, it
of oating pulp, if added. should be kept in mind that end control of pack-
The sampling frequency for control of Brix aged product does not replace hygienic control
level varies, but should be 12 times per hour and preventive measurements in the plant.
(packaged product). The same sampling fre- Aseptically packaged juice
quency is used to check the content of oating Procedure to detect spoilage by yeast:
pulp. For blending systems with in-line Brix Sampling of packs corresponding to 12 %
analysis, juice samples from the blending room of production, e.g. one tray from every pallet.
should be taken for laboratory analysis 12 times Incubate sample trays in a room separate
per hour. For batch blending, samples for Brix from the ordinary storage at about 25 C
control are taken from each batch before juice is (or at the normal storage temperature if it is
withdrawn from the tank. higher) typically for one week.
Sampling and full laboratory analysis of juice Inspect visually every day, or every two days,
properties on juice produced from each batch of looking for blown packs.
concentrate is recommended (see Section 2 for
further discussion on juice properties). Procedure to detect spoilage by Lactobacillus:
7.10.1 MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTROL Weekly sampling of 510 packs at the start
The procedures for sampling and microbiological of a production run after longer production
control of end product differ between juices asep- breaks (such as a weekend).
tically packaged and juices lled into nonaseptic Incubate samples at 25 C for 710 days or,
packages for chilled distribution. preferably, 3035 C for 45 days.
Yeast is by far the most common spoilage or- Inspect the juice visually and by other sensory
ganism in juice. Yeast contamination is usually means (smell). Also perform microbial de-
accompanied by extensive gas formation, espe- tection tests on agar plates of different media.
cially when the oxygen supply is limited. Hence, Nonaseptically packaged juice
spoilage by yeasts tends to result in blown pack- for chilled distribution
ages. Spoilage by moulds is very rare in aseptic The sampling procedures to detect microbial con-
packages with very low oxygen content. Low tamination of juice lled into nonaseptic packages
oxygen pressure suppresses the development vary between juice packers. The appropriate end
of moulds. control depends on the shelf life of juice and
distribution temperature.

134
8 Add-back components
volatile avours and
oating pulp

In section 8 you will read about:

Orange juice avours added back to Useful terms used in discussing pulp.
orange juice. The characteristics of oating pulp.
Origin of natural orange avours. How oating pulp is measured.
Important avour molecules. Components added back to juice at fruit
What is meant by the folding of oils. processors, blending houses and juice packers.
What an add-back system consists of.

135
 8. Add-back components
volatile avours and
oating pulp
SUMMARY
To obtain the desired avour characteris- characteristics. A blend of terpeneless oils
tics in reconstituted orange juice, volatile enhanced with essence aroma and top-note
avour components recovered from concen- compounds such as acetaldehyde and ethyl
trate production are added back to orange butyrate is an example of a complex a-
juice. This can be done at several steps of vour system.
its production. Pulp is considered an important by-
Peel oil, essence oil and essence aroma product for adding to juice because many
are the three most important avour frac- consumers think it gives juice a fresher
tions derived from the orange fruit. Often appearance and a better mouthfeel. Cell
the raw avour materials are standardised length, which is affected by the juice extrac-
to provide uniform and consistent avour tion method used, is an important property
composition, and to improve the stability of pulp.
of avour components.
Orange oils contain only small amounts Add-back to juice
of the desired avouring compounds and At juice processors, peel oil may be added
are often folded. This means that the bulk to juice concentrate before it is stored. In
of the oils hydrocarbon content is reduced addition to blending concentrates of differ-
by either distillation or solvent extraction, ent origin, blending houses can add volatile
thereby increasing the concentration of the avours and pulp to produce concentrates
desired compounds. with distinct characteristics. Juice packers
can add a combination of oil- and water-
Flavour systems and pulp soluble avour systems and pulp to juice
Flavour systems are developed to give products to achieve variety in taste, mouth-
particular juice products desired avour feel and appearance.

8.1 Volatile avours VOLATILE FLAVOUR

A number of volatile avour types derived from DEFINITIONS
different sources can be found on the market (see Natural avouring materials are those de-
rived from acceptable vegetable or animal
fact box). Volatile avours added to orange juice material by means of physical, enzymatic or
must be natural avour components derived solely microbiological extraction processes.
from oranges.
Nature-identical avouring materials are
chemically identical to substances found nat-

Only natural avouring

components from oranges may
urally in acceptable vegetable or animal ma-
terial. They are made by chemical synthesis or
separated by chemical methods.

Articial avouring materials are not nature-

be added to orange juice
identical materials but are obtained by means
of chemical synthesis. For example, a particular
synthesised compound may have an orange-like
taste but cannot be found in the orange fruit.

136
 8.1 Volatile avours

Boiled-off water
& avours

Juice Essence oil

Juice concentrate
Essence Essence
aroma

Peel oil

Fig. 8.1 The origin of volatile orange avours.

8.1.1 ORIGIN OF NATURAL VOLATILE Essence and essence oil

ORANGE FLAVOURS During the concentration process in the juice evap-
Orange avour is the most delicate and complex orator, a portion of the saturated vapour from the
of the major citrus avours. So far, more than juice is captured. This stream, containing volatile
200 volatile compounds have been determined in aromas and essential oils, is sent to a still mounted
orange juice, although not all of these are believed on the evaporator in which the important volatiles
to contribute signicantly to the orange avour. are separated from the water by distillation under
Volatile avours of oranges are found in two vacuum and condensation by chilling.
parts of the fruit, the peel and the juice. Liquids The product essence is a concentrated mixture
containing volatile avours derived from oranges of aqueous and oil-soluble aroma compounds.
are divided into the three main fractions given be- This essence is separated into oil and aqueous
low depending on their origin and characteristics phases by either decantation or centrifugation.
(see Figure 8.1). The essence oil is clear and pale yellow. This
Peel oil (cold-pressed oil) phase contains juice oil originating in the juice plus
Peel oil originates from oil sacs or glands within peel oil entering juice during extraction. It con-
the peel. It is recovered from the oil-water emul- tributes a oral fruity, sweet and green avour.
sion resulting from the extraction process (see sub- Essence aroma (aroma, water phase)
section 5.8). The oil is clear and dark yellow, and Essence aroma is the water phase recovered from
contains mainly water-insoluble hydrocarbons. the evaporator. It is clear and colourless and con-
Peel oil is responsible for much of the char- tains water-soluble compounds originating from
acteristic avour of the nal juice product. Peely, the juice. It contributes a fruity, fresh aroma and a
heavy and green juice notes are its main sensory light citrus taste. Because the volatile compounds
attributes. The recommended maximum amount that make up the aroma hydrolyse and gradually
of peel oil in orange juice reconstituted from lose their avour, aroma is usually stored apart
concentrate is about 0.02 %. At higher levels, from concentrate.
the oil tends to impart a harshness and burning
taste to the juice.

137
 8.1 Volatile avours

TABLE 8.1 SOME MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ORANGE

PEEL OIL, ESSENCE OIL AND ESSENCE AROMA

Compound Peel oil1 Essence oil2 Essence aroma2

Water 85.0 %

Alcohols
Ethanol 0.1 % 13.0 %
Methanol 0.5 %
1-Propanol 0.01 %
Linalool 0.6 % 0.5 %

Aldehydes
Acetaldehyde 0.06 %
Acetal 0.002 % 0.007 %
Trans-2-hexanal 0.005 % Trace
Hexanal 0.02 % Trace
Octanal 0.5 % 0.5 %
Decanal 0.6 % 0.5 %
Neral 0.1 % 0.2 %
Geranial 0.1 % 0.1 %
Nonanal 0.1 %
Citranellal 0.1 %
Dodecanal 0.1 %
-Sinensal 0.3 %
-Sinensal 0.1 %

Esters
Ethyl acetate 0.005 % 0.01 %
Ethyl butyrate 0.1 % 0.005 %

Hydrocarbons
d-Limonene 93.5 % 93.6 % 0.02 %
Myrcene 1.3 % 1.8 %
Valencene 0.1 % 1.7 %
-Pinene 0.3 % 0.4 %
Sabinene 0.2 % 0.4 %

Other 2.0 % 0.07 % 1.4 %

Source: 1) Givaudan Roure 2) Johnson and Vora

During orange juice processing some other avour Distilled oils

by-products are sometimes recovered: The oil yield from peel oil production can
be increased by passing the underow (water
Deoiler oils (juice oils)
phase) from the centrifuges used for separating
Orange juice intended for NFC products often
oil through a steam stripper. Oils recovered in
contains an excess of peel oil. This oil can be
this way are called distilled oils.
recovered by centrifugation, by ashing the
juice in a vacuum chamber or by steam distilla-
tion. The by-product oils recovered this way are
called deoiler oils.

138
 8.1 Volatile avours

TABLE 8.2 D-LIMONENE CONTENT IN SINGLE AND

FOLDED ORANGE COLD-PRESSED OILS AND ESSENCE OILS

Product Approximate d-Limonene conc. ( % v/v)

Orange cold pressed oil 95
5-Fold orange oil 90
10-Fold orange oil 8085
25-Fold orange oil 6065
Orange essence oil 95
36-Fold orange essence oil 12

Source: Braddock, 1999

8.1.2 MAJOR CONSTITUENTS Some major components of orange peel oil are
OF FLAVOUR FRACTIONS given in Table 8.1. d-Limonene content of some
Two characteristics of the molecules that make up folded oils is shown in Table 8.2.
orange avour greatly determine their behaviour and
in which fraction they will be found. These are: Essence oil
solubility in water or oil, which depends on Essence oil is used directly as a avour fraction
the structure and the size of the molecule or is blended with peel oil to provide the peel oil
boiling point, which determines how volatile with the lighter juice-like avour notes it naturally
the avour is lacks. Essence oil is also used as a raw material
for distilling out specic top-note compounds,
For the basic structure of different groups of mainly esters and aldehydes, added to natural
volatiles see the fact box in subsection 9.4.1. orange aroma.
The resulting enriched aroma solutions pos-
Peel oil sess desired enhanced avour properties, and
Peel oil consists of over 90 % d-limonene, a they can be tailored to the needs of specic
water-insoluble hydrocarbon. d-Limonene does customers. Essence oil generally contributes
not contribute signicantly to the avour but the most fruity juice notes when added back to
can have a role as a carrier of other molecules. orange juice.
The aldehyde compounds in the oil are the most Essence oil comprises a mixture of com-
important compounds for its avour even though pounds found in peel oil and essence aroma.
they are present in very low concentrations. Over 90 % is d-limonene as in peel oil, but the
Peel oil can be folded, which means that its contribution from aldehydes, esters and alcohols
hydrocarbon content is reduced (see following is also signicant. The most important compound
subsection) to increase the proportion of desired is ethyl butyrate. In fact, the price of essence oil
avouring substances such as aldehydes and es- is set by its ethyl butyrate content.
ters. These compounds provide the lighter peel The major composition of essence oil is given
avour notes. in Table 8.1.

139
 8.1 Volatile avours

Essence aroma Standardisation and folding of avour fractions are

Aqueous orange essence aroma, sometimes called achieved by such methods as blending, distillation
natural orange aroma or water phase, is usually and extraction. This can be achieved by blending
collected to contain approximately 13 % etha- raw materials from different times of the season
nol as its major organic component. The ethanol and/or from different orange varieties. A more
content is used as a process control monitoring sophisticated way of standardisation is to adjust
technique for operating the evaporator essence the content of certain compounds to a standard
recovery still. level by adding single compounds separated from
Aroma comprises a complex mixture of alde- a fraction by distillation.
hydes, esters, ketones and alcohols. Aldehydes Peel oil and essence oil both contain about
form the most important group of compounds 22.5 % avour compounds (called oxygenated
with acetaldehyde in highest concentration. The compounds), the remainder of the oils being
aldehydes found in this fraction are highly volatile mainly hydrocarbons. Increased oxidative sta-
and contribute signicantly to the fragrance of bility and water solubility of the oils are achieved
juice. These compounds are often referred to as by separating the oxygenated compounds from
the orange top-notes. hydrocarbons.
The major components of orange essence An oil that becomes reduced in volume by
aroma are listed in Table 8.1. removal of hydrocarbons or, to be fully cor rect,
terpenes (the main group of hydrocarbons in
8.1.3 FLAVOUR STANDARDISATION
AND FOLDING OF OILS orange oils) is said to be folded by the ratio of
Raw avour materials vary greatly in compo- volume reduction. For example, a ve-fold oil
sition. This is due primarily to fruit variety, dif- has had its volume reduced by 80 %, i.e. 100 ml
ferent extraction methods, the type of recovery of single-strength oil will give 20 ml of 5-fold
equipment used, seasonal variations of orange oil. Folded oils have increased fragrance with
fruit properties, and avour storage conditions. lighter peel notes because the harsh burn taste
If raw avour materials are used directly, juice of terpenes has been removed in the folding proc-
product quality will be inconsistent, which is ess. Although some top- and body-notes are lost
unacceptable to both the juice packer and juice during folding, the latest processing technology
consumers. minimises this loss.
Raw avour materials are standardised to:
provide uniform avour composition all 600 kg terpenes
year around Aldehyde content 7 kg

improve the stability of avour components

increase the water solubility of avour com-
ponents

Folding by distillation

700 kg peel oil

Aldehyde content 15 kg

Fig. 8.2 Concentration effect

of 7-fold peel oil.

100 kg 7-fold peel oil

Aldehyde content 8 kg

140
 Vapour
8.1 Volatile avours

Cooling medium out

Cooling medium in

Condenser
Peel oil is distilled by heating it under vacuum to
Reux evaporate the oxygenated compounds while leav-
ing the higher boiling point components in solu-
Condensate
tion. In this way separation is achieved. However,
distillation cannot fully separate the two groups
of compounds and a small residue of oxygenated
molecules is always found in the distillate, thus
lowering the aldehyde content of the pot residue or
Feed folded oil. Distillation is widely used to produce
Heat in Residue 5- to 10-fold oils. Distillation is normally carried
out under reduced pressure to lower the boiling
temperatures, thereby minimising unwanted
Fig. 8.3 The principle of distillation. chemical changes. The principle of distillation
is shown in Figure 8.3.
Raw peel oil and essence oil are referred to as In the solvent extraction process, avour
single-fold oil. In this form they are difcult to compounds are separated from the hydrocarbons
blend into single-strength orange juice because based on their solubility and polarity. The orange
single-fold oils are not water-soluble. Moreover, oil is mixed with an aqueous solution of alcohol.
the terpenes in single-fold oils undergo acid When thoroughly mixed, the polar avour com-
hydrolysis and oxidation to produce unwanted pounds move from the oil into the solvent. The
off-avours in foods and beverages. polar avours are recovered from the alcohol
Folding increases water-solubility and stabil- by removing the solvent using low-temperature
ity (including shelf-life stability) of oils as the distillation. The principle of solvent extraction is
ter pene content is reduced. Folded oils are not shown in Figure 8.4.
used as sole avour components, but as part of Solvent extraction almost completely sep-
a avour package. The theoretical concentration arates terpenes from the desired avour com-
effect of 7-fold peel oil is outlined in Figure 8.2. pounds and can therefore be used to produce
However, in reality, over 20 % of the aldehydes highly folded oils in the 40- to 60-fold range.
may not be recovered in the folding process due
to losses into the terpenes during distillation
(Braddock, 1999).
When oils have been folded 20 times or more,
they are called terpeneless oils, as most of the
d-limonene has been removed. As they are
highly concentrated, they possess good sta-
bility and better water solubility. Terpeneless
Terpenes
oils thus nd wide application as modiers Peel oil
Solvent
with single-folded oils, blended oils and citrus Solvent &
Solvent oxygenated
avour fractions. compounds

8.1.4 METHODS OF SEPARATING AND

CONCENTRATING FLAVOURS
Separation of avour components can be achieved
by either distillation or solvent extraction. The Peel oil and sol- The peel oil and solvent The terpene fraction
vent (ethanol) are are thoroughly mixed. separates from the
principle of distillation is that substances with added to a sepa- Oxygenated com- solvent now con-
rator chamber. pounds move from the taining the oxygen-
lower boiling points will evaporate earlier and oil into the solvent. ated compounds.
faster than substances in the mixture having
higher boiling points. Fig. 8.4 The principle of solvent extraction.

141
 8.2 Floating pulp

8.1.5 CREATION OF FLAVOUR SYSTEMS 8.2 Floating pulp

The main objective in creating a avour system Premium pulp production has become more
is to supply the juice packer with an easy way to important because adding pulp to juice prod-
optimise and diversify the taste of products. A ucts is thought by many people to give a fresher
avour system can be designed to give a unique appearance and better mouthfeel to juice. Pulp
avour to a juice and is often the result of joint can also add value to products because many
development between the avour company and consumers are prepared to pay more for a juice
the juice packer. containing pulp.
Blended oils are a simple form of avour sys- Floating pulp consists of the larger solid
tem containing a mixture of peel oils, essence oils particles in juice comprising mainly ruptured
and certain other oil fractions. cell sacs and segment walls. It is separated from
A more sophisticated avour system can be the juice in nishers. Pulp contains mostly car-
based on terpeneless oils with addition of essence bohydrates, pectin and crude bres. The crude
aroma and enhanced with top-note compounds bres are built up of hemicellulose and cellulose
such as acetaldehydes and ethyl butyrate. The polysaccharides and give stability to the tissue
basic components used to create a avour system forming individual juice sacs.
are shown in Figure 8.5. For many years orange pulp was a by-product
Flavour systems represent an easy tool for the of little value used for the production of pulp wash
juice packers to standardise the quality of their or cattle feed. This has changed in recent years.
products and to obtain an optimised avour for Today, more pulp is processed for sale as oating
particular juice products, e.g. orange juice for pulp for addition to juice.
chilled storage or storage at ambient temperature, Section 5 describes the different ways pulp is
or for juice intended for different European and processed. This section deals with the quality and
Asian markets. characteristics of the commercial pulp product
sold for addition to orange juice.

Top-note compounds
8.2.1 USEFUL TERMS
Folded oils
In talking about orange pulp, it is of great help
to know the correct meaning of terms commonly
Terpeneless oils
Aroma fractions used to describe raw materials and products. Pulp,
juice sacs, juice cells and bres are all terms used
to describe the same thing. Adding to the confu-
sion is the fact that many terms have different
meanings when used in fruit processing and with
reference to the end product at the juice packers.

Fig. 8.5 The basic components of a avour system.

142
 8.2 Floating pulp

AT THE FRUIT PROCESSOR FOR TRADING

Pulp Frozen pulp

The by-product stream at different process steps Finished pulp sold in frozen form.
within the plant and also the product sold com-
Frozen cells
mercially.
Same as frozen pulp.
Finished pulp
Aseptic pulp
The pulp stream leaving the nal nisher with a
Pulp sold in aseptic bag-in-box containers. Con-
very high concentration of solid particles. This is
tains considerably more juice than frozen pulp.
the product sold as frozen pulp.
AT THE JUICE PACKERS (END PRODUCT)
Dry pulp
Another term used for nished pulp. The name is Pulp
misleading because the dry pulp contains juice Used by some people to mean sinking pulp and
adsorbed to solid particles by others to mean oating pulp.
Pulpy juice Sinking pulp (suspended pulp)
Used in Florida for the pulp stream to the pulp Very small solid particles (<0.5 mm) which settle
pasteuriser and to the aseptic bag-in-box ller. from the juice with time (or spin down in a cen-
The concentration of solid particles is about 500 trifuge). Sinking pulp is part of all citrus juices,
g/litre. even those without added oating pulp.
Solid particles in pulp Floating pulp
These are mainly cell walls and segment walls. Larger solid particles. Most oat to the top after
The cell walls are fragmented during extraction. juice is stirred.
The length of particles varies from <0.5 mm up
to 25 mm. Floaters
Used mainly in Florida for oating pulp.
Bottom pulp (= sinking pulp)
Very small solid particles which ow with the Fibres (= oating pulp)
juice through the nisher screens. Sometimes used to mean large solid particles.

Washed pulp Added cells (= oating pulp)

Solid particles which have been washed with wa- Frozen or aseptic pulp added to juice.
ter to remove juice. Used for cattle feed or sold in Added pulp (= oating pulp)
frozen form after removing most of the water. Frozen or aseptic pulp added to juice.
Pulp wash Sacs or whole cells
Sugars and other juice solubles recovered from Intact citrus cells which still contain juice. These
pulp by washing it with water. Sold as 65 Brix liquid-lled cells cannot be obtained by normal
concentrate in frozen form. Sometimes added to extraction methods. A product often sold canned
orange juice before evaporation. in syrup and added to juice drinks.
Pulp concentration Floatability
A confusing term which means the amount of The proportion of added cells that oat to the top
solid particles in the pulp stream. Methods to when added to juice.
measure pulp concentration vary.
Unless otherwise stated, in this text the expression
pulp refers to the product sold commercially or
the by-product stream at the fruit processor.

143
 8.2 Floating pulp

TABLE 8.3 FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTED QUALITY

PARAMETERS FOR PULP PRODUCTION
Cell length Oil level Brix/acid ratio Defect rate Microbial status
Extraction method
Fruit variety
Time of season
Fruit size
Pulp recovery process
Extractor settings
Operation of nishers

8.2.2 FLOATING PULP PROPERTIES Oil content

The two main types of orange pulp on the market The concentration of oil is an important quality
originate from squeezer-type and reamer-type ex- parameter when oating pulp is added to juice.
tractors. The two extraction methods produce pulp This is because the oil level in the pulp stream
with somewhat different properties and therefore is often higher than in the corresponding juice
affect pulp quality. Pulp from reamer-type extrac- stream. Hydrophobic (not mixing easily with
tors has longer cells and lower oil levels than pulp water) oil droplets and hydrophobic cell mem-
produced in standard squeezer-type extractors. branes are naturally attracted to each other, par-
Due to the increased demand for high-qual- ticularly when present together in a hydrophilic
ity pulp, some plants have extractors adjusted to (mixing easily with water) juice environment. An
optimise pulp quality rather than to maximise excessive oil content in the nal juice gives it a
juice yield. harsh and burning taste.
A reamer-type extractor normally gives an oil
Pulp properties
content of 0.030.06 % v/v, whereas pulp from
The properties of oating pulp are not very well
a squeezer-type extractor may contain oil levels
dened in the juice industry or by juice packers.
from 0.05 % v/v upwards. To minimise the oil
However, some properties are more important
content from squeezer-type extractors, so-called
than others. These are discussed below. See also
low-oil extractors can be used.
Table 8.3.
Cell length
Generally, pulp with longer and less damaged
cells has better oatability and provides a mouth-
feel closer to fresh juice.
A reamer-type extractor produces a pulp with
longer bres and less fragmented cells compared
with pulp from a standard squeezer-type extrac-
Standard squeezer-type extractor
tor. Pulp from reamer-type extractors can contain
bres up to 25 mm long. In pulp from a standard
squeezer-type extractor, most cells are shorter
than 5 mm and about 40 % are shorter than 1 mm.
However, a new system of squeeze extraction that
yields longer cells has been introduced.
The visual difference between pulp from the
two types of extractor is illustrated in Figure 8.6. Reamer-type extractor

Fig. 8.6 Illustration of relative pulp

sizes after extraction.

144
 8.2 Floating pulp

In calculating the total oil content in the nal

Mesh number Hole size, m
product, the contribution from both the oating
20 850
pulp and the juice must be taken into account. 40 425

Other properties
Apart from cell length and oil levels, quality pa-
rameters such as taste, colour, Brix, ratio and A special method called Quick Fibre (QF) is
microbial status are also important. The Brix used to analyse commercial pulp (nished pulp)
and ratio values strongly depend on what orange leaving the producer. It determines the dryness
variety the oating pulp comes from, but they of nished pulp and this method also uses a FMC
should be similar as for orange juice. Flavour and shaker and a screen. The dryness of the pulp is
colour are often specied as typical. set in the nishers and is an important process
parameter because it determines not only the juice
8.2.3 FLOATING PULP CONCENTRATION
yield but also the quality of both juice and pulp.
It is important to know the oating pulp con-
centration both at the juice processor and at the
packer. There are several different methods of QUICK FIBRE (QF)
analysing the pulp concentration depending on Quick Fibre is an analysis method used to de-
whether it is a pulpy juice stream, nished pulp termine the dryness of nished pulp. 200 g of
or nal single-strength juice. pulp is mixed with 200 ml of water and stirred for
1 min, left alone for 3 min and then stirred again
The pulp stream or nal juice can be analysed for 1 min. Thereafter, the mixture is screened and
by pouring it onto a screen with dened hole shaken for 3 min. A QF value equals the weight
size. Excess juice is drained from the screen, with of the liquid (g) drained from the screen. A high
Quick Fibre value means that the pulp analysed
or without shaking, and the screen plus pulp is has a high juice content. A low QF indicates that
weighed. The result is expressed as grams pulp the nished pulp analysed is dry and has ab-
per litre (or quart) juice. Alternatively, juice is sorbed some of the added water.
The QF method is mainly used during fruit
poured into a glass beaker to see how much set- processing to determine the correct nisher set-
tles and how much oats after a certain time. A tings. Typical classications of QF values are
method used by many processors in Florida and listed below.
Brazil uses screens and a certain shaker that Classication of Quick Fibre (QF)
shakes the screens at a dened frequency and Finisher Brazil Florida
amplitude. This is an attempt to standardise the settings (40 mesh (20 mesh
screening method. screen) screen)
QF value QF value
Screens with different mesh numbers are used
Very tight <130
to analyse oating pulp content in the laboratories Tight 130-150 <150
of juice plants. In Florida the 20 mesh screen is Moderate 150-180 150-180
the norm, whereas some Brazilian producers use Loose 180-210 180-200
a 40 mesh screen. The hole size of screens can Very loose >210

have a signicant effect on analysis results. When Source: 1) E. A. Nonino 2) Dan A. Kimball

smaller screen holes are used, the pulp releases

more water during analysis. Therefore, exactly
the same method must be used if measurements
are to be compared.

145
 8.3 Components added back to juice

FRUIT PROCES SORS BLENDING HOUSES JUICE PACKERS

Add-back: Add-back: Add-back:

Peel oil Peel oil Flavour systems
Essence oil Floating pulp
Essence aroma
Floating pulp
Fig. 8.7 Volatile avours and oating pulp.

8.3 Components added Blending houses

back to juice Blending houses supply juice packers with con-
The overall juice quality is already determined at centrates of consistent quality. Along with blend-
the fruit processor by the choice of raw material ing concentrates of different origin, avour addi-
(quality and variety of oranges) and extraction tion is important to achieving product uniformity.
methods. Further processing cannot increase juice By altering the amounts and types of volatile a-
quality. On the contrary, during some processing vours added, blending houses can produce orange
steps, e.g. evaporation, the juice loses most of its concentrates with different characteristics.
original freshness and aroma. To provide the de- Floating pulp is added to improve the mouth-
sired avour characteristics in reconstituted juice, feel of juices and to give a fresher appearance.
volatile avour and oating pulp can be added The pulp can be added directly to the concentrate
back at different steps of orange juice processing by the blending house.
and packaging (see Figure 8.7). Juice packers
Fruit processors
The juice packer can modify the taste of orange
At the fruit processor, peel oil is often added to juice by adding selected volatile avours before
concentrate before frozen bulk storage in tanks. It nished product packaging.
is believed that the oil-soluble volatile components Oils are difcult to mix homogeneously
help to mask any processing off-avours present with single-strength orange juice, and therefore
in orange juice reconstituted from concentrate. A need to be added to the juice concentrate before
typical concentration of added peel oil in juice reconstitution. This is usually achieved with a
concentrate before storage is 0.008 % v/v. This batch premix system. It is possible to disperse
low level still allows addition of a avour package a maximum of 2 % oil into FCOJ at a minimum
to the juice for reconstitution at single-strength 42 Brix. This should preferably be done under a
concentration at which it is consumed. nitrogen blanket. The premix can be kept overnight
under refrigerated conditions ready for production
the next day. Before reconstitution, the premix
blending time into the concentrate should be not
less than 30 minutes to assure an even distribution
of avours in the nal product.

146
 8.3 Components added back to juice

In general, the addition of water-soluble aromas When pulp is added back to the juice at the juice
can be carried out at any time during the recon- packer, it has rst to be crushed or thawed be-
stitution process. Normally they are added either fore being added back to the blending tank. Pulp
together with the oils in the premix or later at packed in 20 kg boxes can be left at ambient
the reconstitution step. Since the water-soluble temperature for a few days to thaw, or the blocks
aromas contain the most volatile avour compo- of pulp can be sliced into smaller pieces and
nents, they should be added as late as possible thawed in water. Nevertheless, both methods are
in the process. very labour-intensive.
A avour system based on terpeneless oils If pulp in 200 l drums is used, crushers sim-
provides the juice packer with a tool to simply ilar to the ones used to thaw frozen NFC are
optimise the juice taste with one single addi- needed since the time needed to thaw a drum
tion of avours. Since terpeneless oils are much is long enough to result in microbial problems.
more water-soluble they can be added to single- The labour-intensive part of pulp thawing can be
strength juice. avoided by using aseptic pulp. However, there are
In this context it should be noted that the only a small number of aseptic pulp suppliers
addition of avours is not the single answer to on the market.
good juice taste. A sophisticated and well-bal- The pulp is added to the concentrate in the
anced avour system can enhance the avour of reconstitution tank before it is diluted. Constant
a juice but can never fully mask the off-avours low-speed agitation of the tank is necessary to
from a badly produced concentrate. obtain even distribution of cells. Moreover, it
is very important to prevent too much air from
entering the juice during tank agitatation (see
subsection 4.2).

147
8.3 Components added back to juice

148
9 Packaging and storage
of orange juice

In section 9 you will read about:

The quality parameters that need protection The impact of light on juice quality.
during storage and what affects them. Orange juice aroma and the effect of different
The role of oxygen in vitamin C degradation, package types on aroma retention.
juice browning and avour changes. Different types of packaging systems.

149
9. Packaging and storage
of orange juice
Summary The results are loss of nutritional value
One of the primary aims of a packaging concerning vitamin C, unpleasant col-
system is to protect the product from mi- our changes, and off-avour formation,
crobial spoilage and chemical deteriora- which is caused predominantly by chemi-
tion during its distribution and storage. cal changes in the juice matrix, and to a
For orange juice, measures should be lesser degree by changes in the volatile
taken to protect vitamin C and avour avour fraction.
compounds, and to prevent microbial Almost all changes can occur under
growth and colour changes. anaerobic storage conditions and are
Vitamin C is the compound in orange greatly accelerated by oxygen (headspace
juice that reacts most readily with oxygen, and dissolved oxygen, and oxygen permeat-
and its loss correlates with the oxygen- ing through the package).
barrier properties of the package. The deg- In general, packaging for orange juice
radation products of vitamin C contribute should contain an aroma barrier to pre-
to browning. vent aromas permeating out through the
Light, in the presence of free oxygen, is the package.
known to accelerate aerobic degradation
of vitamin C. Anaerobic degradation of Laminated cartons rule
vitamin C also takes place but independ- Laminated carton packages are the
ent of oxygen. predominant form of packaging in most
countries for chilled and shelf-stable
The culprits of quality loss orange juice. They are both made from
High storage temperatures combined with prefabricated blanks and fed from rolls.
oxygen are the main factors involved with Worldwide, glass bottles are the second
quality deterioration over time. most common type of container, closely
followed by plastic bottles.

Raw materials Processing Bulk storage Packaging Shelf storage

Quality Heat treatment Temperature Barriers Temperature

Treatment Oxygen Time Hygiene Time

Fig. 9.1 Factors which inuence juice quality.

150
 9.1 The role of packaging

9.1 The role of packaging This means taking measures to:

One of the main aims of a packaging system and protect the relevant avour compounds
packages is to protect orange juice from microbial protect the high vitamin C content
spoilage and chemical deterioration during dis- prevent colour changes
tribution and storage. The shelf life of food and prevent microbial growth
beverages is the time period up to the point when
9.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY
the product becomes unacceptable from a safety, PARAMETERS DURING STORAGE
sensorial or nutritional perspective. The inuence No packaging system is able to completely inhibit
of packaging material and package type on the changes in quality taking place in orange juice
shelf life of orange juice has been the subject of or other beverages in general during storage.
many investigations. From the day of processing to the day of con-
Although the package is important in pro- sumption, the product will change to a greater or
tecting its contents, it cannot improve the qual- lesser extent depending on the storage conditions.
ity of orange juice made from poor raw materials And in most cases, except perhaps for wines, the
or disguise quality degradation originating from changes will be for the worse.
nonoptimal processing. Moreover, it is inevitable With regard to the quality parameters already
that product deterioration related to product- identied for orange juice, the packaging and
specic characteristics and storage conditions storage conditions given in Table 9.1 inuence
gradually takes place over time. Therefore, re- how long acceptable quality can be retained
gardless of the package, the degradation of vita- during storage.
min C and the browning of orange juice always Before looking closer at barrier properties,
take place in stored orange juice when a certain it is important to keep in mind that packaging
temperature and/or storage time is exceeded. can never be discussed without considering
In conclusion, the quality of orange juice at the intended storage conditions particularly
consumption depends on all the processing and temperature and time because these mainly
packaging steps from raw material intake up to determine the barrier demands.
the product being consumed. Some important op-
erating parameters which inuence juice quality
at different steps are presented in Figure 9.1.
TABLE 9.1 FACTORS
9.1.1 PRODUCT QUALITY PARAMETERS TO
INFLUENCING SHELF LIFE
BE PROTECTED DURING STORAGE
In addition to its most obvious function of con- Package properties Storage conditions
taining the product, a consumer package must Barrier against: - Time
- Oxygen - Temperature
protect the specic quality parameters of orange
- Light - Aseptic
juice. To better understand the term quality pa- - Flavour losses - Nonaseptic
rameters, one could question why consumers buy - Microorganisms
orange juice. The main answers will most probably
be its enjoyable taste and high nutritional value
due to a high vitamin C content. Therefore these
quality parameters should be protected during a
given shelf life.

151
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen

9.2 Barrier properties For packages with good oxygen-barrier properties,

against oxygen e.g. glass bottles, anaerobic degradation plays the
Oxygen plays a major role in the loss of quality in major role regarding the total loss of vitamin C.
orange juice during storage, mainly because of: In cases where permeation of oxygen into the
vitamin C degradation package is considerable, headspace oxygen is
colour changes (browning) present or oxygen is dissolved in the product,
the contribution of anaerobic deg radation to
Several publications also indicate the involvement the total vitamin C loss is small compared with
of oxygen on avour compounds and on off-a- aerobic degradation.
vour for mation during the storage of orange Since both anaerobic and aerobic pathways
juice at ambient temperature. This is not yet for vitamin C degradation occur simultaneously
fully understood. in most packaged products, vitamin C deg ra-
dation curves cannot usually be attributed to
9.2.1 VITAMIN C DEGRADATION solely one pathway.
Vitamin C is the most sensitive compound in or-
ange juice that reacts with oxygen, and its loss is
consequently closely related to the availability of
oxygen in packages. Generally, vitamin C is lost EXAMPLES OF VITAMIN C LOSS
FOR A 1 LITRE PACKAGE DURING
through two different chemical pathways anaer- AMBIENT STORAGE BASED ON
obic and aerobic degradation. As its name implies, STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATION
the anaerobic pathway is independent of oxygen
Headspace
and is mainly driven by the storage temperature.
A headspace volume of 5 ml air, containing 1 ml
Losses caused by this degradation pathway cannot oxygen (about 21 %), can theoretically oxidise
be prevented by packaging, and they are the same approximately 15 mg vitamin C.
in all types of package. The only possible counter-
Dissolved oxygen
measure is to reduce the storage temperature. 1 mg oxygen corresponds to a loss of approxi-
The aerobic pathway needs oxygen and is mately 11 mg vitamin C.
therefore strictly related to the presence of head-
Anaerobic degradation corresponds
space oxygen, the dissolved oxygen in juice, and to an approximate loss of:
the oxygen-barrier properties of the package. 1 mg/l vitamin C per month at 10 C
Both anaerobic and aerobic degradation take 5 mg/l vitamin C per month at 20 C
20 mg/l vitamin C per month at 30 C
place simultaneously in orange juice. Which one
predominates depends on the storage temperature Oxygen permeating through the package
and the availability of oxygen. An oxygen permeability of 0.02 ml oxygen/
package/day in a 1 litre package results in a
loss of 9 mg/l vitamin C per month during
ambient storage.
For a package with a permeability of 0.05 ml
oxygen/package/day the loss is 22 mg/l vitamin
C per month.

152
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen

500 It is quite obvious that when a certain

450 oxygen permeability of the package
400 is exceeded, the aerobic pathway pre-
Vitamin C content mg/l

350 dominates. The anaerobic reaction

300 pathway is mainly temperature-
250 driven. The impact of temperature
200 can be seen from the example of a 1
150
litre package in the fact box.
100
Good O2 barrier, anaerobic storage Storage temperature is also
Good O2 barrier, aerobic storage
Less good O2 barrier, aerobic storage important for aerobic degradation
50
of vitamin C. Figure 9.3 shows
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 the change in vitamin C content
Weeks in orange juice during storage for
Fig. 9.2 Vitamin C degradation curves for different
30 weeks at 4 C and 23 C re-
packages of orange juice stored at 23 C. spectively in the same package type (Tetra Brik
Source: Tetra Pak Aseptic, TBA). The calculated vitamin C loss due
to anaerobic degradation is indicated in the graph.
Figure 9.2 shows vitamin C degradation in orange The difference in vitamin C retention between
juice stored at ambient temperature in two types storage at 4 C and 23 C is obvious. During 30
of package. These were laminated cartons with weeks storage, an increase in temperature from
a barrier layer of alu-foil and polymer, such as 4 C to 23 C results in increased losses of vitamin
ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), respectively. The C of 28 mg/l due to anaerobic degradation, and
alu-foil layer is a good oxygen barrier, whereas 42 mg/l due to aerobic degradation.
packages with a polymer barrier layer like EVOH The rate of oxidative degradation of vitamin C
allow higher oxygen permeability. Some packages is slowed down dramatically under chilled storage.
were stored in an oxygen-free atmosphere, and Consequently, packages for chilled distribution
in this case the vitamin C loss represents mainly do not need as high oxygen-barrier properties
the anaerobic degradation pathway. as are required for packages stored at ambient
temperature.

340

320
Vitamin C content mg/l

300

280

260

240

220 Anaerobic degradation, 4 C TBA 250 cc, 4 C

Anaerobic degradation, 23 C TBA 250 cc, 23 C
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Weeks

Fig. 9.3 Effect of temperature on vitamin C content

in orange juice during storage.
Source: Tetra Pak

153
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen

25 Vitamin C can participate in the de-

velopment of browning via its degra-
37 C
20 dation products resulting from both
25 C
17 C the aerobic and anaerobic pathways.
12 C
15 Consequently, the oxygen barrier
delta - L

of packages inuences browning

10 because it determines the supply of
oxygen to the aerobic pathway of
vitamin C degradation.
5
Figure 9.5 shows colour changes
in orange juice in packages with dif-
0 ferent oxygen-barrier properties dur-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
ing storage at 23 C. There is a clear
Weeks
increase in browning with increased
Fig. 9.4 The browning of orange concentrate during
storage at different temperatures. oxygen permeation through the package. This
Source: Values taken from Kanner et al. leads one to conclude that the better the oxygen
barrier, the lower the risk of browning.
9.2.2 COLOUR CHANGES Methods of measuring colour in orange juice
The colour of orange juice is primarily determined are described in subsection 2.2.4.
by its carotenoid content. However, carotenoids
9.2.3 THE IMPACT OF OXYGEN ON STORAGE-
are relatively stable in orange juice since they are DEPENDENT FLAVOUR CHANGES
protected by vitamin C and are not regarded as Orange juice avour is a very delicate mixture
being responsible for the colour changes, which of different fractions which contain a variety of
are most evident during long-term storage at volatile chemicals of different chemical classes
ambient temperature. (see subsection 9.4 for more details). These
The colour changes, or rather the darkening of avour fractions are known to undergo several
orange juice, during storage are based on the ap- changes during storage that gradually lead to
pearance of brown-coloured compounds caused by a loss of freshness and unpleasant odours, and
the chemical reaction of orange juice components tastes not associated with the orange fruit. Most
present in the juice matrix. The brown compounds of these changes are acid-catalysed reactions.
are formed in the end phase of the Maillard Reac-
tion (also known as nonenzymatic
10
browning), which is a well-known
9
reaction between sugars and amino
acids. This reaction type is gener- 8 Package with low
oxygen barrier
ally not dependant on oxygen, but 7
TBA
is clearly temperature-driven. 6 Glass
delta L*

Figure 9.4 shows the effect of 5

temperature on the browning of or-
4
ange concentrate. It is evident that
3
browning results mainly from the
long-term storage at temperatures 2
higher than 12 C. 1
0
0 4 8 12
Weeks
Fig. 9.5 Colour changes in orange juice in packages with different
oxygen-barrier properties during storage at 23 C.
Source: Tetra Pak

154
 9.2 Barrier properties against oxygen

Source Type of reaction Consequences

Degradation of
important top-notes Loss of top-notes,
(e.g. aldehydes) loss of freshness

Volatile avour
fraction
Chemical reaction to
detrimental avour E.g. -terpineol
compounds from (carvone, carveol)
terpenes, e.g. limonene

Maillard reaction Furans, pyrones

Juice matrix: Vitamin C degradation

sugar, amino acids, Methional, off-avour
products + amino acids
vitamin C, ferulic acid

Degradation of Off-avor, vinyl-

ferulic acid guaiacol, guaiacol

Fig. 9.6 Storage-dependent avour changes in orange juice.

They are supported by the high acidity of the 4-vinyl guaiacol (PVG)
aqueous juice matrix as well as high storage 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone
temperatures, and thus occur independently of (DMHF)
the packaging type. -terpineol
Degradation pathways of important avour
constituents like aldehydes are not always When these compounds are added to freshly
known in detail but some of the reactions are, prepared orange juice, PVG imparts an old
chemically speaking, oxidation reactions. This fruit or rotten fruit aroma; DMHF imparts a
raises the question to what extent oxygen-bar- pineapple-like aroma typically found in old
rier properties inuence changes in the volatile orange juice and -terpineol is described as
avour fraction. stale, musty or piny.
Limonene degradation to -terpineol has Two out of the three avours mentioned above,
been shown to be independent of oxygen per- PVG and DMHF, derive from changes in the juice
meating into a package. Currently no available matrix and only -terpineol is a degradation prod-
data prove that chemical changes in the volatile uct of volatile avour compounds. This stresses
avour fraction of orange juice correlate with the the importance of juice matrix changes in off-
oxygen-barrier properties of packages as long as odour formation. The acid-catalysed reactions
reasonably good oxygen barriers are used. This between sugars, and reactions of vitamin C deg-
is not surprising when one realises that vitamin radation products with or without amino acids, are
C is a strong antioxidant in orange juice which possible sources of changes in the matrix. Since
immediately binds incoming oxygen. vitamin C degradation depends very much on the
Three compounds have been identied as im- availability of oxygen, oxygen-barrier properties
portant contributors of malodorous properties in of packages should therefore have a considerable
orange juice. These compounds, which gradually effect on off-odour formation in the matrix of
develop in juice, are: orange juice during storage.
Storage-dependent avour changes in orange
juice are described in Figure 9.6.

155
 9.3 Barrier properties against light

9.3 Barrier properties As a consequence, light protection should be con-

against light sidered for use in packages for chilled distribution
The impact of light on the quality of orange which have low oxygen-barrier properties.
juice during storage has been proven in respect
to its impact on the aerobic pathway of vitamin 9.4 Barrier properties
C degradation (and only this pathway). Light is against aromas
known to accelerate the aerobic degradation of In most cases, orange juice packaging is required to
vitamin C. One can therefore draw the following provide a barrier which prevents aroma compounds
conclusions: permeating out through the package. Another re-
Light has an effect only when oxygen is quirement of packaging is to provide a barrier against
present, consequently packages with high odours from the surrounding atmosphere perme-
oxygen-barrier properties, e.g. glass bottles ating into the packaged orange juice. This subsec-
and high-barrier PET bottles, do not need a tion discusses the composition of the aroma frac-
light barrier. tion in orange juice and the properties of different
polymers and different packages commonly used.
During storage at ambient temperature in
9.4.1 COMPOSITION OF ORANGE
packages with a good oxygen barrier, low
JUICE AROMA
permeation rates of oxygen limit the rate of
Orange juice aroma, as a term generally used in
vitamin C degradation and, moreover, all
this section on packaging, includes all the volatile
oxygen entering through the package is
compounds of orange juice avour. Hence it is
almost immediately consumed. Consequently
not identical to essence aroma (or water-phase
light cannot accelerate the reaction and
aroma), which is the water-soluble volatile frac-
should therefore have no signicant impact.
tion recovered in the essence recovery unit during
evaporation. See also section 2.2.
During chilled storage, where packages with
Orange juice aroma is a complex mixture of
higher oxygen permeability are mainly used
many volatile compounds. In chemical terms, it is
and where the reaction between vitamin C
mainly a mixture of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, al-
and oxygen is signicantly slowed down,
cohols and esters (see fact box). The predominant
oxygen will accumulate in the product. Light
fraction consists of hydrocarbons, of which one
can then accelerate vitamin C degradation.
single compound, d-limonene, accounts for more

TABLE 9.2 THE CONTRIBUTION OF VOLATILES TO ORANGE JUICE AROMA

Contribution to typical aromas Contribution to off-aromas

Important Desirable Precursors Detrimental
ethyl butyrate linalool linalool -terpineol
neral limonene limonene carvone
geranial -pinene valencene t-carveol
valencene nootkatone
acetaldehyde hexanal
octanal t-2-hexenal
nonanal hexanol
-sinensal 4-vinyl guaiacol
-sinensal 2,5-dimethyl-
4-hydroxy-
3-(2H) furanone

Source: Drr et al.

156
 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas

Besides specic knowledge about the composition

THE BASIC STRUCTURE of aromas, it is also essential to identify those
OF AROMA COMPOUNDS individual aroma compounds that contribute most
Hydrocarbons
to taste and smell of the product.
A group of compounds that contain only hy- Drr et al. (1981) ranked juice aroma com-
drogen and carbon in their molecular structure. pounds into four groups (listed in Table 9.2):
Example: d-limonene
important
Alcohols, aldehydes and esters contain only desirable
hydrogen, oxygen and carbon in their molecular off-odour precursors
structure. detrimental
Alcohols
Typical functional group: R-OH Off-odour precursors mean that these compounds
Example: linalool can undergo chemical changes during storage that
Aldehydes lead to undesirable off-odours, even if the original
Typical functional group: R-CHO compounds themselves may contribute positively
Example: hexanal to orange aroma. Examples of such off-odour pre-
Esters
cursors are limonene, linalool and valencene.
Typical functional group: R-COOR
Example: ethyl butyrate
9.4.2 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT POLYMERS
Aromas can be absorbed into or permeate through
R = a particular molecular side chain the packaging material depending on the type
of aroma compound (chemical class, polarity)
and the nature of the packaging material. This
than 90 % of the total aroma fraction. The aroma effect, often called avour scalping, has been
oil content of orange juice is usually evaluated by a extensively studied, especially for laminated
standard test method (Scott titration), which more carton packages.
or less reects the d-limonene content only. There- The absorption and/or permeation of aroma
fore, limonene loss during packaging and storage compounds through polymers is based on the
is often incorrectly equated to avour loss. general equation that permeation (P) is a prod-
uct of diffusion (D) and solubility (S), P = DS.
Consequently, only those aroma compounds
The concentration of an
aroma compound cannot be
with high diffusion and solubility coefcients in
respective polymers are likely to be lost through
permeation or absorption during storage. The
correlated directly with its solubility of a compound in a polymer can be
importance for avour estimated simply by making use of the fact that
like dissolves like.

It is not possible to directly correlate the relative

concentration of an aroma compound with its
importance for avour. For example, a compound PERMEATION THROUGH POLYMERS
that is 90 % w/w of the aroma fraction may con-
tribute very little to the avour, whereas a com- P=DS
Permeation rate = Diffusion Solubility
pound that has only a 0.001 % w/w share of the
aroma fraction may have a very high impact on
the avour sensation. The reason is that the human
nose and taste buds can respond very differently
to compounds of different chemical structure.

157
 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

Orange Orange Orange

juice juice juice

Fig. 9.7 The three general types of package.

% Limonene

% Limonene

% Limonene
Time Time Time
Fig. 9.8 The loss of limonene during storage in the three package types.

In nonpolar polymers, such as polyolens, nonpo- diffusion coefcients with polar and nonpolar
lar aroma compounds like limonene have high sol- aroma compounds. This results in good barrier
ubility. Examples of polyolens are low-density properties against both types of compound. How-
polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene ever, polar polymers are sometimes more difcult
(HDPE) and polypropylene (PP). While there is a to heat-seal than polyolens.
minor difference in solubility for nonpolar aroma In short, aroma losses due to absorption
compounds in the stated polyolens, their dif- into or permeation through polymer packaging
fusion and consequent permeation rates differ by primarily involve nonpolar aroma compounds
orders of magnitude in the different polyolens (e.g. hydrocarbons like limonene) in contact
in decreasing order LDPE>HDPE>PP. Aroma with nonpolar polymers (LDPE, HDPE, PP)
losses into the polymer layer are therefore signi- commonly used as sealing layers. There is lit-
cantly slower in PP and HDPE than in LDPE. tle absorption of aroma compounds into polar
Unlike nonpolar components, polar compo- polymers (PET, PA, EVOH).
nents such as ethyl butyrate have low solubility in
9.4.3 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT
polyolens. Consequently, their permeation rates PACKAGES
are very low and losses due to permeation are The extent of loss of aroma compounds due to
rather negligible in barrier packages with LDPE absorption or permeation can vary a great deal
as product-contact layer. between different package types. Generally three
Polar polymers like polyester (PET), EVOH types of package can be discussed as shown in
and polyamide (PA) essentially show very low Figure 9.7:

Type 1 package has no efcient aroma barrier,

FLAVOUR SCALPING such as carton packages without a barrier
layer and HDPE bottles.
The term avour scalping is widely used in pub-
lications to mean the almost exclusive absorp- Type 2 package has an aroma barrier not in
tion of limonene into the internal polyethylene contact with product, and a sealing layer like
coatings of laminated carton packages. LDPE in contact with product. Most lami-
As limonene contributes little to orange juice
avour, the loss of limonene does not correlate nated cartons are type 2 packages.
with the loss of avour in a product. Type 3 package has an aroma barrier in
direct contact with product, such as glass
and PET bottles.

158
 9.4 Barrier properties against aromas

Because absorption and permeation mainly in- ratio of internal surface area to product volume
volve nonpolar aroma compounds, limonene is of the packages. The larger the package size
a key compound in monitoring avour scalping. and the lower the internal coating thickness, the
For the three package types, the loss of limonene higher the limonene retention. Saturation will be
can be demonstrated using the graphs shown in reached after 24 weeks at ambient temperature.
Figure 9.8. Type 2 packages are extensively used for orange
juice distributed at ambient temperature or under
Type 1
chilled conditions.
The limonene content decreases continuously
by permeation through the package due to the Type 3
absence of an aroma barrier. The loss over time In this package, the aroma barrier is in direct con-
is mainly determined by the choice of polyolen tact with product and practically no absorption/
polymers, and the slope of the curves is deter- permeation of limonene takes place. The slight
mined by the diffusion of limonene into the loss of limonene that takes place during stor-
individual polymers. Consequently, for a given age at ambient temperature is related only to
shelf life, e.g. 9 weeks, the limonene loss in PP chemical degradation, which is independent of
would be lower than in LDPE. the packaging. Type 3 packages are mainly glass
Type 1 packages cannot be used for long-term and PET bottles. In exible packages, aroma-
storage of orange juice at ambient temperature barrier polymers simultaneously used as sealing
because of the extensive loss of aroma compounds. layers are sometimes more difcult to seal than
Moreover, the absence of an aroma barrier also polyolens.
implies the lack of an oxygen barrier. (Oxygen
9.4.4 CONSEQUENCES OF FLAVOUR
barriers are generally also good aroma barriers.) SCALPING
It is possible to use Type 1 packages for orange Laminated cartons used for orange juice pack-
juice stored chilled for a few weeks, as is done aging are often Type 2 packages, which permit a
in the US market with HDPE bottles. The low greater or lesser degree of avour scalping.
diffusion coefcient of HDPE limits aroma loss However, absorption into this package type
within the short shelf-life time period. When does not affect the whole aroma prole but rather
signicant loss of quality needs to be prevented, the nonpolar aroma compounds like limonene.
laminated carton packages based on LDPE as Nevertheless, the loss of nonpolar aroma com-
sealing polymer need an aroma and oxygen bar- pounds is limited by the barrier (aluminium foil)
rier, even under cold storage conditions. in the laminate structure.
Type 2 So the question arises whether avour scalp-
In this package, having an aroma barrier and a ing has a signicant impact on juice quality and
polyolen sealing layer in contact with product, taste. This subject has met with controversy in
limonene content will decrease within the rst the literature. Drr et al. (see Table 9.2) have
few weeks of storage due to its absorption into ranked the hydrocarbon fraction of orange juice
the sealing layer. As soon as this layer is saturated aroma mainly under the desirable portion. How-
with aroma compounds, an equilibrium level will ever, they have also indicated that limonene, for
be reached and no further absorption/permeation instance, is a precursor for development of off-
will take place because the effective barrier (such odour during storage. They showed that losses of
as aluminium foil, PET, PA, EVOH) behind the up to 40 % of limonene actually had no effect on
sealing layer prevents further permeation through the sensory quality of orange juice during 90 days
the material structure. storage at 20 C, and suggested that limonene
The extent of limonene retention at equilib- made a low contribution to the typical aroma of
rium is determined in this package type by the orange juice.
thickness of the internal sealing layer and by the

159
 9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic packaging

Microbiological Aroma/odour Oxygen barrier

growth barrier

Joint investigations between Tetra Pak and the

Citrus Research Centre in Florida (Pieper et al.
1992) showed that avour scalping of up to 50 %
of the original concentration of limonene in orange
juice has no effect on the sensory ranking in a
preference hedonic scale test of quality of orange
juice stored for up to 23 weeks at 4 C.
Although absorption of limonene into the inner
layer of barrier packages was found not to affect
the taste of the juice, additional aroma oil is some-
times added in juice preparation to compensate Short shelf life (chilled), Long shelf life (ambient),
for any loss caused by limonene absorption, for nonaseptic packages. aseptic packages.
example, when the same product is distributed in
several different package types. Fig. 9.9 Factors affecting product shelf life and their
relative importance during product distribution.
9.5 Aseptic versus nonaseptic
packaging
For storage at ambient temperature, it is es- oxygen barrier properties are of minor importance
sential that: compared with a package where the juice is spoiled
orange juice is free of spoilage micro- by microorganisms after 6 weeks or more. As the
organisms when packed shelf life of aseptically packed juice is not limited
packages do not recontaminate the product by microbial action, oxygen and aroma barrier
packages provide an effective barrier against properties determine product shelf life.
external microorganisms Figure 9.9 presents the factors that affect
product shelf life and their relative importance
Since these conditions are an absolute prerequisite during chilled and ambient distribution.
for storage at ambient temperature, product shelf
life is not determined by microbiological factors 9.6 Different packages and
but mainly by barrier properties against oxida- packaging systems
tive changes.
Orange juice for home consumption is sold main-
For juice under chilled distribution, the situ-
ly in shelf-stable or chilled form. The shelf-stable
ation can be more complicated. Microbial spoil-
form, stored at ambient temperature, dominates
age may become the limiting factor of shelf life
all global retail markets except in the USA where
depending on the selected heat treatment of the
chilled juice leads. Frozen concentrate for home
product, hygienic status of the packaging sys-
dilution is still a common product in the USA.
tem and storage temperature of lled packages
It is rare elsewhere because of poor quality do-
(210 C).
mestic water or the inconvenience of dilution.
It is outside the scope of this section to discuss
Ready-to-drink juice from concentrate and not-
the different options with respect to the expected
from-concentrate juice sold as shelf-stable products
shelf life under chilled conditions, but it is important
are pasteurised and either packaged aseptically or
to understand that the requirements for other bar-
hot-lled. The types of orange juice sold in chilled
rier properties of a package depend on whether or
form freshly squeezed juice, NFC, and ready-
not product shelf life is limited by microbiological
to-drink juice from concentrate are not usually
spoilage. For example, if a juice is spoiled by mi-
packaged aseptically or hot-lled.
crobial action after 3 weeks at 4 C, the aroma and

160
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

Laminated carton packages are the predominant on polyester, ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH),
form of packaging in most countries for orange and polyamide (PA). A schematic structure of
juice. One notable exception is Germany, where laminated packaging material for orange juice
glass bottles are mainly used. Worldwide, glass- cartons is shown in Figure 9.11. Depending on the
bottles are the second most common type of packaging system used, the packaging material
container, closely followed by plastic bottles. In is delivered to the juice packer as prefabricated
the USA, plastic bottles for chilled orange juice carton blanks or printed and creased in rolls.
now take second place after cartons. Today, less Oxygen-bar rier proper ties of a laminated
and less juice for consumption is sold in cans, carton package depend not only on the bar rier
although Japan is one exception. PET bottles properties of the packaging material itself, but
with added oxygen barrier have been introduced also on the barrier properties of strips and closures
recently for ambient orange juice. The packaging and the tightness of seals.
preferences for fruit juices in Western Europe can
be seen in Figure 9.10.
This subsection describes the two major types PE
of packages used for orange juice, laminated car- Print
ton packages and bottles.
Liquid paperboard
9.6.1 CARTON-BASED PACKAGES
The laminated carton material normally consists PE
of layers of paperboard coated internally and ex- Barrier layer
ternally with polyethylene, and a barrier layer.
PE
The most commonly used barrier layer today Fig. 9.11 The structure of
is aluminium foil. Other barriers include SiOx a laminated packaging material.

5000

4500

4000
Cartons
Glass bottles
3500 Plastic bottles
Million litres

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Fig. 9.10 Packaging of fruit juice in Western Europe.
Source: Tetra Pak

161
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

The lling of juices containing oating pulp

should be done continuously since separation of
the juice and cells in upstream buffer tanks hap-
pens quite fast. To avoid separation, agitation of
upstream tanks is sometimes car ried out. Care
should be taken to prevent agitation from intro-
ducing air and gas bubbles into the juice.
Carton-based packages from rolls
Packaging materials are supplied in rolls that have
been printed and creased. The packaging mate-
rial roll is fed into a machine where it is formed
into a tube and the longitudinal seal made by a
heat-sealing system. In this process, a strip is heat-
sealed along the inner surface of the longitudinal
Fig. 9.12 Carton-based packages made seal (LS) to provide protection for the different
from prefabricated blanks. layers of packaging material from contact with
product and vice versa. The oxygen-barrier prop-
erties of the longitudinal seal are important for
Carton-based packages
oxygen-sensitive products such as orange juice.
from prefabricated blanks
Some carton-based packages made from rolls are
With prefabricated systems, the blanks are die-cut
shown in Figure 9.13.
and creased, and the longitudinal seal is completed
Orange juice is poured into the tube and a
at the packaging material factory. The at blanks
transversal seal (TS) is made below the level of
are delivered to the juice packing facility where
the orange juice. Alternatively, packages may be
they are nally shaped and sealed in the ller.
produced with a headspace by either injection of
Blanks to be used for chilled orange juice are
nitrogen or low-level lling.
handled under nonsterile conditions but steps
Carton-based packages with a polyethylene
are taken to avoid recontamination. The lling
lid are made from roll-fed packaging material.
temperature should be low (45 C) to minimise
In the packaging machine the material is folded,
microbial growth. At these low temperatures the
sealed longitudinally and cut into sleeves. The
risk of foaming is higher compared with lling
plastic tops are injection moulded and applied to
at higher temperature.
the packages. After lling, the bottoms are sealed
All packages made from prefabricated blanks
by heating elements.
are lled leaving a certain amount of headspace.
In an aseptic lling system, the material web
An inert gas like nitrogen can be used in the
is treated with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, using
headspace to protect the orange juice from aer-
either a wetting system or a deep bath system,
obic changes during storage. The advantages of
after which the H2O2 is completely evaporated.
a headspace are that pulp-containing juice can be
The sterilisation, lling and sealing processes
shaken and that package sealing occurs above the
are all performed inside a sterile chamber under
product line, thus preventing oating pulp from
positive pressure.
getting trapped in the top seal.
The quality of the seals is of utmost importance
in aseptic systems since the entry of microorganisms
should be prevented. When lling orange juice with
a high content of oating pulp, special considera-
tion should be given to the transverse sealing.

162
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

Fig. 9.13 Carton-based packages made from rolls.

9.6.2 BOTTLES steam. Steam injection keeps foaming to a min-

imum, reduces the oxygen content of the neck
Glass bottles
space and lowers the recontamination risk. Hot-
Glass bottles are the second most common orange
lled bottles are frequently overlled in order to
juice package used worldwide. For shelf-stable
ensure sterilisation of the neck by the hot product.
orange juice in glass bottles, the most common
Another possibility for neck sterilisation is to turn
lling method is hot lling. Aseptic lling of glass
the bottle upside down.
bottles at ambient temperature is of minor impor-
tance compared with hot lling. Of the package
types used today for orange juice, glass bottles
are normally considered to have the best oxygen Fig. 9.14
barrier properties. Glass bottles.
In hot lling, the deaerated and heated juice
is directly poured into cleaned bottles that are
capped. The lling temperature is usually between
90 C and 98 C; the holding time may vary be-
fore the bottle is cooled in a tunnel. Preheating of
glass bottles is necessary before lling in order
to reduce the risk of glass splintering.
The hot product sterilises the inside surface
of the bottle, whereas bottle closures should be
sterilised before they are applied to the bottle.
Prior to closure the bottle neck is ushed with

163
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

The stretching during blowing of the bottle gives

high tensile strength and increased gas barrier to
provide a lightweight bottle, and thus relatively
low bottle cost. In their natural state PET bot-
tles are transparent and colourless, but coloured
bottles can be produced by adding appropriate
pigments to the raw PET material.
The robustness of PET bottles compared with
glass is obvious, but regular PET bottles do not
provide as good an oxygen barrier as glass. Bar-
rier properties for PET bottles increase with the
degree of crystallinity, which is inuenced by the
conditions during blow moulding and material
thickness. Regular PET bottles give a shelf life
for orange juice of about three to four months;
large volume bottles give a longer period. Adding
a barrier may extend shelf life up to 12 months
or more.
Fig. 9.15 Plastic bottles.
There are several methods for barrier addition,
such as mixing the PET polymer with other com-
Plastic bottles pounds, coating the bottle with a barrier layer, or
Blow-moulded plastic bottles are an alternative to forming several material layers in the preform. In
glass bottles for orange juice. The most common this case, barrier addition is more complicated
plastic bottles used are high-density polyethylene than with extrusion blow-moulded bottles.
(HDPE) bottles and polyethylene terephtalate PET (and HDPE for ambient storage) bottles
(PET) bottles. are often lled by hot lling. Aseptic lling of
As HDPE has a poor oxygen bar rier, plain PET bottles at ambient temperature requires a
HDPE bottles allow relatively high oxygen in- signicantly larger investment but is increas-
gress and are used for chilled juice of short shelf ingly gaining ground as bottlers become more
life (about 3 weeks). The oxygen bar rier can be experienced and the aseptic lling technologies
improved by adding some polymers with better become veried.
bar rier proper ties. The most common bar rier The temperature for hot lling of orange juice
layers in HDPE bottles for orange juice are eth- in PET bottles is 84C to 88 C. For the material
ylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and polyamide (PA). to withstand the high hot lling temperatures,
These can allow ambient storage for 6 months or relatively thick plastic and special thermal sta-
longer, depending on the choice and thickness of bilisation, heat setting, of the bottles during
the barrier layer. HDPE bottles are fairly opaque, stretch blow moulding are required. To withstand
often pigmented, and produced by the extrusion the vacuum created when product cools down in
blow-moulding (EBM) process, the bottle after lling, PET bottles for hot lling
PET bottles were introduced in the late 1970s are designed with vacuum panels (at surfaces
and are now widely used for carbonated bever- on the side of the bottle) or other features that
ages. The application of PET bottles in the still allow bottle contraction.
drink segment is growing steadily. PET bottles for aseptic lling are sterilised
PET bottles are made by stretch blow mould- prior to lling with product. During sterilisation
ing (SBM), starting with a preform. A preform is the bottles are treated with a sterilant such as
an injection-moulded PET tube closed at one end hydrogen peroxide or peroxyacetic acid (PAA)
and with the nished neck at the open end. and then rinsed with sterile water. PET bottles

164
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

100

80
Temperature C

60

Heat treatment Heat treatment

40 for hot lling
for aseptic lling

20
Heat treatment
for cold lling

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Minutes
Fig. 9.16 Comparison of aseptic lling and hot-lling methods.
Source: Tetra Pak

for aseptic lling are of lower weight than hot-ll Glass bottles have to be heated before lling and
bottles and do not need heat setting. This results cooled down after lling by means of a cascade
in lower bottle cost while oxygen permeability system, otherwise the glass will break. PET bot-
is slightly higher. Bottles for aseptic lling allow tles have the advantage of tolerating immediate
more freedom in their design as vacuum panels exposure to high lling temperatures and cooling
or similar features are not needed. more rapidly after the time needed to kill spoilage
microorganisms.
9.6.3 HOT FILLING
The quality of hot-lled orange juice com-
Hot-lling procedures used for the production
pared with the quality of aseptically lled orange
of shelf-stable orange juice involve pouring the
juice has been the subject of much discussion.
heat-treated juice, without signicant cooling,
Mannheim and Havkin (1981) compared the qual-
directly into the package. The high temperature
ity of aseptically lled juice to a hot-lled orange
of the juice is used to kill microorganisms on
juice during storage. Their conclusions were that
the surfaces of packages. The time period and
immediately after lling, the aseptically lled
temperature needed will depend on:
juice was judged slightly better, although dif-
the microbial contamination of packages
ferences in taste between the juices disappeared
and closures
during storage. Vitamin C losses and browning
the number of microorganisms in the
were lower in the aseptically lled juice after
surrounding air, production area and
ambient storage.
lling machine
Figure 9.16 shows the heat treatment to
the quality requirements for the product
which orange juice is subjected during aseptic
pH value of the product
lling and hot lling. For aseptic lling, the pas-
the shape of the package
teurised juice is quickly cooled down to lling
the material used for packaging
temperature, whereas the time required to cool
down hot-lled juice is dependent on the bottle
size and type of tunnel cooler.

165
 9.6 Different packages and packaging systems

9.6.4 SELECTING THE MOST APPROPRIATE

PACKAGE FOR A PARTICULAR JUICE
To facilitate selecting the most appropriate
packaging system for a particular juice, certain
questions need to be answered. Some of these
are listed below:
Which quality parameters should the pack-
ages protect and to what extent? One answer
is the minimum vitamin C content at the end
of product shelf life.
How long is the expected product shelf life
and at what storage temperature?
How many of the parameters limiting product
shelf life are left after processing?
Is dissolved oxygen present in the orange
juice and to what extent?
Which oxygen barrier is needed to protect
the selected quality parameters during the
intended shelf life?
Is a light barrier needed?

Whatever packaging system is selected, the ul-

timate aim must be to maintain the quality of a
particular orange juice product during its dened
shelf life conditions.

166
10 From juice
packer to
consumer

In section 10 you will read about:

The three main paths of orange juice distri- When and where orange juice is consumed.
bution from the juice packer to the retailer. Some of the major reasons why people buy
How packaged orange juice is handled at the orange juice.
retailer depot and sales outlet. The composition of orange nectars and
Primary, secondary and tertiary packaging still drinks.
and distribution units.
How product handling and distribution affect
direct product protability.
Who consumes what types of orange juice.

167
10. Orange juice quality
and categories
SUMMARY The most popular fruit drink
Juice distribution from the juice packer to In the US more than 72 % of adults consume
the retailer follows three main paths: the orange juice, and almost 50 % of the total
traditional path where a product reaches juice volume consumed in Western Europe
the retailer via a wholesaler; delivery of is orange juice. Although juice made from
full pallets or roll containers directly to the concentrate packed for distribution at
retailer; and delivery of products to the re- ambient temperature remains the most
tailers own central depots. Computer-aided popular orange juice product in Western
product intake, storage, picking and distri- Europe, chilled NFC is showing signicant
bution facilitate handling at the depots. growth in many markets.
Orange juice is lled into primary pack- Orange juice is regarded as a healthy
aging. This is contained in secondary pack- drink and is primarily consumed in the
aging, which can be split up into distribution home as part of breakfast. But new trends
units and sales units: it sometimes functions are making orange juice an all-day bever-
as both. Pallets of various types form the age available in smaller retail outlets in
main tertiary unit for product distribution. single-portion containers for on-the-go
Direct product protability (DPP) is a consumption.
measure of retailer margin contributed by Orange juices constitute a wholesome
a particular product. An optimal package alternative to many other drinks. Freshly
and distribution unit, knowledge of how to squeezed and NFC juices have perceived
handle these, high product turnover rate properties which are very close to the orig-
and low occupancy cost are essential for inal fruit. Therefore they represent the fresh
maximising DPP. taste of oranges in a convenient form.
A signicant volume of orange juice
concentrate is used for the production of
beverages having an orange avour, such
as nectars and still drinks.

168
 10.1 Distribution of product to retailer

Truck Truck
Wholesaler depot

Truck
Juice packer Consumer
Retailer
Central retailer depot

Truck Truck

Fig. 10.1 The three main paths of orange juice distribution.

10.1 Distribution of product The advantage for the producer is that he keeps
to retailer control of distribution, which could make it dif-
The production process at the packer involves cult for competitors to penetrate his region. The
taking liquid juice and packing it into consumer advantage for the retailer is that it may be easier to
packages. In turn, these are packed into secondary get just-in-time deliveries of products with short
units (e.g. cardboard trays and crates), and later shelf lives. However, this system results in a lot of
on in tertiary units (e.g. pallets). To facilitate han- truck trafc to the stores. Sometimes, distribution
dling and distribution for both the juice packer alliances are formed between producers of dif-
and retailer, it helps if packages are iso-modular, ferent products, e.g. chilled juice and yoghurt.
i.e. they can be efciently packed on standard 10.1.2 DELIVERY THROUGH WHOLESALERS
pallets, half pallets and quarter pallets. The traditional distribution chain is where a pro-
In the case of chilled juice, the secondary ducer sells products to a wholesaler, who in turn
package is frequently plastic crates or roll con- sells them to the retailer. The wholesaler has a
tainers. If the package is returnable, a reverse central depot from which deliveries to a number of
stream of empty packages occurs. stores are effected. The advantage for the producer
The three main paths of orange juice distri- is that it is easier to deal with one customer than a
bution from the juice packer to the retailer are number of stores, a fact that allows the producer
briey described below. to gain a wider geographic distribution area. This
10.1.1 DELIVERY DIRECTLY distribution system is also more rationalised than
TO THE RETAIL STORE delivery directly to all stores.
The producer, in this case the juice packer such
as a dairy, delivers full pallets or roll containers
directly to the retailer. This path is often found
with chilled products.

169
 10.1 Distribution of product to retailer

Fig. 10.2 Handling at the retailer depot.

10.1.3 DELIVERY TO A RETAILERS and entered into a computer system. The computer
CENTRAL DEPOT system allots each pallet a bar-code label bearing
In many countries there is a growing trend for product information and an intermediate storage
retailers to take charge of the wholesaler function location (2). Fork-lift truck drivers then scan the
through their own central depots. This allows the bar code and the destination of each pallet is
shops to take frequent deliveries of all products shown on a screen. The pallets are put in racks,
in one or few trucks, which leads to small stor- which can be several levels high (3).
age areas and maximal shop area. The resulting When the number of product trays at the pick-
reduced truck trafc is cost-effective and entails ing line level drops below a predened amount,
less environmental impact. The time needed to order execution personnel enter a request for re-
receive and check products is also reduced. plenishment in the computer system. The closest
As retailers grow larger, this alternative will forklift driver receives the location and destination
become more common. Improvement of bar-cod- of a pallet and executes the request (4).
ing technology and the trend towards centralised Orders from retailers are printed on a sheet
purchasing is also driving this development. of labels which functions as a work order for
Deliveries to the depot are handled by the order personnel, who drive along the picking
producer directly or by a transport company, in line route and place trays of products on roll
which case mixed deliveries are common, i.e. the containers, or pallets in some cases (5). The
truck picks up goods from other producers as well. sheet of labels contains an end-label which is
Deliveries generally take place once a week for scanned into the computer system. A location in
most products, but high volume items may be the outgoing goods area is thus obtained for the
delivered twice or even three times a week. The roll containers, which are then put in numbered
handling steps at the depot are briey explained elds so that deliveries to retailers near each other
below with the help of Figure 10.2. can be grouped together (6).
Pallets are unloaded from a truck in the in- At the outgoing goods counter, the delivery truck
coming goods area at the warehouse (1). All deliv- driver receives a delivery document which species
eries are checked against the delivery document each roll container and its destination (7).

170
 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer

Shrink-wrap unit
Corrugated cardboard tray

Wraparound unit

Fig. 10.3 Typical one-way secondary packaging.

10.2 Orange juice 10.2.1 DISTRIBUTION UNITS

at the retailer In general, juice distributed at ambient tem-
Because of its importance to the consumer, orange perature comprises one-way systems and juice
juice is one of the more important pro-ducts for distributed chilled comprises returnable systems.
the retailer to keep in stock. In many countries, This is mainly in accordance with the shorter shelf
fruit juice is distributed both chilled and at ambi- life of chilled juice and with established distri-
ent temperature. This can make it difcult for the bution systems that exist in some countries.
retailer to display juice as one category and for One-way secondary packaging (see Figure
the consumer to make a purchase decision. 10.3) can be split up into distribution units and
sales units; it sometimes functions as both.
Typical distribution units are cardboard trays,
wraparound boxes, sleeves and lm-wrapped
units. Cardboard offers the best protection for the
packages, as boxes more than trays. Distribution
units in lm are not so commonly used for juice.
Examples of sales units intended for consumers
who buy more than one package at a time are
board-wrapped units, sleeves and lm-wrapped
units. The choice here depends on the purpose
Roll container of the unit, i.e. simply to sell a larger quantity of
packages in one unit or whether it is also used to
enhance the image of the juice product.
Plastic crate Examples of returnable secondary packaging
are plastic crates in various shapes and sizes, and
roll containers (see Figure 10.4). In some coun-
tries, roll containers and crates are used all the
way from the juice packer to the chilled sector
in the store. In other countries, the units are un-
loaded when they ar rive at the store for storage
and display purposes.
Fig. 10.4 Typical returnable packaging.

171
 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer

10.2.2 HANDLING AT THE RETAILER

The retailer handles full pallets, roll containers,
secondary units (trays) and individual packages.
For high volume or promotional items, the most
efcient unit is a full pallet. With the average-
sized retailer it is more common to handle
secondary units which are placed directly onto
shelves or opened to allow individual packages to
be stacked onto shelves. Handling at the retailer
can be explained with the help of Figure 10.6.
The delivery truck unloads roll containers or
Fig. 10.5 Pallets of various types form pallets and places them in the shops storage area
the main tertiary packaging units. (1). The delivery is checked against the delivery
document to conrm that the retailer has received
what he ordered (2).
Pallets of various types of material and sizes form A roll container may hold shelf-stable products
the main tertiary unit used for transportation of destined for different departments of the store
cardboard units, lm-wrapped units and crates (though chilled products are normally packed
(see Figure 10.5). The most common pallets used separately). Therefore products have to be sorted
are 800x1,200 mm, 1,000x1,200 mm and 40x48". according to department (3). Products are then
Half pallets (800x600 mm) and quarter pallets transported out to the display area (4) where
(400x600 mm) are also used. Another type of they are put on shelves (5). Transport packaging
tertiary unit is the roll container. (mainly for shelf-stable products) is removed and
separated for later recycling. The nal step at the
retailer is the checkout (6).

Storage area Display area

Figure 10.6 Handling at the retailer.

172
 10.2 Orange juice at the retailer

DPP: Direct product protability A package with a good DPP will be attractive to
During the handling steps from juice producer the retailer. Even if the gross margin is satisfactory
to consumer, a product which is easy to han- for the product, if the direct product cost cannot
dle and efcient to transport has an advantage be optimised the DPP will be smaller. Therefore
because this will translate into a better margin it is important to have an optimal package and
for the retailer. This is what DPP measures. The distribution unit, as well as knowledge of how
gross margin is adjusted for all costs added by to handle them, in order to minimise the direct
the product, including transport, occupied shelf- product costs (DPC). It is also important that the
space, time on the shelf and product handling package is designed to utilise the shelf space in
(see Figure 10.7) the best possible way.
The variables that affect DPP cover the
package itself, more importantly the secondary
package, e.g. trays and boxes, which are the units
handled up to the nal placement of product on
the retailer shelf. When on the shelf, the product
turnover rate and occupancy cost will also affect
the DPP.

Sales price Gross margin

Adjusted gross
margin

Costs of Other direct

goods sold revenues Direct product
profit

Warehouse Direct product

direct costs costs

Transport
direct costs

Store
direct costs Fig. 10.7 The DPP model.

Retunables
costs

173
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

10.3 The orange juice Large marketing efforts by some of the major
consumer juice brands have increased consumers aware-
Orange juice is a natural part of the daily diet of ness of the NFC category. Consumers now also
many people in the industrialised world. More than recognise that drinks with low juice content,
72 % of US adults consume orange juice, and of although clearly labelled high in vitamin C, are
all beverage types only milk is consumed by more not the same as pure juice.
people. Orange dominates the juice market with a Freshly squeezed orange juice is a product
60 % market share of packaged juices in the US. category familiar to consumers, but it is often too
Apple juice comes second with a 15 % share. expensive to merit consumption in large quan-
For Western European consumers, orange is tities. Short shelf life is a drawback compared to
still the dominant avour, with some 45 % of pasteurised NFC.
the total packaged juice volume consumed as In the US orange juice market there has been a
orange juice in 2003 (Figure 10.8). Apple is the continuous shift in consumer preference regarding
second avour with 20 % of the overall volume the main orange juice categories. NFC has grown
share thanks to its popularity in Germany, which steadily to a 45 % share in 2003, while sales of
is the largest juice market in Europe. However, frozen concentrate have gradually declined
multivitamin blends as well as tropical blends from a dominant position to about 10 % of retail
show strong growth. The multivitamin-added sales based on juice volume. Orange juice made
juice blends appeal to health-conscious Euro- from concentrate has declined slowly over the
pean consumers.Moreover, blending satises past decade and was overtaken by NFC in 2002.
the increasing demands of consumers for new
pleasing juice avours.
In other geographical regions, such as South
America and Asia/Pacic, orange juice is just as
popular with more than a 50 % volume share of
packaged juice.
Other fruits 21%
10.3.1 REGIONAL PREFERENCES FOR JUICE
CATEGORIES
Most consumers link the term juice intimately Orange 45%
Tropical,
with orange juice, which is the rst avour men- multivit. & other
tioned when asked. However, the many brands, blends 12%

qualities and package formats for juices have led

to some consumer confusion. Separating juices
from juice drinks, chilled storage from storage Apple 22%
at ambient temperature, not-from-concentrate
from reconstituted juice is very difcult for many
shoppers. Considering the importance of the juice
segment to the average consumer, people know
surprisingly little about juice categories. Fig. 10.8 Volumes of different avours of packaged
juice consumed in Western Europe, 2003.
Source: Euromonitor

174
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

60

RTD from concentrate

50

40
% vol as SSE

NFC

30

20
Frozen concentrate
10

0
95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03
Season
Fig. 10.9 Retail sales of orange juice categories in the US.
Source: Florida Department of Citrus.

The share of retail sales is shown in Figure 10.9, increasingly common for the orange juice drinker
which is based on Nielsen statistics for all retail to nd single-serve container sizes sold in a vari-
outlets. Practically all RTD orange juice in the ety of outlets and convenience stores.
US is distributed chilled (4 C). In south and central America, where fresh fruit
A recent trend in Western Europe is that chilled is available at affordable prices, home-squeezed
orange juice is increasing in popularity because orange juice is most common. Purchased bever-
of its perceived better quality, supported by the ages are mainly juice drinks. In contrast to Europe,
presence of NFC juice in the chilled segment. NFC there is a close correlation between income levels
now accounts for more than 10 % of orange juice and fruit content of purchased beverages; with
consumption. Aseptically packed concentrate for increasing income there is a shift towards nectar
home dilution is found in some markets in north- and then on to 100 % juice. Health consciousness
ern Europe. However, the dominant product is in all income groups leads to the replacement of
juice made from concentrate packed for distri- carbonates with juice beverages.
bution at ambient temperature. In the Asia and Pacic region, consumer be-
In Europe, orange juice faces competition haviour differs between mature and developing
from multivitamin juice blends. And beverages markets. In mature markets, such as Japan and
with lower juice and energy content but containing Australia, consumers prefer to buy 100 % orange
added vitamins are trying to take a bigger share juice, whereas in developing markets purchased
of the health-conscious consumer market. beverages are predominantly low-content juice
The orange juice consumer in mature juice drinks. Fresh fruit is usually available at low cost.
markets has an ever-increasing choice of orange Also in these markets there is a trend to move to
juice with a variety of added nutrients such as higher fruit content with increasing disposable
calcium. Such fortied juices satisfy the nutrient incomes. In urban areas of China, a rapidly grow-
needs for an on-the-go breakfast. Smoothies, a ing group of consumers are asking for packaged
blend of fruit juice and milk or yoghurt, is a recent orange juice.
entry to the juice market that gives consumers a The following sections refer mainly to North
further alternative for consuming fruit juice as a America and Western Europe, where more than
replacement for skipped meals. 80 % of packaged orange juice is consumed.
In the effort of making orange juice an all-day The US market inuences consumer trends in
beverage for consumption outside the home, it is other markets.

175
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

10.3.2 WHO BUYS JUICE IN THE USA 10.3.3 WHEN ORANGE JUICE IS CONSUMED
Several demographic studies of orange juice con- Orange juice is closely linked to the breakfast
sumers in the US have been made over the years. meal, whereas apple juice is more widely con-
Orange juice is consumed throughout the US and sumed on other occasions during the day.
is fairly representative of the fruit beverage seg- The reason for this, apart from pure habit, is
ment, including nectars and juice drinks. probably that orange juice is not as thirst-quenching
The results for 2000 show that somewhat more as alternative drinks. On the contrary, some con-
women than men consume orange juice, 73 % of sumers feel that orange juice makes you thirstier
all women compared with 71 % of men. Young after drinking it. However, many consumers experi-
adults drink orange juice to a lesser degree than ence an energy-kick from orange juice, which
average for the US population. On the other hand, may be particularly needed in the morning.
orange juice penetration in the elderly part of the Alongside the traditional consumption of
community (age 65+) has increased compared to orange juice at breakfast, bought in family-size
previous studies. Marketing that targets the eld- packages from large retail stores, the trend in the
erly, and emphasises the health benets of orange USA and Europe is to promote orange juice as an
juice, ensures that consumption is maintained in all-day beverage. Available in single-serve sizes
this age group. Orange juice penetration is slightly in, e.g. convenience stores and petrol stations, it is
lower for black and Spanish-speaking Americans a healthier alternative to carbonated soft drinks.
than for other ethnic groups (Figure 10.10).

50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80%

Men
Sex

Women

18-24

25-34

35-44
Age

45-54

55-64

65+

White

Black
Ethnic

Hispanic

Other

Fig. 10.10 Orange juice penetration in the USA, 2000.

Source: Beverage Marketing

176
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

United Kingdom

Norway

Austria

Ireland

Denmark

France

Belgium

Netherlands

Switzerland

Italy

Spain

Finland

Cyprus

Sweden

Germany

Portugal

Greece

West Europe

in-home out-of-home

Fig. 10.11 The Western European juice and nectar market

split into in-home and out-of-home consumption, 2000.
Source: Tetra Pak

10.3.4 WHERE ORANGE JUICE IS CONSUMED on private and public transport, and in other lo-
Orange juice is still very much a home product cations outside of the home. Thus orange juice
purchased in normal grocery outlets. Part of this is promoted as an alternative to carbonated soft
relates to the fact that it is traditionally regarded drinks and waters for adult consumers.
as a breakfast drink and breakfast is usually eaten Consumption in restaurants, cafs and bars is
in the home. But the trend in the US, closely fol- also becoming more common now that orange juice
lowed by the UK, is that fewer people have break- in no longer considered just a breakfast drink.
fast at home. To cater for the new consumer needs In-home consumption of juices and nectars
orange juice is now available in more outlet points, (all avours) averages 78 % for Western Europe,
like convenience stores and petrol stations. which is high compared with alcoholic beverages
The on-the-go consumption of orange juice (55 %) and carbonated soft drinks (66 %), but low
is further promoted by an increase in small-size compared with milk (88 %). National averages
containers. This is evidence of the juice produc- for in-home consumption range from 65 % for
ers strategy since the late 1990s in the US and Greece and Portugal to 95 % for Norway and the
Europe of encouraging juice drinking in ofces, UK (Figure 10.11).

177
 10.3 The orange juice consumer

10.3.5 WHY PEOPLE BUY ORANGE JUICE Good for children

Parents feel that pure juice is a healthy alternative
Health/vitamins
to carbonated soft drinks for their children. Even
Consumers recognise orange juice as an important
if most mothers consume juice themselves, chil-
source of vitamin C, and a very natural and true
dren in the home are an important driving force
product which closely resembles the fresh fruit.
behind purchases. In fact, orange juice has a much
This is often in contrast with still drinks and
higher market penetration with families having
carbonates where high added sugar content is of
children than with single adults.
concern. Moreover, among other nutrients, orange
juice contains folic acid, which may be important Natural alternative to other drinks
for pregnant women as it helps to reduce the risk As a refreshment drink, juice is denitely seen as
of certain birth defects. Antioxidants and other healthier than carbonated soft drinks and it has
constituents benecial to health is a good reason more nutritional value than mineral water. On
for the elderly to continue consuming orange juice. social occasions, orange juice is often served
Indeed, consumption is increasing within this age as an acceptable alternative to alcoholic drinks.
group in the US. Because orange juices are closely governed by
In addition to nutrients naturally present in regulations, they are also considered as a natural
orange juice, consumers can now nd orange alternative to some other types of drink.
juice products enriched with a variety of vita-
Habit/traditional breakfast drink
mins and minerals. Calcium fortication can be
In many markets the traditional breakfast includes
important if a persons diet includes few dairy
a glass of juice, especially orange juice. There-
products. Orange juice with added plant sterols
fore it is regularly purchased and consumed as a
that help to reduce cholesterol levels was recently
matter of routine.
introduced in the US, enhancing health benets
even further. Fruit substitute
Orange juice can provide the same benets as
eating a fresh orange without being as messy
to consume. Freshly squeezed and NFC have
properties which are even closer to the original
fruit. Juices with added fruit cells are perceived
as tasting similar to fresh oranges.

178
 10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks

10.4 Orange nectars and 10.4.2 STILL FRUIT DRINKS

orange drinks If nectars can be seen as an alternative to 100 %
In many markets, a substantial share of orange juice, still fruit drinks are more of an alternative
juice concentrate is used for production of other to carbonated soft drinks. Often high in sugar
beverages having an orange avour. The names and low in juice content, still fruit drinks are fre-
and denitions of these beverages vary between quently sold in smaller packages (200300 ml) for
markets, but in general we speak about nectars on-the-go consumption, but larger family-size
and still drinks. packages of 2 litres (64 uid oz) are also common.
Fruit nectars usually have a juice content of Many still drink products have a kids image
25 % to 99 % (5099 % for orange nectars in since many of these products are directly targeted
the EU), and beverages with a fruit juice content at children, but there are also some products for
below 25 % are generally called fruit drinks or adults with a premium prole.
still drinks. There is little specic regulation of still fruit
In markets where nectars are popular, e.g. drinks, but many countries demand that the juice
Germany and France, some consumers see nec- content be stated. Some countries have minimum
tars as a superior product than 100 % juice. This juice content requirements (e.g. 5 %) for fruit
is because the word nectar has a very positive drinks. In the UK, the manufacturer may not
association. imply that a product is a fruit drink if it does
not meet the required juice content level unless
10.4.1 FRUIT NECTARS the sufx -ade is linked to the fruit name, e.g.
Originally, nectars signied beverages from lemonade, or if the fruit name is followed by the
fruits which were too viscous to be consumed in a word avour, e.g. orange avour drink. In
100 % form, e.g. apricots, peaches and pears. Con- Switzerland, manufacturers are not allowed to use
sequently, water and sugar were added to dilute pictures of fruits on fruit drink packages.
the pure and make it more drinkable. Today, the Recent product development in fortied fruit
term nectars has been applied to fruit beverages drinks, containing a high juice content (20 % and
with less than 100 % juice content, with basically more) and added vitamin blends, such as ACE,
only water and sugar being allowed as additives has effectively raised the health prole of fruit
to the fruit juice product. The fruit juice used for drinks. With a lower energy content than 100 %
nectar production may be as juice, concentrate or fruit juices, these beverages are aimed at promot-
powder. For orange nectars, a minimum of 50 % ing health at a reduced calorie intake.
juice content applies in the EU. Moreover, the fruit
juice content has to be declared on the package.
Sugar and honey addition is allowed up to 20 %
nal weight: sugar may be replaced by sweeteners
for low-energy fruit nectars.
Nectars (or fruit juice drinks) can be seen as
a less expensive substitute for 100 % juice, fre-
quently bought in larger packages (750 ml and
higher) by less afuent consumers.
Low-energy nectars appeal to consumers who
want the benets of fruit juice but would like to
reduce their calorie intake. Their increased popu-
larity accords with the awareness that high-energy
beverages may contribute signicantly to the calo-
rie content of diets.

179
10.4 Orange nectars and orange drinks

180
11 Standards and
regulations

In section 11 you will read about:

Standards governing juice composition and The problem of orange juice adulteration and
labelling in the USA, EU member states and why it is still carried out.
some other major regions around the world. The measures taken to prevent the adulteration
The Codex Alimentarius Commission set up of orange juice and check its authenticity.
by the FAO and WHO to implement the Joint The major analytical methods used to detect
FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. adulterated juice.

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11. Standards and
regulations
Summary Combating adulteration
In the USA, the standards covering the com- Because the monetary value of the fruit
position of juices and juice products, and juice market is so enormous, juice adul-
their labelling, are governed by the FDA teration is common. Most countries im-
and USDA. Canada has similar regulations. plement a number of measures to discover
The fruit juice industry in EU countries is and prevent the adulteration of orange juice,
guided by both compulsory directives and and to check its authenticity, that is, its de-
recommendations. Other major juice- clared origin and content. In Europe the
importing regions also have a mixture AIJN Code of Practice provides standards
of obligatory and voluntary standards to for evaluation of identity and authenticity
control imported food products. for juices.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission Today, analytical methods can detect
was set up by the FAO and WHO to pro- all three of the most commonly used juice
tect the health of consumers, to ensure fair adulterants sugar cane, sugar beet and
practices in the food trade, and to promote corn syrup.
international trade in food.

11.1 Standards governing Regulations governing direct juice, or NFC, in

juice composition and principle require that nothing should be removed
labelling or added during juice extraction and further
Many countries have several regulations gov- processing of the juice.
erning fruit juices. These regulations typically In the USA this is interpreted to mean that
cover juice origin, processing methods and the there may be no removal of water or redilution
composition of orange juice. Although attempts of NFC, while it is acceptable to remove and later
are continually being made to harmonise the leg- add back, for example, flavour fractions.
islation between different global trading blocs For reconstituted orange juice, water should be
aimed at facilitating juice production and trade, added back to the minimum concentration defined
several significant differences between regu- in the standard used in a country. Essences should
lations still remain. Moreover, regulations will be added back to restore flavours, and pulp may
continue to change as world standards evolve. be added to achieve the desired properties of the
In the European Union and many other coun- final juice product.
tries, the term orange juice may only be used The revised EU Directive for fruit juices (2001)
for juice extracted from sweet oranges, Citrus specifies orange juice to be extracted by mechani-
sinensis. In the USA, however, regulations allow cal means but allows addition of water- extracted
for up to 10 % of tangerine or hybrid orange/ juice to juice made from concentrate. This means
tangerine juice to be included in orange juice. that pulp wash may be added in-line to the orange
These juices can improve the colour and flavour juice stream before concentration. However, addi-
of blended juice. tion is not permitted to direct juice or NFC. The
previous Fruit Juice Directive (1993) did not allow
for any water-extracted juice.

182
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling

Another change in the EU fruit juice Directive The Juice Products Association (JPA, a merger
is that debittering (removal of limonin) is au- of the National Juice Products Association and
thorised, provided that the composition of other the Processed Apples Institute), whose members
compounds in the orange juice, such as acids and are mainly drawn from North, Central and South
sugars, is not significantly affected. America, has stated that they would like to see the
The mentioned changes brings EU regulations USDA standards covering the grade and quality
more in line with those in the USA, Brazil and of orange juice to be applicable throughout the
several other countries where in-line pulp wash major citrus juice producing countries. The JPA
addition and debittering is permitted. even suggests that USDA standards should be
In the European Union, legislation covering adopted as a worldwide harmonised standard.
fruit juices and fruit nectars is based on Council An overview of the most important aspects of
Directive 2001/112/EC concerning fruit juices legislation in the US, EU and certain other coun-
and certain similar products. tries is given below. More detailed descriptions
Some specific labelling requirements are can be found in publications listed in Section 14,
given in the Fruit Juice Directive. Apart from Further Reading.
this, more general EU food legislation like the
11.1.1 THE USA AND CANADA
directives on labelling and on additives also ap-
For the USA, the standards covering the compo-
ply to fruit juices.
sition of juices and juice products are found in
In addition to the EU Council Directives, the
FDA regulations entitled Code of Federal Regu-
fruit juice industries in individual EU countries
lations, Title 21. Standardised products include
must follow their own national fruit juice regu-
different types of orange juice, namely canned,
lations. The EU stipulates that local regulations
frozen, pasteurised, from concentrate, frozen
should not include provisions that may create
concentrate, orange juices for manufacturing
barriers to the free movement of products.
and orange juice with preservatives.
The first types of orange juices are sold di-

Attempts are continually

being made to harmonise the
rectly to the consumer, while the standards for
orange juice for manufacturing and orange juice
with preservatives cover products intended for
legislation between different further processing. Like orange juice intended for
retail, orange juice for manufacturing is derived
global trading blocs
from unfermented oranges except that its Brix
and Brix:acid ratio may be lower than specified
for retail juice.
The Association of the Industry of Juices and
Nectars from Fruits and Vegetables of the Eu- Labelling requirements include the decla-
ropean Economic Community (AIJN) published ration of any sweeteners added and the addition
a Code of practice for the evaluation of fruit and of orange concentrate to modify the solid content
vegetable juices in 1993. This is a more detailed as permitted by the standard. Juice may be heat-
guideline, including values for a large number of treated to reduce enzyme or microbial activity.
quality, authenticity and identity parameters that The success and acceptance of the FDA
the fruit juice industry should adhere to. The Code standards for orange juice identity is evident
of Practice is increasingly used also outside EU. considering that since they were introduced in
In the USA, the standards of orange juice iden- the 1960s, they have only been amended twice,
tity are enforced by the Food and Drug Adminis- once to allow the removal of undesirable bit-
tration (FDA), whereas the standards for orange terness, and secondly to allow the use of juice
juice grades (quality) are enforced by the United from the Amber sweet orange.
States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

183
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling

The grade standards for fruit juices are issued 11.1.2 THE EUROPEAN UNION
by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Services. The fruit juice industry in EU countries is guided
Grade standards concern product quality and by both compulsory directives and recommen-
should therefore be understood by anyone export- dations. A directive is a law drawn up by the
ing products to the USA. The terms Fancy or European Union.
Grade A may only be used on products meeting
Obligatory regulations comprise:
the specifications defined for such grades by the
a) National fruit juice regulations that are in
USDA. The current grade standards for orange
force in respective EU countries.
juice became effective in 1983.
b) Council Directive 2001/112/EC covering
As an example, to be labelled USDA Grade A,
fruit juices and certain similar products. It
orange juice produced in Florida must meet the
was implemented by member states by July
quality requirements shown in Table 11.1. The
2003 replacing Directive 93/77/EEC. The
quality factors are measured on a 100-point scale.
revision was undertaken in order to make
If the total score is above the limit but one of the
the rules on manufacturing and marketing
scores does not meet the Grade A requirements,
conditions more accessible. In many cases,
the juice may not be labelled Grade A. (Table 11.1
national fruit juice regulations are similar in
concerns orange juice from Florida. Some of the
content to the EU Fruit Juice Directive.
values differ for orange juice originating from
other states such as California and Arizona.)
The main areas covered by the Directive for fruit
In Canada, the Canadian Food and Drugs
juices are:
Regulations include standards for a number of
definitions of products and authorised proc-
juices including orange. These, as in the USA,
esses and treatments during their manufacture
strictly control the composition, quality and label-
permitted ingredients
ling of a range of orange juice products.
certain labelling requirements for raw mate-
rial and final products

TABLE 11.1 USDA GRADE A ORANGE JUICE PRODUCTS

Orange juice NFC From concentrate

Analytical factors
Brix min. 11.0 min. 11.8
Ratio (Brix:acid) 12.520.5 12.520.5
Recoverable oil % vol. max. 0.035 max. 0.035

Quality factors
Appearance fresh orange juice fresh orange juice
Reconstitution reconstitutes properly
Colour very good, very good,
min. 36 points min. 36 points
Flavour very good, very good,
min. 36 points min. 36 points
Defects practically free, practically free,
min. 18 points min. 18 points

Total score min. 90 points min. 90 points

Source: USDA

184
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling

Fruit juice is defined as the product obtained The new EU Fruit Juice Directive 2001/112/EC was
from fruit, fermentable but unfermented, having published in 2001 based on a revised proposal ap-
the characteristic colour, flavour and taste typi- proved in 1996. As mentioned above, it allows the
cal of the fruit from which it comes. Flavour, addition of pulp wash to orange juice made from
pulp and cells separated during processing may concentrate but not to direct juice, and the removal
be restored to the same juice. of limonin from orange juice.
The plain term fruit juice refers only to The new directive is simplified to avoid statements
juice that has not been concentrated (NFC or that are covered in other EU horizontal legislations
direct juice). Reconstituted juice is referred to such as the labelling directive (2000/13/EC) and food
as fruit juice from concentrate. This product additive directives. While the Fruit Juice Directive
must have sensory and analytical characteristics is a vertical directive the trend is for horizontal di-
at least equivalent to those of an average type of rectives that can be applied more generally and for
juice obtained from the same kind of fruit. several foodstuffs.
Only certain ingredients and additives may
Recommended guidelines
be added to orange juice. The addition of vita-
Recommendations are given by the Association
mins is permitted in some EU countries, and
of the Industry of Juices and Nectars (AIJN) from
under the fruit juice Directive EU countries
Fruits and Vegetables of the European Union. This
may follow different rules provided that it does
organisation is based in Brussels although it is in-
not prevent free movement of products within
dependent of the EU. An expert committee within
the EU. Harmonised regulations regarding ad-
the AIJN has established a Code of practice for
dition of vitamins and minerals to fruit juice
the evaluation of fruit and vegetable juices pub-
are proposed to be part of horizontal legislation
lished in 1993. Members of the expert committee
on food additives.
are selected for their expertise and come from dif-
ferent countries, fruit juice companies, institutes

The fruit juice industry in EU

countries is guided by both
and laboratories upon recommendation of AIJN
members. Local quality and authenticity standards
from European countries are incorporated in the
compulsory directives and Code of Practice.
The code of practice developed by the AIJN
recommendations
states the following with regard to orange juice:
Orange juice is obtained from mature and sound
fruit, extracted by mechanical processes and is
Sugar may be added up to 15 g/l orange juice
for balancing acidity without having to be de- treated by physical means
clared sweetened on the label. Nevertheless, Orange juice is produced from Citrus sinensis
declaration is required in the ingredient list. If (L) Osbeck and includes blood oranges
the amount of sugar added for sweetness ex- Floating cells may be re-added to juice
ceeds 15 g/l, it must be declared on the label Specific conditions are to be fulfilled for in-line
along with the term sweetened, although the water extraction
Brix values are not specified.
Lemon juice may be added up to 3 g/l as
citric acid to regulate acidity. However, com-
bined addition of both sugar and acid is not
permitted.

185
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling

packaged food that is sold in Australia and

TABLE 11.2 AIJN QUALITY REQUIREMENTS New Zealand, and imported food must
FOR ORANGE JUICE comply with the regulations. The food
Direct Reconstituted
standards have the force of law and are
Properties juice juice enforced by the two governments.
Relative density 20/20 min. 1.040 min. 1.045 Orange juice is covered by the stand-
Corresponding Brix min.10 min. 11.2 ards for fruit juice and vegetable juice. The
standards include products that have been
Direct juice concentrated and later reconstituted with
Properties / Reconstituted juice water to a concentration consistent with
L-ascorbic acid (vit. C) that of the undiluted juice from which it
at end of shelf life, mg/l min. 200
was made. Orange juice is defined as the
Volatile oils, ml/l max. 0.3 juice coming from the endocarp of mature
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), mg/l max. 10 and sound oranges of Citrus sinensis (L)
Volatile acid as acetic acid, g/l* max. 0.4
Ethanol, g/l max. 3.0
Osbeck. Orange juice may include up to
D/L Lactic acid, g/l max. 0.2 10 % mandarin or tangelo juice. Sugar
Arsenic and heavy metals, mg/l max 0.015.0 may be added up to 40 g per kg product
(various values)
without the product being considered
* Indication of hygiene, not juice acidity. sweetened. If more sugar is added, this
Source: Reference guideline for orange juice, AIJN Code of Practice, 2003
must be indicated with the term sweet-
ened orange juice. Juice derived from
The AIJN Code of Practice includes reference concentrate must also be declared.
guidelines (i.e. guidelines for what is considered
Latin America
an acceptable juice) for different fruit juices. The
In most Latin American countries the control
guidelines give both criteria that are absolute re-
of food products is governed by the Ministry of
quirements as regards the quality of a juice, and
Health or equivalent institution. Today, there is
other criteria to be used to check the identity and
a general trend towards harmonising food legis-
authenticity of juice.
lation in the region. MERCOSUR, the Southern
The reference guidelines for orange juice
Common Market, with member states of Brazil,
were revised in 2003. Absolute requirements
Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, has developed
for some of the quality parameters are given in
common food labelling regulations. ICAITI, a
Table 11.2.
standards organisation based in Guatemala, issues
a wide range of food-related standards voluntarily
11.1.3 OTHER MAJOR REGIONS applicable in the Central American Common Mar-
AND COUNTRIES ket countries of Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras,
Australia and New Zealand Nicaragua and El Salvador.
Fruit juice and other food regulations differed Comprehensive standards of fruit juices can
between Australia and New Zealand. But based be found in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, the
on a treaty established in 1995, the two countries Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay,
have jointly developed uniform food standards, the Venezuela and countries of the Central American
Australian New Zealand Food Standards Code. Common Market. These standards vary in scope
It was presented in 2000 and remained as and detail. Other countries, for example, Cuba,
an alternative to existing food regulations until Chile, Panama and Peru have no standards for
December 2002 when it became the sole food fruit juice composition although the use of ad-
code for both countries. The code applies to all ditives is controlled.

186
 11.1 Standards governing juice composition and labelling

Middle East 11.1.4 FRUIT JUICE STANDARDS

Middle East countries have a mixture of obliga- OF CODEX ALIMENTARIUS
tory and voluntary standards to control imported The Codex Alimentarius Commission is a joint
food products. Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, body set up by the Food and Agricultural Or-
Kuwait and Israel are some of the countries with ganisation (FAO) and World Health Organisation
mandatory standards for fruit juice. (WHO) in 1962 to implement the Joint FAO/WHO
Harmonisation of food law in the region by Food Standards Programme. This was carried out
means of Gulf Standards issued by the Gulf Co- to protect the health of consumers, to ensure fair
operation Council (GCC) is in progress. The GCC practices in the food trade, and to promote interna-
comprises Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab tional trade in food. Member governments of the
Emirates, Oman, Bahrain and Qatar. Where na- United Nations are involved in producing specific
tional standards are non-existent, most countries recommendations for standards covering food.
will normally accept products that comply with Certain countries, for example some in Latin
standards drawn up by the Codex Alimentarius America and the Middle East, may accept Codex
Commission (CAC, see below). standards as official legislation if they have no
national regulations or as an addition to national
Far East law. Trade blocs like the European Union also
Countries in the Far East have both guidelines consider Codex standards when drawing up their
and legally enforceable standards with regard to own legislation.
food quality and composition. Japan has stand- Most of the Codex standards covering fruit
ards covering additives, labelling requirements, juices and concentrated fruit juices date from
purity criteria and testing methods. There is no 1981. In 1992, the various standards for fruit
standard of composition, therefore juice imports juices and nectars were reissued in volume 6,
to Japan are not restricted by minimum levels Codex Alimentarius 1992. This contains stand-
of fruit content. However, in practice, Japanese ards defining juice products, their composition
Agricultural Standards are used to guarantee and quality factors, and regulations covering
the quality of both imported and domestic pro- food additives, contaminants, hygiene, weight
cessed foods. of product in containers, and labelling require-
Other countries that regulate the quality of ments. Analytical methods and sampling are also
fruit juices are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, The defined. A revision of the fruit juice standards is
Philippines, Pakistan, Singapore and South foreseen in 2005.
Korea. On the other hand, China, Taiwan and Codex standard 45-1981 (from 1981) applies
Thailand, for example, have no standards for to orange juice. It describes it as the juice obtained
composition but have detailed regulations for by a mechanical process from the endocarp of
additives. There seems to be no attempt at har- oranges [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] preserved
monising legislation in the region. exclusively by physical means. It may contain
up to 10 % mandarin juice. Minimum Brix is
10 for direct juice and 11 for orange juice made
from concentrate. Natural volatile orange juice
components may be restored to any orange juice
from which such have been removed.

187
 11.2 The problem of adulteration

11.2 The problem The term adulteration is used to describe the

of adulteration addition of materials not derived from citrus fruit.
Because the monetary value of the fruit juice mar- This includes the addition of water, sucrose and
ket is so enormous, juice adulteration is a common citric acid to maintain the soluble-solids content.
feature of commercial life. For orange juice, the On the other hand, the term sophistication is
term adulteration means the addition of non- used to describe the use of other citrus products
orange materials to products that are labelled and to extend or attempt to mimic genuine juice. Non-
sold as orange juice. The value of orange juice is orange citrus juices, orange pulp wash and other
such that even modest adulteration can result in matter derived from peel, rag or seeds constitute
large profits, something which encourages fraud sophistication.
among both producers and those handling con- 11.2.1 PROTECTING THE CONSUMER
centrate for reconstitution and packaging. Any A number of measures are taken to prevent the
importing country can be affected, particularly adulteration of orange juice and check its au-
when there is a shortage of orange juice supply. thenticity, that is, its declared origin and content.
The problem of juice adulteration is seldom Producing countries, aware of the damage that
related to health risk, but primarily related to adulteration can do to the legitimate trade, carry
fraudulent practices. Although there may be a out various inspection and control procedures.
slight reduction in juice quality, the same decline Companies buying orange juice products try to
in quality can result from poor processing condi- purchase only through reliable suppliers known
tions. The issue at stake is that someone is making to have a good reputation. Voluntary organi-
a lot of money by adding cheap materials such as sations with declared self-control are estab-
sugar, acid and colour to juice in order to cheat the lished in Europe. Both suppliers and buyers are
consumer into paying too much for what is thought members. They are committed to carrying out
to be a premium product. When checks on quality self-control and following certain agreed rules.
are inadequate or unenforced, this inevitably leads Examples of such organisations are SGF/IRMA,
to a greater degree of adulteration. originating in Germany, and EQCS, European
Consumers should be protected from such Quality Control System for juices and nectars.
fraud by regulatory authorities using their power EQCS was founded by AIJN and its EU-based
to ensure that the composition, quality and la- participants produce more than 85 % of all the
belling of orange juice are strictly controlled. Re- fruit juices and nectars in the EU.
sponsible authorities in every producing country The basis for testing quality and authentic-
and importing country deplore adulteration. ity parameters by the EQCS and its European
Therefore, most take active steps to discover and members, and SGF/IRMA for their members (raw
prevent it, and to ensure that orange juice com- material suppliers in more than 50 countries), is
plies with the relevant standards applicable. The the AIJN Code of Practice.
aim of most work on safeguarding the authenticity Due to intensive collaboration directed by the
of orange juice is essentially to make adulteration AIJN, local standards such as the RSK values
so expensive that it is no longer attractive. in Germany, old AFNOR standards in France
It should also be noted that adulteration and the quality criteria in the Netherlands are
cannot be considered contamination. Unlike incorporated in the AIJN Code of Practice. This
contamination, which is often harmful to health, means that the old, and sometimes still available
the materials unlawfully added to juice are so like standards, are not updated anymore and therefore
the juices natural constituents that they cannot be no longer applied.
regarded as contaminants in the accepted sense.

188
 11.2 The problem of adulteration

11.2.2 TELLING WRONG FROM RIGHT 4. Isotopic fingerprinting of sugar content.

As the adulteration of orange juice has become Because of the high price of natural juice,
increasingly sophisticated, the analytical methods the economic temptation to adulterate or-
needed to detect fraud have been developed to re- ange juice by adding sugar from sugar cane
veal specific types of adulteration. These analytical and sugar beet, or in the form of corn syrup,
methods can be divided into four main groups. is considerable. Fortunately, isotopic tech-
nique can now tell the differences between
1. Simple physical measurements such as these different sugars by analysing their
weight, volume, density, acidity, purity and carbon content.
sample concentration. Although these meas-
Isotope analysis
urements do little to prove the authenticity of
The carbon atom exists in two different isotopes,
the product, they do give an indication of the 12C, which has a natural abundance of 98.89 %,
value or price of the commodity tested.
and 13C, the heavier isotope with a natural abun-
dance of 1.11 %. During photosynthesis, plants
2. Comparing the analytical composition of
discriminate against 13C. The degree of depletion
samples with reference standards. Typical
of 13C in plant tissue as a result of this depends on
parameters include the content of sugars, or-
how a plant extracts carbon dioxide, CO2, from
ganic acids, amino acids, trace elements, etc.,
the air. As the orange plant extracts its carbon
and flavour profiles. Spectrographic adsorp-
in a different way from sugar cane and maize,
tion patterns derived from visible light, ul-
the relative proportions of 12C and 13C in these
traviolet light and fluorescent measurements
plant tissues also differ. This fact can be used to
are important for providing fingerprints of
trace the origin of sugar with the help of carbon
orange juice samples. Although useful, the
stable isotope ratio analysis (CSIRA), and hence
main disadvantage of this method is that the
to determine whether juice has been adulterated
pattern for authentic products varies to an un-
by adding either cane sugar or high fructose corn
acceptable degree and can often be matched
syrup (HFCS).
by adulterators adding appropriate cocktails
to adulterated orange juice.

3. Testing for components that are not normally

present in orange juice, or only present in
The value of juice is such that
even modest adulteration can
trace amounts. Such components include result in large profits
natural or artificial flavours, D-malic or
D-amino acids (as opposed to their common

L-counterparts), synthetic intermediates or A trickier problem is to tell the difference between
catalysts, preservatives like benzoates, etc. natural orange sugars and sugar from sugar beet,
If these substances are found in amounts as both these plants extract carbon dioxide from
above accepted levels, then this is usually air in exactly the same way. However, the posi-
good proof of adulteration. Nevertheless, tion of the 13C atom in the sugar molecule does
skilled adulterators are known to use pure differ between the two sugar sources. This can
or modified additives that can mislead both be detected using SNIF-NMR analysis (Site-spe-
analysts and their instruments. cific Natural Isotopic Fractionation measured by
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance). Thus all three of
the most commonly used sugar adulterants can
now be detected.

189
11.2 The problem of adulteration

190
12 Absorption
Glossary

Penetration of a substance (e.g.

Antioxidant
A compound which oxidises readily, thereby
food component) into another ma- preventing or minimising oxidation of other
terial (e.g. packaging material). compounds. It can occur naturally or be added
to food and drinks.
Adsorption Aroma
The binding of gases, liquids or dissolved sub- An odour with a pleasant connotation. For or-
stances by adhesion on the surfaces of solids. ange juice, the word is also used for the flavour
Acid fraction called essence aroma (defined below).
Being acid means having a pH below neutral. Ascorbic acid
Hence, an acid liquid is a liquid of pH<7. A vitamin found in plants, especially fruits and
The opposite of alkaline on the pH spectrum. green vegetables. It forms white crystals when
Foodstuffs of pH<4.6 are often referred to as purified and dried. Also called vitamin C.
high-acid.
Acid content
Box
Total acidity for orange juice is expressed as
Weight unit for orange fruit used
grams citric acid per litre juice (Europe), or
in reporting of harvest and plant
as grams citric acid per 100 g juice, % w/w
intake. 1 box (field box) is defined
(USA).
as 90 lb (or 40.8 kg) of oranges.
Acid catalysed hydrolysis (A box of grapefruit equals only 85 lb of fruit.)
A chemical reaction promoted by an acid envi-
Brix
ronment in which a complex molecule is split into
Concentration of all soluble solids in juice. It is
two smaller molecules by the addition of water.
not a measure of sugars only, although sugars
Acidity make up the bulk of the solids in orange juice.
Total acid content of juice. Brix is determined by measurement of juice
Aerobic reaction density or refractive index.
A reaction which requires free oxygen to take Brix:acid ratio
place. See Ratio.
Albedo Carotenoids
The white spongy layer of tissue found just A class of yellow, orange and red pigments
under the coloured outer portion of the peel which occurs naturally in fruits and vegetables.
(flavedo). The albedo layer is rich in pectin sub- The carotenoids have traditionally been clas-
stances and hemicellulose. sified as carotenes (pure hydrocarbons) and xan-
Alkaline thophylls (hydrocarbons containing oxygen).
Being alkaline (or basic) means having a pH
above neutral. Hence, an alkaline liquid is a
liquid of pH>7. The opposite of acid on the pH
spectrum.
Anaerobic reaction
A reaction which does not require free oxygen
to take place.

191
 Glossary

Cells Corrected Brix

A commercial expression sometimes Brix value obtained after correction for the
used for pulp. It is also referred to as acid content of juice. It represents the actual
frozen cells and frozen pulp. sugar concentration of juice.
Cell sacs or whole cells Crystallinity
Intact citrus cells which still contain juice. The degree of crystallinity is the amount of
Whole cells cannot be obtained by conventional well-organised areas of molecules in a solid
juice extraction methods because these, as im- material. The higher the crystallinity, the more
plied, break open cells to remove the juice. difficult it is for for small molecules like ox-
Cloud ygen to penetrate.
Cloud gives rise to the opaque appearance of
orange juice. It is formed by soluble and insolu-
Deaeration
ble compounds released during juice extraction.
The process of removing air (ox-
The solid particles are kept in suspension by the
ygen) from juice. Dispersed air
presence of soluble pectin in the juice. Cloud
as free air bubbles is quite easily
is an important quality attribute of most citrus
removed from juice but dissolved
juices and contributes to their mouthfeel.
air requires an effective deaeration process.
Cloud loss
Deaerator
The undesirable occurrence of orange juice sep-
The equipment in which juice is deaerated, typ-
arating into a clear upper phase (serum) and a
ically a system including a vacuum vessel.
bottom sediment. Cloud loss occurs when juice
viscosity is reduced by a too low a concentration Defects
of soluble pectin (in turn the result of enzyme Factors that degrade citrus product quality. Ex-
activity). Hence, insoluble compounds can no amples of defects are the presence of small seeds
longer be maintained in suspension. or black specs in juice, poor colour scores and out-
of-range ratios.
Cold-pressed oil
See cold-pressed peel oil Diacetyl
Diacetyl is a natural fermentation by-product
Cold-pressed peel oil
of acid-forming bacteria and imparts a but-
The oil derived from the peel of citrus fruits.
termilk odour if its concentration exceeds 1.0
Oil sacs are found in the surface of the peel and
ppm.
these are ruptured during oil extraction. The oil
is recovered from the oil/water emulsion by me- Diffusion
chanical means (as opposed to thermal process- The mass transport of substances (e.g. oxygen
ing). Also known simply as cold-pressed oil, and limonene) through material (e.g. polymer).
peel oil or CPPO. The driving force is the difference in concen-
tration of the substance in question on the inside
Colour score
and outside of a material. The substance will
A numerical value to rate the colour of citrus
flow from an area of higher concentration to an
juices. In the USA it is often determined by the
area of lower concentration.
use of a Hunter citrus colorimeter. By com-
paring the red and yellow colour components of Diffusivity
the sample to a USDA standard, a score can The ability of a substance to permit diffusion.
be assigned. d-Limonene
Core wash The main component of oil found in oranges.
The process of recovering soluble solids (mainly d-Limonene makes up >90 % of peel oil and
sugars) from the centre core of the fruit discharged essence oil. It is also recovered as a by-product
separately from squeezer-type extractors. The re- from waste peel. d-Limonene belongs to a group
sulting liquid product is also called core wash. See of hydrocarbon molecules called terpenes.
also the analogous Pulp wash.

192
 Glossary

Endocarp FCOJ
Another name for the edible por- Abbreviation for Frozen Concen-
tion of the orange fruit. trated Orange Juice. It is the most
common bulk orange juice product
stored and shipped. FCOJ is pro-
Enzyme activity
duced commercially by concentrating juice up
A measure of enzyme concentration in juice.
to 66 Brix by evaporation.
The necessary inactivation of enzymes is
achieved by heat treatment of juice. Fibres
The original definition of dietary fibres (Hip-
Enzymes
sky, 1953) is materials derived from plant cell
These are proteins which catalyse biochemical
walls in foods. It is sometimes used to mean
reactions. As regards orange juice quality, pec-
large solid particles in juice, better described as
tin methyl esterase (PME) is the most important
floating pulp.
enzyme in the juice as it is responsible for break-
ing down pectin, thereby causing cloud loss. It is Finisher
found in cell walls (e.g. peel and juice sacs) and Equipment used to separate pulp from juice.
is squeezed out from the fruit and mixes with the This process is referred to as juice finishing.
juice during the extraction process. Flash pasteurisation
Essence The expression used for pasteurisation carried
The volatile components recovered from the out in a heat exchanger (during a very short
evaporation process. Essence is separated into period of time, a flash) as opposed to tun-
an aqueous phase (essence aroma) and an oil nel pasteurisation. There is no flash of product.
phase (essence oil). Also referred to as HTST, high temperature
short time heat treatment.
Essence aroma
A fraction of volatile flavours recovered from Flavedo
the evaporation process together with essence The coloured outer portion of peel. Carotenoids
oil (in a ratio of about 10:1). Essence aroma is in the flavedo impart the characteristic colour
clear and colourless and contains water-soluble of orange fruit. The flavedo also includes the oil
flavour components originating from the juice. glands which contain peel oil.
It contributes a fruity aroma and a light citrus Flavour
taste to juice. Also known simply as aroma or A complex combination of the sensations expe-
water phase. rienced through the senses of taste and smell,
Essence oil as well as the textural sensations perceived via
This is a clear, pale yellow oil recovered from the mouth or throat.
the evaporation process. Essence oil is a source Fold
of specific flavour notes, mainly esters and car- The word used to express the concentration fac-
bonyls. It contributes a floral fruity aroma and a tor of flavours in a liquid. For example, in a 5-
juicy flavour to juice. fold flavour, the flavour compounds have been
Essential oils concentrated 5 times.
A general term for volatile oils, extracted from
plants, fruits and flowers, having characteristic
odours.
Evaporation
The process of removing water from juice by heat.
Extraction
Extraction related to oranges is the process
of squeezing out juice from either whole or
halved oranges by means of mechanical pres-
sure. Peel oil is also obtained by a mechanical
extraction process.

193
 Glossary

Gelation Limonin
The tendency of concentrate to A complex compound that causes
become lumpy and difficult to bitterness in juice. It is formed in
reconstitute is known as gelation. orange juice shortly after extraction.
It results from enzyme activity In most juices, the limonin concen-
caused typically by insufficient pasteurisation tration is very low and does not cause a prob-
prior to juice concentration, or from incorrect lem except for juice made from Shamouti and
storage temperature. Navel (seedless) oranges.

Hesperidin Maillard reaction

A flavonoid found in citrus juices. A non-enzymatic chemical re-
As it is highly insoluble, it precipi- action involving condensation of
tates during juice concentration an amino group and a reducing
and accumulates on surfaces in group (sugars), resulting in the
evaporators and extractors. Although it im- formation of intermediates which ultimately poly-
parts no off-flavour to juice, it may appear as merise to form brown pigments (melanoidins).
white specks and be considered a defect. Mandarins
Hot filling A group of orange fruit, Citrus reticulata. This
The filling procedure whereby the high tem- group includes tangerine varieties.
perature of the product being filled is used to Mesh
sterilise the food-contact surface of the pack- The unit used for screen sizing. Mesh is the
aging material. number of equal openings per linear inch. A
Hydrogen peroxide 20 mesh screen therefore has much larger
A chemical with the formula H2O2. It is a clear openings than a 60 mesh screen.
liquid with strong oxidative power and is pro-
duced as aqueous solutions of 35-90 % w/w
hydrogen peroxide concentration. It is used as a Naringin
sterilisation agent in filling machines. A bitterness substance (flavonoid)
mainly found in grapefruit juices.
Hydrometer
An instrument placed in a liquid for measur- NFC
ing its relative density or Brix. It comprises a Abbreviation for not-from-con-
sealed graduated tube with a weighted bulb at centrate juice. Juice of natural (single) strength
the lower end. which has neither undergone concentration nor
dilution during production.

Inert gas
A chemically inactive gas (for ex- Oil content
ample nitrogen). The oil content of orange juice is
often equated to the concentration
of d-limonene, since it makes up
90 % or more of peel oil and essence
oil. d-Limonene can be measured by a relatively
Juice vesicles simple titration method, the Scott method. Oil
Another name for the juice-con- content, also referred to as Scott oil, is expressed
taining sacs in orange fruit. as % v/v in single-strength juice.
Organoleptic
Relating to a property of food that can be per-
ceived by the sense organs.

194
 Glossary

POJ Pounds solids per box

Abbreviation for pasteurised or- A measure in weight of the total dissolved sol-
ange juice. It is a term used in ids in a given box of fruit. Used in Florida as
Florida for NFC juice. basis for payment of fruit. It is calculated by
multiplying the amount of juice per box (by the
Pectin State Test) with the Brix level of the juice.
A type of polysaccharide found mainly in the Press liquor
albedo but also in other parts of the fruit. It is A product stream in the feed mill area obtained
a naturally occurring colloidal stabiliser that by removing moisture from the citrus peel in a
gives juice its body or viscosity. (screw) press. The press liquor is concentrated
Peel oil in a waste heat evaporator to form molasses.
See cold-pressed peel oil. Pulp
Permeability The solid particles in orange juice. Also the com-
It is a measure of a materials ability to be pene- mercial name for the product, consisting of broken
trated, particularly by gases. The permeability pieces of cell sacs and segment wall, added back
value is obtained by multiplying diffusivity and to the final juice.
solubility. There are several terms related to pulp in
juice, of which some are:
Phytosanitary
Floating pulp larger solid particles in juice
Measures taken with plants to protect human,
consisting of pieces of ruptured cell sacs and
animal and plant health.
segment walls. Most float to the top after juice
Polar (and nonpolar) is stirred.
A polar molecule, e.g. water, has both positively Sinking pulp very small solid particles
and negatively charged regions. Two polar mol- (<0.5mm) which are suspended in the juice and
ecules intermix as they are attracted by each settle from the juice with time or spin down in
others dipole forces. A nonpolar molecule, e.g. a centrifuge. Typical values range from 5 to 12 v/v
oil, has no areas of positive and negative charge centrifuged pulp.
within it. Generally, nonpolar molecules do not Suspended pulp, bottom pulp and centrifuged
intermix well with polar ones. pulp are sometimes used instead of sinking pulp.
Polymer
A large molecule which is obtained by polym- For pulp as a product:
erisation of many smaller identical molecules Aseptic pulp pulp product stored in aseptic
(monomers). In this document, polymer is used bag-in-drums.
synonymously with plastic. Frozen pulp pulp product sold in frozen form.
Polyolefines Pulp wash
Polymers prepared by polymerisation of -ole- The process by which soluble solids (mainly sug-
fins. Examples of polyolefines are polyethylene ars) are recovered from pulp. The soluble solids
and polypropylene. are leached from the pulp with water through a
Plate count
system of mixing screws and finishers. The liq-
A method of determining the number of microor- uid stream from a pulp wash system is referred
ganisms in food. It is often expressed as colony- to as pulp wash, secondary solids, or WESOS
forming units per millilitre sample (CFU/ml). (Water Extracted Soluble Orange Solids).
Pounds juice per box
The actual weight of juice extracted from a
90 lb. box of orange fruit as measured by the
State Test extractor (Florida).

195
 Glossary

Quick Fibre Soluble solids are solid materials that will dis-
A test method to determine the rel- solve in the liquid in question. Sugars and acids
ative dryness of pulp. It indicates in citrus juices are commonly referred to as
how hard the squeezing of pulp to soluble solids.
remove juice in the finishers has Specific gravity
been. Quick Fibre (QF) is also a measure of Refers to the actual weight of a liquid in rela-
how wet the pulp is as it exits the final, or dry- tion to water (at defined temperatures). Also
ing, finisher in the pulp production line. called relative density.
State Test
Ratio Standardised method used in Florida to establish
The ratio is obtained by dividing the potential juice yield from a delivered load of
the Brix of a juice product by the fruit. Juice extraction is carried out using a State
acid content (as % wt). The ratio, test extractor under well-defined operating con-
also referred to as Brix:acid ratio, ditions. The actual juice yield during commercial
is important for describing taste as a measure of processing of the same fruit batch is different to,
the balance between the sweet and sour sensa- and often higher than, the State Test yield.
tions. Consumers prefer a ratio of around 15:1.
Sweet oranges
Recontamination For orange juice, the sweet orange, Citrus sin-
Contamination of juice with microorganisms ensis, is the most important group of orange
after it has been pasteurised. Also known as fruit. Regulations in the EU stipulate that or-
reinfection. ange juice may only be made from the sweet
Refractive index orange, whereas in other markets legislation
A measure of how much light is refracted, that is, allows the addition of small amounts of juice
changes direction, on passing from one medium from other orange varieties, like mandarins, to
to another. The refractive index for a solution de- balance juice taste.
pends on its concentration. The measured refrac-
tive index can be translated into concentration of Taste
soluble solids of a solution such as orange juice. Sensations perceived via the taste
Refractometer buds of the tongue when stimu-
An instrument for measuring refractive index. lated by certain substances.

Sensory analysis Viscosity

Examination of a product by the Viscosity is a measure of the
sense organs. thickness of a fluid. It affects
Shelf life the body of the juice created
The time period up to the point when a food primarily by pectin-related stabili-
product becomes unacceptable from a safety, sation of the cloud or colloids in the juice. The
sensorial or nutritional perspective. presence of insoluble material also contributes
to increased juice body or viscosity.
Single-strength
The term assigned to juice at its natural
strength, either directly from the extraction Washed pulp
process or in a reconstituted form. The solid particles remaining
from the pulp wash process. It is
Solids
sold in frozen form for addition
Insoluble solids are, simply put, solids that will
to fruit beverages, or recovered
not dissolve in the liquid in question. In orange
in the feed mill area for use as animal feed.
juice they consist mainly of cellulosic and in-
soluble pectic substances generally associated
with pulp.

196
13
13.1 Abbreviations
Abbreviations, weights
and measures

The definitions of some abbreviations used in

the orange juice industry and in The Orange
Book are given below.
Scientific expressions and products for
which abbreviated names are used are given in
the Glossary (Section 12).
Trade expressions: Units of measurement :
cif cost, insurance and freight Bx degree Brix
DPC direct product cost C degree Celsius
DPP direct product profit cP centipoise (viscosity)
fca free carrier F degree Fahrenheit
fot free on truck fl oz fluid ounce
fob free on board ft feet
RTD ready to drink gal gallon*
RTS ready to serve gpm gallons per minute
SSE single strength equivalent g gram
h hour
Materials and packaging manufacture:
kPa kiloPascal
EVOH ethylene vinyl alcohol
l litre
PA polyamide
lb pound (weight)
PE polyethylene
meq milliequivalent
HDPE high density polyethylene
m micrometre (0.000 001 metre)
LDPE low density polyethylene
m metre
LLDPE linear low density polyethylene
min minute
PEN polyethylene naphtalate
mm millimetre
PET polyethylene terephtalate
m2 square metre
PP polypropylene
m3 cubic metre
EBM extrusion blow-moulding
mg milligram
SBM stretch blow-moulding
mph miles per hour
Organisations: oz ounce
AIJN Association of the Industry of Juices ppm parts per million (e.g. mg/kg)
and Nectars from Fruits and Vege- s second
tables of the European Union t tonne
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation % v/v % volume by volume
(United Nations) % w/w % weight by weight
FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA)
IFU International Federation of Fruit Juice * Gallon means US gallon (128 fl oz or 0.83
Producers Imperial gallon) in The Orange Book.
IFT Institute of Food Technologists (USA)
JPA Juice Products Association
USDA United States Department of
Agriculture
WHO World Health Organisation (United
Nations)

197
 13.2 Unit conversions

13.2 Unit conversions

In the orange juice industry several different
systems are used around the world for units of
measurement. The list below shows how you
can convert between some of these units.

To convert into multiply by

boxes kg 40.8
boxes lb 90
ounces kg 0.02835
pounds (lb) kg 0.454
short tons kg 907.8
tons (metric) kg 1 000
long tons kg 1 016

fluid ounces (US) litres 0.02957

pints (US) litres 0.4732
quarts (US) litres 0.9463
gallons (US) litres 3.785
fluid ounces (Imperial) litres 0.02841
pints (Imperial) litres 0.5683
quarts (Imperial) litres 1.136
gallons (Imperial) litres 4.546
cubic feet litres 28.32
cubic metres litres 1000

gallons/min (gpm) cubic metres/hour 0.2271

(m3/hr)
inches metres 0.02540
feet metres 0.3048
yards metres 0.9144
miles metres 1 609.0

square feet square metres (m2) 0.09290

acres square metres (m2) 4 047.0

miles/hr (mph) kilometres/hr 1.609

bar kPa 100.0

kg/cm2 (at) kPa 98.1
atm (normal atmosphere) kPa 101.3
pounds/square inch (psi) kPa 6.895

Btu (British thermal units) kilowatt hour (kWh) 0.0002928

kilocalories (kcal) kilowatt hour (kWh) 0.001163

horsepower (UK, USA) kilowatts (kW) 0.7457

Fahrenheit Celsius (F x 5/9) - 32

Relationship for liquid volumes:

US: 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fluid ounces
Imperial: 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 160 fluid ounces

198
 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions

13.3 Density tables for

sugar solutions BRIX LEVELS FOR
SINGLE-STRENGTH JUICES
The official table for true density values of su-
crose solutions (at 20 C) was published by Pla- Conc. Conc. Relative
in Brix in g/l density
to in 1900 and is still universally used today. or % w 20/20 C
Relative densities and weight of solids of 8.5 87.63 1.03385
sucrose solutions were derived from the Plato 8.6 88.69 1.03426
8.7 89.76 1.03467
table (1942). These values were adopted as an 8.8 90.83 1.03508
official table for determining solids weights 8.9 91.90 1.03549
in orange juice concentrates by the Florida
9.0 92.97 1.03590
citrus industry. Later the tables were further 9.1 94.04 1.03631
developed and computerised. They are used 9.2 95.11 1.03672
9.3 96.18 1.03714
throughout the citrus industry to provide a uni- 9.4 97.25 1.03755
form reference for determining the quantity of 9.5 98.33 1.03796
soluble solids (pounds solids) in fruit juices 9.6 99.40 1.03838
9.7 100.48 1.03879
and concentrates. 9.8 101.55 1.03920
An abstract from the sugar density tables 9.9 102.63 1.03962
developed by Chen (1989) is given below. The 10.0 103.71 1.04003
full table includes true density in vacuum, 10.1 104.79 1.04044
density in air, etc. The values in the list below 10.2 105.87 1.04086
10.3 106.95 1.04127
can be used to approximately relate the soluble 10.4 108.03 1.04169
solids (or sugar) content of orange juice to its 10.5 109.11 1.04210
10.6 110.19 1.04252
specific gravity, for example when calculating 10.7 111.28 1.04294
the blending formula for reconstituting juice. 10.8 112.36 1.04335
(See subsection 7.4) 10.9 113.45 1.04377
Orange juice is not a pure sugar solution 11.0 114.54 1.04419
but contains other solids, both dissolved and 11.1 115.62 1.04460
11.2 116.71 1.04502
insoluble. 11.3 117.80 1.04544
11.4 118.89 1.04586
Explanations to the table below: 11.5 119.98 1.04628
Conc. in Brix or %w = sucrose concentration 11.6 121.07 1.04670
as %weight 11.7 122.17 1.04712
11.8 123.26 1.04754
11.9 124.35 1.04795
Conc. in g/l = sucrose concentration as grams
12.0 125.45 1.04837
sucrose per litre solution at 20 C 12.1 126.55 1.04880
12.2 127.64 1.04922
Relative density 20/20 = density of sucrose so- 12.3 128.74 1.04964
12.4 129.84 1.05006
lution at 20 C relative to the density of water at 12.5 130.94 1.05048
20 C. Also referred to as specific gravity 20/20. 12.6 132.04 1.05090
12.7 133.14 1.05132
12.8 134.24 1.05175
12.9 135.35 1.05217

13.0 136.45 1.05259

13.1 137.56 1.05302
13.2 138.66 1.05344
13.4 140.88 1.05429
13.5 141.98 1.05471

Source: Fruit Juice Processing Technology, edited by S. Nagy, C.S

Chen and P. Shaw.

199
 13.3 Density tables for sugar solutions

BRIX LEVELS FOR CONCENTRATES

Conc. Conc. Relative Conc. Conc. Relative

in Brix in g/l density in Brix in g/l density
or % w 20/20 C or % w 20/20 C
40.0 470.17 1.17875 60.0 771.26 1.28908
40.5 475.70 1.18130 60.5 779.47 1.29203
41.0 484.03 1.18391 61.0 787.71 1.29500
41.5 491.01 1.18650 61.5 795.99 1.29797
42.0 498.01 1.18911 62.0 804.31 1.30095
42.5 505.05 1.19172 62.5 812.66 1.30394
43.0 512.11 1.19434 63.0 821.05 1.30694
43.5 519.21 1.19359 63.5 829.47 1.30996
44.0 526.34 1.19622 64.0 837.93 1.31298
44.5 533.49 1.19886 64.5 846.43 1.31601
45.0 540.68 1.20492 65.0 854.96 1.31905
45.5 547.90 1.20759 65.5 863.53 1.32210
46.0 555.15 1.21026 66.0 872.13 1.32516
46.5 562.43 1.20952 66.5 880.77 1.32823
47.0 569.74 1.21565 67.0 889.45 1.33130
47.5 577.08 1.21835 67.5 898.17 1.33439
48.0 584.46 1.21762 68.0 906.92 1.33749
48.5 591.86 1.22379 68.5 915.71 1.34060
49.0 599.30 1.22653 69.0 924.54 1.34372
49.5 606.77 1.22927 69.5 933.41 1.34684
50.0 614.27 1.23202 70.0 942.31 1.34998
50.5 621.80 1.23478
51.0 629.37 1.23756
51.5 636.97 1.24934
52.0 644.60 1.24313
52.5 652.26 1.24593
53.0 659.96 1.24874
53.5 667.69 1.25156
54.0 675.45 1.25084
54.5 683.25 1.25722
55.0 691.08 1.26007
55.5 698.95 1.26293
56.0 706.84 1.26580
56.5 714.77 1.26867
57.0 722.74 1.27156
57.5 730.74 1.27446
58.0 738.78 1.27736
58.5 746.84 1.28028
59.0 754.95 1.28320
59.5 763.09 1.28614

Source: Fruit Juice Processing Technology, edited by S. Nagy, C.S Chen and P. Shaw.

200
14 Further reading
and references

14.1 Books on orange juice

Below is a list of books containing detailed in-
Quality Control Manual for
Citrus Processing Plants
Vol. II, revised and enlarged 1992. 349 pp.
formation about orange juice, both as a product
Editors: J. Redd, D. Hendrix and C. Hendrix Jr.
and its processing. Some of these books have
Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida.
been referred to in The Orange Book as sources
3 sections covering plant operations, citrus
of information.
blending techniques, and formulating and citrus
Production and Packaging of Non-carbonated
mathematics. It contains practical information
Fruit Juices and Fruit Beverages
about the everyday operation and management
2nd edition, 1995, 423 pp.
of citrus processing plants.
Editor: P.R. Ashurst,
Publisher: Blackie Academic Quality Control Manual for
Citrus Processing Plants
& Professional, UK.
Vol. III, 1996, 325 pp.
15 sections including general descriptions of
Editors: J. Redd, P. Shaw, C. Hendrix Jr.
processing of common juices such as citrus,
and D. Hendrix.
apple, grape juice and tropical fruits. Also sec-
Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida.
tions on nutritional value, fruit juice legislation
A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art
and authenticity control for orange juice. Indi-
knowledge on respective topics. Sections cover:
vidual contributors to respective sections come
flavours, speciality and by-products; raw prod-
from the juice and supplier industry.
uct as applied to processing; processing param-
Fruit Juice Processing Technology
eters. The editors of this series of books have
1993, 713 pp. long experience in the Florida citrus industry,
Editors: S. Nagy, C.S. Chen and P. Shaw. particularly with flavours and by-products.
Publisher: AgScience Inc, Florida.
Handbook of Citrus By-Products
16 sections covering fruit processing of citrus
and Processing Technology.
fruits and several tropical fruits, berries and
1999, 247 pp.
apples (total 22 types of fruit). It gives an over-
Author: R. J. Braddock
view of how the various fruits are processed
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY.
and what equipment can be used.
17 chapters detailing citrus juice and by-prod-
Quality Control Manual for ucts manufacture. Included are details of juice
Citrus Processing Plants
and thermal processing including concentrate,
Vol. I, revised 1986, 250 pp. NFC, enzyme inactivation kinetics, the proper-
Editors: J. Redd, D. Hendrix and C. Hendrix Jr. ties and manufacture of citrus essential oils, d-
Publisher: AgScience Inc., Florida. limonene chemistry and properties, dried pulp
9 sections covering regulations, analytical and descriptions of other citrus by-products.
methods, microbiology and conversion charts.
Citrus Processing: Quality
It is intended for plant technologists and others
Control and Technology
involved with analyses and understanding plant
1991, 473 pp.
operating procedures. The first of 3 books
Author: Dan A. Kimball.
compiling and presenting comprehensive infor-
Publisher: AVI Book of Van Nostrand Reinhold.
mation about citrus processing.
A comprehensive book describing in detail cit-
rus juice properties and processing technology
from an analytical and quality control point of
view. Analytical methods are included.
Enlarged 2nd edition published in 1999.

201
 14.1 Books on orange juice

Technical Manual - Reconstituted Chen, Chin Shu

Florida Orange Juice Mathematical correlations for calculation of
and Brix-apparent density of sucrose solutions.
Technical Manual - Freshly Squeezed Lebensmittel.-Wissenschaft.Technol, 1989
Florida Orange Juice
(22); 154-156.
1985
Drr, P., Schobinger, U., and Waldvogel, R.
Publisher: Florida Department of Citrus,
Scientific Research Department, University Aroma quality of orange juice after filling and
of Florida -IFAS-CREC. storage in soft packages and glass bottles.
Includes instructions, regulations and analytical Alimenta, 1981 (20); 91-93.
procedures for production, packaging and dis- Goodrich, R.M. and Brown, M.G.
tribution of respective products. These manuals European Markets for NFC: Supply and De-
are specific to Florida. mand Issues. Presented at the 7th International
Economic Outlook Conference for Citrus and
Other books on citrus fruit
Non-Citrus Juices, Orlando, Florida, 2000.
An Illustrated Guide to Citrus
Johnson, J.D. and Vora, J.D.
Varieties of the World
2nd edition, 2000, 160 pp. Natural citrus essence: production and appli-
Author: J. Saunt. cation. Presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting
Publisher: Sinclair International Ltd, UK. of International Food Technologists, New Orle-
Descriptions and colour illustrations of orange ans, Louisiana, 1983.
and other citrus varieties. Kanner, J., Fishbein, J., Shalom, P.,
Harel, S., and Ben-Gera, I.
Compendium on Citrus Diseases
Storage stability of orange juice concentrate
2nd edition, 2000, 128pp.
packaged aseptically. Journal of Food Science,
Editors: L.W. Timmer, S.M. Garnesey,
1982 ( 47); 429.
J.H. Graham.
Publisher: APS American Phytopathological Mannheim, Chaim and Havkin, Margalit.
Society Press, Minnesota. Shelf life of aseptically bottled orange juice.
Descriptions of citrus diseases and classifica- Journal of Food Processing and Preservation,
tion of pathogens. Colour pictures for disease 1981 (5); 1-6.
diagnosis. Nonino, Eliseu A.
Orange juice quality upgrading. Fruit
14.2 References Processing, 1995; issue no. 11, 372-374.
Below follows a list of publications to which Pieper, Gabrielle; Borgudd, Lars;
Ackermann, Paul and Fellers, Paul.
reference is made in various sections of The
Absorption of aroma volatiles of orange juice
Orange Book.
into laminated carton packages did not affect
Articles and scientific papers sensory quality. Journal of Food Science, 1992
Ackermann, P.W. and Wartenberg, E.W. (57), issue no. 6, 1408-1411.
Shelf life of citrus juices. A comparison be- Redd, J.B.
tween packages. International Federation of Distillation Systems. Presented at the Annual
Fruit Juice Producers, Scientific Technical short course for the food industry, International
Commission XIX, Symposium The Hague, Food Technologists, University of Florida,
1986; 143-160. Gainsville, Florida, 1976.
Braddock, R.J. and Sadler, G.D. Shapton, D.A., Lovelock, D.W.
Chemical changes in citrus juice during con- and Laurita-Longo, R.
centration processes. American Chemical Soci- The evaluation of sterilisation and pasteurisa-
ety Symposium Series, 1989 (405); chapter 22. tion processes from temperature measurements
in degrees Celsius. Journal of Applied Bacteri-
ology, 1971 (34); issue no. 2, 491-500.

202
 14.1 Books on orange juice

Other published and unpublished material USDA Foreign Agricultural

Internet links valid August 2004 Services -GAIN reports 2003.
Citrus fruit, fresh and processed: Citrus annual reports for various countries.
Annual statistics 2002. USDA FAS: Washington D.C., USA.
FAO: Rome, Italy. Accessible at www.fas.usda.gov
Accessible at www.fao.org/es/ESC
Vattenbenbehandlingsmetoder.
Citrus Reference Book 2004. (Water treatment methods.)
Florida Department of Citrus: Vattenteknik AB: Malm, Sweden, 1992.
Lakeland, Florida.
www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus/pubs/index.htm Publications on fruit juice regulations
Australian New Zealand Food Standards
Code of Practice: Reference Guideline Code -Standard 2.6.1, 2000.
for Orange Juice, 2003. Valid for Fruit Juice and Vegetable Juice.
AIJN: Brussels, Belgium. FSANZ Food Standards Australia New Zealand:
Canberra, Australia.
www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/Standard261_
Compass Market Statistics. Juice_v62.pdf
Internal publication.
Tetra Pak: Lund, Sweden, 2002. Codex Alimentarius - Codex Standard 45, 1981.
Covers orange juice preserved exclusively by
Dairy Processing Handbook. physical means.
Tetra Pak: Lund, Sweden, 2003. Codex Alimentarius Commission/FAO:
Rome, Italy.
Fruit Beverages in the US, 2000. ftp.fao.org/codex/standard/en/CXS_045e.pdf
Beverage Marketing Corp.: New York, USA. or via
www.codexalimentarius.net/web/standard_
list.do?lang=en
Fruit/Vegetable Juice Country Reports 2004.
Euromonitor: London, UK.
European regulation for fruit juice - Council
Givaudan Roure, Florida, USA. Directive 2001/112/EC, 2001.
Personal communication. Covers fruit juices and certain similar products
intended for human consumption.
Livsmedelstabell Energi och Nringsmnen. Council of the European Union:
Statens Livsmedelsverk: Uppsala, Sweden. Brussels, Belgium.
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_010/
l_01020020112en00580066.pdf
Redd, J.B. and Praschan V.
Quality Control Manual for United States Standards for Grades
Citrus Processing Plants. of Orange Juice, 1983.
AgScience Inc.: Auburndale, Florida, 1975. USDA, Agricultural Marketing Services:
Washington DC, USA.
Robertson, Gordon L. www.ams.usda.gov/standards/cnorange.pdf
Food Packaging: Principles and Practice.
Marcel Dekker Inc.: New York, USA, 1993. Juice HAACP Hazard and
Controls Guidance, 2004.
Soft Drinks Report 2003. US FDA, Center for Food Safety & Applied
Canadean: London, UK. Nutrition: College Park, MD, USA.
www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu10.html

Technical Vademecum: Beverage manual.

Dhler-Eurocitrus: Darmstadt, Germany, 1999.

203
 14.3 Useful websites

14.3 Useful websites UNCTAD* Info Comm - Market information

Internet links valid August 2004 in the commodities area - Citrus Fruit
Below is a list of useful websites covering Overview of production, manufacturing
the orange juice industry. and trade.
*United Nations Conference On Trade And Development
http://r0.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/orange/
ABECITRUS -The Brazilian Association market.htm
of Citrus Exporters.
Presentation of Brazil orange juice industry FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
incl. research studies and export statistics. of the UN
www.abecitrus.com.br Statistics on fruit crop, processing
and utilisation.
CREC- Citrus Research and Education Center www.fao.org/es/ESC
at University of Florida.
Website includes information about citrus train- Codex Alimentarius Commission
ing courses, events and research publications. Joint FAO/WHO food standards programme.
www.lal.ufl.edu www.codexalimentarius.net

Citrus Flavour and Colour AIJN - Association of the Industry of Juices

Very informative website published by and Nectars From Fruits and Vegetables
the flavour research team at CREC. of the European Union.
www.crec.ifas.ufl.edu/rouseff/ www.aijn.org

FDOC - Florida Department of Citrus IFU - The International Federation

Website for and about the Florida citrus industry of Fruit Juice Producers
including commercial and regulatory news. www.ifu-fruitjuice.com
www.floridajuice.com
JPA - Juice Products Association
FDOC - Florida Department of Citrus www.juiceproducts.org
Economic and Market Research
Comprehensive website incl. production TCJJP - Technical Committee for Juice
and market data on citrus in various and Juice Products
www.tcjjp.org
databases and publications.
www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus

Ultimate Citrus - The Ultimate Citrus Page

A comprehensive list of websites covering
the citrus industry.
www.ultimatecitrus.com

204
Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Acetaldehydes 138-140 Categories of orange juice 28

Acidity 21 Clarification 72
Acids 21 Cloud 22, 60
Acid-tolerant bacteria 54 Cloud loss 60
Activated carbon filtration 115 California 13
Adulteration 188 Caribbean 13
Ad Valorem tariffs 39 Carton-based packages 161, 162
AIJN quality requirements 19, 186 Central America 13
Air see Oxygen Centrifugal clarification 73
Albedo 6,7 Centrifuges 73, 75, 84, 85
Alcohols basic structure 157 China 3, 4, 14
in flavour fractions 139, 140 Chlorination of water 115
Aldehydes basic structure 157 Citrus aurantium 3
in flavour fractions 139,140 Citrus molasses 9
Australia 14, 186 Citrus reticulata 3
Aroma compounds basic structure 157 Citrus sinensis 3
Ascorbic acid see vitamin C Cleaning-in-place (CIP) 108, 131
Aseptic buffer 128 Colour 25, 154
Aseptic storage Colour measurement 25
In tanks 77 Colour changes in packaged juice 154
In bag-in-box containers 112 Comminuted citrus base 8
Aseptic transfer of NFC juice 130 Composition of orange juice 27
Concentrated orange juice
Categories 28
Impact of long-term storage 49
Bacteria 54 Storage at the juice processor 83
Bag-in-box bulk containers 78, 112 Storage at the juice packer 110, 111
Barrier properties of packaging 152, 156 Consumption of orange juice
Bitterness 25 By categories 174, 175
Blending houses 35, 102 Consumer preference 176-178
Blending systems Worldwide 40, 42, 43
Batch blending 106, 119
In-line blending 107, 120
Bottles as packaging 161, 163-165
Brazil Deaeration 76, 116, 122, 125
Fruit processors 34 Deaerators 52, 54, 125
Orange production 3-5, 10-16 Dealkalisation of water 114
Orange varieties grown 12 Debittering 92
Growers 33 Defect removal from pulp 89
Harvesting 10, 11 Density measurement 20, 21
Shipping FCOJ to Europe 96 Deoiler oils 138
Break bulk 96 Depot retailers 170
Brix 20, 21 Diacetyl 54
Brix corrections 20 Direct product profitability (DPP) 173
Browning 26, 154 Diseases - orange crop 4
Bulk juice products Distillation for concentrating flavours 141
Frozen storage 76 Distilled oils 138
Impact of long-term storage 49 Distribution of packaged products 169
Shipping costs 100 Distribution units 171
Transport and handling 93 Drum emptying of concentrate 111
Bulk processors 34, 35

205
 Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Fruit reception 65
Fruit sizer 68
Endocarp 7 Futures market 38
Enzymes 59, 60
Essence aroma
Major components 138
Related to flavour 24, 137, 138 Glass bottles 161, 163-165
Essence oil Grade A (Florida) 19, 184
Major components 138 Grading of orange fruit 67
Related to flavour 24, 137, 139
Essence recovery 82, 92
Esters basic structure 157
in flavour fractions 138, 139 Harvesting seasons 4, 5
Ethyl butyrate 138 Heat exchangers
Evaporator systems Plate 80, 123
Centrifugal 82 Tubular 79, 123
Plate 80 Henrys law 53
Tubular 79 Hermetic centrifuges 75, 85
Export of FCOJ 10 Hesperidin flavonoid 27
Extractor types 68 Homogenisation as part of evaporation 81
Hot filling 129, 165
Hybrid oranges 3
Hydrocarbons basic structure 157
Feed mill operations 86 in flavour fractions 138
Finishers 73, 89, 91 Hydrocyclone 89
Flavedo 6,7
Flavonoids 27
Flavour
Changes in flavour during processing 48 Import duties with typical examples 41
Quality parameters 23 Import of orange juice 39
Standardisation 140 Industry structure 32
Volatile 136 Iron removal from water 114
Flavour scalping 158, 159 Isotope analysis 189
Flavour systems 142
Flocculation for water treatment 114
Florida
Fruit processors 34, 35 Japan 14, 41
Orange production 4, 6, 12 Juice extraction 68
Orange varieties grown 12 Juice packers
Growers 33 Overview 36, 104, 105
Harvesting 4, 12 Process lines 105-109
Folding of oils 140 Juice sac 6, 7
Folic acid 27 Juice vesicle 6, 7
Fortified orange juices 29
Freeze concentration 83
Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice (FCOJ)
Bulk shipping 95
Commodity trading and futures market 38 Korea - Republic of 41
Commodity trading, units 38
Definition 5
Microflora 57
Terminals for receiving products 100 Lactic acid bacteria 54
Types 29 Laminated carton material 161, 162
Fruit growers 33 Light refraction measurement 20
Fruit processor types of 34
Fruit processing overview 64

206
 Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Light impact on packaged juice 156 Oxygen

d-Limonene 24, 25, 138, 139, 156, 157 Effect on products 50, 152, 154
Limonin 92 Problems caused by oxygen 52
Removal from liquids 53
Sources 51
Solubility 51
Maillard reaction 154 Ozone treatment of water 115
Major orange-growing regions 3
Mandarin orange 3
Manganese removal from water 114
Marketing processors 34, 35 Packages
Mediterranean 4, 15 Bottles 163
Membrane filtration 83 Carton-based 161, 162
Mexico 13 Properties of 157
Microflora of different products 57 Types 160
Microorganisms in orange juice 54 Packaging
Moulds 56 Quality parameters 151
Secondary 171
Tertiary 172
Types of system 160
Nanofiltration of water 115 Pasteurisation
Nectars 29, 108, 116, 179 At the juice packer 124
Not-from-concentrate (NFC) Primary 59, 61, 76
Aseptic transfer 130 Purpose 59
Bulk shipping 97 Secondary 59, 61
Definition 5 Related to deaeration 122
Frozen storage 76 System control 126
Impact of long-term storage 49 Time-temperature conditions for PME 60
Microflora 57 Pasteurisation units 126
Production 74 Pathogenic microorganisms 56
Reprocessing 78 Pectin 9, 22, 49, 60
Types 28 Pectin methyl esterase (PME) 59-61
Peel oil
Concentration 84
Major components 138-140
Off-flavours 48, 49, 155, 157 Polishing 85
Off-colours 26, 154 Recovery 84
Oil content 24, 144 Related to flavour 23, 137-139
Oil content measurement 24 Winterisation 85
Orange crop diseases 4 Pigging (as part of CIP) 133
Oil extraction 71 Plastic bottles 163, 164
Oil reduction 75 Plato 199
Orange fruit Polymers properties of 157
Growers 33 Press liquor 86, 87
Products 8, 9 Pricing of bulk juice products 37
Primary 8 Processing impact on juice quality 46
Secondary (by-products) 8, 9 Processing plant overview 64
Structure 6, 7 Pulp
Orange juice categories 28 Floating pulp 7, 23, 142
Orange juice consumer 174 Production 86
Orange juice consumption 42, 43 Quality 144
Orange juice quality 18 Terminology 143
Orange nectar 29 Sinking pulp 7, 22
Orange varieties 10-12, 25 Pulp wash production 92
Orifice tube 70 Pulpy juice 68, 143
Origin of orange fruit 2 PVG 49, 155

207
 Index

Topic Page Topic Page

Quality control 110, 134 Tangerine varieties 3

Quality of orange juice 18, 19 Terminals for FCOJ 100
Quick Fibre 145 Terminals for NFC 101
Terpenes 139-141
Thawing of solid frozen product 111
Thermal processing 61
Ratio 21 Trade tariff terms 39
Reamer-type extractor 71 Trading 38
Ready-to-drink (RTD) orange juice 28 Turbofilters 74
Reclaim product 112
Refractometer 21, 121
Regulations
Australia and New Zealand 186 UV treatment of water 115
European Union 30, 184
Far East 187
Juice quality 30
Latin America 186 4-vinyl guaiacol (PVG) 49, 155
Middle East 187 Vitamin C
USA and Canada 30, 183 Content in orange and some other fruits 26
Retailers handling and distributing Degradation in packaged juice 152, 153
products 169, 170 Impact of oxygen on vitamin C degradation 48
Reverse osmosis 115 Volatile flavours 24, 136, 156
Rework product 112
Rotary press extractors 69

Water
Deaeration 116
For processing 47
Sand filtration of water 114 Hardness 113
Shipping costs 100 Quality at the juice packer 112, 113
Shipping FCOJ 95, 96 Treatment at the juice packer 113
Shipping NFC 97-99 Winterisation of peel oil 85
Squeezer-type extractor 69 World citrus/orange production 2-5, 10-16
Soft-drink producers 37
Solvent extraction for concentrating flavours 141
South Africa 16
Spectrophotometry 22, 25 Yeasts 55
Spore-forming microorganisms 56 Yield of juice from an orange 8
Stabilisation 90
Standards
Juice composition and labelling 182
Codex Alimentarius 187
State Test extractor 34
Storage
Concentrate at juice packer 110, 111
Fruit 67
Pulp 91
Still fruit drinks 108, 116, 179
Strainer tube 70
Sugars 20
Suspended solids measurement 22

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 C opyright 2004 Tetra Pak P rocessing Systems A B , L und, S weden Code 63344 en2 0410 www.pyramid.se