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Optimization of Bench Blasting

for Hard Rock Quarries

Authors:
Ben Budin
Grant Newton
Jeremy Thompson

May 4, 2003
Colorado School of Mines

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Table of Contents

Introduction 3
Purpose 3
Objectives 3
Overview 3
Overview of Surface Mining 4
The Mining Cycle 4
Drilling the Round 4
Loading / Blasting the Round 5
Mucking the Round 6
Crushing and Milling 7
Quarry Blasting Considerations 7
Mathematical Model 9
Definition of Variables 9
The Langefors/Kihlstrom Method 9
Timing the Bench 11
Suggested Modifications for Conditions 12
Case Study: Aggregate Industries 13
Overview 13
Blasting 13
Conclusion 16
Appendix A: The Langefors/Kihlstrom Method 17
Appendix B: Scaled Distance 21
Appendix C: Blast Design Recommendations 22

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Introduction

Purpose
To develop and use a mathematical model for designing bench blasts at an
aggregate mine, specifically Aggregate Industrys Morrison Quarry. In addition, other
considerations such as air blast, fly rock, and ground vibrations must be considered.

Objectives
By using existing mathematical models that focus purely on the weight and
geometry of the rock, and information gathered from the actual quarry site, a
mathematical model will be developed. This model will account for different rock
conditions, variable sizes of the blasts, and in hole conditions. In addition a custom
model that accounts specifically for the conditions, equipment, and needs of Aggregate
Industrys Morrison Quarry will be developed. This model will suggest ways to
minimize the impacts of fly rock, ground vibrations, and air blasts through the use of
stemming, pyrotechnic delays, and weather conditions. The model will finally suggest
ways to increase or decrease the amount of rock fragmentation depending on the
conditions of the rock.

Overview
The first step of the project was to find a suitable mathematical model that would
allow for bench geometry, the weight of the rock, and the power of the explosive. The
model was then worked through with the expectations of what was believed to be the
conditions at the mine site. Following this, a trip to the mine site was arranged to gather
data on actual blasts that had been recently conducted. The theoretical information and
the information from the mine site were then compared, and the model was changes to
reflect the differences from paper to reality. Finally, lists of recommendations are
suggested in the appendix for designing a blast in conditions similar to the Morrison
Quarry.

Overview of Surface Mining

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With the increasing burden that larger populations have placed on mineral resources,
there are very few methods that can provide the low cost minerals demanded by
consumers. Surface mines, with there high yields, and low production costs, are often the
only economically sound way for companies to extract minerals. Of all the costs of
production, perhaps the greatest is mineral processing, mainly in the crushing of materials
down to workable sizes. By learning to optimize the bench blast for the geological
conditions at the work site, explosive can become the best way of keeping a companies
processing costs to a minimum.

The Mining Cycle

All mining at a job site is determined by a predictable schedule, the mining cycle.
If any one of the portions of the mining cycle were to be disrupted or delayed, then the
whole production cycle would be thrown off track, at a great expense of money. The
mining cycle consists three parts, first drilling the round, then loading and blasting a
round, and mucking the fractured rock.

Drilling the Round

The first step to mining cycle would be the drilling of a round for a bench blast.
Most surface mines and quarries operate by maintaining a series of terraces, or benches
that are certain height, usually 20 to 60 feet. Large, tracked drills, similar to those used in
exploration drilling bore holes of varying diameters (from 1 to 15+) into the solid
rock. A group of these drilled holes that is meant to be loaded with explosives and set off
at the same time is known as a round. The whole process of drilling, loading, and
detonation is known a bench blast.
A round is nothing more than a series of holes that are drilled into the rock that
will later be loaded with explosives. Careful consideration must be given to the pattern
of the round, as it will be the main determining factor on how the rock fractures. A round
that has a pattern where the holes are too close together will caused over fractured rock
that may be worthless to the company. On the other side of the coin, a round with too
much spacing may cause large boulder that are not easily worked with, or dramatically

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increase the cost of mineral processing. Today, there are several different cookie-cutter
approaches and computer programs that are often used to assist in the design of a bench
blast. Some factors that influence the design of a bench blast are hole depths, geology,
diameter of the holes, and explosives being used.
Layout is not the only concern in a bench blast, the drilling of the holes also plays
a key factor. If the holes are not drilled in the proper location, then over or under
fragmentation could occur in the rock. Holes should be drilled as straight as possible
because even a small error in the collaring of the hole could result in a much larger
deviation at the bottom of a 60 ft hole. Sub-drilling must be figured out in order to
maintain a level bench that is easy for machinery to operate on.
Perhaps the most important of all considerations to the size of a round is the
current situation of the mine itself. If there is a great demand on the mineral being
mined, than the round may be very large, with the opposite being true during off peak
times. In large mines, regular production blasts may be drilled several times a week,
while in smaller mines, a larger round, once or twice a week, may be desired. The
bottom line is, that if the round is not economically feasible, than it will not be drilled, no
matter how good the design.

Loading / Blasting the Round

After a round is drilled, the next step would be to load it with explosives.
Loading a hole consists of four parts, making a plan, priming the hole, loading the
explosive column and stemming.
The first part of the loading process is perhaps the most important, the designing
of the detonation sequence of the holes. If all the holes were to be blasted at once, there
is a good chance that the desired fragmentation would not be achieved and the whole
round would be a best. The same is true if individual holes were to accidentally be fired
out of order. By careful planning of the timing of the round, each set of rows in a bench
blast will have at least one very large free face to blast too. Timing can be controlled by
the use of pyrotechnic or electronic delays both on the bench and inside of the hole.
Ideally all of the pyrotechnic delays will be burning inside of their holes before the first
hole ever detonates.

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Priming of a hole consists of using the information contained in the blast design to
insure that the column of explosives will detonate evenly and as close to simultaneously
as possible. This can be accomplished by the use of explosive boosters which are placed
on the outside of a blasting cap. The booster works by being detonated by the shock
caused by the detonation of the blasting cap. This in turn causes a much greater
explosion which will insure that the more stable ANFO will detonate. Boosters and caps
may be placed in several different positions of the hole to decrease the time it takes for
the explosive to be completely exploded.
The explosives used in a hole vary with hole conditions, geology, and hole
diameter. Generally, for most dry holes, Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil (ANFO) is used
due to its low cost and excellent ease of use. In wet holes, emulsions, or water gels may
be used. Another option would be to sleeve the hole with a plastic liner which would
keep the ANFO or other water soluble explosive from the water. The loading of the hole
may be accomplished by literally pouring a bulk blasting agent down a hole until it
reaches a certain depth, or through dropping links of sausage explosives down the hole.
The final step before blasting if to stem the hole. Stemming is used on a hole in
order to insure that the energy of the explosive does not just blow out the top during
detonation. Stemming should be of small pea sized gravel, and not of drilling fines, as
they are inadequate to completely contain the energy of the explosive.
After every hole in a round has been completely primes, loaded, and stemmed the
area around the blast site is cleared and the round is detonated. The command to detonate
is usually issued from a safe point and the shock tube that conveys the signal to the
blasting caps and delays is set of with a shotgun primer.

Mucking of the Round

After a round is detonated the rock that has been fragmented must be cleared out
and hauled to the processing plant. Loading of rock is accomplished by both tracked
shovels and wheeled front end loaded onto massive dump truck up to 400 tons. This is
then driven over to the processing plant, and final milling of the product begins. After
the area of the next blast is cleared, then the mining cycle begins anew.

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Crushing and Milling

The largest expense, both in energy and cost, for a surface mine is its milling
operation. This cost can be minimized however by the design of a good bench blast,
which will leave very few large chunks of rock without pulverizing the rock into sand.
Chunks of rock up to the size of beach balls must be turned into aggregate the size of
landscaping rock, or even smaller in the case of road base. Ore from the mines dump
trucks are dumped into surge piles outside the milling facility. These surge piles ensure
that the milling operation is always in full swing, even if there are delays on the
production side of the operation. The first step inside of the mill is a primary crusher that
reduces the large boulders to smaller, perhaps softball sized, chunks. If the end product is
desired to be smaller than a softball, the products from the primary crusher are dropped
into a secondary, and in some cases a tertiary crusher that reduce the aggregate to the
desired size. The crushed aggregate is then moved to various stockpiles located
throughout the mine site to await purchase by a customer.

Quarry Blasting Considerations

There are three main considerations to take into account during an open pit bench
blast in a quarry. These considerations are: ground vibration, air blast, and fly rock.
Ground vibration is important to consider because surrounding property not owned by the
quarry may be damaged by excessive vibration. Also, the more energy that is put into
ground vibration is not used to fracture the rock, so explosives are wasted when there is
excessive ground vibration. Therefore it is best to keep ground vibration at a minimum.
The air blast is also important to keep to a minimum. Surrounding landowners who live
around the quarry can be disturbed by loud air blasts and rock fragmentation also suffers
because energy is lost into the sound wave that causes the air blast. Fly rock is not as
large an annoyance such as an air blast, but can be very dangerous. It is important to
keep fly rock to a minimum for the safety of all who are in and around the quarry because
fly rocks can reach high velocities and do damage to men and equipment. Also, as in
ground vibration and air blasts, rock fragmentation energy is lost to fly rocks.

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Mathematical Model

Definition of Variables
The above diagram is useful to show some of the variables and measurements that
are necessary when defining a bench blast.

The Langefors/Kihlstrom Method

This method today is a common starting place when first developing blast hole
geometries and calculating burden. It operates off a weight strength concept that designs
the loading of a blast hole on the basis of the weight of the rock, the strength of an
explosive, and the size of the holes being drilled. Development of this model was based
mainly around the use of ANFO, so tends to be very good at estimating hole
specifications assuming the hole is at least as large as the critical diameter. This model
neglects rock densities, rock compression and tension strengths instead regarding the rock
mass as a uniform, free from variations or fractures. It also tends to overestimate the
breaking power of high-density, high-strength explosives, while underestimating the
breaking power of low-density, low-temperature explosives.
The Langefors/Khilstrom method operates on the following assumptions and

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limitations:
1) The bench height is at least two times greater than the expected burden.
2) The requisite charge concentration of the explosives will be near the bottom of
the blast hole
3) The rock is a fissured rock mass, typical of many sandstones or granites
4) The blast holes are vertical.

Using these limitations, the following specifications have been listed in the table below.
A detailed explanation of the calculations used to obtain these specifications can be found
in the appendix.

Variable Result
Hole Diameter 152 mm
Bench Height 18 m
Depth of Hole 19.55m
Explosive Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil
Hole Inclination Vertical
Fractured Granite C=.4 kg/m^3
Maximum Burden 5.17 m
Sub drilling 1.55 m
Drilling Error .739 m
Practical Burden 4.43 m
Hole Spacing 5.54 m
Specific Drilling .0443 m/m^3
Specific Charge (Powder Weight) .386 kg/m^3

Hole Charging Information

Bottom Charge Column Charge Stemming Totals
6.72 m 8.4 m 4.43 m 19.55m

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97.45 kg 170.53 kg 268 kg

214 lbs 376 lbs 590 lbs

To insure that the explosive column is detonated correctly, two 5- lb boosters should be
used. One should be located above the base charge, with the other suspended at
approximately 2/3 of the way of the column charge. The weight of these boosters will
add approximately 10 lbs to the explosive weight of each hole, bringing the total to 600
lbs per hole.

Timing the Bench Blast

Perhaps even more important than the geometric layout of a bench blast would be
the timing of the delays that are used in the blast itself. If the timing is off, instead of
blasting to one or two free faces as planned, the blast may just act as a cratering charge,
creating nothing but a mess for the mine. As little as 25 milliseconds between holes and
50 milliseconds between rows is all that is needed to insure that when each hole is
blasted, it is blasting in the desired method. Timing can also be used to make sure that
structures in the vicinity of a blast are not damaged by ground vibrations through scaled
distances. Assuming that the nearest structure is 2000 feet away, the maximum amount
of explosives that can go off per 8 millisecond delay is 1325 lbs of explosives. A detailed
explanation of scaled distance can be found in Appendix B.
Below is a layout of a typical bench blast of 23 holes (2 rows of 8 holes, 1 row of
7 holes) that has two free faces to blast to.

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On the surface 25 millisecond delays are used between each hole in a row, with 100
millisecond delays used between each row. Given that the last hole has a total delay time
of 375 milliseconds, there would be an in hole pyrotechnic delay of 500 milliseconds.
With the timing pattern given, there would be a maximum of three holes going off at any
given time, or 1800 lbs of explosive (1770 lbs of ANFO plus six 5-lb boosters). This
delay sequence would allow for the nearest structure to be 2150 feet away from the blast,
and remain intact. If a structure is closer than that, or lower ground vibrations are
desired, then the use of 133 ms delays between rows should be considered.

Suggested Modifications for Conditions

Given that rock conditions will vary very significantly in a location as small as a
quarry, a cookie cutter method for blast design will not cover all situations. The
mathematical model is good for fairly well consolidated rocks that contain lots of
fractures, however, in softer rocks, the burden should be increased. Similarly, in very
hard or dense rocks, the burden and spacing should be decreased. The presence of water
in holes may lead to the use of emulsions that have a higher explosive strength than
ANFO. In these situations stemming should be increased, and the explosive column
decreased or the burden should be increased. Variations of these models should be in a
case by case basis that accurately reflects the conditions encountered.

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Case Study: Aggregate Industries, Morrison Quarry

Overview
The Morrison Quarry of Aggregate Industries was established in foothills of
Colorado to provide crushed granite aggregate to the Denver Metro area. The quarry is
currently in the process of starting its second pit that is located near the primary crusher.
The Morrison quarry runs benches that are approximately 55 to 60 feet tall. The mine
currently owns two reverse circulations drills with bits that are sized at 6.25 inches
(approx 152 mm) and 4.00 inches, though the holes are primarily only 6.25 inches.
Mucking is accomplished by several 100 ton size haul trucks which are loaded by both
wheeled and tracked shovels.

Blasting
The quarry currently blasts two to three small rounds a week that adequately
provide for the current production levels.
Blasting is done via the use of a no n-electrical
shock tube system. Each hole has two lines
running to it for redundancy (one to each booster
in the hole). Surface delays are 25 milliseconds
between each hole in a row and 67 milliseconds
between each row in a blast. Down hole,
typically 350 millisecond delays are used to
ensure that all the holes are burning before the first hole goes off. Due to the small size
of the bench blasts at the quarry, it is possible and standard procedure to detonate only a
single hole per delay period. This low amount of explosives being detonated at any time
(between 500 and 600 lbs) allows for the mine to blast within 1250 feet of important
structures.

Below is the layout of a typical bench blast at the Morrison Quarry. Note the location of
the line to the blasting machine. This blast takes place mid-bench and is blasting to only
one free face.

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Each hole is loaded with two boosters, a 5x30 (Emulsion base charge), and
approximately 456 pounds of ANFO per hole for a total of 509 pounds of explosives per
hole. In this particular case, two holes were detonated per delay, for a value of 1018
pounds of explosive per delay. This would allow for the minimum distance of a structure
to be from the blast to be approximately 1750 feet in order to avoid excess ground
vibration. Currently, the mine does not use pre-splitting to minimize the back breaking of
rock.

Below is a typical layout of a 60 foot hole at the Morrison quarry.

The Morrison Quarry is unique in that due to rock conditions, a minimum amount

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of explosives are needed to accomplish the desired fragmentation of the rock. Instead of
increasing the burden, there is instead an increase in the stemming that is placed in the
hole, and a decrease in explosive low. The reason for this is the very brittleness of the
granite and its rather low pull apart strength. This increase in the stemming allows for a
decrease in air blast and a decrease in fly rock. The decrease in explosive load also
results in a decrease in ground vibrations. When all of these factors are taken together, it
results in quarry operations that have successfully minimized many of the common
problems that are associated with blasting.

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Conclusion
With a few minor modifications, the mathematical model that was used can easily
be modified to reflect the real world. The nature of the granite can be reflected in the
model by using c values of .4 and .5 kg/m^3, which would cause the burden to be 19-21
feet, under ten percent off of actual blast patterns. The height of the base charge can also
be decreased by the substitution of a more powerful explosive in the hole. This more
powerful explosive would also decrease the amount of explosives loaded into a hole, thus
decreasing the total pounds of explosives in the hole to observed totals. With these few
modifications of the model it is safe to say that:
1) The Langefors/Khilstrom model can be modified to accurately represents the
conditions at Aggregate Industrys, Morrison Quarry.
2) Ground vibrations, air blast, and fly rock have been successfully minimized at
the Morrison Quarry through the design of their blasts.
3) The Morrison Quarry should conduct future tests on the effects of presplitting.
4) The base charge of a 5 x 30 could be replaced instead by a larger ANFO
column for holes that aren t wet, further decreasing the cost of operations.

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Appendix A. Langefors/Kihlstrom Model

Maximum burden can be calculated by using the Langefors equation to find the
maximum burden spacing (Bmax). Langefors' equation makes use of the hole diameter,
loading density, weight strength of the explosive and the ratio of spacing to burden to
find the optimal maximum burden spacing.

d=hole diameter
p=packing degree of explosive
s=weight strength of explosive (ANFO=1)
c=rock constant (specific gravity)
f=degree of fixation (vertical=1)
S/B=ratio of spacing to burden

For ANFO, this equation can be simplified down to:

The numbers for the variables lb, R1 , and R2 can be found in tables A1, A2, and
A3 respectively.

Table A1- Charge concentration for different blasthole diameters and different
explosives:
Blasthole 51 64 76 89 102 127 152
diameter (mm)
ANFO (kg/m) 1.6 2.6 3.6 5.0 6.5 10.1 14.5

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Table A2- Correction of Bmax for different hole inclinations.

Inclinati Vertical 10:1 5:1 3:1 2:1 1:1
on
R1 .95 .96 .98 1.00 1.03 1.10

Table A3- Correction for Bmax for different rock constant c.

c .3 .4 .5
R2 1.15 1.00 .90

Tables From, The Modern Technique of Rock Blasting, Langefors/Kilhstrom

With the maximum burden calculated the amount of hole that must be sub drilled
to maintain a level grade after the blast must be calculated. The variable for sub drilling,
U, must be at least 10 times greater than the diameter of the hole.

Also, when considering the depth of the hole, the inclination of the hole must be
taken into account. For example, in a 3:1 inclination blasthole, 5 cm/m must be added to
the length of the hole.

Errors in drilling (E) caused by poor locating of holes, rock conditions, or poor
collaring must also be considered. The practical burden (B) is Bmax minus the drilling
error. For a quick check, the burden expressed in meters should be approximately the

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blasthole diameter expressed in inches. Calculations for E and B are shown below:

The spacing of the blast holes (S) is quite easily found by taking B and
multiplying it by 1.25. If a finer fragmentation of the materials being mined is desired,
than a decrease in the spacing should be considered, with the opposite being true if more
coarse fragmentation is needed.

Specific drilling (b) can then be calculated by:

Where n is the number of holes in one of the rows. Specific drilling is the depth of holes
(in meters) that must be drilled to fracture one cubic meter of rock.
To fracture the rock in the bottom of the blasthole, the charge concentration for
the calculation of Bmax should be used (lb ). The height of the bottom charge is as follows:

The bottom charge is calculated by:

The stemming (ho ) is normally equal to the burden:

Gravel with a particle size of 4 to 9 mm should be used because research concludes that
this size gives the best confinement of explosive gases. Drill fines should never be used
as stemming. If the stemming is less than the burden, fly rock will increase, but
fragmentation will increase as the number of boulders decreases. If the stemming is
greater than the burden, the amount of fly rock will decrease while the number of
boulders will increase, and fragmentation will decrease.

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The column charge (lc) fractures the rock above the bottom charge, and since this
part of the blasthole is less constricted, the column charge concentration can be 40 to 60
% of the bottom charge concentration (lb ).

The height of the column charge is what is left after subtracting out the bottom charge
and the stemming as shown by:

Then the column charge is calculated by:

The total charge per hole can then be calculated by adding the figures for the
bottom charge and the column charge as shown by:

The specific charge (q) is calculated in a similar method as the specific drilling (b)
for quarries and open pit mines:

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Appendix B. Scaled Distance

Scaled distance is used to calculate the amount of explosives that can be used on
each given 8 ms delay given the distance to the nearest structure. Scaled distance takes
into account the maximum allowable peak particle velocity as mentioned in table B2.
The equation for this is shown as:

Table B1 - Scaled distance factors permitted for various distances from blast site
Distance from blast site Scaled distance factor to be used without
seismic monitoring
0-300 ft or 0-90 m 50
301-5000 ft or 91-1500 m 55
+5001 ft or +1501 m 65

Table B2 - Maximum Permitted Particle Velocities at Various Distances

Distance from blast site Maximum allowable peak particle velocity
0-300 ft or 0-90 m 1.25 in/sec or 3.18 cm/s
301-5000 ft or 91-1500 m 1.00 in/sec or 2.52 cm/s
+5001 ft or +1501 m 0.75 in/sec or 1.91 cm/s

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Tables From Surface Coal Mining Methods Course Notes, M.J. Hrebar

Appendix C. Blast Design Recommendations

Recommendations are listed below for a typical 60 foot hole in hard and soft rock.

Lower Quality Granite (c=.4)

Burden Spacing Column Stemming Base Charge
Height
21.75 21.75 43 15 2

Higher Quality Granite (c=.5)

Burden Spacing Column Stemming Base Charge
Height
18.665 18.665 43 15 2

Bench Blast Optimization