PLAXIS Version 8

Reference Manual
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction..................................................................................................1-1
2 General information ....................................................................................2-1
2.1 Units and sign conventions ....................................................................2-1
2.2 File handling ..........................................................................................2-3
2.3 Input procedures.....................................................................................2-4
2.4 Help facilities .........................................................................................2-4
3 Input pre-processing....................................................................................3-1
3.1 The input program..................................................................................3-1
3.2 The input menu ......................................................................................3-4
3.2.1 Reading an existing project........................................................3-6
3.2.2 General settings..........................................................................3-7
3.3 Geometry .............................................................................................3-11
3.3.1 Points and lines ........................................................................3-12
3.3.2 Plates........................................................................................3-13
3.3.3 Hinges and rotation springs......................................................3-15
3.3.4 Geogrids...................................................................................3-16
3.3.5 Interfaces..................................................................................3-17
3.3.6 Node-to-node anchors ..............................................................3-21
3.3.7 Fixed-end anchors ....................................................................3-21
3.3.8 Tunnels.....................................................................................3-22
3.4 Loads and boundary conditions ...........................................................3-27
3.4.1 Prescribed displacements .........................................................3-27
3.4.2 Fixities .....................................................................................3-28
3.4.3 Standard fixities .......................................................................3-29
3.4.4 Distributed loads ......................................................................3-29
3.4.5 Point loads................................................................................3-30
3.4.6 Rotation fixities........................................................................3-31
3.4.7 Drains.......................................................................................3-32
3.4.8 Wells ........................................................................................3-32
3.5 Material properties ...............................................................................3-32
3.5.1 Modelling of soil behaviour .....................................................3-35
3.5.2 Material data sets for soil and interfaces ..................................3-36
3.5.3 Material model .........................................................................3-37
3.5.4 Type of material behaviour - Material type .............................3-38
3.5.5 Saturated and unsaturated weight (γsat and γunsat ) .....................3-40
3.5.6 Permeabilities (kx and ky).........................................................3-40
3.5.7 Advanced general properties....................................................3-41
3.5.8 Young's modulus (E)................................................................3-42
3.5.9 Poisson's ratio (ν).....................................................................3-43
3.5.10 Alternative stiffness parameters...............................................3-44

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3.5.11 Cohesion (c).............................................................................3-44

3.5.12 Friction angle (ϕ) .....................................................................3-44
3.5.13 Dilatancy angle (ψ)..................................................................3-45
3.5.14 Advanced Mohr-Coulomb parameters.....................................3-46
3.5.15 Interface strength (Rinter )..........................................................3-48
3.5.16 Material data sets for plates .....................................................3-52
3.5.17 Material data sets for geogrids .................................................3-54
3.5.18 Material data sets for anchors ..................................................3-55
3.5.19 Assigning data sets to geometry components ..........................3-55
3.6 Mesh generation................................................................................... 3-56
3.6.1 Basic element Type..................................................................3-57
3.6.2 Global coarseness ....................................................................3-57
3.6.3 Global refinement ....................................................................3-58
3.6.4 Local coarseness ......................................................................3-58
3.6.5 Local refinement ......................................................................3-58
3.6.6 Advised mesh generation practice ...........................................3-59
3.7 Initial conditions .................................................................................. 3-59
3.8 Water conditions.................................................................................. 3-59
3.8.1 Water weight............................................................................3-60
3.8.2 Phreatic levels ..........................................................................3-60
3.8.3 Boundary conditions for groundwater flow calculations .........3-65
3.8.4 Water pressure generation........................................................3-67
3.8.5 Steady-state Groundwater flow calculation .............................3-69
3.8.6 Closed consolidation boundaries .............................................3-72
3.9 Initial geometry configuration ............................................................. 3-73
3.9.1 De-activating loads and geometry objects ...............................3-73
3.9.2 Viewing or re-assigning material data sets ..............................3-74
3.9.3 Initial stress generation (K0-procedure) ...................................3-74
3.10 Starting calculations............................................................................. 3-76
4 Calculations..................................................................................................4-1
4.1 The calculations program....................................................................... 4-1
4.2 The calculations menu ........................................................................... 4-3
4.3 Defining a calculation phase.................................................................. 4-4
4.3.1 Inserting and deleting calculation phases...................................4-5
4.4 General calculation settings ................................................................... 4-5
4.4.1 Phase identification and ordering...............................................4-6
4.4.2 Calculation types........................................................................4-7
4.5 Load stepping procedures ...................................................................... 4-9
4.5.1 Automatic step size procedures................................................4-10
4.5.2 Load advancement ultimate level ............................................4-11
4.5.3 Load advancement number of steps.........................................4-11
4.5.4 Automatic time stepping (consolidation) .................................4-12
4.6 Calculation control parameters ............................................................ 4-12
4.6.1 Iterative procedure control parameters ....................................4-14

ii PLAXIS Version 8
 4.6.2 Loading input ...........................................................................4-20
4.7 Staged construction..............................................................................4-24
4.7.1 Changing geometry configuration............................................4-25
4.7.2 Activating and deactivating clusters or structural objects........4-25
4.7.3 Activating or changing loads ...................................................4-27
4.7.4 Applying prescribed displacements .........................................4-28
4.7.5 Reassigning material data sets .................................................4-29
4.7.6 Applying a volumetric strain in volume clusters......................4-30
4.7.7 Pre-stressing of anchors ...........................................................4-31
4.7.8 Applying contraction of a tunnel lining ...................................4-32
4.7.9 Changing water pressure distribution.......................................4-32
4.7.10 Plastic Nil-Step ........................................................................4-33
4.7.11 Staged construction with ΣMstage<1.......................................4-34
4.7.12 Unfinished staged construction calculation..............................4-35
4.8 Load multipliers ...................................................................................4-36
4.8.1 Standard load multipliers .........................................................4-37
4.8.2 Other multipliers and calculation parameters...........................4-40
4.9 Phi-c-Reduction ...................................................................................4-41
4.10 Updated mesh analysis.........................................................................4-42
4.11 Previewing a construction stage...........................................................4-44
4.12 Selecting points for curves...................................................................4-44
4.13 Execution of the calculation process....................................................4-45
4.13.1 Starting the calculation process................................................4-45
4.13.2 Multiple projects ......................................................................4-46
4.13.3 The calculation manager ..........................................................4-46
4.13.4 Aborting a calculation ..............................................................4-46
4.14 Output during calculations ...................................................................4-46
4.15 Selecting calculation phases for output................................................4-49
4.16 Adjustments to input data in between calculations ..............................4-50
4.17 Automatic error checks ........................................................................4-50
5 Output data post processing .......................................................................5-1
5.1 The output program................................................................................5-1
5.2 The output menu ....................................................................................5-2
5.3 Selecting output steps ............................................................................5-4
5.4 Deformations .........................................................................................5-6
5.4.1 Deformed mesh ..........................................................................5-6
5.4.2 Total, horizontal and vertical displacements..............................5-6
5.4.3 Incremental displacements .........................................................5-6
5.4.4 Total strains................................................................................5-7
5.4.5 Cartesian strains .........................................................................5-7
5.4.6 Incremental strains .....................................................................5-7
5.4.7 Cartesian strain increments ........................................................5-8
5.5 Stresses ..................................................................................................5-8
5.5.1 Effective stresses........................................................................5-8

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5.5.2 Total stresses..............................................................................5-9

5.5.3 Cartesian effective stresses ........................................................5-9
5.5.4 Cartesian total stresses .............................................................5-10
5.5.5 overconsolidation ratio ............................................................5-10
5.5.6 Plastic points ............................................................................5-11
5.5.7 Active pore pressures...............................................................5-11
5.5.8 Excess pore pressures ..............................................................5-11
5.5.9 Groundwater head....................................................................5-12
5.5.10 Flow field.................................................................................5-12
5.5.11 Degree of saturation.................................................................5-12
5.6 Structures and interfaces...................................................................... 5-13
5.6.1 Plates........................................................................................5-13
5.6.2 Geogrids...................................................................................5-14
5.6.3 Interfaces..................................................................................5-14
5.6.4 Anchors....................................................................................5-15
5.7 Viewing output tables .......................................................................... 5-15
5.8 Viewing output in a cross-section........................................................ 5-16
5.9 Viewing other data............................................................................... 5-17
5.9.1 General project information .....................................................5-17
5.9.2 Material data ............................................................................5-17
5.9.3 Multipliers and calculation parameters ....................................5-18
5.9.4 Connectivity plot......................................................................5-18
5.9.5 Contraction ..............................................................................5-19
5.9.6 Overview of plot viewing facilities..........................................5-19
5.10 Report generation................................................................................. 5-20
5.11 Exporting data...................................................................................... 5-21
6 Load-displacement curves and stress paths...............................................6-1
6.1 The curves program ............................................................................... 6-1
6.2 The curves menu.................................................................................... 6-2
6.3 Curve generation.................................................................................... 6-3
6.4 Multiple curves in one chart .................................................................. 6-6
6.5 Regeneration of curves .......................................................................... 6-7
6.6 Formatting options................................................................................. 6-7
6.6.1 Curve settings ............................................................................6-7
6.6.2 Frame settings ............................................................................6-9
6.7 Viewing a legend ................................................................................. 6-11
6.8 Viewing a table .................................................................................... 6-12
7 References.....................................................................................................7-1

Index
Appendix A - Generation of initial stresses
Appendix B - Program and data file structure

iv PLAXIS Version 8
 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

PLAXIS is a special purpose two-dimensional finite element computer program used to

perform deformation and stability analyses for various types of geotechnical
applications. Real situations may be modelled either by a plane strain or an
axisymmetric model. The program uses a convenient graphical user interface that
enables users to quickly generate a geometry model and finite element mesh based on a
representative vertical cross-section of the situation at hand. Users need to be familiar
with the Windows environment. To obtain a quick working knowledge of the main
features of PLAXIS, users should work through the example problems contained in the
Tutorial Manual.
The Reference Manual is intended for users who wish to obtain more detailed
information about the program features. The manual covers topics that are not covered
exhaustively in the Tutorial Manual. It also contains practical details on how to use
PLAXIS for a wide variety of problem types.
The user interface consists of four sub-programs (Input, Calculations, Output and
Curves). The contents of this Reference Manual are arranged according to these four
sub-programs and their respective options as listed in the corresponding menus. This
manual does not contain detailed information about the constitutive models, the finite
element formulations or the non-linear solution algorithms used in the program. For
detailed information on these and other related subjects, users are referred to the various
papers listed in Chapter 7, the Scientific Manual and the Material Models Manual.

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1-2 PLAXIS Version 8

 GENERAL INFORMATION

2 GENERAL INFORMATION

Before describing the specific features in the four parts of the PLAXIS user interface, this
first Chapter is devoted to some general information that applies to all parts of the
program.

2.1 UNITS AND SIGN CONVENTIONS

Units
It is important in any analysis to adopt a consistent system of units. At the start of the
input of a geometry, a suitable set of basic units should be selected from a list of
standard units. The basic units comprise a unit for length, force and time. These basic
units are defined in the General settings window of the Input program. Table 2.1 gives
an overview of all available units, the [default] settings and conversion factors to the
default units. All subsequent input data should conform to the selected system of units
and the output data should be interpreted in terms of this same system. From the basic
set of units the appropriate unit for the input of a particular parameter is generally listed
directly behind the edit box or, when using input tables, above the input column. In this
way input errors due to wrong units are reduced. In all of the examples given in the
PLAXIS manuals, the default units are used.

Table 2.1 Available units and their conversion factor to the default units
Length Conversion Force Conversion Time Conversion
mm = 0.001 m N = 0.001 kN s (sec) = 1/86400 day
[m] =1m [kN] = 1 kN min = 1/1440 day
in (inch) = 0.0254 m MN = 1000 kN hr = 1/24 day
ft (feet) = 0.3048 m lb (pound) = 0.0044482 kN [day] = 1 day
klb
= 4.4482 kN
(kilopound)

For convenience, the units of commonly used quantities in two different sets of units are
listed below:
Standard Different
Basic units: Length metre [m] feet [ft]
Force kilonewton [kN] kilo pound [klb]
Time day [day] second [sec]

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Geometry: Coordinates [m] [ft]

Displacements [m] [ft]
2
Material properties: Young's modulus [kPa] = [kN/m ] [kips] = [klb/sq ft]
Cohesion [kPa] [kips]
Friction angle [deg.] [deg.]
Dilatancy angle [deg.] [deg.]
3
Unit weight [kN/m ] [klb/cu ft]
Permeability [m/day] [ft/sec]
Forces & stresses: Point loads [kN] [klb]
Line loads [kN/m] [klb/ft]
Distributed loads [kPa] [kips]
Stresses [kPa] [kips]
Units are generally only used as a reference for the user but, to some extend, changing
the basic units in the General settings will automatically convert existing input values to
the new units. This applies to parameters in material data sets and other material
properties in the Input program. It does not apply to geometry related input values like
geometry data, loads, prescribed displacements or phreatic levels or to any value outside
the Input program. If it is the user's intention to use a different system of units in an
existing project, the user has to modify all geometrical data manually and redo all
calculations.
In a plane strain analysis, the calculated forces resulting from prescribed displacements
represent forces per unit length in the out of plane direction (z-direction; see Figure 2.1).
In an axisymmetric analysis, the calculated forces (Force-X, Force-Y) are those that act
on the boundary of a circle subtending an angle of 1 radian. In order to obtain the forces
corresponding to the complete problem therefore, these forces should be multiplied by a
factor of 2π. All other output for axisymmetric problems is given per unit width and not
per radian.

Sign convention
The generation of a two-dimensional finite element model in PLAXIS is based on a
geometry model. This geometry model is created in the x-y plane of the global
coordinate system (Figure 2.1), whereas the z-direction is the out-of-plane direction. In
the global coordinate system the positive z-direction is pointing towards the user.
Although PLAXIS version 8 is a 2D program, stresses are based on the 3D Cartesian
coordinate system shown in Figure 2.1. In a plane strain analysis σzz is the out-of-plane
stress. In an axisymmetric analysis, x represents the radial coordinate, y represents the

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 GENERAL INFORMATION

axial coordinate and z represents the tangential direction. In this case, σxx represents the
radial stress and σzz represents the hoop stress.

σyy

y
σyx
σyz σxy
σzy
σxx
x
σxz
z σzz σzx

Figure 2.1 Coordinate system and indication of positive stress components.

In all of the output data, compressive stresses and forces, including pore pressures, are
taken to be negative, whereas tensile stresses and forces are taken to be positive. Figure
2.1 shows the positive stress directions.

2.2 FILE HANDLING

All file handling in PLAXIS is done using a modified version of the general Windows®
file requester (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 PLAXIS file requester

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REFERENCE MANUAL

With the file requester, it is possible to search for files in any admissible directory of the
computer (and network) environment. The main file used to store information for a
PLAXIS project has a structured format and is named <project>.PLX, where <project>
is the project title. Besides this file, additional data is stored in multiple files in the sub-
directory <project>.DTA. It is generally not necessary to enter such a directory because
it is not possible to read individual files in this directory.
If a PLAXIS project file (*.PLX) is selected, a small bitmap of the corresponding project
geometry is shown in the file requester to enable a quick and easy recognition of a
project.

2.3 INPUT PROCEDURES

In PLAXIS, input is given by a mixture of mouse clicking and moving and by keyboard
input. In general, distinction can be made between four types of input:
Input of geometry objects (e.g. drawing a soil layer)
Input of text (e.g. entering a project name)
Input of values (e.g. entering the model parameters)
Input of selections (e.g. choosing a soil model)
The mouse is generally used for drawing and selection purposes, whereas the keyboard
is used to enter text and values. These input procedures are described in detail in Section
2.3 of the Tutorial Manual.

2.4 HELP FACILITIES

To inform the user about the various program options and features, the user interface is
equipped with on-line help facilities. The general help facility can be activated by
selecting the options from the Help menu. Pressing the Help button in a window or
pressing the <F1> key on the keyboard activates context-sensitive help. On pressing the
Help button, general information about a particular window or feature is provided,
whereas pressing the <F1> key provides specific information about a particular
parameter.
Many program features are available as buttons in a tool bar. When the mouse pointer is
positioned on a button for more than a second, a short description ('hint') appears in a
yellow flag, indicating the function of the button.

2-4 PLAXIS Version 8

 INPUT PRE-PROCESSING

3 INPUT PRE-PROCESSING

To carry out a finite element analysis using PLAXIS, the user has to create a finite
element model and specify the material properties and boundary conditions. This is done
in the Input program. To set up a finite element model, the user must create a two-
dimensional geometry model composed of points, lines and other components, in the x-
y-plane. The generation of an appropriate finite element mesh and the generation of
properties and boundary conditions on an element level is automatically performed by
the PLAXIS mesh generator based on the input of the geometry model. Users may also
customise the finite element mesh in order to gain optimum performance. The final part
of the input comprises the generation of water pressures and initial effective stresses to
set the initial state.
When a geometry model is created in the Input program it is suggested that the different
input items are selected in the order given by the second tool bar (from left to right). In
principle, first draw the geometry contour, then add the soil layers, then structural
objects, then construction layers, then boundary conditions and then loadings. Using this
procedure, the second tool bar acts as a guide through the Input program and ensures
that all necessary input items are dealt with. Of course, not all input options are
generally required for any particular analysis. For example, some structural objects or
loading types might not be used when only soil loading is considered, or the generation
of water pressures may be omitted if the situation is completely dry, or the initial stress
generation may be omitted if the initial stress field is calculated by means of gravity
loading. Nevertheless, by following the tool bar the user is reminded of the various input
items and will select the ones that are of interest. PLAXIS will also give warning
messages if some necessary input has not been specified. When changing an existing
model, it is important to realise that the finite element mesh and, if applicable, the initial
conditions must be regenerated to make them in agreement with the updated model. This
is also checked by PLAXIS. On following these procedures the user can be confident that
a consistent finite element model is obtained.

3.1 THE INPUT PROGRAM

This icon represents the Input program. The Input program contains all facilities
to create and to modify a geometry model, to generate a corresponding finite
element mesh and to generate initial conditions. The generation of the initial
conditions is done in a separate mode of the Input program (Initial conditions mode).
The description is first focused on the creation of a geometry model and a finite element
mesh (Geometry creation mode).

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Main Menu

Toolbar (Geometry)
Toolbar (General)
Ruler

Ruler
Draw area

Origin

Manual Input Cursor position indicator

Figure 3.1 Main window of the Input program (Geometry creation mode)

At the start of the Input program a dialog box appears in which a choice must be made
between the selection of an existing project and the creation of a new project. When
selecting New project the General settings window appears in which the basic model
parameters of the new project can be set (Section 3.2.2 General settings).
When selecting Existing project, the dialog box allows for a quick selection of one of
the four most recent projects. If an existing project is to be selected that does not appear
in the list, the option <<<More files>>> can be used. As a result, the file requester
appears which enables the user to browse through all available directories and to select
the desired PLAXIS project file (*.PLX). After the selection of an existing project, the
corresponding geometry is presented in the main window.
The main window of the Input program contains the following items (Figure 3.1)

Input menu:
The Input menu contains all input items and operation facilities of the Input
program. Most items are also available as buttons in the tool bar.

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 INPUT PRE-PROCESSING

Tool bar (General):

This tool bar contains buttons for general actions such as disk operations,
printing, zooming or selecting objects. It also contains buttons to start the other
sub-programs (Calculations, Output, Curves).

Tool bar (Geometry):

This tool bar contains buttons for actions that are related to the creation of a
geometry model. The buttons are ordered in such a way that, in general,
following the buttons on the tool bar from the left to the right results in a fully
defined model.

Rulers:
At both the left and the top of the draw area, rulers indicate the physical x- and
y-coordinates of the geometry model. This enables a direct view of the
geometry dimensions. The rulers can be switched off in the View sub-menu.
When clicking on the rulers the General settings window appears in which the
geometry dimensions can be changed.

Draw area:
The draw area is the drawing sheet on which the geometry model is created and
modified. The creation and modification of a geometry model is mainly done
by means of the mouse, but for some options a direct keyboard input is
available (see below, Manual input). The draw area can be used in the same
way as a conventional drawing program. The grid of small dots in the draw
area can be used to snap to regular positions.

Axes:
If the physical origin is within the range of given dimensions it is presented by
a small circle in which the x- and y-axes are indicated by arrows. The indication
of the axes can be switched off in the View sub-menu.

Manual input:
If drawing with the mouse does not give the desired accuracy, the Manual input
line can be used. Values for the x- and y-coordinates can be entered here by
typing the required values separated by a space (x-value <space> y-value).
Manual input of coordinates can be given for all objects, except for Hinges and
Rotation fixities.

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Instead of the input of absolute coordinates, increments with respect to the

previous point can be given by typing an @ directly in front of the value (@x-
value <space> @y-value).
In addition to the input of coordinates, existing geometry points may be
selected by their number.

Cursor position indicator:

The cursor position indicator gives the current position of the mouse cursor
both in physical units (x,y-coordinates) and in screen pixels.

3.2 THE INPUT MENU

The main menu of the Input program contains pull-down sub-menus covering most
options for handling files, transferring data, viewing graphs, creating a geometry model,
generating finite element meshes and entering data in general. Distinction can be made
between the menu of the Geometry creation mode and the menu of the Initial conditions
mode. In the Geometry creation mode, the menu consists of the sub-menus File, Edit,
View, Geometry, Loads, Materials, Mesh, Initial and Help. In the Initial conditions
mode the menu shows the sub-menus File, Edit, View, Geometry, Generate and Help.

The File sub-menu:

New To create a new project. The General settings window is
presented.
Open To open an existing project. The file requester is presented.
Save To save the current project under the existing name. If a name
has not been given before, the file requester is presented.
Save as To save the current project under a new name. The file
requester is presented.
Print To print the geometry model on a selected printer. The print
window is presented.
Work directory To set the default directory where PLAXIS project files will be
stored.
Import To import geometry data from other file types (Section 3.2.1).
General settings To set the basic parameters of the model (Section 3.2.2).
(recent projects) Convenient way to open one of the four most recently edited
projects.
Exit To leave the Input program.

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 INPUT PRE-PROCESSING

The Edit sub-menu:

Undo To restore a previous status of the geometry model (after an
input error). Repetitive use of the undo option is limited to the
10 most recent actions.
Copy To copy the geometry model to the Windows clipboard.

The View sub-menu:

Zoom in To zoom into a rectangular area for a more detailed view.
After selection, the zoom area must be indicated using the
mouse. Press the left mouse button at a corner of the zoom
area; hold the mouse button down and move the mouse to the
opposite corner of the zoom area; then release the button. The
program will zoom into the selected area. The zoom option
may be used repetitively.
Zoom out To restore the view to before the most recent zoom action.
Reset view To restore the full draw area.
Table To view the table with the x- and y-coordinates of all geometry
points. The table may be used to adjust existing coordinates.
Rulers To show or hide the rulers along the draw area.
Cross hair To show or hide the cross hair during the creation of a
geometry model.
Grid To show or hide the grid in the draw area.
Axes To show or hide the arrows indicating the x- and y-axes.
Snap to grid To activate or deactivate the snapping into the regular grid
points.
Point numbers To show or hide the geometry point numbers.
Chain numbers To show or hide the 'chain' numbers of geometry objects.
'Chains' are clusters of similar geometry objects that are drawn
in one drawing action without intermediately pressing the right
hand mouse button or the <Esc> key.

The Geometry sub-menu:

The Geometry sub-menu contains the basic options to compose a geometry
model. In addition to a normal geometry line, the user may select plates,
geogrids, interfaces, anchors, tunnels, hinges/rotation springs, drains and wells.
The various options in this sub-menu are explained in detail in Section 3.3.

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The Loads sub-menu:

The Loads sub-menu contains the options to add loads and boundary conditions
to the geometry model. The various options in this sub-menu are explained in
Section 3.4.

The Materials sub-menu:

The Materials sub-menu is used to activate the data base engine for the creation
and modification of material data sets for soil and interfaces, plates, geogrids
and anchors. The use of the data base and the parameters contained in the data
sets are described in detail in Section 3.5.

The Mesh sub-menu:

The Mesh sub-menu contains the options to set the basic element type, to
generate a finite element mesh and to apply a local or global mesh refinement.
The options in this sub-menu are explained in detail in Section 3.6.

The Initial sub-menu:

The Initial sub-menu contains the option to proceed to the Initial conditions
mode of the Input program.

The Geometry sub-menu of the Initial conditions mode:

This sub-menu contains the options to enter the unit weight of water, to draw a
phreatic level or to create additional boundary conditions for groundwater flow
or consolidation analyses. The options in this sub-menu are explained in detail
in Section 3.8.

The Generate sub-menu of the Initial conditions mode:

This sub-menu contains options to generate initial water pressures or initial
effective stresses. The options in this sub-menu are explained in detail in
Section 3.8 and 3.9.

3.2.1 READING AN EXISTING PROJECT

An existing PLAXIS project can be read by selecting the Open option in the File menu.
The default directory that appears in the file requester is the directory where all program
files are stored during installation. This default directory can be changed by means of
the Work directory option in the File menu. In the file requester, the Files of type is, by
default, set to 'PLAXIS (2D) project files (*.PLX)', which means that the program
searches for files with the extension .PLX. After the selection of such a file and clicking
on the Open button, the corresponding geometry is presented in the draw area.

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 INPUT PRE-PROCESSING

Although the file structure of PLAXIS Version 8 projects is slightly different from
Version 7, it is possible to select 'old' projects, after which they are automatically
converted to Version 8.
It is also possible to read geometry files of the GeoDelft M-series using the Import
option. In this case the Files of type should be set to 'M-series geometry files (*.GEO)'.
This option can only be used to read geometry data; soil data is not imported. If such a
file is selected and the Open button is pressed, the corresponding data is read and the
corresponding geometry is presented in the draw area. This geometry is considered to be
a new geometry model and not an extension to an existing model. If the number of
geometry points is very large, the option may not work properly.

3.2.2 GENERAL SETTINGS

The General settings window appears at the start of new problem and may later be
selected from the File sub-menu. The General settings window contains the two tab
sheets Project and Dimensions. The Project tab sheet contains the project name and
description, the type of model and acceleration data. The Dimensions tab sheet contains
the basic units for length, force and time (Section 2.1) and the dimensions of the draw
area.

Figure 3.2 General settings window (Project tab sheet)

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Model:
PLAXIS Version 8 may be used to carry out two-dimensional finite element
analyses. Finite element models may be either Plane strain or Axisymmetric.
Separate PLAXIS programs are available for 3D analyses. The default setting of
the Model parameter is Plane strain.
A Plane strain model is used for geometries with a (more or less) uniform
cross section and corresponding stress state and loading scheme over a certain
length perpendicular to the cross section (z-direction). Displacements and
strains in z-direction are assumed to be zero. However, normal stresses in z-
direction are fully taken into account.
An Axisymmetric model is used for circular structures with a (more or less)
uniform radial cross section and loading scheme around the central axis, where
the deformation and stress state are assumed to be identical in any radial
direction. Note that for axisymmetric problems the x-coordinate represents the
radius and the y-coordinate corresponds to the axial line of symmetry. Negative
x-coordinates cannot be used.
The selection of Plane strain or Axisymmetric results in a two dimensional
finite element model with only two translational degrees of freedom per node
(x- and y-direction).

y y

x x

Figure 3.3 Example of a plane strain and axisymmetric problem

Elements:
The user may select either 6-node or 15-node triangular elements (Figure 3.2)
to model soil layers and other volume clusters. The 15-node triangle is the
default element. It provides a fourth order interpolation for displacements and
the numerical integration involves twelve Gauss points (stress points). For the
6-node triangle the order of interpolation is two and the numerical integration
involves three Gauss points. The type of element for structural elements and

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interfaces is automatically taken to be compatible with the soil element type as

selected here.
The 15-node triangle is a very accurate element that has produced high quality stress
results for difficult problems, as for example in collapse calculations for incompressible
soils (Refs. 8, 12, 13). The use of 15-node triangles leads to relatively high memory
consumption and relatively slow calculation and operation performance. Therefore a
more simple type of elements is also available.
The 6-node triangle is a fairly accurate element that gives good results in standard
deformation analyses, provided that a sufficient number of elements are used. However,
care should be taken with axisymmetric models or in situations where (possible) failure
plays a role, such as a bearing capacity calculation or a safety analysis by means of phi-c
reduction. Failure loads or safety factors are generally overpredicted using 6-noded
elements. In those cases the use of 15-node elements is preferred.
One 15-node element can be thought of a composition of four 6-node elements, since the
total number of nodes and stress points is equal. Nevertheless, one 15-node element is
more powerful than four 6-node elements.

Figure 3.4 Position of nodes and stress points in soil elements

In addition to the soil elements, compatible plate elements are used to simulate the
behaviour of walls, plates and shells (Section 3.3.2) and geogrid elements are used to
simulate the behaviour of geogrids and wovens (Section 3.3.4). Moreover, compatible
interface elements are used to simulate soil-structure interaction (Section 3.3.5). Finally,
the geometry creation mode allows for the input of fixed-end anchors and node-to-node
anchors (Section 3.3.6 and 3.3.7).

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Gravity and acceleration:

By default, the earth gravity acceleration, g, is set to 9.8 m/s2 and the direction
of gravity coincides with the negative y-axis, i.e. an orientation of –90° in the
x-y-plane. Gravity is implicitly included in the unit weights given by the user
(Section 3.5.2). In this way, the gravity is controlled by the total load multiplier
for weights of materials, ΣMweight (Section 4.8.1).
In addition to the normal gravity the user may prescribe an independent
acceleration to model dynamic forces in a pseudo-static way. The input values
of the x- and y-acceleration components are expressed in terms of the normal
gravity acceleration g and entered in the Project tab sheet of the General
settings window. The activation of the additional acceleration in calculations is
controlled by the load multipliers Maccel and ΣMaccel (Section 4.8.1).
In real dynamic calculations (available as a separate PLAXIS module) the value
of the gravity acceleration, g, is used to calculate the material density, ρ, from
the unit of weight, γ (ρ = γ/g).

Units:
Units for length, force and time to be used in the analysis are defined when the
input data are specified. These basic units are entered in the Dimensions tab
sheet of the General settings window.

Figure 3.5 General settings window (Dimensions tab sheet)

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The default units, as suggested by the program, are m (metre) for length, kN
(kiloNewton) for force and day for time. The corresponding units for stress and unit
weights are listed in the box below the basic units.
All input values should be given in a consistent set of units (Section 2.1). The
appropriate unit of a certain input value is usually given directly behind the edit box,
based on the basic set of units.

Dimensions:
At the start of a new project, the user needs to specify the dimensions of the
draw area in such a way that the geometry model that is to be created will fit
within the dimensions. The dimensions are entered in the Dimensions tab sheet
of the General settings window. The dimensions of the draw area do not
influence the geometry itself and may be changed when modifying an existing
project, provided that the existing geometry fits within the modified
dimensions. Clicking on the rulers in the geometry creation mode may be used
as a shortcut to proceed to the input of the geometry dimensions in the General
settings window.

Grid:
To facilitate the creation of the geometry model, the user may define a grid for
the draw area. This grid may be used to snap the pointer into certain 'regular'
positions. The grid is defined by means of the parameters Spacing and Number
of intervals. The Spacing is used to set up a coarse grid, indicated by the small
dots on the draw area. The actual grid is the coarse grid divided into the
Number of intervals. The default number of intervals is 1, which gives a grid
equal to the coarse grid. The grid specification is entered in the Dimensions tab
sheet of the General settings window. The View sub-menu may be used to
activate or deactivate the grid and snapping option.

3.3 GEOMETRY

The generation of a finite element model begins with the creation of a geometry model,
which is a representation of the problem of interest. A geometry model consists of
points, lines and clusters. Points and lines are entered by the user, whereas clusters are
generated by the program. In addition to these basic components, structural objects or
special conditions can be assigned to the geometry model to simulate tunnel linings,
walls, plates, soil-structure interaction or loadings.
It is recommended to start the creation of a geometry model by drawing the full
geometry contour. In addition, the user may specify material layers, structural objects,
lines used for construction phases, loads and boundary conditions. The geometry model

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should not only include the initial situation, but also situations that occur in the various
calculation phases.
After the geometry components of the geometry model have been created, the user
should compose data sets of material parameters and assign the data sets to the
corresponding geometry components (Section 3.5). When the full geometry model has
been defined and all geometry components have their initial properties, the finite
element mesh can be generated (Section 3.6).

Selecting geometry components

When the Selection tool (red arrow) is active, a geometry component may be
selected by clicking once on that component in the geometry model. Multiple
components of the same type can be selected simultaneously by holding down
the Shift key on the keyboard while selecting the desired components.

Properties of geometry components

Most geometry components have certain properties, which can be viewed and altered in
property windows. After double clicking a geometry component the corresponding
property window appears. If more than one object is located on the indicated point, a
selection dialog box appears from which the desired component can be selected.

3.3.1 POINTS AND LINES

The basic input item for the creation of a geometry model is the Geometry line.
This item can be selected from the Geometry sub-menu as well as from the
second tool bar.
When the Geometry line option is selected, the user may create points and lines in the
draw area by clicking with the mouse pointer (graphical input) or by typing coordinates
at the command line (keyboard input). As soon as the left hand mouse button is clicked
in the draw area a new point is created, provided that there is no existing point close to
the pointer position. If there is an existing point close to the pointer, the pointer snaps
into the existing point without generating a new point. After the first point is created, the
user may draw a line by entering another point, etc.. The drawing of points and lines
continues until the right hand mouse button is clicked at any position or the <Esc> key is
pressed.
If a point is to be created on or close to an existing line, the pointer snaps onto the line
and creates a new point exactly on that line. As a result, the line is split into two new
lines. If a line crosses an existing line, a new point is created at the crossing of both
lines. As a result, both lines are split into two new lines. If a line is drawn that partly
coincides with an existing line, the program makes sure that over the range where the
two lines coincide only one line is present. All these procedures guarantee that a
consistent geometry is created without double points or lines.

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Existing points or lines may be modified or deleted by first choosing the Selection tool
from the tool bar. To move a point or line, select the point or the line in the cross-section
and drag it to the desired position. To delete a point or line, select the point or the line in
the cross-section and press Delete on the keyboard. If more than one object is present at
the selected position, a delete dialog box appears from which the object(s) to be deleted
can be selected. If a point is deleted where only two geometry lines come together, then
the two lines are combined to give one straight line between the outer points. If more
than two geometry lines come together in the point to be deleted, then all these
connected geometry lines will be deleted as well.
After each drawing action the program determines the clusters that can be formed. A
cluster is a closed loop of different geometry lines. In other words, a cluster is an area
fully enclosed by geometry lines. The detected clusters are lightly shaded. Each cluster
can be given certain material properties to simulate the behaviour of the soil in that part
of the geometry (Section 3.5.2). The clusters are divided into soil elements during mesh
generation (Section 3.6).

3.3.2 PLATES
Plates are structural objects used to model slender structures in the ground with
a significant flexural rigidity (or bending stiffness) and a normal stiffness.
Plates can be used to simulate the influence of walls, plates, shells or linings
extending in z-direction. In a geometry model, plates appear as 'blue lines'. Examples of
geotechnical structures involving plates are shown in Figure 3.6.
Plates can be selected from the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding
button in the tool bar. The creation of plates in the geometry model is similar to the
creation of geometry lines (Section 3.3.1). When creating plates, corresponding
geometry lines are created simultaneously. Hence, it is not necessary to create first a
geometry line at the position of a plate. Plates can be erased by selecting them in the
geometry and pressing the Delete key.

Figure 3.6 Applications in which plates, anchors and interfaces are used

The material properties of plates are contained in material data sets (Section 0). The
most important parameters are the flexural rigidity (bending stiffness) EI and the axial
stiffness EA.

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From these two parameters an equivalent plate thickness deq is calculated from the
equation:

EI
d eq = 12
EA
Plates can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction
as Loading input.

Beam elements
Plates in the 2D finite element model are composed of beam elements (line elements)
with three degrees of freedom per node: Two translational degrees of freedom (ux, uy)
and one rotational degrees of freedom (rotation in the x-y plane: φz). When 6-node soil
elements are employed then each beam element is defined by three nodes whereas 5-
node beam elements are used together with the 15-node soil elements (Figure 3.7). The
beam elements are based on Mindlin's beam theory (Reference 2). This theory allows for
beam deflections due to shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element can change
length when an axial force is applied. Beam elements can become plastic if a prescribed
maximum bending moment or maximum axial force is reached.

Figure 3.7 Position of nodes and stress points in a 3-node and a 5-node beam element

Bending moments and axial forces are evaluated from the stresses at the stress points. A
3-node beam element contains two pairs of Gaussian stress points whereas a 5-node
beam element contains four pairs of stress points. Within each pair, stress points are
located at a distance ½ d eq 3 above and below the plate centre-line.

Figure 3.7 shows a single 3-node and 5-node beam element with an indication of the
nodes and stress points.
It is important to note that a change in the ratio EI / EA will change the equivalent
thickness deq and thus the distance separating the stress points. If this is done when
existing forces are present in the beam element, it would change the distribution of
bending moments, which is unacceptable. For this reason, if material properties of a
plate are changed during an analysis (for example in the framework of Staged
Construction) it should be noted that the ratio EI / EA must remain unchanged.

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3.3.3 HINGES AND ROTATION SPRINGS

A hinge is a plate connection that allows for a discontinuous rotation in the
point of connection (joint). By default, in a geometry point where plate ends
come together, the rotation is continuous and the point contains only one
rotational degree of freedom. In other words, the default plate connection is rigid
(clamped). If it is desired to create a hinge connection (a joint where plate ends can
rotate freely with respect to each other) or a rotation spring (a joint where the rotation of
plate ends with respect to each other requires a finite torque), the option Hinges and
rotation springs can be selected from the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking on the
corresponding button in the tool bar.
When this option is selected and an existing geometry point is clicked where at least two
plates come together, the hinges and rotation springs window appears presenting a
detailed view of the joint with all connected plates. For each individual plate end it can
be indicated whether the connection is a hinge or a clamp. A hinge is indicated by an
open circle whereas a clamp is indicated by a solid circle.

Figure 3.8 Example of a joint in the hinges and rotation springs window

After selecting a particular plate connection by clicking on the corresponding circle, the
connection can be toggled from a clamp into a hinge or vice versa by clicking again on
the circle. For each hinge, an additional rotational degree of freedom is introduced in
order to allow for an independent rotation.
In reality, plate connections may allow for rotations, but this generally requires a torque.
To simulate such a situation, PLAXIS enables the input of rotation springs and

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corresponding relative rotation spring stiffnesses between two plates. This option is only
useful if at least one of the two individual plate connections is a hinge (otherwise the
connection between the two plates is rigid). To define rotation springs in a joint, the
joint is surrounded by large circle sections in which rotation springs can be activated.
Possible locations of rotation springs are indicated by small circles (comparable with the
hinges) on the large circle sections. In the case of a straight plate there are no large
circles around the joint. In that case the central circle represents the rotation spring.
After selecting a particular rotation spring by clicking on the corresponding circle, the
rotation spring can be toggled on and off by clicking again on the circle.
When a rotation spring is created, the properties of the rotation spring must be entered
directly in the right part of the window. The properties of a rotation spring include the
spring stiffness and the maximum torque that it can sustain. The spring stiffness is
defined as the torque per radian (in the unit of Force times Length per Radian per
Length out of plane).

3.3.4 GEOGRIDS
Geogrids are slender structures with a normal stiffness but with no bending
stiffness. Geogrids can only sustain tensile forces and no compression. These
objects are generally used to model soil reinforcements. Examples of
geotechnical structures involving geotextiles are presented in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9 Applications in which geogrids are used

Geogrids can be selected from the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking on the

corresponding button in the tool bar. The creation of geogrids in the geometry model is
similar to the creation of geometry lines (Section 3.3.1). In a geometry model geogrids
appear as 'yellow lines'. When creating geogrids, corresponding geometry lines are
created simultaneously. The only material property of a geogrid is an elastic normal
(axial) stiffness EA, which can be specified in the material data base (Section 3.5.4).
Geogrids can be erased by selecting them in the geometry and pressing the Delete key.
Geogrids can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged
construction as Loading input.

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Geogrid elements
Geogrids are composed of geogrid elements (line elements) with two translational
degrees of freedom in each node (ux, uy). When 15-node soil elements are employed
then each geogrid element is defined by five nodes whereas 3-node geogrid elements are
used in combination with 6-node soil elements. Axial forces are evaluated at the
Newton-Cotes stress points. These stress points coincide with the nodes. The locations
of the nodes and stress points in geogrid elements is indicated in Figure 3.10.

nodes
stress point

a b

Figure 3.10 Position of nodes and stress points in 3-node and 5-node geogrid elements

Modelling ground anchors

Geogrids may be used in combination with node-to-node anchors to simulate a ground
anchor. In this case the geogrid is used to model the grout body and the node-to-node
anchor is used to model the anchor rod (Section 3.3.6)

3.3.5 INTERFACES
Each interface has assigned to it a 'virtual thickness' which is an imaginary
dimension used to define the material properties of the interface. The higher the
virtual thickness is, the more elastic deformations are generated. In general,
interface elements are supposed to generate very little elastic deformations and therefore
the virtual thickness should be small. On the other hand, if the virtual thickness is too
small, numerical ill-conditioning may occur. The virtual thickness is calculated as the
Virtual thickness factor times the average element size. The average element size is
determined by the global coarseness setting for the mesh generation (Section 3.6.2). This
value is also provided in the General info window in the Output program. The default
value of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. This value can be changed by double clicking
on the geometry line and selecting the interface from the selection dialog box. In
general, care should be taken when changing the default factor. However, if interface
elements are subjected to very large normal stresses, it may be required to reduce the
Virtual thickness factor. Further details of the significance of the virtual thickness are
given in Section 3.5.2.

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The creation of an interface in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a

geometry line. The interface appears as a dashed line at the right hand side of the
geometry line (considering the direction of drawing) to indicate at which side of the
geometry line the interaction with the soil takes place. The side at which the interface
will appear is also indicated by the arrow on the cursor pointing in the direction of
drawing. To place an interface at the other side, it should be drawn in the opposite
direction. Note that, interfaces can be placed at both sides of a geometry line. This
enables a full interaction between structural objects (walls, plates, geogrids, etc.) and the
surrounding soil. To be able to distinguish between the two possible interfaces along a
geometry line, the interfaces are indicated by a plus-sign (+) or a minus-sign (−). This
sign is just for identification purposes; it does not have a physical meaning and it has no
influence on the results. Interfaces can be erased by selecting them in the geometry and
pressing the Delete key.
A typical application of interfaces would be to model the interaction between a sheet
pile wall and the soil, which is intermediate between smooth and fully rough. The
roughness of the interaction is modelled by choosing a suitable value for the strength
reduction factor in the interface (Rinter). This factor relates the interface strength (wall
friction and adhesion) to the soil strength (friction angle and cohesion). Instead of
entering Rinter as a direct interface property, this parameter is specified together with the
soil strength parameters in a material data set for soil and interfaces. For detailed
information about the interface material properties, see Section 3.5.2.
Interfaces can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged
construction as Loading input.

Interface elements
Interfaces are composed of interface elements. Figure 3.11 shows how interface
elements are connected to soil elements. When using 15-node soil elements, the
corresponding interface elements are defined by five pairs of nodes, whereas for 6-node
soil elements the corresponding interface elements are defined by three pairs of nodes.
In the figure, the interface elements are shown to have a finite thickness, but in the finite
element formulation the coordinates of each node pair are identical, which means that
the element has a zero thickness.
Each interface has assigned to it a 'virtual thickness' which is an imaginary dimension
used to define the material properties of the interface. The virtual thickness is calculated
as the Virtual thickness factor times the average element size. The average element size
is determined by the global coarseness setting for the 2D mesh generation (Section
3.6.2). The default value of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. This value can be changed
by double clicking on the geometry line and selecting the interface from the selection
dialog box. However, care should be taken when changing the default factor. Further
details of the significance of the virtual thickness are given in Section 3.5.2.

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nodes
stress point

a b

Figure 3.11 Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their
connection to soil elements

The stiffness matrix for interface elements is obtained by means of Newton Cotes
integration. The position of the Newton Cotes stress points coincides with the node
pairs. Hence, five stress points are used for a 10-node interface element whereas three
stress points are used for a 6-node interface element.

Interface properties
The basic property of an interface element is the associated material data set for soil and
interfaces. This property is contained in the interface properties window, which can be
entered by double clicking an interface in the geometry model and selecting the positive
or negative interface element or interface chain from the selection window.
Alternatively, the right-hand mouse button may be clicked, then the Properties option
should be selected and finally the positive or negative interface element or interface
chain may be selected from the right-hand mouse button menu. As a result, the interface
properties window appears showing the associated Material set, which can be changed
using the Change button.
In addition, the interface properties window shows the Virtual thickness factor. This
factor is used to calculate the Virtual thickness of interface elements (see page 3-18
Interface elements). The standard value of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. Care
should be taken when changing the standard value. The standard value can be restored
using the Standard button.
In a consolidation analysis or a groundwater flow analysis, interface elements can be
used to block the flow perpendicular to the interface, for example to simulate an
impermeable screen. In fact, when interfaces are used in combination with plates, the
interface is used to block the flow since plate elements are fully permeable. In situations
where interfaces are used in a mesh where they should be fully permeable, it is possible
to de-activate the interface (see Sections 3.8.3, 3.8.6, 3.9.1).

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Interfaces around corner points

Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13 show that problems of soil-structure interaction may
involve points that require special attention. Corners in stiff structures and an abrupt
change in boundary condition may lead to high peaks in the stresses and strains. Volume
elements are not capable of reproducing these sharp peaks and will, as a result, produce
non-physical stress oscillations. This problem can be solved by making use of interface
elements as shown below.

Figure 3.12 Inflexible corner point, causing poor quality stress results

Figure 3.13 Flexible corner point with improved stress results

This figure shows that the problem of stress oscillation may be prevented by specifying
additional interface elements inside the soil body. These elements will enhance the
flexibility of the finite element mesh and will thus prevent non-physical stress results.
However, these elements should not introduce an unrealistic weakness in the soil.
Therefore special attention should be made to the properties of these interface elements
(Figure 3.29). Reference 22 provides additional theoretical details on this special use of
interface elements.

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3.3.6 NODE-TO-NODE ANCHORS

Node-to-node anchors are springs that are used to model ties between two
points. This type of anchors can be selected from the Geometry sub-menu or by
clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar. Typical applications include
the modelling of a cofferdam as shown in Figure 3.6. It is not recommended to draw a
geometry line at the position where a node-to-node anchor is to be placed. However, the
end points of node-to-node anchors must always be connected to geometry lines, but not
necessarily to existing geometry points. In the latter case a new geometry point is
automatically introduced. The creation of node-to-node anchors is similar to the creation
of geometry lines (Section 3.3.1) but, in contrast to other types of structural objects,
geometry lines are not simultaneously created with the anchors. Hence, node-to-node
anchors will not divide clusters nor create new ones.
A node-to-node anchor is a two-node elastic spring element with a constant spring
stiffness (normal stiffness). This element can be subjected to tensile forces (for anchors)
as well as compressive forces (for struts). Both the tensile force and the compressive
force can be limited to allow for the simulation of anchor or strut failure. The properties
can be entered in the material data base for anchors (Section 3.5.5).
Node-to-node anchors can be activated, de-activated or pre-stressed in a calculation
phase using Staged construction as Loading input.

3.3.7 FIXED-END ANCHORS

Fixed-end anchors are springs that are used to model a tying of a single point.
This type of anchor can be selected from the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking
on the corresponding button in the tool bar. An example of the use of fixed-end
anchors is the modelling of struts (or props) to sheet-pile walls, as shown in Figure 3.6.
Fixed-end anchors must always be connected to existing geometry lines, but not
necessarily to existing geometry points. A fixed-end anchor is visualised as a rotated T
( —| ). The length of the plotted T is arbitrary and does not have any particular physical
meaning. By default, a fixed-end anchor is pointing in the positive x-direction, i.e. the
angle in the x,y-plane is zero. By double clicking in the middle of the T the anchor
properties window appears in which the angle can be changed. The angle is defined in
the anticlockwise direction, starting from the positive x-direction towards the y-
direction. In addition to the angle, the equivalent length of the anchor may be entered in
the properties window. The equivalent length is defined as the distance between the
anchor connection point and the fictitious point in the longitudinal direction of the
anchor where the displacement is assumed to be zero.
A fixed-end anchor is a one-node elastic spring element with a constant spring stiffness
(or normal stiffness). The other end of the spring (defined by the equivalent length and
the direction) is fixed. The properties can be entered in the material database for anchors
(Section 3.5.5).

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Fixed-end anchors can be activated, de-activated or pre-stressed in a calculation phase

using Staged construction as Loading input.

3.3.8 TUNNELS
The tunnel option can be used to create circular and non-circular tunnel cross-
sections which are to be included in the geometry model. A tunnel cross-section
is composed of arcs and lines, optionally supplied with a lining and an interface.
A tunnel cross-section can be stored as an object on the hard disk (i.e. as a file with the
extension .TNL) and included in other projects. The tunnel option is available from the
Geometry sub-menu or from the tool bar.

Tunnel designer
Once the tunnel option has been selected, the Tunnel designer input window appears.

Figure 3.14 Tunnel designer with standard tunnel shape

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The tunnel designer contains the following items (Figure 3.14):

Tunnel menu: Menu with options to open and save a tunnel object and to set
tunnel attributes.
Tool bar: Bar with buttons as shortcuts to set tunnel attributes.
Display area: Area in which the tunnel cross-section is plotted.
Rulers: The rulers indicate the dimension of the tunnel cross-section in
local coordinates. The origin of the local coordinate system is
used as a reference point for the positioning of the tunnel in the
geometry model.
Section group box: Box containing shape parameters and attributes of individual
tunnel sections. The buttons can be used to select other
sections.
Other parameters: See further.
Standard buttons: To accept (OK) or to cancel the created tunnel.

Basic tunnel shape

Once the tunnel option has been selected, the following toolbar buttons can be used to
select a basic tunnel shape:

Whole tunnel

Half a tunnel - Left half

Half a tunnel - Right half

A Whole tunnel should be used if the full tunnel cross-section is included in the
geometry model. A half tunnel should be used if the geometry model includes only one
symmetric half of the problem where the symmetry line of the geometry model
corresponds to the symmetry line of the tunnel. Depending on the side of the symmetry
line that is used in the geometry model the user should select the right half of a tunnel or
the left half. A half tunnel can also be used to define curved sides of a larger structure,
such as an underground storage tank. The remaining linear parts of the structure can be
added in the draw area using geometry lines or plates.

Type of tunnel:
Before creating the tunnel cross-section the type of tunnel must be selected.
The available options are: None, Bored tunnel or NATM tunnel.

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None: Select this option when you want to create an internal geometry contour
composed of different sections and have no intention to create a tunnel. Each
section is defined by a line, an arc or a corner. The outline consists of two lines
if you enter a positive value for the Thickness parameter. The two lines will
form separate clusters with a corresponding thickness when inserting the
outline in the geometry model. A lining (shell) and an interface may be added
to individual sections of the outside surface of the lining.
Bored tunnel: Select this option to create a circular tunnel that includes a
homogeneous tunnel lining (composed of a circular shell) and an interface at
the outside. The tunnel shape consists of different sections that can be defined
with arcs. Since the tunnel lining is circular, each section has the radius that is
defined in the first section. The tunnel outline consists of two lines if you enter
a positive value for the Thickness parameter. This way a thick tunnel lining can
be created that is composed of volume elements.
The tunnel lining (shell) is considered to be homogeneous and continuous. As a
result, assigning material data and the activation or deactivation of the shell in
the framework of staged construction can only be done for the lining as a whole
(and not individually for each section). If the shell is active, a contraction of the
tunnel lining (shrinkage) can be specified to simulate the volume loss due to the
tunnel boring process (Section 4.7.8).
NATM tunnel: Select this option to create a tunnel that includes a tunnel lining
(composed of plates) and an interface at the outside. The tunnel outline consists
of different sections that can be defined with arcs. The outline consists of two
lines if you enter a positive value for the Thickness parameter. This way a thick
tunnel lining can be created that is composed of volume elements. It is possible
to apply a shell to the outer contour line, for example to simulate a combination
of an outer lining (sprayed concrete as plate) and an inner lining (final lining as
volume).
The tunnel lining (shell) is considered to be discontinuous. As a result,
assigning material data and the activation or deactivation of lining parts in the
framework of staged construction is done for each section individually. It is not
possible to apply a contraction of the shell (shrinkage) for NATM tunnels. To
simulate the deformations due to the excavation and construction in NATM
tunnels other calculation methods are available (Section 4.7.6 and 4.7.11).

Tunnel sections:
The creation of a tunnel cross-section starts with the definition of the inner
tunnel boundary, which is composed of sections. Each section is either an Arc
(part of a circle, defined by a centre point, a radius and an angle), or a Line
increment (defined by a start point and a length). In addition, sharp corners can
be defined, i.e. a sudden transition in the inclination angle of two adjacent

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tunnel sections. When entering the tunnel designer, a standard circular tunnel is
presented composed of 6 sections (3 sections for half a tunnel).
The first section starts with a horizontal tangent at the lowest point on the local
y-axis (highest point for a left half), and runs in the anti-clockwise direction.
The position of this first start point is determined by the Centre coordinates and
the Radius (if the first section is an Arc) or by the start point coordinates (if the
first section is a Line). The end point of the first section is determined by the
Angle (in the case of an arc) or by the Length (in the case of a line).
The start point of a next section coincides with the end point of the previous
section. The start tangent of the next section is equal to the end tangent of the
previous section. If both sections are arcs, the two sections have the same radial
(normal of the tunnel section), but not necessarily the same radius (Figure
3.15). Hence, the centre point of the next section is located on this common
radial and the exact position follows from the section radius.
If the tangent of the tunnel outline in the connection point is discontinuous, a
sharp corner may be introduced by selecting Corner for the next section. In this
case a sudden change in the tangent can be specified by the Angle parameter.
The radius and the angle of the last tunnel section are automatically determined
such that the end radial coincides again with the y-axis.

R2

R2

R1
R1 common radial

Figure 3.15 Detail of connection point between two tunnel sections

For a whole tunnel the start point of the first section should coincide with the
end point of the last section. This is not automatically guaranteed. The distance
between the start point and the end point (in units of length) is defined as the
closing error. The closing error is indicated on the status line of the tunnel
designer. A well-defined tunnel cross-section must have a zero closing error.
When a significant closing error exists, it is advisable to carefully check the
section data.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

The number of sections follows from the sum of the section angles. For whole
tunnels the sum of the angles is 360 degrees and for half tunnels this sum is 180
degrees. The maximum angle of a section is 90.0 degrees. The automatically
calculated angle of the last section completes the tunnel cross-section and it
cannot be changed. If the angle of an intermediate section is decreased, the
angle of the last section is increased by the same amount, until the maximum
angle is reached. Upon further reduction of the intermediate section angle or by
reducing the last section angle, a new section will be created. If the angle of
one of the intermediate tunnel sections is increased, the angle of the last tunnel
section is automatically decreased. This may result in elimination of the last
section.
When the creation of the tunnel cross-section is finished, it can be saved as a
tunnel object on the hard disk by using the Save option from the File menu in
the Tunnel designer window.

Symmetric tunnel:
The option Symmetric is only relevant for whole tunnels. When this option is
selected, the tunnel is made fully symmetric. In this case the input procedures
are similar to those used when entering half a tunnel (right half). The left half
of the tunnel is automatically made equal to the right half.

Circular tunnel:
When changing the radius of one of the tunnel sections, the tunnel ceases to be
circular. To enforce the tunnel to be circular, the Circular option may be
selected. If this option is selected, all tunnel sections will be arcs with the same
radius. In this case the radius can only be entered for the first tunnel section.
This option is automatically selected when the type of tunnel is a bored tunnel.

Including tunnel in geometry model

After clicking on the OK button in the tunnel designer the window is closed and the
main input window is displayed again. A tunnel symbol is attached to the cursor to
emphasize that the reference point for the tunnel must be selected. The reference point
will be the point where the origin of the local tunnel coordinate system is located. When
the reference point is entered by clicking with the mouse in the geometry model or by
entering the coordinates in the manual input line, the tunnel is included in the geometry
model, taking into account eventual crossings with existing geometry lines or objects.

Editing an existing tunnel

An existing tunnel can be edited by double clicking its reference point or one of the
other tunnel points. As a result, the tunnel designer window reappears showing the
existing tunnel cross-section. Desired modifications can now be made. On clicking the

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OK button the 'old' tunnel is removed and the 'new' tunnel is directly included in the
geometry model using the original reference point. Note that previously assigned
material sets of a lining must be reassigned after modification of the tunnel.

3.4 LOADS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The Loads sub-menu contains the options to introduce distributed loads, line loads or
point loads and prescribed displacements in the geometry model. Loads and prescribed
displacements can be applied at the model boundaries as well as inside the model.

3.4.1 PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS

Prescribed displacements are special conditions that can be imposed on the
model to control the displacements of certain points. Prescribed displacements
can be selected from the Loads sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding
button in the tool bar. The input of Prescribed displacements in the geometry model is
similar to the creation of geometry lines (Section 3.3.1). By default, the input values of
prescribed displacements are set such that the vertical displacement component is one
unit in the negative vertical direction (uy = −1) and the horizontal displacement
component is free.

Figure 3.16 Input window for prescribed displacements

The input values of prescribed displacements can be changed by double clicking the
corresponding geometry line and selecting Prescribed displacements from the selection
dialog box. As a result, a prescribed displacements window appears in which the input
values of the prescribed displacements of both end points of the geometry line can be
changed. The distribution is always linear along the line. The input value must be in the
range [−9999, 9999]. In the case that one of the displacement directions is prescribed
whilst the other direction is free, one can use the check boxes in the Free directions
group to indicate which direction is free. The Perpendicular button can be used to
impose a prescribed displacement of one unit perpendicular to the corresponding

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geometry line. For internal geometry lines, the displacement is perpendicular to the right
side of the geometry line (considering that the line goes from the first point to the
second point). For geometry lines at a model boundary, the displacement direction is
towards the inside of the model.
On a geometry line where both prescribed displacements and loads are applied, the
prescribed displacements have priority over the loads during the calculations, except if
the prescribed displacements are not activated. On the other hand, when prescribed
displacements are applied on a line with full fixities, the fixities have priority over the
prescribed displacements, which means that the displacements on this line remain zero.
Hence, it is not useful to apply prescribed displacements on a line with full fixity.
Although the input values of prescribed displacements can be specified in the geometry
model, the actual values that are applied during a calculation may be changed in the
framework of Staged construction (Section 4.7.4). Moreover, an existing composition of
prescribed displacements may be increased globally by means of the load multipliers
Mdisp and ΣMdisp (Section 4.8.1).
During calculations, the reaction forces corresponding to prescribed displacements in x-
and y-direction are calculated and stored as output parameters (Force-X, Force-Y).

3.4.2 FIXITIES
Fixities are prescribed displacements equal to zero. These conditions can be applied to
geometry lines as well as to geometry points. Fixities can be selected from the Loads
sub-menu. In the geometry model, distinction can be made between Horizontal fixities
(ux = 0) and Vertical fixities (uy=0). In addition, one can select Total fixities, which is a
combination of both (ux=uy=0).

Prescribed displacements and interfaces

To introduce a sharp transition in different prescribed displacements or between
prescribed displacements and fixities (for example to model a trap-door problem; Figure
3.17), it is necessary to introduce an interface at the point of transition perpendicular to
the geometry line. As a result, the thickness of the transition zone between the two
different displacements is zero. If no interface is used then the transition will occur
within one of the elements connected to the transition point. Hence, the transition zone
will be determined by the size of the element. The transition zone will therefore be
unrealistically wide.

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Figure 3.17 Modelling of a trap-door problem using interfaces

3.4.3 STANDARD FIXITIES

On selecting Standard fixities from the Loads sub-menu or by clicking on the
corresponding button in the tool bar PLAXIS automatically imposes a set of
general boundary conditions to the geometry model. These boundary conditions
are generated according to the following rules:
• Vertical geometry lines for which the x-coordinate is equal to the lowest or
highest x-coordinate in the model obtain a horizontal fixity (ux = 0).
• Horizontal geometry lines for which the y-coordinate is equal to the lowest
y-coordinate in the model obtain a full fixity (ux = uy = 0).
• Plates that extend to the boundary of the geometry model obtain a fixed
rotation in the point at the boundary (φz = 0) if at least one of the
displacement directions of that point is fixed.
Standard fixities can be used as a convenient and fast input option for many practical
applications.

3.4.4 DISTRIBUTED LOADS

The creation of a distributed load in the geometry model is similar to the
creation of a geometry line (Section 3.3.1). Two load systems (A and B) are
available for a combination of distributed loads or point loads. The load systems
A and B can be activated independently. Distributed loads for load system A or B can be
selected from the Loads sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool
bar.
The input values of a distributed load are given in force per area (for example kN/m2).
Distributed loads may consist of a x- and/or y-component. By default, when applying
loads to the geometry boundary, the load will be a unit pressure perpendicular to the
boundary. The input value of a load may be changed by double clicking the

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corresponding geometry line and selecting the corresponding load system from the
selection dialog box. As a result, the distributed loads window is opened in which the
two components of the load can be specified for both end points of the geometry line in
the geometry model. The distribution is always linear along the line.

Figure 3.18 Input window for distributed loads

Although the global input values of distributed loads can be specified in the geometry
model, the actual value that is applied in a calculation may be changed in the framework
of Staged construction (Section 4.7.3). Moreover, an existing composition of loads may
be increased globally by means of the load multipliers MloadA (or ΣMloadA) for load
system A and MloadB (or ΣMloadB) for load system B (Section 4.8.1).
On a geometry line where both prescribed displacements and distributed loads are
applied, the prescribed displacements have priority over the distributed loads during the
calculations, provided that the prescribed displacements are active. Hence, it is not
useful to apply distributed loads on a line with fully prescribed displacements. When
only one displacement direction is prescribed whilst the other direction is free, it is
possible to apply a distributed load in the free direction.

3.4.5 POINT LOADS

This option may be used to create point loads, which are actually line loads in
the out-of-plane direction. The input values of point loads are given in force per
unit of width (for example kN/m). In axisymmetric models, point loads are in
fact line loads on a circle section of 1 radian. In that case the input value of is still given
in force per unit of width, except when the point load is located at x = 0. In the latter
case (axisymmetry; point load in x = 0) the point load is a real point load and the input
value is given in the unit of force (for example kN, unless the input window still shows
kN/m). Note that this force is acting on a circle section of 1 radian only. To derive the
input value from a real situation, the real point force must be divided by 2π to get the
input value of the point force at the centre of the axisymmetric model.

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The creation of a point or line load in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a
geometry point (Section 3.3.1). Two load systems (A and B) are available for a
combination of distributed loads and line loads or point loads. The load systems A and B
can be activated independently. Point loads for load system A or B can be selected from
the Loads sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar.
The input values of a point load (or line load) are given in force per unit of length (for
example kN/m). Point loads may consist of a x- and/or y-component. By default, when
applying point loads, the load will be one unit in the negative y-direction. The input
value of a load may be changed by double clicking the corresponding point and
selecting the corresponding load system from the selection dialog box. As a result, the
point loads window is opened in which the two components of the load can be specified.

Figure 3.19 Input window for point loads

Although the input values of point loads can be specified in the geometry model, the
actual value that is applied in a calculation may be changed in the framework of Staged
construction. Moreover, an existing composition of loads may be increased globally by
means of the load multipliers MloadA (or ΣMloadA) for load system A and MloadB (or
ΣMloadB) for load system B (Section 4.8.1).
On a part of the geometry where both prescribed displacements and point loads are
applied, the prescribed displacements have priority over the point loads during the
calculations, provided that the prescribed displacements are active. Hence, it is not
useful to apply point loads on a line with fully prescribed displacements. When only one
displacement direction is prescribed whilst the other direction is free, it is possible to
apply a point load in the free direction.

3.4.6 ROTATION FIXITIES

Rotations fixities are used to fix the rotational degree of freedom of a plate
around the z-axis. After selection of the option Rotation fixities from the Loads
sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar, the
geometry point (s) should be entered (using the mouse) where the rotation fixity is to be
applied. This can only be done on plates, but not necessarily on existing geometry

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points. If a point in the middle of a plate is selected, a new geometry point will be
introduced.
Existing rotation fixities can be eliminated by selecting the rotation fixity in the
geometry model and pressing the Delete key on the keyboard.

3.4.7 DRAINS

Drains are used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where (excess)
pore pressures are set to zero. This option is only relevant for consolidation
analyses or groundwater flow calculations. The Drain option can be selected
from the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar.
The creation of a drain in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a geometry
line (Section 3.3.1).

In a consolidation analysis, excess pore pressures are set to zero in all nodes that belong
to a drain, whereas in a groundwater flow analysis, active pore pressures are set to zero,
provided that the drain is active.
Drains can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction
as Loading input.

3.4.8 WELLS
Wells are used to prescribe points inside the geometry model where a specific
discharge is subtracted from (source) or added to (sink) the soil. This option is
only relevant for groundwater flow calculations. The Well option can be
selected from the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the
tool bar. The creation of a well in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a
fixed-end anchor, but it is not restricted to existing geometry lines.
After creating a well, the discharge of the well can be specified by double clicking the
well in the geometry model. This may require zooming into the area where the well is
located. As a result, a well window appears. In this window the discharge can be
specified as a positive value in the unit of volume per unit time per unit of width out of
plane. In addition, it can be selected whether the well is used to apply Extraction from
the soil (positive discharge) or to apply Infiltration in the soil (negative discharge).
Before performing a groundwater flow calculation, wells can be activated or de-
activated (Section 3.9.1).

3.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

In PLAXIS, soil properties and material properties of structures are stored in material data
sets. There are four different types of material sets: Data sets for soil & interfaces,

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plates, geogrids and anchors. All data sets are stored in a material data base. From the
data base, the data sets can be assigned to the soil clusters or to the corresponding
structural objects in the geometry model.

Data base with material data sets

The material data base can be activated by selecting one of the options from the
Materials sub-menu or by clicking on the Material sets button in the tool bar.
As a result, a material sets window appears showing the contents of the project
data base. The project data base contains the material sets for the current project. For a
new project the project data base is empty. In addition to the project data base, there is a
global data base. The global data base can be used to store material data sets in a global
directory and to exchange data sets between different projects. The global data base can
be viewed by clicking on the Global button in the upper part of the window. When
doing so, the window will be extended to the one as presented in Figure 3.20.
At both sides of the window (Project data base and Global data base) there are two list
boxes and a tree view. From the list box on the left hand side, the Set type can be
selected. The Set type parameter determines which type of material data set is displayed
in the tree view (Soil & Interfaces, Plates, Geogrids, Anchors). The data sets in the tree
view are identified by a user-defined name. For data sets of the Soil & Interfaces type,
the data sets can be ordered in groups according to the material model, the material type
or the name of the data set. This order can be selected in the Group order list box. The
None option can be used to discard the group ordering.
The small buttons between the two tree views (> and <) can be used to copy individual
data sets from the project data base to the global data base or vice versa. The >> button
is used to copy all data sets of the project data base to the global data base.
Below the tree view of the global data base there are three buttons. The Open button is
used to open an existing data base with material data sets (i.e. a file with the extension
.MDB), which is then used as the global data base. The Delete button can be used to
delete a selected material data set from the global data base. The Create button is used to
store the global data base with material data sets as a separate data base. By default, the
global data base for soil and interface data contains the data sets of all the tutorial
lessons and is contained in the file 'Soildata.MDB', which is stored in the DB sub-
directory of the PLAXIS program directory. This file is compatible with similar data base
files of other PLAXIS products. Similarly, the global data bases for plates (or beams),
geogrids (or geotextiles) and anchors are contained in the files 'Beams.MDB',
'Geotex.MDB' and 'Anchors.MDB' respectively. These compatible PLAXIS files are also
stored in the DB sub-directory of the PLAXIS program directory.
The buttons below the tree view of the project data base are used to view, create,
modify, copy or delete data sets. A new data set is created by clicking on the New
button. As a result, a new window appears in which the material properties or model
parameters can be entered. The first item to be entered is always the Identification,

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which is the user-defined name of the data set. After completing a data set it will appear
in the tree view, indicated by its name as defined by the Identification.

Figure 3.20 Material sets window showing the project and the global data base

Existing data sets may be modified by selecting the corresponding name in the project
data base tree view and clicking on the Edit button. On selecting an existing data set and
clicking on the Copy button a new data set is created of which all parameters are set
equal to those of the selected (existing) data set. When a data set is no longer required, it
may be deleted by first selecting it and clicking on the Delete button. In situations where
it is not possible to change the project data base (i.e. in the initial conditions or staged
construction mode), the Edit button is replaced by a View button. Clicking on this button
enables existing data sets to be viewed.

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3.5.1 MODELLING OF SOIL BEHAVIOUR

Soil and rock tend to behave in a highly non-linear way under load. This non-linear
stress-strain behaviour can be modelled at several levels of sophistication. Clearly, the
number of model parameters increases with the level of sophistication. The well-known
Mohr-Coulomb model can be considered as a first order approximation of real soil
behaviour. This elastic perfectly-plastic model requires five basic input parameters,
namely a Young's modulus, E, a Poisson's ratio, ν, a cohesion, c, a friction angle, ϕ, and
a dilatancy angle, ψ. As geotechnical engineers tend to be familiar with the above five
parameters and rarely have any data on other soil parameters, attention will be focused
here on this basic soil model. PLAXIS also supports some advanced soil models. These
models and their parameters are discussed in the Material Models manual.

|σ1-σ3| |σ1-σ3|

E
2c cos φ + |σ1-σ3| sin φ

1
-ε1 -ε1

εv εv
1
2 sin ψ
1- sin ψ

-ε1 (1-2ν) -ε1

(a) 1 (b)

σ1 Axial stress ε1 Axial strain

σ3 Constant confining pressure εv Volumetric strain

Figure 3.21 Results from standard drained triaxial tests (a) and elastic-plastic model (b).

Basic model parameters in relation to real soil behaviour

To understand the five basic model parameters, typical stress-strain curves as obtained
from standard drained triaxial tests are considered (Figure 3.21). The material has been
compressed isotropically up to some confining stress σ3. After this, the axial pressure σ1
is increased whilst the radial stress is kept constant. In this second stage of loading
geomaterials tend to produce curves as shown in Figure 3.21a. The increase in the
volume (or volumetric strain) is typical for sands and is also frequently observed for
rocks. Figure 3.21b shows the test results put into an idealised form using the Mohr-

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Coulomb model. The figure gives an indication of the meaning and influence of the five
basic model parameters. Note that the dilatancy angle ψ is needed to model the
irreversible increase in volume.

3.5.2 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR SOIL AND INTERFACES

The material properties and model parameters for soil clusters are entered in material
data sets. The material properties of interfaces are related to the soil properties and are
entered in the same data sets as the soil properties. A data set for soil and interfaces
generally represents a certain soil layer and can be assigned to the corresponding
cluster(s) in the geometry model. The name of the data set is shown in the cluster
properties window. Interfaces that are present in or along that cluster obtain the same
material data set. This is indicated in the interface properties window as <Cluster
material>.

Figure 3.22 Soil and Interface material set window (General tab sheet)

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different soil layers. A user may
specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a meaningful name
since the data set will appear in the data base tree view by its identification. For easy
recognition in the model, a colour is given to a certain data set. This colour also appears
in the data base tree view. PLAXIS selects a unique default colour for a data set, but this

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colour may be changed by the user. Changing the colour can be done by clicking on the
colour box in the lower left hand corner of the data set window.
The properties in the data sets are divided into three tab sheets: General, Parameters and
Interfaces. The General tab sheet contains the type of soil model, the type of soil
behaviour and the general soil properties such as unit weights. The Parameters tab sheet
contains the stiffness and strength parameters of the selected soil model. The Interfaces
tab sheet contains the parameters that relate the interface properties to the soil
properties.

3.5.3 MATERIAL MODEL

PLAXIS supports various models to simulate the behaviour of soil and other continua.
The models and their parameters are described in detail in the Material Models manual.
A short discussion of the available models is given below:

Linear elastic model:

This model represents Hooke's law of isotropic linear elasticity. The model
involves two elastic stiffness parameters, namely Young's modulus, E, and
Poisson's ratio, ν.
The linear elastic model is very limited for the simulation of soil behaviour. It
is primarily used for stiff structures in the soil.

Mohr-Coulomb model:
This well-known model is used as a first approximation of soil behaviour in
general. The model involves five parameters, namely Young's modulus, E,
Poisson's ratio, ν, the cohesion, c, the friction angle, ϕ, and the dilatancy angle,
ψ.

Jointed Rock model:

This is an anisotropic elastic-plastic model where plastic shearing can only
occur in a limited number of shearing directions. This model can be used to
simulate the behaviour of stratified or jointed rock.

Hardening Soil model:

This is an elastoplastic type of hyperbolic model, formulated in the framework
of friction hardening plasticity. Moreover, the model involves compression
hardening to simulate irreversible compaction of soil under primary
compression. This second-order model can be used to simulate the behaviour of
sands and gravel as well as softer types of soil such as clays and silts.

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Soft Soil model:

This is a CamClay type model that can be used to simulate the behaviour of
soft soils like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model performs best in
situations of primary compression.

Soft Soil creep model:

This is a second order model formulated in the framework of viscoplasticity.
The model can be used to simulate the time-dependent behaviour of soft soils
like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model includes logarithmic
compression.

User-defined Soil model:

With this option it is possible to use other constitutive models than the standard
PLAXIS models. For a detailed description of this facility, reference is made to
the Material Models manual.

Type of material behaviour - Material type

In principle, all model parameters in PLAXIS are meant to represent the effective soil
response, i.e. the relation between the stresses and strains associated with the soil
skeleton. An important feature of soil is the presence of pore water. Pore pressures
significantly influence the soil response. To enable incorporation of the water-skeleton
interaction in the soil response PLAXIS offers for each soil model a choice of three types
of behaviour:

Drained behaviour:
Using this setting no excess pore pressures are generated. This is clearly the
case for dry soils and also for full drainage due to a high permeability (sands)
and/or a low rate of loading. This option may also be used to simulate long-
term soil behaviour without the need to model the precise history of undrained
loading and consolidation.

Undrained behaviour:
This setting is used for a full development of excess pore pressures. Flow of
pore water can sometimes be neglected due to a low permeability (clays) and/or
a high rate of loading.
All clusters that are specified as undrained will indeed behave undrained, even
if the cluster or a part of the cluster is located above the phreatic level. Note
that effective model parameters should be entered, i.e. E', ν', c', ϕ' and not Eu,
νu, cu (su), ϕu. In addition to the stiffness and strength of the soil skeleton,

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PLAXIS adds a bulk stiffness for the water and distinguishes between total
stresses, effective stresses and excess pore pressures:

Total stress: ∆p = K u ∆ε ν

Effective stress: ∆p′ = (1 − B )∆p = K ′∆εν

Excess pore pressure: ∆p w = B∆p = K w ∆εν

n
Here ∆p is an increment of the total mean stress, ∆p' is an increment of the
effective mean stress and ∆pw is an increment of the excess pore pressure. B is
Skempton's B-factor, relating the proportion of the increment in total mean
stress to the increment in excess pore pressure. Ku is the undrained bulk
modulus, K' is the bulk modulus of the soil skeleton, Kw is the bulk modulus of
the pore fluid, n is the porosity of the soil and ∆εv is an increment of volumetric
strain.
For undrained behaviour PLAXIS does not use a realistic bulk modulus of water,
because this may lead to ill-conditioning of the stiffness matrix and numerical
problems. In fact, the total stiffness against isotropic compression of both soil
and water is, by default, based on an implicit undrained bulk modulus:
2G (1 + ν u ) E'
Ku = where G = and ν u = 0.495
3(1 − 2ν u ) 2(1 + ν ' )
This results in pore water being slightly compressible and thus a B-factor that is
slightly lower than 1.0. Hence, in isotropic loading a few percent of the load
will therefore go into effective stresses, at least for small values of the effective
Poisson's ratio. For undrained material behaviour the effective Poisson's ratio
should be smaller than 0.35. Using higher values of Poisson's ratio would mean
that the water would not be sufficiently stiff with respect to the soil skeleton.
The default value of the undrained Poisson's ratio, νu, can be overruled by a
manual input of Skempton's B-factor in the Advanced Mohr-Coulomb
parameters window (See for more details page 3-47).

Non-porous behaviour:
Using this setting neither initial nor excess pore pressures will be taken into
account in clusters of this type. Applications may be found in the modelling of
concrete or structural behaviour. Non-porous behaviour is often used in
combination with the Linear elastic model. The input of a saturated weight and
permeability is not relevant for non-porous materials.
The Non-porous material type may also be applied to interfaces. To completely
block the flow through sheet pile walls or through other impervious structures,

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REFERENCE MANUAL

the surrounding interfaces may have a separate material data set in which the
material type is set to Non-porous.

Saturated and unsaturated weight (γsat and γunsat )

The saturated and the unsaturated weight refer to the total unit weight of the soil
skeleton including the fluid in the pores. The unsaturated weight γunsat applies to all
material above the phreatic level and the saturated weight γsat applies to all material
below the phreatic level. The unit weights are entered as a force per unit volume. For
non-porous material only the unsaturated weight is relevant, which is just the total unit
weight. For porous soils the unsaturated weight is obviously smaller than the saturated
weight. For sands, for example, the saturated weight is generally around 20 kN/m3
whereas the unsaturated weight can be significantly lower, depending on the degree of
saturation. Note that soils in practical situations are never completely dry. Hence, it is
advisable not to enter the fully dry unit weight for γunsat. For example, clays above the
phreatic level may be almost fully saturated due to capillary action. Other zones above
the phreatic level may be partially saturated. However, the pore pressures above the
phreatic level are always set equal to zero. In this way tensile capillary stresses are
disregarded.
Weights are activated by means of the ΣMweight parameter in the initial stress
generation (K0-procedure) (Section 3.9.3) or by means of Gravity loading in the
Calculation program.

Permeabilities (kx and ky)

Permeabilities have the dimension of velocity (unit of length per unit of time). The
input of permeability parameters is only required for consolidation analyses and
groundwater flow calculations. In this case it is necessary to specify permeabilities for
all clusters, including almost impermeable layers that are considered to be fully
impervious. PLAXIS distinguishes between a horizontal permeability, kx, and a vertical
permeability, ky, since in some types of soil (for example peat) there can be a significant
difference between horizontal and vertical permeability.
In real soils the difference in permeabilities between the various layers can be quite
large. However, care should be taken when very high and very low permeabilities occur
simultaneously in a finite element model, as this could lead to ill-conditioning of the
flow matrix. In order to obtain accurate results, the ratio between the highest and lowest
permeability value in the geometry should not exceed 105.
To simulate an almost impermeable material (for example concrete or uncracked rock)
the user should enter a permeability that is low relative to the surrounding soil instead of
entering the real permeability. In general, a factor of 1000 will be sufficient to obtain
satisfactory results.

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Advanced general properties

The Advanced button on the General tab sheet may be clicked to enter some additional
properties for advanced modelling features. As a result, an additional window appears,
as shown in Figure 3.23.

Figure 3.23 Advanced general properties window

One of the advanced features is to account for the change of permeability during a
consolidation analysis. This can be applied by entering a proper value for the ck-
parameter and the void ratio's.

Change of permeability (ck ):

By default, the ck-value in the Change of permeability box is equal to 1015,
which means that a change of permeability is not taken into account. On
entering a real value, the permeability will change according to the formula:
 k  ∆e
log  =
 k 0  ck
Where ∆e is the change in void ratio, k is the permeability in the calculation
and k0 is the input value of the permeability in the data set (= kx and ky). It is
recommended to use a changing permeability only in combination with the Soft
Soil (Creep) model. In that case the ck-value is generally in the order of the
compression index Cc. For all other models the ck-value should be left to its
default value of 1015.

Void ratio (einit, emin, emax ):

The void ratio, e, is related to the porosity, n (e = n / (1-n)). This quantity is
used in some special options. The initial value, einit, is the value in the initial

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situation. The actual void ratio is calculated in each calculation step from the
initial value and the volumetric strain ∆εv. In addition to einit, a minimum value,
emin, and a maximum value, emax, can be entered. These values are related to the
maximum and minimum density that can be reached in the soil. When the
Hardening Soil model is used with a certain (positive) value of dilatancy, the
mobilised dilatancy is set to zero as soon as the maximum void ratio is reached
(this is termed dilatancy cut-off). For other models this option is not available.
To avoid the dilatancy cut-off in the Hardening Soil model, option may be
de-selected in the advanced general properties window.

Figure 3.24 Soil and Interface material set window (Parameters tab sheet of the Mohr-
Coulomb model)

Young's modulus (E)

PLAXIS uses the Young's modulus as the basic stiffness modulus in the elastic model and
the Mohr-Coulomb model, but some alternative stiffness moduli are displayed as well.
A stiffness modulus has the dimension of stress (force per unit of area). The values of
the stiffness parameter adopted in a calculation require special attention as many
geomaterials show a non-linear behaviour from the very beginning of loading.
In soil mechanics, the initial slope is usually indicated as E0 and the secant modulus at
50% strength is denoted as E50 (Figure 3.25). For highly over-consolidated clays and
some rocks with a large linear elastic range, it is realistic to use E0 whereas for sands
and near normally consolidated clays subjected to loading it is more appropriate to use
E50.

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|σ1-σ3| 1 1
E50
E0

strain -ε1

Figure 3.25 Definition of E0 and E50

For soils, both the initial modulus and the secant modulus tend to increase with the
confining pressure. Hence, deep soil layers tend to have greater stiffness than shallow
layers. Moreover, the observed stiffness depends on the stress path that is followed. The
stiffness is much higher for unloading and reloading than for primary loading. Also, the
observed soil stiffness in terms of a Young's modulus is generally lower for drained
compression than for shearing. Hence, when using a constant stiffness modulus to
represent soil behaviour one should choose a value that is consistent with the stress level
and the expected stress path. Note that some stress-dependency of soil behaviour is
taken into account in the advanced models in PLAXIS, which are described in the
Material Models manual. For the Mohr-Coulomb model, PLAXIS offers a special option
for the input of a stiffness increasing with depth (see Advanced parameters).

Poisson's ratio (ν)

Standard drained triaxial tests may yield a significant rate of volume decrease at the very
beginning of axial loading and, consequently, a low initial value of Poisson's ratio (ν0).
For some cases, such as particular unloading problems, it may be realistic to use such a
low initial value, but in general when using the Mohr-Coulomb model the use of a
higher value is recommended.
The selection of a Poisson's ratio is particularly simple when the elastic model or Mohr-
Coulomb model is used for gravity loading (increasing ΣMweight from 0 to 1 in a plastic
calculation). For this type of loading PLAXIS should give realistic ratios of K0 = σh / σv.
As both models will give the well-known ratio of σh / σv = ν / (1-ν) for one-dimensional
compression it is easy to select a Poisson's ratio that gives a realistic value of K0. Hence,
ν is evaluated by matching K0. This subject is treated more extensively in Appendix A,
which deals with initial stress distributions. In many cases one will obtain ν values in the
range between 0.3 and 0.4. In general, such values can also be used for loading
conditions other than one-dimensional compression.

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In the case of undrained behaviour, it is advised to enter an effective value of Poisson's

ratio and to select Undrained as the type of material behaviour. By doing so PLAXIS will
automatically add a bulk stiffness for the pore fluid based on an implicit undrained
Poisson's ratio of 0.495 (See page 3-38, Undrained behaviour). In this case the effective
Poisson's ratio, as entered here, should be smaller than 0.35. Using higher values of
Poisson's ratio would mean that the water would not be sufficiently stiff with respect to
the soil skeleton to simulate undrained behaviour.

Alternative stiffness parameters

In addition to Young's modulus, PLAXIS allows for the input of alternative stiffness
moduli, such as the shear modulus, G, and the Oedometer modulus, Eoed. These stiffness
moduli relate to Young's modulus according to Hooke's law of isotropic elasticity,
which involves Poisson's ratio, ν:

G=
E
Eoed =
(1 − ν )E
2(1 + ν ) (1 − 2ν )(1 + ν )
When entering one of the alternative stiffness parameters, PLAXIS will retain the entered
Poisson's ratio and calculate the corresponding Young's modulus.

Cohesion (c)
The cohesive strength has the dimension of stress. PLAXIS can handle cohesionless sands
(c = 0), but some options will not perform well. To avoid complications, non-
experienced users are advised to enter at least a small value (use c > 0.2 kPa). PLAXIS
offers a special option for the input of layers in which the cohesion increases with depth
(see Advanced parameters).

Friction angle (ϕ)

The friction angle, ϕ (phi), is entered in degrees. High friction angles, as sometimes
obtained for dense sands, will substantially increase plastic computational effort.

shear
stress φ

- σ1

- σ3
c
- σ2 normal
σ3
-σ σ2
-σ σ 1 stress
-σ

Figure 3.26 Stress circles at yield; one touches Coulomb's envelope

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The computing time increases more or less exponentially with the friction angle. Hence,
high friction angles should be avoided when performing preliminary computations for a
particular project. Computing time tends to become large when friction angles in excess
of 35 degrees are used.
The friction angle largely determines the shear strength as shown in Figure 3.26 by
means of Mohr's stress circles. A more general representation of the yield criterion is
shown in Figure 3.27. The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion proves to be better for
describing soil behaviour than the Drucker-Prager approximation, as the latter failure
surface tends to be inaccurate for axisymmetric configurations.
-σ1

-σ 3

-σ2
Figure 3.27 Failure surface in principal stress space for cohesionless soil

Dilatancy angle (ψ)

The dilatancy angle, ψ (psi), is specified in degrees. Apart from heavily over-
consolidated layers, clay soils tend to show no dilatancy at all (i.e. ψ = 0). The dilatancy
of sand depends on both the density and on the friction angle. For quartz sands the order
of magnitude is ψ ≈ ϕ - 30°. In most cases, however, the angle of dilatancy is zero for
ϕ-values of less than 30°. A small negative value for ψ is only realistic for extremely
loose sands. For further information about the link between the friction angle and
dilatancy, see Reference 3.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

Advanced Mohr-Coulomb parameters

When using the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Advanced button in the Parameters tab sheet
may be clicked to enter some additional parameters for advanced modelling features. As
a result, an additional window appears as shown in Figure 3.28. The advanced features
comprise the increase of stiffness and cohesive strength with depth and the use of a
tension cut-off. In fact, the latter option is used by default, but it may be deactivated
here, if desired.

Figure 3.28 Advanced Mohr-Coulomb parameters window

Increase of stiffness (Eincrement ):

In real soils, the stiffness depends significantly on the stress level, which means
that the stiffness generally increases with depth. When using the Mohr-
Coulomb model, the stiffness is a constant value. To account for the increase of
the stiffness with depth the Eincrement-value may be used, which is the increase of
the Young's modulus per unit of depth (expressed in the unit of stress per unit
depth). At the level given by the yref parameter and above, the stiffness is equal
to the reference Young's modulus, Eref, as entered in the Parameters tab sheet.
The actual value of Young's modulus in the stress points below yref is obtained
from the reference value and Eincrement. Note that during calculations a stiffness
increasing with depth does not change as a function of the stress state.

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Increase of cohesion (cincrement:):

PLAXIS offers an advanced option for the input of clay layers in which the
cohesion increases with depth. To account for the increase of the cohesion with
depth the cincrement value may be used, which is the increase of the cohesion per
unit of depth (expressed in the unit of stress per unit depth).At the level given
by the yref parameter and above, the cohesion is equal to the reference cohesion,
cref, as entered in the Parameters tab sheet. The actual value of cohesion in the
stress points below yref is obtained from the reference value and cincrement.

Skempton B-parameter:
When the Material type (type of material behaviour) is set to Undrained,
PLAXIS automatically assumes an implicit undrained bulk modulus, Ku, for the
soil as a whole (soil skeleton + water) and distinguishes between total stresses,
effective stresses and excess pore pressures (see Undrained behaviour):

Total stress: ∆ p = K u ∆ εν

Effective stress: ∆p′ = (1 − B )∆p = K ′∆εν

Excess pore pressure: ∆p w = B∆p = K w ∆εν

n
Note that effective model parameters should be entered in the material data set,
i.e. E', ν', c', ϕ' and not Eu, νu, cu (su), ϕu. The undrained bulk modulus is
automatically calculated by PLAXIS using Hooke's law of elasticity:
2G (1 + ν u ) E'
Ku = where G=
3(1 − 2ν u ) 2(1 + ν ' )
and ν u = 0.495 (when using the Standard setting)

3ν '+ B (1 − 2ν ' )
or νu = (when using the Manual setting)
3 − B (1 − 2ν ' )
A particular value of the undrained Poisson's ratio, νu, implies a corresponding
reference bulk stiffness of the pore fluid, Kw,ref / n:
K w,ref E'
= Ku − K ' where K'=
n 3(1 − 2ν ' )
This value of Kw,ref / n is generally much smaller than the real bulk stiffness of
pure water, Kw0 (= 2⋅106 kN/m2).

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If the value of Skempton's B-parameter is unknown, but the degree of

saturation, S, and the porosity, n, are known instead, the bulk stiffness of the
soil skeleton can be estimated from:
Kw K w0 K air 1
=
n SK air + ( 1 − S)K w n
0

and Kair = 200 kN/m2 for air under atmospheric pressure. The value of
Skempton's B-parameter can now be calculated from the ratio of the bulk
stiffnesses of the soil skeleton and the pore fluid:
1 E'
B= where K' =
1+
nK' 3( 1 − 2ν')
Kw

Tension cut-off:
In some practical problems, an area with tensile stresses may develop.
According to the Coulomb envelope shown in Figure 3.26 this is allowed when
the shear stress (given by the radius of Mohr circle) is sufficiently small.
However, the soil surface near a trench in clay sometimes shows tensile cracks.
This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead of in shear. This
behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the tension cut-off.
In this case Mohr circles with positive principal stresses are not allowed. When
selecting the tension cut-off the allowable Tensile strength may be entered. For
the Mohr-Coulomb model and the Hardening Soil model the tension cut-off is,
by default, selected with a tensile strength of zero.

Interface strength (Rinter )

An elastic-plastic model is used to describe the behaviour of interfaces for the modelling
of soil-structure interaction. The Coulomb criterion is used to distinguish between
elastic behaviour, where small displacements can occur within the interface, and plastic
interface behaviour when permanent slip may occur.
For the interface to remain elastic the shear stress τ is given by:

τ< σn tanϕi + ci

and for plastic behaviour τ is given by:

τ= σn tanϕi + ci
where ϕi and ci are the friction angle and cohesion (adhesion) of the interface. The
strength properties of interfaces are linked to the strength properties of a soil layer. Each

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data set has an associated strength reduction factor for interfaces (Rinter). The interface
properties are calculated from the soil properties in the associated data set and the
strength reduction factor by applying the following rules:

ci = Rinter csoil

tanϕi = Rinter tanϕsoil ≤ tanϕsoil

ψi = 0° for Rinter < 1, otherwise ψi = ψsoil

In addition to Coulomb's shear stress criterion, the tension cut-off criterion, as described
before, also applies to interfaces (if not deactivated):

σn < σt,i = Rinter σt,soil

where σt,soil is the tensile strength of the soil.

Figure 3.29 Soil and Interface material set window (Interfaces tab sheet)

The interface strength can be set using the following options:

Rigid:
This option is used when the interface should not influence the strength of the
surrounding soil. For example, extended interfaces around corners of structural
objects (Figure 3.13) are not intended for soil-structure interaction and should

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not have reduced strength properties. These interfaces should be assigned the
Rigid setting (which corresponds to Rinter = 1.0). As a result, the interface
properties, including the dilatancy angle ψi, are the same as the soil properties
in the data set, except for Poisson's ratio νi.

Manual:
If the interface strength is set to Manual, the value of Rinter can be entered
manually. In general, for real soil-structure interaction the interface is weaker
and more flexible than the associated soil layer, which means that the value of
Rinter should be less than 1. Suitable values for Rinter for the case of the
interaction between various types of soil and structures in the soil can be found
in the literature. In the absence of detailed information it may be assumed that
Rinter is of the order of 2/3. A value of Rinter greater than 1 would not normally
be used.
When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the
interface) and gapping or overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the
interface) could be expected to occur.
The magnitudes of these displacements are:

σ ti
Elastic gap displacement =
E oed,i

τ
Elastic slip displacement = t i
Gi
where Gi is the shear modulus of the interface, Eoed,i is the one-dimensional compression
modulus of the interface and ti is the virtual thickness of the interface, generated during
the creation of interfaces in the geometry model. The shear and compression moduli are
related by the expressions:

1 -ν i
Eoed ,i = 2 Gi
1 - 2ν i

2
Gi = Rinter Gsoil ≤ Gsoil

ν i = 0.45
It is clear from these equations that, if the elastic parameters are set to low values, then
the elastic displacements may be excessively large. If the values of the elastic
parameters are too large, however, then numerical ill-conditioning can result. The key

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factor in the stiffness is the virtual thickness. This value is automatically chosen such
that an adequate stiffness is obtained. The user may change the virtual thickness. This
can be done in the properties window that appears after double clicking an interface
(Section 3.3.5).

Real interface thickness (δinter )

The real interface thickness, δinter, is a parameter that represents the real thickness of a
shear zone between a structure and the soil. The value of δinter is only of importance
when interfaces are used in combination with the Hardening Soil model. The real
interface thickness is expressed in the unit of length and is generally of the order of a
few times the average grain size. This parameter is used to calculate the change in void
ratio in interfaces for the dilatancy cut-off option. The dilatancy cut-off in interfaces can
be of importance to calculate the correct bearing capacity of tension piles.

Interfaces below or around corners of structures

When interfaces are extended below or around corners of structures to avoid stress
oscillations (Section 3.3.5), these extended interfaces are not meant to model soil-
structure interaction behaviour, but just to allow for sufficient flexibility. Hence, when
using Rinter < 1 for these interface elements an unrealistic strength reduction is
introduced in the ground, which may lead to unrealistic soil behaviour or even failure.
Therefore it is advised to create a separate data set with Rinter = 1 and to assign this data
set only to these particular interface elements. This can be done by dropping the
appropriate data set on the individual interfaces (dashed lines) rather than dropping it on
the associated soil cluster (the dashed lines should blink red; the associated soil cluster
may not change colour). Alternatively, you can click the right-hand mouse button on
these particular interface elements and select Properties and subsequently Positive
interface element or Negative interface element. In the interface properties window press
the Change button, after which the appropriate data set can be assigned to the interface
element.

Interface permeability
Interfaces do not have a permeability assigned to them, but they are, by default, fully
impermeable. In this way interfaces may be used to block the flow perpendicular to the
interface in a consolidation analysis or a groundwater flow calculation, for example to
simulate the presence of an impermeable screen. This is achieved by a full separation of
the pore pressure degrees-of-freedom of the interface node pairs. On the other hand, if
interfaces are present in the mesh it may be the user's intension to explicitly avoid any
influence of the interface on the flow and the distribution of (excess) pore pressures, for
example in interfaces around corner points of structures (Section 3.3.5). In such a case
the interface should be de-activated in the water conditions mode. This can be done
separately for a consolidation analysis and a groundwater flow calculation. For inactive

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interfaces the pore pressure degrees-of-freedom of the interface node pairs are fully
coupled.
In conclusion:
• An active interface is fully impermeable (separation of pore pressure degrees-of-
freedom of node pairs).
• An inactive interface is fully permeable (coupling of pore pressure degrees-of-
freedom of node pairs).
In previous PLAXIS versions, interfaces were given a physical permeability
perpendicular to the interface, kn, and a permeability in longitudinal direction, ks,
whereas factors were used to make the interfaces relatively permeable or relatively
impermeable. This approach could lead to unsatisfactory results (significant flow
through impermeable interfaces or numerical solution problems). Considering the fact
that the permeability in interfaces is a pure numerical property and not a physical
property, we have decided to adopt a new approach as described above. The option in
previous PLAXIS versions to set the interface permeability to Drain has disappeared,
since a special drain element is now available (Section 3.4.7).

Material data sets for plates

Plates are used to model the behaviour of slender walls, plates or thin shells. Distinction
can be made between elastic and elastoplastic behaviour.

Stiffness properties
For elastic behaviour an axial stiffness, EA, and a flexural rigidity, EI, should be
specified as material properties. For both axisymmetric and plane strain models the
values of EA and EI relate to a stiffness per unit width in the out-of-plane direction.
Hence, the axial stiffness, EA, is given in force per unit width and the flexural rigidity,
EI, is given in force length squared per unit width. From the ratio of EI and EA an
equivalent thickness for an equivalent plate (deq) is automatically calculated from the
equation:

EI
d eq = 12
EA
For the modelling of plates, PLAXIS uses the Mindlin beam theory as described in
Reference 2. This means that, in addition to bending, shear deformation is taken into
account. The shear stiffness of the plate is determined from:

5EA 5 E (d eq • 1 m )
Shear stiffness = =
12 (1 +ν ) 12 (1 +ν )

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This implies that the shear stiffness is determined from the assumption that the plate has
a rectangular cross-section. In the case of modelling a solid wall, this will give the
correct shear deformation. However, in the case of steel profile elements, like sheet-pile
walls, the computed shear deformation may be too large. You can check this by judging
the value of deq. For steel profile elements, deq should be at least of the order of a factor
10 times smaller than the length of the plate to ensure negligible shear deformations.

Poisson's ratio
In addition to the above stiffness parameters, a Poisson's ratio, ν, is required. For thin
structures with a certain profile or structures that are relatively flexible in the out-of-
plane direction (like sheet-pile walls), it is advisable to set Poisson's ratio to zero. For
real massive structures (like concrete walls) it is more realistic to enter a true Poisson's
ratio of the order of 0.15.
Since PLAXIS considers plates (extending in the out-of-plane direction) rather than
beams (one-dimensional structures), the value of Poisson's ratio will influence the
flexural rigidity of the plate as follows:

Input value of flexural rigidity EI

EI
Observed value of flexural rigidity
1 −ν 2
The stiffening effect of Poisson's ratio is caused by the stresses in the out-of-plane
direction (σzz) and the fact that strains are prevented in this direction.

Weight
In a material set for plates a specific weight can be specified, which is entered as a force
per unit area. For relatively massive structures this force is, in principle, obtained by
multiplying the unit weight of the plate material by the thickness of the plate. Note that
in a finite element model, plates are superimposed on a continuum and therefore
'overlap' the soil. To calculate accurately the total weight of soil and structures in the
model, the unit weight of the soil should be subtracted from the unit weight of the plate
material. For sheet-pile walls the weight (force per unit area) is generally provided by
the manufacturer. This value can be adopted directly since sheet-pile walls usually
occupy relatively little volume.
The weight of plates is activated together with the soil weight by means of the
ΣMweight parameter.

Strength parameters (plasticity)

Plasticity may be taken into account by specifying a maximum bending moment, Mp.
The maximum bending moment is given in units of force times length per unit width. In

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addition to the maximum bending moment, the axial force is limited to Np. The
maximum axial force, Np, is specified in units of force per unit width. When the
combination of a bending moment and an axial force occur in a plate, then the actual
bending moment or axial force at which plasticity occurs is lower than respectively Mp
or Np. The relationship between Mp and Np is visualised in Figure 3.30. The diamond
shape represents the ultimate combination of forces for which plasticity will occur.
Force combinations inside the diamond will result in elastic deformations only. The
Scientific Manual describes in more detail how PLAXIS deals with plasticity in plates. By
default the maximum moment is set to 1•1015 units if the material type is set to elastic
(the default setting).
Bending moments and axial forces are calculated at the stress points of the beam
elements (Figure 3.7). If Mp or Np is exceeded, stresses are redistributed according to the
theory of plasticity, so that the maxima are complied with. This will result in irreversible
deformations. Output of bending moments and axial forces is given in the nodes, which
requires extrapolation of the values at the stress points. Due to the position of the stress
points in a beam element, it is possible that the nodal values of the bending moment may
slightly exceed Mp.

Np

M
Mp Mp

Np

Figure 3.30 Combinations of maximum bending moment and axial force

It is possible to change the material data set of a plate in the framework of staged
construction. However, it is very important that the ratio of EI / EA is not changed, since
this will introduce an out-of-balance force (Section 3.3.2).

3.5.4 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR GEOGRIDS

Geogrids are flexible elastic elements that represent a grid or sheet of fabric. Geogrids
cannot sustain compressive forces. The only property in a geogrid data set is the elastic
axial stiffness, EA, entered in units of force per unit width. The axial stiffness, EA, is

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usually provided by the geogrid manufacturer and can be determined from diagrams in
which the elongation of the geogrid is plotted against the applied force in a longitudinal
direction. The axial stiffness is the ratio of the axial force per unit width and the axial
strain (∆l/l where ∆l is the elongation and l is the length).
F
EA =
∆l
l

3.5.5 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR ANCHORS

A material data set for anchors may contain the properties of node-to-node anchors as
well as fixed-end anchors. In both cases the anchor is just a spring element. The major
anchor property is the axial stiffness, EA, entered per anchor in the unit of force and not
per unit width in the out-of-plane direction. To calculate an equivalent stiffness per unit
width, the out-of-plane spacing, Ls, must be entered. If the material type is selected as
elastoplastic, two maximum anchor forces, Fmax,tens (maximum tension force) and
Fmax,comp (maximum compression force) can be entered in the unit of force (also per
anchor). In the same way as the stiffness, the maximum anchor forces are divided by the
out-of-plane spacing in order to obtain the proper maximum force in a plane strain
analysis. If the material type is set to elastic (the default setting), the maximum forces
are set to 1•1015 units.
Anchors can be pre-stressed in a Staged construction calculation. In such a calculation
the pre-stress force for a certain calculation phase can directly be given in the anchor
property window. The pre-stress force is not considered to be a material property and is
therefore not included in an anchor data set.

3.5.6 ASSIGNING DATA SETS TO GEOMETRY COMPONENTS

After creating all material data sets for the various soil layers and structures, the data
sets must be assigned to the corresponding components. This can be done in different
ways.
The first method is based on an opened material sets window, showing the created
material sets in the project data base tree view. The desired material set can be dragged
(select it and keep the left mouse button down) to the draw area and dropped on the
desired component. It can be seen from the shape of the cursor whether or not it is valid
to drop the material set. Note that material sets cannot be dragged directly from the
global data base tree view.
The second method is to double click the desired component. As a result, the properties
window appears on which the material set is indicated. If no material set has been
assigned, the material set box displays <Unassigned>. When clicking on the Change
button the material sets window appears from which the required material set can be
selected. The material set can be dragged from the project data base tree view and

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dropped on the properties window. Alternatively, after the selection of the required
material set it can be assigned to the selected geometry component by clicking on the
Apply button in the material sets window. In this case, the material sets window remains
opened. When clicking on the OK button instead, the material set is also assigned to the
selected geometry component and the material sets window is subsequently closed.
The third method is to move the cursor to a geometry component and to click the right
hand mouse button. Through the cursor menu (properties) one can select the desired
geometry component. As a result, the properties window appears. From here the
selection of the proper material set is the same as for the second method.
After assigning a material data set to a soil cluster, the cluster obtains the colour of the
corresponding data set. By default, the colours of data sets have a low intensity. To
increase the intensity of all data set colours, the user may press <Ctrl><Alt><C>
simultaneously on the keyboard. There are three levels of colour intensity that can be
selected in this way.
When data sets are assigned to structural objects, these objects will blink red for about
half a second to confirm the correct data set assignment.

3.6 MESH GENERATION

When the geometry model is fully defined and material properties are assigned
to all clusters and structural objects, the geometry has to be divided into finite
elements in order to perform finite element calculations. A composition of finite
elements is called a mesh. The basic type of element in a mesh is the 15-node triangular
element or the 6-node triangular element, as described in Section 3.2.2. In addition to
these elements, there are special elements for structural behaviour (plates, geogrids and
anchors), as described in Section 3.3.2 to 3.3.7. PLAXIS allows for a fully automatic
mesh generation of finite element meshes. The mesh generator is a special version of the
Triangle mesh generator developed by Sepra1. The generation of the mesh is based on a
robust triangulation procedure, which results in 'unstructured' meshes. These meshes
may look disorderly, but the numerical performance of such meshes is usually better
than for regular (structured) meshes.
The required input for the mesh generator is a geometry model composed of points, lines
and clusters, of which the clusters (areas enclosed by lines) are automatically generated
during the creation of the geometry model. Geometry lines and points may also be used
to influence the position and distribution of elements.
The generation of the mesh is started by clicking on the mesh generation button in the
tool bar or by selecting the Generate option from the Mesh sub-menu. The generation is

1 Ingenieursbureau Sepra, Park Nabij 3, 2267 AX Leidschendam (NL)

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also activated directly after the selection of a refinement option from the Mesh sub-
menu.
After the mesh generation the Output program is started and a plot of the mesh is
displayed. Although interface elements have a zero thickness, the interfaces in the mesh
are drawn with a certain thickness to show the connections between soil elements and
interfaces. This so-called Connectivity plot is also available as a regular output option
(Section 5.9.4). The scale factor (Section 5.4) may be used to reduce the graphical
thickness of the interfaces. To return to the Input program, the Update button must be
pressed.

3.6.1 BASIC ELEMENT TYPE

The basic type of element is entered in the Project tab sheet of the General Settings
window in the File sub-menu. On selecting Basic element type from the Mesh sub-
menu, the General Settings window is opened and the cursor is positioned at the
Elements parameter.
The user may select either 15-node or 6-node triangular elements (Figure 3.4) as the
basic type of element to model soil layers and other volume clusters. The type of
element for structures and interfaces is automatically taken to be compatible with the
basic type of soil element.

3.6.2 GLOBAL COARSENESS

The mesh generator requires a general meshing parameter which represents the average
element size, le. In PLAXIS this parameter is calculated from the outer geometry
dimensions (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax ) and a Global coarseness setting as defined in the Mesh
sub-menu:

(xmax − xmin )(y max − y min )

le =
nc
Distinction is made between five levels of global coarseness: Very coarse, Coarse,
Medium, Fine, Very fine. By default, the global coarseness is set to Coarse. The average
element size and the number of generated triangular elements depends on this global
coarseness setting. A rough estimate is given below (based on a generation without local
refinement):
Very coarse: nc = 25 Around 50 elements
Coarse: nc = 50 Around 100 elements
Medium: nc = 100 Around 250 elements
Fine: nc = 200 Around 500 elements
Very fine: nc = 400 Around 1000 elements

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The exact number of elements depends on the shape of the geometry and eventual local
refinement settings. The number of elements is not influenced by the Type of elements
parameter, as set in the General settings. Note that a mesh composed of 15-node
elements gives a much finer distribution of nodes and thus much more accurate results
than a similar mesh composed of an equal number of 6-node elements. On the other
hand, the use of 15-node elements is more time consuming than using 6-node elements.

3.6.3 GLOBAL REFINEMENT

A finite element mesh can be refined globally by selecting the Refine global option from
the Mesh sub-menu. When selecting this option, the global coarseness parameter is
increased one level (for example from Coarse to Medium) and the mesh is automatically
regenerated.

3.6.4 LOCAL COARSENESS

In areas where large stress concentrations or large deformation gradients are expected, it
is desirable to have a more accurate (finer) finite element mesh, whereas other parts of
the geometry might not require a fine mesh. Such a situation often occurs when the
geometry model includes edges or corners or structural objects. For these cases PLAXIS
uses local coarseness parameters in addition to the global coarseness parameter. The
local coarseness parameter is the Local element size factor, which is contained in each
geometry point. These factors give an indication of the relative element size with respect
to the average element size as determined by the Global coarseness parameter. By
default, the Local element size factor is set to 1.0 at all geometry points. To reduce the
length of an element to half the average element size, the Local element size factor
should be set to 0.5.
The local element size factor can be changed by double clicking the corresponding
geometry point. Alternatively, when double clicking a geometry line, one can set the
local element size factor for both points of the geometry line simultaneously. Values in
the range from 0.05 to 5.0 are acceptable.

3.6.5 LOCAL REFINEMENT

Instead of specifying local element size factors, a local refinement can be achieved by
selecting clusters, lines or points and selecting a local refinement option from the Mesh
sub-menu.
When selecting one or more clusters, the Mesh sub-menu allows for the option Refine
cluster. Similarly, when selecting one or more geometry lines, the Mesh sub-menu
provides the option Refine line. When selecting one or more points, the option Refine
around point is available.
Using one of the options for the first time will give a local element size factor of 0.5 for
all selected geometry points or all geometry points that are included in the selected

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clusters or lines. Repetitive use the local refinement option will result in a local element
size factor which is half the current factor, however, the minimum and maximum value
are restricted to the range [0.05 , 5.0]. After selecting one of the local refinement
options, the mesh is automatically regenerated.

3.6.6 ADVISED MESH GENERATION PRACTICE

To perform efficient finite element calculations, a preliminary analysis can be performed
using a relatively coarse mesh. This analysis can be used to check whether the model is
large enough and to see where stress concentrations and large deformation gradients
occur. This information should be used to create a refined finite element model.
To create efficiently a detailed finite element mesh, one should first select the required
Global coarseness from the Mesh sub-menu. In addition, when local refinements are
desired, one should start by refining clusters, then refining lines and finally refining
points. If desired, points can be given a direct local element size factor.

3.7 INITIAL CONDITIONS

Once the geometry model has been created and the finite element mesh has been
generated, the initial stress state and the initial configuration must be specified. This is
done in the initial conditions part of the input program. The initial conditions consist of
two different modes: One mode for the generation of initial water pressures (water
conditions mode) and one mode for the specification of the initial geometry
configuration and the generation of the initial effective stress field (geometry
configuration mode).
Switching between these two modes is done by means of the 'switch' in the
tool bar. The initial conditions allow for a return to the geometry creation
mode, but this should generally not be done, since some information
regarding the initial conditions will be lost.

3.8 WATER CONDITIONS

PLAXIS is generally used for effective stress analyses in which a clear distinction is made
between active pore pressures, pactive, and effective stresses, σ'. In the active pore
pressures, a further distinction is made between steady-state pore pressures, psteady, and
excess pore pressures, pexcess:

pactive = psteady + pexcess

Excess pore pressures are pore pressures that occur due to loading of clusters for which
the type of material behaviour in the material data set is specified as Undrained. In a
Plastic calculation, excess pore pressures can be created only in these Undrained

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clusters. A consolidation analysis may be used to calculate the time-dependent

generation or dissipation of excess pore pressures. In this type of calculation the
development of excess pore pressures is determined by the Permeability parameters
rather than by the type of material behaviour.
Steady-state pore pressures are pore pressures that represent a stable hydraulic situation.
Such a situation is obtained when external water conditions remain constant over a long
period. To reach a steady-state, it is not necessary that pore pressures, by themselves, are
in static equilibrium (i.e. a horizontal phreatic surface), since situations in which
permanent groundwater flow or seepage occur may also lead to a stable state.
Steady-state pore pressures and external water pressures, (referred to as 'water
pressures'), are generated in the water conditions mode. Water pressures can easily be
generated on the basis of phreatic levels. Alternatively, water pressures may be
generated by means of a steady-state groundwater flow calculation. The latter requires
the input of boundary conditions on the groundwater head, which are taken, by default,
from the general phreatic level. Water pressures may also be obtained from the separate
PLAXIS program for transient and unsaturated groundwater flow. This program is
available as an extension to Version 8. Although transient flow does not generally give
steady-state pore pressures, the pore pressures obtained from this program are treated in
a deformation analysis as if they are steady.
The water conditions mode may be skipped in projects that do not involve water
pressures. In this case, a general phreatic level is taken at the bottom of the geometry
model and all pore pressures and external water pressures are taken to be zero.

3.8.1 WATER WEIGHT

In projects that involve pore pressures, the input of a unit weight of water is required to
distinguish between effective stresses and pore pressures.
On entering the water conditions mode for the first time, a window appears in which the
water weight can be entered. The water weight can also be entered by selecting the
Water weight option from the Geometry sub-menu.
By default, the unit weight of water is set to 9.8 kN/m3 (or 0.062 klb/ft3).

3.8.2 PHREATIC LEVELS

Pore pressures and external water pressures can be generated on the basis of
phreatic levels. A phreatic level represents a series of points where the water
pressure is just zero. Using the input of a phreatic level, the water pressure will
increase linearly with depth according to the specified water weight (i.e. the pressure
variation is assumed to be hydrostatic). Before entering a phreatic level the user must
enter the correct water weight. The option to enter phreatic levels can be selected from
the Geometry sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar. The
input of a phreatic level is similar to the creation of a geometry line (Section 3.3.1).

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Phreatic levels are defined by two or more points. Points may be entered from 'left' to
'right' (increasing x-coordinate) or vice versa (decreasing x-coordinate). The points and
lines are superimposed on the geometry model, but they do not interact with the model.
Crossings of a phreatic levels and existing geometry lines do not introduce additional
geometry points.
If a phreatic level does not cover the full x-range of the geometry model, the phreatic
level is considered to extend horizontally from the most left point to minus infinity and
from the most right point to plus infinity. Above the phreatic level the pore pressures
will be zero, whereas below the phreatic level there will be a hydrostatic pore pressure
distribution, at least when the water pressure is generated on the basis of phreatic levels.
The generation of water pressures is actually performed when selecting the Generate
water pressures option (Section 3.8.4)

General phreatic level

If none of the clusters is selected and a phreatic level is drawn, this phreatic level is
considered to be the General phreatic level. By default, the general phreatic level is
located at the bottom of the geometry model; on entering a new line the old general
phreatic level is replaced. The general phreatic level can be used to generate a simple
hydrostatic pore pressure distribution for the full geometry. The general phreatic level is,
by default, assigned to all clusters in the geometry.
If the general phreatic level is outside the geometry model and the corresponding
boundary is a free boundary, external water pressures will be generated on the basis of
this surface. This also applies to free boundaries that arise due to the excavation (de-
activation) of soil clusters in the framework of Staged construction. The calculation
program will treat external water pressures as distributed loads and they are taken into
account together with the soil weight and the pore pressures as controlled by the
ΣMweight parameter. The external water pressures are calculated such that equilibrium
of water pressures is achieved across the boundary. However, if the phreatic level
crosses the boundary in a non-existing geometry point, the external water pressures
cannot be calculated accurately (Figure 3.31).

inaccurate accurate

Figure 3.31 Inaccurate and accurate modelling of external water pressures

This is because the value of the external water pressure is only defined at the two end
points of the geometry line and the pressure can only vary linearly along a geometry

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line. Hence, to calculate external water pressures accurately, the general phreatic level
should preferably cross the model boundary at existing geometry points. This condition
should be taken into account when creating the geometry model. If necessary, an
additional geometry point should be introduced for this purpose at the geometry
boundary.
The general phreatic level can also be used to create boundary conditions for the
groundwater head in the case that pore pressures are calculated on the basis of a
groundwater flow calculation (Section 3.8.3).

Cluster phreatic level

To allow for a discontinuous pore pressure distribution, each cluster can be given a
separate Cluster phreatic level. In fact, a cluster phreatic level is not necessarily a true
phreatic level. In the case of an aquifer layer, the cluster phreatic level represents the
pressure height, i.e. the virtual zero-level of the pore pressures in that layer.

Figure 3.32 Cluster pore pressure distribution window

A cluster phreatic level can be entered by first selecting the cluster for which a separate
phreatic level has to be specified and subsequently selecting the Phreatic level option
from the tool bar or the Geometry sub-menu and entering the phreatic level while the
cluster remains selected. When selecting multiple clusters at the same time (by holding
the Shift key down) and entering a phreatic level, this line will be assigned to all selected
clusters as a cluster phreatic level. The clusters for which no specific cluster phreatic
level was entered retain the general phreatic level. To identify which phreatic level
belongs to a particular cluster, one can select the cluster and see which phreatic level is

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indicated in red. If no phreatic level is indicated in red, then another option was chosen
for that cluster (see below).
After double clicking on a cluster in the water conditions mode the Cluster pore
pressure distribution window appears in which it is indicated by means of radio buttons
how the pore pressures will be generated for that soil cluster. If a cluster phreatic level
was assigned to the cluster by mistake, it can be reset to the general phreatic level by
selecting General phreatic level in this window. As a result, the cluster phreatic level is
deleted.
In addition to the general phreatic level and cluster phreatic level option there are some
other options available, which are explained below.

Interpolation of pore pressures from adjacent clusters or lines

A third possibility to generate pore pressures in a soil cluster is the Interpolate from
adjacent clusters or lines option. This option is, for example, used if a relatively
impermeable layer is located between two permeable layers with a different
groundwater head. The pore pressure distribution in the relatively impermeable layer
will not be hydrostatic, so it cannot be defined by means of a phreatic level.
On selecting the option Interpolate from adjacent clusters or lines, the pore pressure in
that cluster is interpolated linearly in a vertical direction, starting from the value at the
bottom of the cluster above and ending at the value at the top of the cluster below,
except if the pore pressure in the cluster above or below is defined by means of a user-
defined pore pressure distribution. In the latter case the pore pressure is interpolated
from the general phreatic level. The Interpolate... option can be used repetitively in two
or more successive clusters (on top of each other). In the case that a starting value for
the vertical interpolation of the pore pressure cannot be found, then the starting point
will be based on the general phreatic level.
In addition to the values in the layers above or below the cluster where the pore pressure
is to be interpolated from, one can also directly enter the groundwater head at geometry
lines for interpolation purposes. This can be done by double clicking the corresponding
geometry line. As a result, a groundwater head window appears in which the desired
groundwater head at both points of the line can be entered. On entering the groundwater
head at a point, the program will also display the corresponding pore pressure (pore
pressure = water weight times [groundwater head minus vertical position] ). If for the a
cluster the option Interpolate from adjacent clusters or lines is selected and a
groundwater head is defined on an adjacent line, the interpolation will start from the
pore pressure on that line rather than from the pore pressure value in the adjacent
cluster. In other words, the interpolation procedure gives priority to an eventual direct
input of pore pressures in adjacent geometry lines over the pore pressure values in
adjacent clusters.
A direct input of a groundwater head in geometry lines is only relevant if the adjacent
soil cluster is set to Interpolate... or if pore pressures are generated by means of a

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groundwater flow calculation. Note that when pore pressures are generated on the basis
of phreatic levels, the interpolation of pore pressures is used in vertical direction only
and not in horizontal direction. Hence, the direct input of a groundwater head on vertical
geometry lines does not have any effect in this case.
A direct input of a groundwater head in geometry lines can be erased by selecting the
corresponding geometry line and pressing the Delete key on the keyboard.

Cluster dry
A fast and convenient option is available for drained and undrained clusters that should
be made dry or, in other words, that should have zero pore pressures. This can be done
by selecting the Cluster dry option. As a result, the steady state pore pressures in that
cluster are set to zero and the soil weight is considered to be the unsaturated weight.
Note that clusters representing massive (concrete) structures where pore pressures
should be excluded permanently (like diaphragm walls or caissons) can be specified as
Non-porous in the corresponding material data set. It is not necessary to set such non-
porous clusters to Cluster dry in the water conditions mode. It should also be noted that
in undrained clusters excess pore pressures can still be generated whilst the Cluster dry
option is used.

User-defined pore pressure distribution

If the pore pressure distribution in a particular soil cluster is very specific and cannot be
defined by one of the above options, it may be specified as a user-defined pore pressure
distribution. When selecting this option, you can enter a reference level, yref, in the unit
of length, a reference pressure, pref, in the unit of stress (i.e. the pore pressure at the
reference level) and an increment of pressure, pinc, in the unit of stress per unit of depth.
In this way any linear pore pressure distribution can be defined. The reference level, yref,
refers to the vertical level (y-coordinate) where the pore pressure is equal to the
reference pressure, pref. If the cluster is (partly) located above the reference level, the
pore pressure in that part of the cluster will also be equal to the reference pressure.
Below the reference level, the pore pressure in the cluster is linearly increased, as set by
the value of pinc. Please note that the values of pref and pinc are negative for pressure and
pressure increase with depth, respectively. A user-defined pore pressure distribution
cannot be used to interpolate pore pressures in other clusters. This should be taken into
account when the Interpolate pore pressures from adjacent clusters or lines option is
used in the cluster above or below.

Water pressures in inactive clusters

When generating water pressures on the basis of phreatic levels when some clusters are
inactive in the initial geometry configuration (Section 3.9.1), no distinction is made
between active clusters and inactive clusters. This means that steady pore pressures are
generated both for active clusters and inactive clusters according to the corresponding
phreatic level. If it is desired to exclude water pressures in certain clusters, the Cluster

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dry option should be used or a cluster phreatic level should be defined below the
corresponding cluster.

3.8.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR GROUNDWATER FLOW

CALCULATIONS
In addition to the generation of water pressures on the basis of phreatic levels, water
pressures can also be generated on the basis of a groundwater flow calculation. This
requires the input of boundary conditions on the groundwater head. In principle, two
types of boundary conditions exist: A prescribed groundwater head and a prescribed
specific discharge normal to the boundary. The latter can only be specified as a specific
discharge equal to zero, which is named a Closed flow boundary.

Prescribed groundwater head

The prescribed groundwater head on external geometry boundaries is, by default,
derived from the position of the general phreatic level, at least when the general phreatic
level is outside the active geometry. Also internal geometry lines that have become
external boundaries due to a de-activation of soil clusters are considered to be external
geometry boundaries and are therefore treated similarly.
In addition to the automatic setting of boundary conditions based on the general phreatic
level, a prescribed groundwater head may be entered manually. This procedure is similar
to the direct input of a groundwater head for geometry lines. After double clicking an
existing geometry line, a window appears in which the groundwater head at the two
points of that line can be entered. On entering the groundwater head at a point, the
program will display the corresponding pore pressure (pore pressure = water weight
times [groundwater head minus vertical position] ). It is also possible in this way to
prescribe a groundwater head at internal geometry lines.
A prescribed groundwater head can be removed by selecting the corresponding
geometry line and pressing the Delete key on the keyboard.
If a groundwater head is prescribed at an outer geometry boundary, external water
pressures will be generated for that boundary. The deformation analysis program will
treat external water pressures as traction loads and they are taken into account together
with the soil weight and the pore pressures.

Closed flow boundary

A closed flow boundary is an object that can be placed at the boundary of the
geometry model to ensure that flow across that boundary will not occur. This
option can be selected by clicking on the Closed flow boundary button in the
tool bar or by selecting the corresponding option from the Geometry sub-menu. The
input of a closed flow boundary is similar to the creation of a geometry line. However, a

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closed flow boundary can only be placed exactly over existing geometry lines at the
outer boundary of the geometry model.
When a boundary geometry line is indicated as a closed flow boundary, it is still
possible to prescribe a groundwater head on that boundary. Although the groundwater
head is then not used as a boundary condition in the groundwater flow calculation, it
will be used to generate external water pressures that are applied in any subsequent
deformation analysis.

Seepage surfaces
Flow problems with a free phreatic level may involve a seepage surface on the
downstream boundary, as shown in Figure 3.33. A seepage surface will always occur
when the phreatic level touches an open downstream boundary. The seepage surface is
not a streamline (in contrast to the phreatic level) or an equipotential line. It is a line on
which the groundwater head, h, equals the elevation head y (= vertical position). This
condition arises from the fact that the water pressure is zero on the seepage surface,
which is the same condition that exists at the phreatic level.
For seepage boundaries the hydraulic head, h, needs to be equal to the vertical position,
y, which is the default condition used in PLAXIS. It is not necessary to know the exact
length of the seepage surface before the calculation begins, since the same boundary
conditions (h = y) may be used both above and below the phreatic level. 'Open'
boundaries with h = y may therefore be specified for all boundaries where the hydraulic
head is unknown. Alternatively, for boundaries well above the phreatic level where it is
obvious that a seepage surface does not occur, it may also be appropriate to prescribe
those boundaries as closed flow boundaries. If no specific condition is prescribed for a
particular boundary line, PLAXIS assumes that this boundary is 'open' and sets the
seepage condition here.

Figure 3.33 Flow through an embankment with indication of a seepage surface

Inactive clusters in groundwater flow calculation

Please note that this option has changed in Version 8 compared to previous PLAXIS
versions.

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On de-activating clusters in the geometry configuration mode (Section 3.9.1) and

performing a groundwater flow calculation for that situation, the inactive clusters do not
take part in the groundwater flow calculation itself, but the pore pressure at stress points
within the de-activated clusters is determined afterwards from the general phreatic level.
Hence, if inactive clusters are located (partly) below the general phreatic level, there will
be a hydrostatic water pressure distribution below the general phreatic level, whereas the
water pressure above the general phreatic level is zero in these clusters.
The boundary between active and inactive clusters is considered to be an 'open'
boundary so that water can flow across such a boundary. If it is desired to make such a
boundary impermeable, then an interface must be created at the 'active' side of the
boundary. This interface must be set impermeable (Section 3.3.5) and should also be
active itself.
In a deformation analysis, water pressures in inactive soil clusters act as external water
pressures on active geometry boundaries.

3.8.4 WATER PRESSURE GENERATION

After the input of phreatic levels or the input of boundary conditions for a
groundwater flow calculation, the water pressures can be generated. This can be
done by clicking on the Generate water pressures button (blue crosses) in the
tool bar or by selecting the Water pressures option from the Generate sub-menu. As a
result, a window appears in which it can be indicated whether the water pressures should
be generated on the basis of phreatic levels or by means of a groundwater flow
calculation. The former option is quick and straightforward whereas the latter option
(groundwater flow calculation) can be more realistic but it requires more input
parameters and it takes more time.

Figure 3.34 Water pressure generation window

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Generate by phreatic levels

The water pressure generation by Phreatic levels is based on the input of a general
phreatic level, cluster phreatic levels and other options as described in Section 3.8.2.
This generation is quick and straightforward.
When generating water pressures on the basis of phreatic levels when some clusters are
inactive in the initial geometry configuration (Section 3.9.1), no distinction is made
between active clusters and inactive clusters. This means that steady pore pressures are
generated both for active clusters and inactive clusters according to the corresponding
phreatic level. If it is desired to exclude water pressures in certain clusters, the Cluster is
dry option should be used or a cluster phreatic level should be defined below the cluster.

Generate by groundwater calculation

PLAXIS includes a steady state groundwater flow calculation module. The water pressure
generation by Groundwater calculation is based on a finite element calculation using the
generated mesh, the permeabilities of the soil clusters and the flow boundary conditions
(prescribed groundwater head and closed flow boundaries; Section 3.8.3). This
generation is more complex and therefore more time consuming than a generation by
means of phreatic levels, but the results can be more realistic, provided that the
additional input parameters are properly selected.
When clusters have been de-activated in the geometry configuration mode (Section
3.9.1), the inactive clusters do not take part in the groundwater flow calculation itself,
but the pore pressure at stress points within the inactive clusters is determined
afterwards from the general phreatic level. Hence, if inactive clusters are located
(partly) below the general phreatic level, there will be a hydrostatic water pressure
distribution below the general phreatic level, whereas the water pressure above the
general phreatic level is zero in these clusters. The water pressure generation window
allows for a direct switch to the geometry configuration mode to activate or de-activate
clusters. This can be done by clicking on the Change configuration button. After the
desired selection has been made, you can return to the water pressure generation
window by clicking on the Continue button in the tool bar.
When selecting Groundwater calculation it is necessary to select the settings for the
control parameters of the iterative procedure. In general, the Standard setting can be
used. For more details on groundwater flow calculations, Section 3.8.5.

Transient groundwater flow

In addition to steady-state groundwater flow, PLAXIS allows for a time-dependent
calculation of pore water pressures in saturated and unsaturated conditions due to
changing boundary conditions on the groundwater head with time. The results of such a
transient flow calculation, i.e. the time-dependent distribution of pore pressures, can be
used as input data for a deformation analysis. This option requires the presence of the
PLAXIS Groundwater flow module, which is available as an extension to Version 8.

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Results of water pressure generation

When pressing the OK button in the water pressure generation window, the water
pressures are calculated according to the selected option. After the generation of water
pressures the Output program is started and a plot of the water pressures and the general
phreatic level is displayed. To return to the Input program, the Update button should be
pressed.
Generated water pressures may be used as input data for a deformation analysis. The
water pressures are not active until they are actually applied in a calculation. Activation
of water pressures is associated with the activation of the soil weight using the
ΣMweight parameter. In principle, stress points in elements with a zero steady pore
pressure are considered to be unsaturated whereas stress points that have a non-zero
steady pore pressure are considered to be saturated. Hence, the value of the pore
pressure determines whether the saturated soil weight (γsat) or the unsaturated soil
weight (γunsat) is applied in a deformation analysis.

3.8.5 STEADY-STATE GROUNDWATER FLOW CALCULATION

Geotechnical engineers regularly need to deal with pore pressures and groundwater flow
when solving geotechnical problems. Many situations involve permanent flow or
seepage. Dams and embankments are subject to permanent seepage of groundwater.
Similarly, permanent flow occurs around retaining walls which separate different
groundwater levels. Flow of this sort is governed by pore pressures that are more or less
independent of time. Hence, these pore pressures can be considered to be steady-state
pore pressures. The PLAXIS Professional Version 8 includes a steady-state groundwater
flow calculation module to analyse such situations. This feature is described in the
current section. A separate but interactive PLAXIS module for time-dependent flow is
available as an extension to Version 8.
The distribution of steady-state pore pressures in a groundwater flow calculation is
determined by the boundary conditions, the geometry and the permeabilities of the
different soil clusters. For a detailed description of the governing differential equations
of a steady-state groundwater flow problem, reference is made to the Scientific Manual.
When using interfaces in a groundwater flow calculation, the interfaces are, by default,
fully impermeable. In this way interfaces may be used to block the flow perpendicular to
the interface, for example to simulate the presence of an impermeable screen. Plates are
fully permeable. In fact, it is only possible to simulate impermeable walls or plates when
interface elements are included between the plate elements and the surrounding soil
elements. On the other hand, if interfaces are present in the mesh it may be the user's
intension to explicitly avoid any influence of the interface on the flow and the pore
pressure distribution, for example in interfaces around corner points of structures
(Section 3.3.5). In such a case the interface should be de-activated in the water
conditions mode. This can be done separately for a consolidation analysis and a
groundwater flow calculation. For inactive interfaces the pore pressure degrees-of-

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freedom of the interface node pairs are fully coupled whereas for active interfaces the
pore pressure degrees-of-freedom are fully separated.
In conclusion:
• An active interface is fully impermeable (separation of pore pressure degrees-of-
freedom of node pairs).
• An inactive interface is fully permeable (coupling of pore pressure degrees-of-
freedom of node pairs).
A steady-state groundwater flow calculation may be used for confined as well as for
unconfined flow problems. The determination of the position of the free phreatic surface
and the associated length of the seepage surface is one of the main objectives of an
unconfined groundwater flow calculation. In this case it is necessary to use an iterative
solution procedure. For confined flow problems, however, an iterative solution
procedure is not strictly necessary, since a direct solution can be obtained. Nevertheless,
when performing a groundwater flow calculation in PLAXIS the user must select the
settings for the control parameters of the iterative procedure, since it is not clear
beforehand whether the flow is confined or unconfined. In general, the implemented
Standard settings may be used, which will normally lead to an acceptable solution.
Alternatively, the user may specify the control parameters manually.

Manual setting of groundwater calculation control parameters

On selecting the Manual settings option in the Water pressures generation window and
clicking the Define button, a new window is opened in which the current setting of the
groundwater calculation control parameters is displayed (see Figure 3.35). A description
of the meaning of these parameters is given below.

Figure 3.35 Groundwater calculation control parameters window

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Tolerated error:
This is the tolerated global (relative) error in the water mass balance. When
using the standard setting, the Tolerated error is set to 0.01.

Over-relaxation:
This is the over-relaxation factor in the iterative solution procedure. When
using the standard setting, the over-relaxation factor is set to 1.0, i.e. over-
relaxation is not used. An over-relaxation factor larger than 1.0 may be used to
speed up the iteration process, but it may also lead to divergence. The
theoretical upper bound value of the over-relaxation factor is 2.0.

Maximum iterations:
This parameter puts a restriction on the number of iterations used in unconfined
groundwater flow calculations. When using the standard setting, the maximum
number of iterations is equal to 100, which is generally sufficient. In some
cases, however, a larger number of iterations is needed to obtain a converged
solution. The program allows for any value up to 999.

Tension cut-off:
In situations where unconfined flow occurs, tensile pore stresses will be
generated. In some such situations these tensile pore stresses can become
unrealistically large. The use of these tensile pore stresses in a deformation
analysis, while effective strength parameters are used for the soil, will lead to
an overestimation of the shear strength. In order to avoid such a situation,
tensile pore stresses can be cut off by selecting the Tension cut-off option.
Subsequently, the Max. tensile stress parameter can be set to the maximum
allowable tensile stress (in the unit of stress). When using the standard setting,
the Tension cut-off option is selected and the Max. tensile stress parameter is
set to zero.

Limitations:
Although concepts of partially saturated soil are used in the iterative solution procedure
for a free phreatic surface, the steady-state groundwater flow calculation kernel in
PLAXIS Version 8 is not designed for the analysis of flow in partially saturated soil.
Analysis of flow in partially saturated soil requires more complex relationships between
soil permeability, degree of saturation and tensile pore stresses. Such relationships are
included in the separate PLAXIS groundwater flow module, which is available as an
extension to Version 8.

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3.8.6 CLOSED CONSOLIDATION BOUNDARIES

A consolidation analysis can be performed in PLAXIS to calculate the development of
excess pore pressures with time. A consolidation analysis involves additional boundary
conditions for excess pore pressures. By default, all geometry boundaries are 'open',
which means that water can flow in or out at the boundaries. In other words, the excess
pore pressure is zero at the boundary.
At some boundaries, however, this condition may not be correct, for example at vertical
boundaries representing a line of symmetry or if the bottom of the geometry model is
located in an impervious layer. In these cases there is no flow across these boundaries.
For these situations you can use the Closed consolidation boundary option. This option
can be selected by clicking on the Closed consolidation boundary button in the tool bar
or by selecting the corresponding option from the Geometry sub-menu. The input of a
closed consolidation boundary is similar to the creation of a closed flow boundary
(Section 3.8.3).
A closed consolidation boundary does not automatically imply a closed flow boundary
or vice versa. If a project involves a groundwater flow calculation as well as a
consolidation analysis and a part of the boundary is considered impermeable, then, in
principle, both the Closed flow boundary and the Closed consolidation boundary
conditions must be applied to this boundary. There can be situations where different
conditions for groundwater flow and consolidation are to be considered at a certain
boundary, therefore distinction is made between closed flow boundaries and closed
consolidation boundaries.
When using interfaces in a consolidation analysis, the interfaces are, by default, fully
impermeable, which means that no consolidation takes place across the interface. In this
way interfaces have a similar functionality as a Closed consolidation boundary, except
that interfaces can be used at the inside of a geometry whereas closed consolidation
boundaries can only be used at the geometry boundary. If interfaces are present in the
mesh it may also be the user's intension to explicitly avoid any influence of the interface
on the consolidation process, for example in interfaces around corner points of structures
(Section 3.3.5). In such a case the interface should be de-activated in the water
conditions mode. This can be done separately for a consolidation analysis and a
groundwater flow calculation. For inactive interfaces the excess pore pressure degrees-
of-freedom of the interface node pairs are fully coupled whereas for active interfaces the
excess pore pressure degrees-of-freedom are fully separated.
In conclusion:
• An active interface is fully impermeable (separation of excess pore pressure
degrees-of-freedom of node pairs).
• An inactive interface is fully permeable (coupling of excess pore pressure degrees-
of-freedom of node pairs).
It is not possible to prescribe excess pore pressures as a boundary condition for a
consolidation analysis. Excess pore pressures at the beginning of a consolidation

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analysis can only be the result of earlier calculations where undrained clusters were
used, i.e. clusters where the Material type in the corresponding material data set was set
to Undrained. For more information on consolidation analyses see Section 4.4.2, 4.5.4
and the Scientific Manual.

3.9 INITIAL GEOMETRY CONFIGURATION

To proceed from the water conditions mode to the geometry configuration

mode, click on the right-hand side of the 'switch' in the tool bar.
The geometry configuration mode is, a.o., used to set the initial geometry configuration
and enables you to de-select the geometry clusters that are not active in the initial
situation. In addition, initial effective stresses may be generated using the K0-procedure.

3.9.1 DE-ACTIVATING LOADS AND GEOMETRY OBJECTS

In projects where embankments or structures are to be constructed the geometry model
will contain some components (such as loads, plates, geotextiles, anchors, interfaces or
soil clusters above the initial ground surface) that are initially not active. Soil clusters
above the initial ground surface must be de-activated by the user. PLAXIS will
automatically de-activate all loads and structural objects in the initial geometry
configuration, since, in general, these objects are to be applied in a later stage and are
not present in the initial situation. Note that the K0-procedure for the generation of initial
stresses (Section 3.9.3) does not take external loads and weights of structural elements
into account.
Activation or de-activation of geometry components can be done by single clicking on
the component in the geometry model. Note that, in contrast to previous PLAXIS
versions, interfaces can also be activated or de-activated individually. When an interface
is inactive in a deformation analysis it behaves purely elastic (no slipping or gapping). In
a groundwater flow calculation or a consolidation analysis, inactive interfaces are fully
permeable. In fact, the (excess) pore pressure degrees-of-freedom of the corresponding
node pairs are fully coupled.
De-activated clusters are drawn in the background colour (white) and de-activated
structural objects or interfaces are drawn in grey. Clicking once again on a de-activated
component will re-activate that component.
Anchors may only be active if the soil or structures to which they are connected are also
active. Otherwise the calculation program de-activates them automatically. If loads or
prescribed displacements act on a part of the geometry that is inactive, then these
conditions are not applied during the analysis.
Although the external loads can be 'activated' in the initial configuration, they are not
considered in the initial stress generation (K0-procedure). It should also be noted that

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weights of structural elements are disregarded in the initial stress generation. External
loads or structural objects in the initial configuration therefore have no effect.

3.9.2 VIEWING OR RE-ASSIGNING MATERIAL DATA SETS

On double clicking a cluster or structural object in the Geometry configuration mode the
properties window appears in which the material data set of that component can be
viewed. In contrast to the creation of material data sets in the geometry creation mode,
the soil properties and model parameters can only be viewed, but cannot be changed in
the data set.
It is possible to re-assign material data sets to clusters or structural objects. However,
this option is usually not considered in the initial conditions because the initial material
setting is directly entered during the creation of the geometry model. The option is more
useful as a calculation option in the framework of Staged construction (Section 4.7.5).

3.9.3 INITIAL STRESS GENERATION (K0-PROCEDURE)

The initial stresses in a soil body are influenced by the weight of the material
and the history of its formation. This stress state is usually characterised by an
initial vertical effective stress σ'v,0 . The initial horizontal effective stress σ'h,0 ,
is related to the initial vertical effective stress by the coefficient of lateral earth pressure,
K0 (σ'h,0 = K0 σ'v,0).
In PLAXIS initial stresses may be generated by specifying K0 or by using Gravity
loading. The possibilities and limitations of both methods are further described in
Appendix A.

Figure 3.36 Initial stress generation window (K0-procedure)

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The generation of initial stresses based on the K0-procedure can be selected by clicking
on the Generate initial stresses button (red crosses) in the tool bar or by selecting Initial
stresses from the Generate sub-menu. As a result, a window appears with a table in
which, with various other parameters, K0-values can be entered (Figure 3.36). The
meaning of the various parameters in the window is described below.

ΣMweight:
Before entering the values in the table a value for the ΣMweight parameter
should be given. This parameter represents the proportion of gravity that is
applied. In general, the default value of 1.0 can be accepted, which implies that
the full soil weight is activated. To reset previously generated initial stresses to
zero, ΣMweight should be set to zero and the initial stresses must be
regenerated.

Cluster:
The first column displays the cluster number. When entering a value in the
table the corresponding cluster is indicated in the main window on the
background (cross-hatched in red). If necessary, the initial stress generation
window may be moved to another position to view the indicated cluster.

Model:
The second column displays the material model that is used in the particular
cluster (Elastic = Elastic model; MC = Mohr-Coulomb model; Hard Soil =
Hardening Soil model; SS = Soft Soil model; SS-Creep = Soft Soil Creep
model; Jnt.Rock = Jointed Rock model). See the Material models manual for
more information.

OCR and POP:

The third and the fourth column are used to enter either an overconsolidation
ratio (OCR) or a pre-overburden pressure (POP). Either one of these values is
utilised to generate the pre-consolidation pressures for the Soft Soil (Creep)
model and the Hardening Soil model. When using other material models the
input of OCR and POP is not applicable. See the Material Models manual for
more information.

K0:
The fifth column is used to enter K0-value for all individual clusters. The
default K0-value is based on Jaky's formula (1-sinϕ), but this value may be
overruled by the user. Entering a negative value for K0 will restore the default

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value. Be careful with very low or very high K0-values, since these values may
cause initial plasticity (see Appendix A).
Upon pressing the OK button, the initial stress generation starts. The K0-procedure
considers only soil weight and calculates only effective stresses and pore pressures in
soil elements and interfaces. External loads and weight of structural elements are not
taken into account. Activating loads and structural objects in the initial configuration
therefore has no effect.

Results of initial stress generation

After the generation of initial stresses the Output program is started and a plot of the
initial effective stresses is presented. In general, the initial stresses at a stress point
follow from the weight of the material above this point and the value of ΣMweight:

 
σ 'ν , 0 = ∑ Mweight ∑ γ i ⋅ hi − p w  σ 'h , 0 = K 0σ 'ν ,0
 i 
where γi is the unit weight of individual layers, hi is the layer depth and pw is the initial
pore pressure in the stress point.
Using K0-values that differ substantially from unity may sometimes lead to an initial
stress state that violates Coulomb's criterion. Although PLAXIS corrects such stress states
to comply with Coulomb’s criterion, the resulting stress state may be different than
expected. The user can easily see if this is the case by inspecting the plot of Plastic
points, which can be selected from the Stresses menu in the Output program. If this plot
shows many red plastic points (Coulomb points), the value of K0 should be chosen
closer to 1.0. If there are a small number of plastic points, it is advisable to perform a
plastic nil-step. When using the Hardening Soil model or the Soft Soil model and
defining a normally consolidated initial stress state (OCR = 1.0 and POP = 0.0), the plot
of plastic points shows many blue cap points. Users need not be concerned about these
plastic points as they just indicate a normally consolidated stress state.
To return to the Input program after viewing the results of the initial stress generation,
the Update button should be pressed.

3.10 STARTING CALCULATIONS

With the generation of the initial stresses, the generation of the initial situation of the
finite element model is complete. By clicking on the Calculate button in the tool bar, a
dialog box appears in which the user is prompted to save the data. This may be done
using an existing file name (just press <Yes>) or using a new name (press <Save as>).
The latter option may also be used to create a copy of a previously generated model. As
a result, the file requester appears in which the file name can be specified. When a new

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model was created which was not saved before, a file name must be given in both save
options. On pressing the No button, the data will not be saved; as a result, all data
entered after a former save action is lost.
Pressing the Cancel button will close the dialog box after which the initial conditions
mode of the Input program is re-entered. In all other cases (<Save>, <Save as> and
<No>) the Input program is closed and the Calculation program is started.

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4 CALCULATIONS

After the generation of a finite element model, the actual finite element calculations can
be executed. Therefore it is necessary to define which types of calculations are to be
performed and which types of loadings or construction stages are to be activated during
the calculations. This is done in the Calculations program.
PLAXIS allows for a different types of finite element calculations. Groundwater flow was
discussed in the previous chapter on the Input program, since a groundwater flow
calculation is generally used to generate a water pressure distribution for use as input
data for a deformation analysis. The Calculations program considers only deformation
analyses and distinguishes between a Plastic calculation, a Consolidation analysis, Phi-c
reduction (safety analysis) and a Dynamic calculation. The latter option requires the
presence of the PLAXIS Dynamics module, which is available as an extension to Version
8. The first three types of calculations (Plastic, Consolidation, Phi-c reduction)
optionally allow for the effects of large displacements being taken into account. This is
termed Updated mesh, which is available as an advanced option. The different types of
calculations are explained in Section 4.4.2.
In the engineering practice, a project is divided into project phases. Similarly, a
calculation process in PLAXIS is also divided into calculation phases. Examples of
calculation phases are the activation of a particular loading at a certain time, the
simulation of a construction stage, the introduction of a consolidation period, the
calculation of a safety factor, etc. Each calculation phase is generally divided into a
number of calculation steps. This is necessary because the non-linear behaviour of the
soil requires loadings to be applied in small proportions (called load steps). In most
cases, however, it is sufficient to specify the situation that has to be reached at the end of
a calculation phase. Robust and automatic procedures in PLAXIS will take care of the
sub-division into appropriate load steps.

4.1 THE CALCULATIONS PROGRAM

This icon represents the Calculations program. The Calculations program

contains all facilities to define and start up finite element calculations. At the
start of the Calculations program, the user has to select the project for which
calculations are to be defined. The selection window allows for a quick selection of one
of the four most recent projects. If a project is to be selected that does not appear in the
list, the option <<<More files>>> can be used. As a result, the general file requester
appears which enables the user to browse through all available directories and to select
the desired PLAXIS project file (*.PLX). The selection of a project is not necessary when
clicking on the Calculate button in the initial conditions mode of the Input program. In
this case, the current project is automatically selected in the Calculations program. After
the selection of a project, the main window of the Calculations program appears, which
contains the following items (Figure 4.1)

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Figure 4.1 Main window of the Calculations program

Calculations menu:
The Calculations menu contains all operation facilities of the Calculations
program. Most options are also available as buttons in the tool bar.

Tool bar:
The tool bar contains buttons that may be used as a shortcut to menu facilities.
The meaning of a particular button is presented after the pointer is positioned
above the button.

Tab sheets (upper part):

The tab sheets are used to define and preview a calculation phase (Section 4.3
and further).

List of calculation phases (lower part):

This list gives an overview of all calculation phases of a project. Each line
corresponds to a separate phase. For each phase, the line shows the
corresponding identification string, the phase number, a number referring to the

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phase to start from, the calculation type, the type of loading, the time interval,
the water pressure situation to be used and the first and last step number.
If the phase has not yet been executed, the step numbers are blank. A
calculation phase that has been selected for execution is indicated by a blue
arrow (→→) in front of the line. Calculation phases that have been successfully
finished are indicated by a green tick mark (√ √), whereas phases that did not
×).
finish successfully are indicated by a red cross (×

Hint: If the list of calculation phases is not visible or too short, it may be enlarged
by dragging down the bottom of the main window of the Calculations
program.

4.2 THE CALCULATIONS MENU

The main menu of the Calculations program contains pull-down sub-menus covering
most options for handling files, defining calculation phases and executing calculations.
The Calculations menu consists of the sub-menus File, Edit, View, Calculate and Help.

The File sub-menu:

Open To open a project for which calculation phases have to be
defined. The file requester is presented.
Save To save the current status of the calculations list.
Print To print the list of calculations phases.
Work directory To set the directory where PLAXIS project files will be stored.
(recent projects) To quickly open one of the four most recent projects.
Exit To leave the program.

The Edit sub-menu:

Next phase To focus on the next phase in the calculations list. If the next
phase does not exist, a new calculation phase is introduced.
Insert phase To insert a new calculation phase at the position of the
currently focused phase.
Delete phase To erase the selected calculation phase or phases.
Copy to clipboard To copy the list of calculation phases to the clipboard.
Select all To select all calculation phases.

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The View sub-menu:

Calculation manager To view the calculation manager window, from which all
active calculation processes are controlled.
Select points for curves To select nodes and stress points for the generation of load-
displacement curves and stress paths.

The Calculate sub-menu:

Current project To start up the calculation process of the current project.
Multiple projects To select a project for which the calculation process has to be
started. The file requester is presented. After selection of a
project, the project is added to the calculation manager
window.

4.3 DEFINING A CALCULATION PHASE

Consider a new project for which no calculation phase has yet been defined. In this case,
the calculations list contains only one line, indicated as 'Initial phase' with phase number
0. This line represents the initial situation of the project as defined in the initial
conditions mode of the Input program. The 'Initial phase' is the starting point for further
calculations. To introduce the first calculation phase for the current project, the Next
button just above the calculations list should be pressed after which a new line appears.
Alternatively, the Next phase option may be selected from the Edit menu. When the
Calculations program was started by clicking on the Calculate button in the initial
conditions mode of the Input program, then a first undefined calculation phase is
automatically introduced.
After the introduction of the new calculation phase, the phase has to be defined. This
should be done using the tab sheets General, Parameters and Multipliers in the upper
part of the main window. On pressing the Enter or Tab key after each input parameter,
the user is guided through all parameters. Most parameters have a default setting, which
simplifies the input. In general, only a few parameters have to be considered to define a
calculation phase. More details on the various parameters are given in the following
sections.
When all parameters have been set, the user can choose to define another calculation
phase or to start the calculation process. Introducing and defining another calculation
phase can be done in the same way as described above. The calculation process can be
started by clicking on the Calculate button in the tool bar or, alternatively, by selecting
the Current project option in the Calculate menu. It is not necessary to define all
calculation phases before starting the calculation process since the program allows for
defining new calculation phases after previous phases have been calculated.

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4.3.1 INSERTING AND DELETING CALCULATION PHASES

When inserting and deleting calculation phases you have to keep in mind that the start
conditions for the subsequent phases will change and must again be specified manually.
In general, a new calculation phase is defined at the end of the calculation list using the
Next button. It is possible, however, to insert a new phase between two existing phases.
This is done by pressing the Insert button while the line where the new phase is to be
inserted is focused. By default, the new phase will start from the results of the previous
phase in the list, as indicated by the Start from value. This means that the status of active
clusters, structural objects, loads, water conditions and multipliers is adopted from the
previous phase.
The user has to define the settings for the inserted phase in a similar way as defining a
new phase at the end of the calculations list.
The next phase, which originally started from a previous phase, will keep the existing
Start from value and will thus not start automatically from the inserted phase. If it is
desired that the next phase starts from the inserted phase then this should be specified
manually by changing the Start from phase parameter in the General tab sheet (Section
4.4.1). In this case it is required that the next phase is fully redefined, since the start
conditions have changed. This may also have consequences for the phases thereafter.
Besides inserting calculation phases it is also possible to delete phases. This is done by
selecting the phase to be deleted and clicking on the Delete button. Before deleting a
phase it should be checked which of the subsequent phases refer to the phase to be
deleted in the Start from column. After confirmation of the delete operation, all phases
of which the Start from phase value referred to the deleted phase will be modified
automatically such that they now refer to the predecessor of the deleted phase.
Nevertheless, it is required that the modified phases are redefined, since the start
conditions have changed.

4.4 GENERAL CALCULATION SETTINGS

The General tab sheet is used to define the general settings of a particular calculation
phase (Figure 4.2).

Phase:
The items in the Phase group can be used to identify the calculation phase and,
more importantly, to determine the ordering of calculation phases by selecting
the calculation phase that is used as a starting point for the current calculation
(Section 4.4.1).

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Calculation type:
The selections made in the Calculation type group determine the type of
calculation that is used (Section 4.4.2).

Log info and Comments:

The Log info box displays messages generated during the finite element
calculation and is used for logging purposes. The Comments box can be used to
store any information related to a particular calculation phase.

Figure 4.2 General tab sheet of the Calculations window

4.4.1 PHASE IDENTIFICATION AND ORDERING

The Phase group in the General tab sheet shows the phase number and an identification
string of the current calculation phase. PLAXIS automatically assigns a number to each
calculation phase which cannot be changed by the user. The identification string is, by
default, set to <Phase #>, where # is the phase number, but this string may be changed
by the user to give it a more appropriate name. The identification string and phase
number appear in the list of calculation phases at the lower part of the window.
In addition, the Start from phase parameter must be selected from the combo box in the
Phase group. This parameter refers to the phase from which the current calculation
phase should start (this is termed the reference phase). By default, the previous phase is
selected here, but, if more calculation phases have already been defined, the reference
phase may also be an earlier phase. A phase that appears later in the calculation list
cannot be selected.

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When defining only a single calculation phase, it is obvious that the calculation should
start from the situation as generated in the Initial conditions of the Input program.
However, later calculation phases may also start from the initial phase. This could be the
case if different loadings or loading sequences are to be considered separately for the
same project. Another example where the phase ordering is not straightforward is in
calculations where safety analyses for intermediate construction stages are considered.
Safety analyses in PLAXIS are based on the method of Phi-c reduction (Section 4.9),
which results in a state of failure. When continuing the construction process, the next
stage should start from the previous construction stage rather than from the results of the
safety analysis. Alternatively, safety analyses for the various construction stages can be
performed at the end of the calculation process. In that case the Start from phase
parameter in the safety calculations should refer to the corresponding construction
stages.

4.4.2 CALCULATION TYPES

The type of calculation (or shorter Calculation type) of a phase is primarily defined in
the combo box at the upper right-hand side of the General tab sheet. Distinction is made
between three basic types of calculations: A Plastic calculation, a Consolidation
analysis and Phi-c reduction (safety analysis). Optionally, a Dynamic calculation is
available in the combo box, but this requires the presence of the PLAXIS Dynamics
module, which is available as an extension to Version 8.

Plastic calculation
A Plastic calculation should be selected to carry out an elastic-plastic deformation
analysis in which it is not necessary to take the decay of excess pore pressures with time
into account. If the Updated Mesh option in the advanced general settings window has
not been selected, the calculation is performed according to the small deformation
theory. The stiffness matrix in a normal plastic calculation is based on the original
undeformed geometry. This type of calculations is appropriate in most practical
geotechnical applications.
Although a time interval can be specified, a plastic calculation does not take time effects
into account, except when the Soft Soil Creep model is used (see Material Models
manual). Considering the quick loading of water-saturated clay-type soils, a plastic
calculation may be used for the limiting case of fully undrained behaviour using the
Undrained option in the material data sets. On the other hand, performing a fully
drained analysis can assess the settlements on the long term. This will give a reasonably
accurate prediction of the final situation, although the precise loading history is not
followed and the process of consolidation is not dealt with explicitly.
For more details on theoretical formulations, reference should be made to the Scientific
Manual.

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Consolidation analysis
A Consolidation analysis should be selected when it is necessary to analyse the
development or dissipation of excess pore pressures in water-saturated clay-type soils as
a function of time. PLAXIS allows for true elastic-plastic consolidation analyses. In
general, a consolidation analysis without additional loading is performed after an
undrained plastic calculation. It is also possible to apply loads during a consolidation
analysis. However, care should be taken when a failure situation is approached, since the
iteration process may not converge in such situations. Please note that some of the
limitations of PLAXIS Version 7 regarding consolidation analyses have been improved in
this version. For example, it is now possible to apply construction stages in time using a
consolidation analysis. Moreover, consolidation analyses can be performed in the
framework of large deformations.
For more details on theoretical formulations, reference should be made to the Scientific
Manual.

Phi-c reduction (safety analysis)

A safety analysis in PLAXIS can be executed by reducing the strength parameters of the
soil. This process is termed Phi-c reduction and is available as a separate type of
calculation. Phi-c reduction should be selected when it is desired to calculate a global
safety factor for the situation at hand. A safety analysis can be performed after each
individual calculation phase and thus for each construction stage. However, note that a
phi-c reduction phase cannot be used as a starting condition for another calculation
phase because it ends in a state of failure. Therefore it is advised to define all safety
analyses at the end of the list of calculation phases and to use the Start from phase
parameter as a reference to the calculation phase for which a safety factor is calculated.
When performing a safety analysis, no loads can be increased simultaneously. In fact,
Phi-c reduction is a special type of plastic calculation. The input of a time increment is
generally not relevant in this case.
When using Phi-c reduction in combination with advanced soil models, these models
will actually behave as a standard Mohr-Coulomb model, since stress-dependent
stiffness behaviour and hardening effects are excluded from the analysis. In that case,
the stiffness is calculated at the beginning of the calculation phase and kept constant
until the calculation phase is completed.
For further details on Phi-c reduction, see Section 4.9.

Updated Mesh analysis

The three basic types of calculations (Plastic calculation, Consolidation analysis, Phi-c
reduction) can optionally be performed as an Updated Mesh analysis, taking into
account the effects of large deformations. This option can be selected using the
Advanced button in the Calculation type group of the General tab sheet. It can also be

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selected whether water pressures should be continuously recalculated according to the

updated position of the stess points. This option is termed Updated water pressures and
is meant to take into account the effects of soil settling (partly) below a constant phreatic
level.
An Updated Mesh analysis is a calculation where effects of large deformations are
taken into account. This type of calculation should be considered when deformations are
to be expected that significantly influence the shape of the geometry. The stiffness
matrix in an updated mesh analysis is based on the deformed geometry. In addition, a
special definition of stress rates is adopted that include rotation terms. These calculation
procedures are based on an approach known as an Updated Lagrange formulation (Ref.
2). More information on this subject can be found in Section 4.10.
For most applications the effects of large deformations are negligible so that it is not
necessary to select this advanced option, but there are circumstances under which it may
be necessary to take these effects into account. Typical applications are the analysis of
reinforced soil structures (tension stiffening effect), the analysis of collapse loads of
large offshore footings and the study of projects involving soft soils where large
deformations can occur.
Please note that an updated mesh calculation cannot be followed by a 'normal'
calculation. Reversely, an normal calculation can be followed by an updated mesh
calculation, provided that the option Reset displacements to zero is used (Section 4.6).
It should be noted that an updated mesh analysis takes much more time and is less
robust than a normal calculation. Hence, this option should only be used in special cases.

4.5 LOAD STEPPING PROCEDURES

When soil plasticity is involved in a finite element calculation the equations become
non-linear. This means that each calculation phase needs to be solved in a series of
calculations steps (load steps). An important part of the non-linear solution procedure is
the choice of step sizes and the solution algorithm to be used.
During each load step, the equilibrium errors in the solution are successively reduced
using a series of iterations. The iteration procedure is based on an accelerated initial
stress method. If the calculation step is of a suitable size then the number of iterations
required for equilibrium will be relatively small, usually about five to ten. If the step size
is too small, then many steps are required to reach the desired load level and computer
time will be excessive. On the other hand, if the step size is too large then the number of
iterations required to reach equilibrium may become excessive or the solution procedure
may even diverge.
In PLAXIS there are various procedures available for the solution of non-linear plasticity
problems. All procedures are based on an automatic step size selection. The following
procedures are available: Load advancement ultimate level, Load advancement number

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of steps and Automatic time stepping. Users do not need to worry about the proper
selection of these procedures, since PLAXIS will automatically use the most appropriate
procedure by itself to guarantee optimum performance.
The automatic load stepping procedures are controlled by a number of calculation
control parameters (Section 4.6.1). There is a convenient default setting for most control
parameters, which strikes a balance between robustness, accuracy and efficiency. Users
can influence the automatic solution procedures by manually adjusting the control
parameters. In this way it is possible to have a stricter control over step sizes and
accuracy. Before proceeding to the calculation control parameters, a detailed description
is given of the solution procedures themselves.

4.5.1 AUTOMATIC STEP SIZE PROCEDURES

Both of the Load advancement procedures (Ultimate level and Number of steps) make
use of an automatic step size algorithm (Reference 17). The size of the first load step is
either chosen automatically (Section 4.5.2) or manually by the user (Section 4.5.3),
depending on the applied algorithm. The automatic step size procedure for subsequent
computations is described below.
When a new load step is applied, a series of iterations are carried out to reach
equilibrium. There are three possible outcomes of this particular process. These
outcomes are:
• Case 1: The solution reaches equilibrium within a number of iterations that is less
than the Desired minimum control parameter. By default, the Desired minimum is 4,
but this value may be changed in the Manual setting of the Iterative procedure in
the Parameters tab sheet. If fewer iterations than the desired minimum are required
to reach the equilibrium state then the calculation step is assumed to be too small. In
this case, the size of the load increment is multiplied by two and further iterations
are applied to reach equilibrium.
• Case 2: The solution fails to converge within a Desired maximum number of
iterations. By default, the Desired maximum is 10, but this value may be changed in
the Manual setting of the Iterative procedure in the Parameters tab sheet. If the
solution fails to converge within the desired maximum number of iterations then the
calculation step is assumed to be too large. In this case, the size of the load
increment is reduced by a factor of two and the iteration procedure is continued.
• Case 3: The number of required iterations lies between the Desired minimum and
the Desired maximum in which case the size of the load increment is assumed to be
satisfactory. After the iterations are complete the next calculation step begins. The
initial size of this calculation step is made equal to the size of the previous
successful step.
If the outcome corresponds to either case 1 or case 2 then the process of increasing or
reducing the step size continues until case 3 is achieved.

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4.5.2 LOAD ADVANCEMENT ULTIMATE LEVEL

This automatic step size procedure is primarily used for calculation phases where a
certain 'state' or load level (the 'ultimate state' or 'ultimate level') has to be reached. The
procedure terminates the calculation when the specified state or load level is reached or
when soil failure is detected. By default, the number of Additional steps is set to 250,
but this parameter does not play an important role, since in most cases the calculation
stops before the number of additional steps is reached.
An important property of this calculation procedure is that the user specifies the state or
the values of the total load that is to be applied. A Plastic calculation where the Loading
input is set to Staged construction or Total multipliers uses this Load advancement
ultimate level procedure.
The size of the first load step is obtained automatically using one of the two following
methods:
• PLAXIS performs a trial calculation step and determines a suitable step size on the
basis of this trial.
• PLAXIS sets the initial load step size to be equal to the final load step size of any
previous calculation.
The first method is generally adopted. The second method would only be used if the
loading applied during the current load step is similar to that applied during the previous
load step, for example if the number of load steps applied in the previous calculation
proved to be insufficient.
The calculation will proceed until one of the three following criteria has been satisfied:
• The total specified load has been applied. In this case the calculation phase has
successfully finished and the following message is displayed in the Log info box of
the General tab sheet: Prescribed ultimate state fully reached.
• The maximum specified number of additional load steps has been applied. In this
case it is likely that the calculation stopped before the total specified load has been
applied. The following message is displayed in the Log info box: Prescribed
ultimate state not reached; Not enough load steps. It is advised to recalculate the
calculation phase with an increased number of Additional steps.
• A collapse load has been reached. In this case the total specified load has not been
applied. Collapse is assumed when the applied load reduces in magnitude in two
successive calculation steps. The following message is displayed in the Log info
box: Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Soil body collapses.

4.5.3 LOAD ADVANCEMENT NUMBER OF STEPS

This automatic step size procedure always performs the number of Additional steps that
has been specified. This algorithm is, in general, used for calculation phases where a
complete failure mechanism should be developed during the analysis. A safety analysis

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by means of Phi-c-reduction or a Plastic calculation where the Loading input is set to

Incremental multipliers uses this Load advancement number of steps procedure.
If this option is selected then it is necessary for the user to specify the initial step size.
After the first step has been completed then the program uses the standard automatic
step size algorithm to determine the sizes of subsequent steps. It cannot be determined
beforehand what the load level will be at the end of such a calculation. The calculation
will proceed until the number of Additional steps has been applied. In contrast to the
Ultimate level procedure the calculation will not stop when failure is reached.

4.5.4 AUTOMATIC TIME STEPPING (CONSOLIDATION)

When the Calculation type is set to Consolidation then the Automatic time stepping
procedure is used. This procedure will automatically choose appropriate time steps for a
consolidation analysis. When the calculation runs smoothly, resulting in very few
iterations per step, then the program will choose a larger time step. When the calculation
uses many iterations due to an increasing amount of plasticity, then the program will
take smaller time steps.
The first time step in a consolidation analysis is generally based on the First time step
parameter. This parameter is, by default, based on the advised minimum time step
(overall critical time step) as described in Section 4.6.1. The First time step parameter
can be changed in the Manual setting of the Iterative procedure. However, care should
be taken with time steps that are smaller than the advised minimum time step.
In a consolidation analysis where the Loading input is set to Incremental multipliers, the
applied first time step is based on the Time increment parameter rather than on the First
time step parameter. In this case, the specified number of Additional steps is always
performed. In a consolidation analysis where the Loading input is set to Staged
construction or Minimum pore pressure, the specified number of Additional steps is just
an upper bound. In that case, the calculation is generally stopped earlier, when other
conditions are met.

4.6 CALCULATION CONTROL PARAMETERS

The Parameters tab sheet is used to define the control parameters of a particular
calculation phase and the corresponding solution procedure (Figure 4.3). This tab sheet
contains the following items:

Additional steps
This parameter specifies the maximum number of calculation steps (load steps) that is
performed in a particular calculation phase.
If a Plastic calculation or a Consolidation analysis is selected as the calculation type and
the loading input is set to Staged construction, Total multipliers or Minimum pore

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pressure, then the number of additional steps is an upper bound to the actual number of
steps that will be executed. In general, it is desired that such a calculation is completed
within the number of additional steps and stops according to the first or third criterion as
described in Section 4.5.2 (Prescribed ultimate state reached or soil body collapses). If
such a calculation reaches the maximum number of additional steps, it usually means
that the ultimate level has not been reached. By default, the Additional steps parameter
is set to 250, which is generally sufficient to complete the calculation phase. However,
this number may be changed within the range 1 to 1000.
If a Plastic calculation or a Consolidation analysis is selected and the loading input is
set to Incremental multipliers, then the number of additional steps should be set to an
integer number representing the required number of steps for this calculation phase. In
this case, the number of additional steps is always exactly executed. By default, the
Additional steps parameter is set to 250, but this number can be changed within the
range 1 to 1000. The same applies to a Phi-c reduction calculation, except that the
Additional steps parameter is, by default, set to 30.

Figure 4.3 Parameters tab sheet of the Calculations window

Reset displacements to zero

This option should be selected when irrelevant displacements of previous calculation
steps are to be disregarded at the beginning of the current calculation phase, so that the
new calculation starts from a zero displacement field. For example, deformations due to
gravity loading are physically meaningless. Hence, this option may be chosen after
gravity loading to remove these displacements. If the option is not selected then
incremental displacements occurring in the current calculation phase will be added to
those of the previous phase. The selection of the Reset displacements to zero option does
not influence the stress field.

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The use of the Reset displacements to zero option may not be used in a sequence of
calculations where the Updated Mesh option is used. However, if an Updated Mesh
calculation starts from a calculation where the Updated Mesh option is not used, then the
Reset displacements to zero option must be used in this Updated Mesh calculation.

Ignore undrained behaviour

This option should be selected if it is desired to exclude temporarily the effects of
undrained behaviour in situations where material data sets are used in which the
Material type is set to Undrained. As a result, all undrained material clusters become
temporarily drained. Existing excess pore pressures that were previously generated will
remain, but no new excess pore pressures will be generated in that particular calculation
phase.
Gravity loading of undrained materials will result in unrealistic excess pore pressures.
Stresses due to the self-weight of the soil, for example, are based on a long-term process
in which the development of excess pore pressures is irrelevant. The Ignore undrained
behaviour option enables the user to specify the material type from the beginning as
undrained for the main loading stages and to ignore the undrained behaviour during the
gravity loading stage. Hence, the behaviour of all undrained clusters is considered to be
drained during this preliminary calculation.
The Ignore undrained behaviour option is not available for consolidation analyses, since
a consolidation analysis does not consider the Material type (drained or undrained) as
specified in the material data sets.

Delete intermediate steps

This option is by default selected to save disk space. As a result, all additional output
steps within the calculation phase, except for the last one, are deleted when a calculation
phase has finished successfully. In general the final output step contains the most
relevant result of the calculation phase, whereas intermediate steps are less important. If
desired, the option can be de-selected to retain all individual output steps. If a
calculation phase does not finish successfully then all calculation steps are retained,
regardless of the selection of the Delete intermediate steps option. This enables a
stepwise evaluation of the cause of the problem.

4.6.1 ITERATIVE PROCEDURE CONTROL PARAMETERS

The iterative procedures, in particular the load advancement procedures, are influenced
by some control parameters. These parameters can be set in the Iterative procedure
group. PLAXIS has an option to adopt a Standard setting for these parameters, which
gives in most cases good performance of the iterative procedures. Users who are not
familiar with the influence of the control parameters on the iterative procedures are
advised to select the Standard setting. In some situations, however, it might be desired
or even necessary to change the standard setting. In this case the user should select the

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Manual setting and click on the Define button in the Iterative procedure group. As a
result, a window is opened in which the control parameters are displayed with their
current values (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Iterative procedure control parameters window

Tolerated error
In any non-linear analysis where a finite number of calculation steps are used there will
be some drift from the exact solution, as shown in Figure 4.5. The purpose of a solution
algorithm is to ensure that the equilibrium errors, both locally and globally, remain
within acceptable bounds (Section 4.17). The error limits adopted in PLAXIS are linked
closely to the specified value of the Tolerated error.
Within each step, the calculation program continues to carry out iterations until the
calculated errors are smaller than the specified value. If the tolerated error is set to a
high value then the calculation will be relatively quick but may be inaccurate. If a low
tolerated error is adopted then computer time may become excessive. In general, the
standard setting of 0.03 is suitable for most calculations.

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load numerical solution

exact solution

displacement

Figure 4.5 Computed solution versus exact solution

If a plastic calculation gives failure loads that tend to reduce unexpectedly with
increasing displacement, then this is a possible indication of excessive drift of the finite
element results from the exact solution. In these cases the calculation should be repeated
using a lower value of the tolerated error. For further details of the error checking
procedures used in PLAXIS see Section 4.17.

load load

over relaxation = 1 over relaxation > 1

displacement displacement
(a) (b)

Figure 4.6 Iteration process with (a) and without (b) over-relaxation

Over-relaxation
To reduce the number of iterations needed for convergence, PLAXIS makes use of an
over-relaxation procedure as indicated in Figure 4.6. The parameter that controls the
degree of over-relaxation is the over-relaxation factor. The theoretical upper bound
value is 2.0, but this value should never be used. For low soil friction angles, for
example ϕ<20°, an over-relaxation factor of about 1.5 tends to optimise the iterative
procedure. If the problem contains soil with higher friction angles, however, then a

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lower value may be required. The standard setting of 1.2 is acceptable in most
calculations.

Maximum iterations
This value represents the maximum allowable number of iterations within any individual
calculation step. In general, the solution procedure will restrict the number of iterations
that take place. This parameter is required only to ensure that computer time does not
become excessive due to errors in the specification of the calculation. The standard
value of Maximum iterations is 50, but this number may be changed within the range 1
to 100.
If the maximum allowable number of iterations is reached in the final step of a
calculation phase, then the final result may be inaccurate. If this is the case then the
message 'Maximum iterations reached in final step' is displayed in the Log info box of
the General tab sheet. Such a situation occasionally occurs when the solution process
does not converge. This may have various causes, but it mostly indicates an input error.

Desired minimum and desired maximum

If a Plastic calculation type or a Phi-c reduction analysis is selected as calculation type
then PLAXIS makes use of an automatic step size algorithm (Load advancement ultimate
level or Number of steps). This procedure is controlled by the two parameters Desired
minimum and Desired maximum, specifying the desired minimum and maximum
number of iterations per step respectively. The standard values of these parameters are 4
and 10 respectively, but these numbers may be changed within the range 1 to 100. For
details on the automatic step size procedures see Section 4.5.1 to 4.5.3.
It is occasionally necessary for the user to adjust the values of the desired minimum and
maximum from their standard values. It is sometimes the case, for example, that the
automatic step size procedure generates steps that are too large to give a smooth load-
displacement curve. This is often the case where soils with very low friction angles are
modelled. To generate a smoother load-displacement response in these cases, the
calculations should be repeated with smaller values for these parameters, for example:
Desired minimum = 3 Desired maximum = 7
If the soil friction angles are relatively high, or if high-order soil models are used, then it
may be appropriate to increase the desired minimum and maximum from their standard
values to obtain a solution without the use of excessive computer time. In these cases the
following values are suggested:
Desired minimum = 7 Desired maximum = 15
In this case it is recommended to increase the Maximum iterations to 75.

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Arc-length control
The Arc-length control procedure is a method that is by default selected in a Plastic
calculation or a Phi-c reduction calculation to obtain reliable collapse loads for load-
controlled calculations (Reference 9). Arc-length control is not available for
Consolidation analyses.
The iterative procedure adopted when arc-length control is not used is shown in Figure
4.7a for the case where a collapse load is being approached. In the case shown, the
algorithm will not converge. If arc-length control is adopted, however, the program will
automatically evaluate the portion of the external load that must be applied for collapse
as shown in Figure 4.7b.
load load
arc
step 3 step 3

step 2 step 2

step 1 step 1
load control arc-length control

displacement displacement
(a) (b)

Figure 4.7 Iterative procedure for normal load control (a) and arc-length control (b)

Arc-length control is activated by selecting the corresponding check box in the iterative
procedure control parameters window. The arc-length control procedure should be used
for load-controlled calculations, but it may be deactivated, if desired, for displacement-
controlled calculations. When using Incremental multipliers as loading input, arc-length
control will influence the resulting load increments. As a result, the load increments
applied during the calculation will generally be smaller than prescribed at the start of the
analysis.

Hint: The use of arc-length control occasionally causes spontaneous unloading to

occur (i.e. sudden changes in sign of the displacement and load increments)
when the soil body is far from collapse. If this occurs, then the user is
advised to de-select Arc-length control and restart the calculation . Note that
if arc-length control is deselected and failure is approached, convergence
problems may occur.

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First time step

The First time step is the increment of time used in the first step of a consolidation
analysis, except when using Incremental multipliers as Loading input. By default, the
first time step is equal to the overall critical time step, as described below.
Care should be taken with time steps that are smaller than the advised minimum time
step. As for most numerical integration procedures, accuracy increases when the time
step is reduced, but for consolidation there is a threshold value. Below a particular time
increment (critical time step) the accuracy rapidly decreases. For one-dimensional
consolidation (vertical flow) this critical time step is calculated as:

H 2γ w (1 − 2ν )(1 + ν )
∆tcritical = (15-node triangles)
80 k y E (1 − ν )

H 2γ w (1 − 2ν )(1 + ν )
∆tcritical = (6-node triangles)
40 k y E (1 − ν )
Where γw is the unit weight of the pore fluid, ν is Poisson's ratio, ky is the vertical
permeability, E is the elastic Young's modulus, and H is the height of the element used.
Fine meshes allow for smaller time steps than coarse meshes. For unstructured meshes
with different element sizes or when dealing with different soil layers and thus different
values of k, E and ν, the above formula yields different values for the critical time step.
To be on the safe side, the time step should not be smaller than the maximum value of
the critical time steps of all individual elements. This overall critical time step is
automatically adopted as the First time step in a consolidation analysis. For an
introduction to the critical time step concept, the reader is referred to Reference 19.
Detailed information for various types of finite elements is given by Reference 15.

Extrapolation
Extrapolation is a numerical procedure, which is automatically used in PLAXIS if
applicable, when a certain loading that was applied in the previous calculation step is
continued in the next step. In this case, the displacement solution to the previous load
increment can be used as a first estimate of the solution to the new load increment.
Although this first estimate is generally not exact (because of the non-linear soil
behaviour), the solution is usually better than the solution according to the initial stress
method (based on the use of the elastic stiffness matrix) (Figure 4.8). After the first
iteration, subsequent iterations are based on the elastic stiffness matrix, as in the initial
stress method (Reference 20). Nevertheless, using Extrapolation the total number of
iterations needed to reach equilibrium is less than without extrapolation. The
extrapolation procedure is particularly useful when the soil is highly plastic.

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load load

without extrapolation with extrapolation

displacement displacement
(a) (b)

Figure 4.8 Difference between elastic prediction (a) and extrapolation from previous
step (b)

4.6.2 LOADING INPUT

The Loading input group box is used to specify which type of loading is considered in a
particular calculation phase. Only one of the described loading types can be activated in
any one calculation phase.
In Plastic calculations, distinction is made between the following types of Loading
input:
• Loading in the sense of changing the load combination, stress state, weight, strength
or stiffness of elements, activated by changing the load and geometry configuration
or pore pressure distribution by means of Staged construction. In this case, the total
load level that is to be reached at the end of the calculation phase is defined by
specifying a new geometry and load configuration, and/or pore pressure
distribution, in the Staged construction mode (Section 4.7).
• Loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a predefined combination of
external forces, activated by changing Total multipliers. In this case, the total load
level that is to be reached at the end of the calculation phase is defined by entering
values for the Total multipliers in the Multipliers tab sheet.
• Loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a predefined combination of
external forces, activated by changing Incremental multipliers. In this case, the first
increment of load is defined by entering values for the Incremental multipliers in the
Multipliers tab sheet, and this loading is continued in subsequent steps.
When selecting Phi-c reduction only the Incremental multipliers option is available.
In a Consolidation analysis, the following options are available:
• Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of changing the load
combination, stress state, weight, strength or stiffness of elements, activated by

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changing the load and geometry configuration or pore pressure distribution by

means of Staged construction. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time interval
parameter, which has in this case the meaning of the total consolidation period
applied in the current calculation phase. The applied first time increment is based on
the First time step parameter in the Calculations control parameters window. The
Staged construction option should also be selected if it is desired to allow for a
certain consolidation period without additional loading.
• Consolidation without additional loading, until all excess pore pressures have
decreased below a certain minimum value, specified by the P-stop parameter. By
default, P-stop is set to 1 stress unit, but this value may be changed by the user.
Please note that the P-stop parameter is an absolute value, which applies to pressure
as well as tensile stress. The input of a Time interval is not applicable in this case,
since it cannot be determined beforehand how much time is needed to fulfill the
minimum pore pressure requirement. The applied first time increment is based on
the First time step parameter in the Calculations control parameters window.
• Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of increasing or decreasing a
predefined combination of external forces, activated by changing Incremental
multipliers. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time increment parameter in
the unit of time. The Time increment sets in this case the applied first time step and
determines the loading rate, together with the current configuration of external loads
and the incremental multipliers in the Multipliers tab sheet.

Staged construction
If Staged construction is selected from the Loading input box, then the user can specify
a new state that is to be reached at the end of the calculation phase. This new stage can
be defined by pressing the Define button and changing the geometry, the input values of
loads, the load configuration and the water pressure distribution in the Staged
Construction mode. The Staged construction option may also be used to perform plastic
nil-steps to solve existing out-of-balance forces. In this case, no changes in the
geometry, load level, load configuration and water pressure distribution should be made.
Before specifying the construction stage, the Time interval of the calculation phase
should be considered. The Time interval is expressed in the unit of time. A non-zero
value is only relevant in the case of a Consolidation analysis or if the Soft Soil Creep
model is used (see Material Models manual). The appropriate value can be entered in the
Loading input group of the Parameters tab sheet.
Since staged construction is performed using the Load advancement ultimate level
procedure (Section 4.5.2), it is controlled by a total multiplier (ΣMstage). This multiplier
generally starts at zero and is expected to reach the ultimate level of 1.0 at the end of the
calculation phase. In some special situations, however, it might be necessary to split the
staged construction process into more than one calculation phase and to specify an
intermediate value of ΣMstage. This can be done by clicking on the Advanced button,

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which is only available for a Plastic calculation. As a result, a window appears in which
the desired ultimate level of ΣMstage can be specified. However, care must be taken
with an ultimate level smaller than 1.0, since this is associated with a resulting out-of-
balance force. Such calculations must always be followed by another staged
construction calculation. Before starting any other type of calculation the ΣMstage
parameter must first have reached the value 1.0. This can be verified after a calculation
by selecting the Reached values option in the Multipliers tab sheet (Section 4.8.2).

Total multipliers
If the Total multipliers option is selected in the Loading input box, then the user may
specify the multipliers that are applied to current configuration of the external loads. The
actual applied load at the end of the calculation phase is the product of the input value of
the load and the corresponding load multiplier, provided a collapse mechanism or
unloading does not occur earlier.
Before specifying the external loads, the Time interval of the calculation may be
specified in the Loading input box of the Parameters tab sheet. The time interval is the
time involved in the current calculation phase, expressed in the unit of time as specified
in the General settings window of the Input program. A non-zero value is only relevant
if the Soft Soil Creep model is used. The combination of the total multipliers and the
time interval determine the loading rate that is applied in the calculation.
In addition to the time interval, an estimate is given of the total time at the end of the
calculation phase (Estimated end time), which is a summation of all time intervals of
preceding calculation phases including the current one. If the calculation phase has been
executed, the Realised end time is given instead, which is the total time that has actually
been reached at the end of the calculation phase.

Incremental multipliers
Selecting Incremental multipliers in the Loading input box enables the user to specify
incremental load multipliers that are applied to current configuration of the external
loads. The initially applied load increment in the first step of the calculation phase is the
product of the input value of the load and the corresponding incremental multiplier.
Note that the resulting increments of load in the first calculation step will be influenced
by the Arc-length control procedure if it is active.
Before entering an increment of external load, a Time increment can be entered in the
Loading input box of the Parameters tab sheet. This is only relevant for a Consolidation
analysis or if the Soft Soil Creep model is used. The combination of the incremental
multipliers and the time increment determine the loading rate that is applied in the
calculation. The time increment is expressed in the unit of time as entered in the General
settings window of the Input program.

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Minimum pore pressure (consolidation)

This consolidation option involves an extra criterion for terminating the analysis. Here,
the number of Additional steps is a maximum number which will not be reached if the
other criterion prevails. In this case the other criterion is a prescribed minimum excess
pore pressure P-stop. The calculation stops when the maximum absolute excess pore
pressure is below the prescribed value of P-stop. For example, when the maximum
excess pore pressure has reached a certain value during the application of load, the user
can make sure that the consolidation process is continued until all nodal values of excess
pore pressure are less than P-stop.
The degree of consolidation is an important indication of the consolidation state.
Strictly, the degree of consolidation, x, is defined in terms of the proportion of the final
settlement although the term is often used to describe the proportion of pore pressures
that have dissipated to at least (100-x)% of their values immediately after loading. The
Minimum pore pressure option may be used to specify the final degree of consolidation
in any analysis. In order to specify an appropriate value of minimum pore pressure, P-
stop, it is necessary to determine the maximum absolute excess pore pressure
immediately after loading. This parameter, Pmax, is displayed in the Multipliers tab
sheet of the previous calculation phase when selecting the Reached values option
(Section 4.8.2). A suitable value of P-stop may be determined from the expression:

P-stop = Pmax (100-x)%

For example, in order to consolidate to 90% the appropriate value of P-stop is one tenth
of Pmax.

Time increment, Time interval, Realised end time, Estimated end time:
These time parameters control the progress of time in the calculations. All time
parameters are expressed in the unit of time as defined in the Dimensions tab sheet of
the General settings window. A non-zero value for the Time increment or Time interval
parameters is only relevant when a consolidation analysis is performed or when using
time dependent material models (such as the Soft Soil Creep model). The meaning of the
various time parameters is described below:
• Time increment is the increment of time considered in a single step (first step) in the
current calculation phase.
• Time interval is the total time period considered in the current calculation phase.
• Realised end time is the actual accumulated time at the end of a finished calculation
phase.
• Estimated end time is an estimation of the accumulated time at the end of a phase
that is to be calculated. This parameter is estimated from the Time interval of the
current phase and the Realised or Estimated end time of the previous phase.

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4.7 STAGED CONSTRUCTION

Staged construction is the most important type of loading input. In this special PLAXIS
feature it is possible to change the geometry and load configuration by deactivating or
reactivating loads, volume clusters or structural objects as created in the geometry input.
Staged construction enables an accurate and realistic simulation of various loading,
construction and excavation processes. The option can also be used to reassign material
data sets or to change the water pressure distribution in the geometry.
To carry out a staged construction calculation, it is first necessary to create a geometry
model that includes all of the objects that are to be used during the calculation. Objects
that are not required at the start of the calculation should be deactivated in the initial
geometry configuration at the end of the Input program (Section 3.9.1).
A staged construction analysis can be executed in a Plastic calculation as well as a
Consolidation analysis. In the Parameters tab sheet, the Staged construction option can
be selected in the Loading input box. On subsequently clicking on the Define button, the
Input program is started and the staged construction window appears. This window is
similar to the initial conditions window, except that options that are only relevant for the
initial conditions (such as the K0-procedure) cannot be activated. It is also not possible to
enter the geometry creation mode of the Input program from the staged construction
window. On the other hand, specific staged construction options are available.
In a similar way to the initial conditions window, the staged construction window
consists of two different modes: The geometry configuration mode and the water
conditions mode. The geometry configuration mode can be used to activate or deactivate
loadings, soil clusters and structural objects and to reassign material data sets to clusters
and structural objects. In addition to these facilities, staged construction allows for the
pre-stressing of anchors. The water conditions mode can be used to generate a new
water pressure distribution based on the input of a new set of phreatic levels or on a
groundwater flow calculation using a new set of boundary conditions.
Switching between the water conditions mode and the geometry
configuration mode can be achieved using the 'switch' in the tool bar.
After the new situation has been defined, the Update button should be pressed to store
the information and return to the Calculations program. In addition, the next calculation
phase may be defined or the calculation process may be started.
Changes to the geometry configuration or the water conditions generally cause
substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are stepwise applied to the
finite element mesh using a Load advancement ultimate level procedure. During a staged
construction calculation, a multiplier that controls the staged construction process
(ΣMstage) is increased from zero to the ultimate level (generally 1.0). In addition, a
parameter representing the active proportion of the geometry (ΣMarea) is updated.

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4.7.1 CHANGING GEOMETRY CONFIGURATION

Just as in the initial geometry configuration, the clusters or structural objects may be
reactivated or deactivated to simulate a process of construction or excavation. This can
be done by clicking on the object in the geometry model. When clicking once on an
object, the object will change from active to inactive, and vice versa. If more than one
object is present on a geometry line (for example plates and distributed loads), a
selection window appears from which the desired object can be selected.
Active soil clusters are drawn in the material data set colour whereas deactivated
clusters are drawn in the background colour (white). Active structural objects are drawn
in their original colour, whereas deactivated structures are drawn in grey.
When double clicking a structural object, the corresponding properties window appears
and the properties can be changed.
In the selection window that appears after double clicking a soil cluster, you can either
change the material properties (Section 4.7.5) or apply a volume strain to the selected
cluster (Section 4.7.6).
In contrast to previous PLAXIS versions, interfaces can be activated or deactivated
individually. Deactivation of interfaces may be considered in the following situations:
• To avoid soil-structure interaction (slipping an gapping) e.g. before a sheet pile wall
or tunnel is installed in the soil (when corresponding plate elements are inactive).
• To avoid blocking of flow before a structure composed of plate elements is active.
In any case, interface elements are present in the finite element mesh form the very
beginning. However, the following special conditions are applied to inactive interfaces:
• Purely elastic behaviour (no slipping or gapping).
• Fully coupled pore pressure degrees-of –freedom in node pairs (no influence on
flow in consolidation or groundwater calculations).

4.7.2 ACTIVATING AND DEACTIVATING CLUSTERS OR STRUCTURAL

OBJECTS
Soil clusters and structural objects can be activated or deactivated by clicking once on
the cluster or structural object in the geometry model. Anchors may only be active if at
least one of the soil clusters or plates to which they are connected is also active;
otherwise the calculations program deactivates them automatically.
At the start of a staged construction calculation the information about active and inactive
objects in the geometry model is transformed into information on an element level.
Hence, deactivating a soil cluster results in 'switching off' the corresponding soil
elements during the calculation.

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The following rules apply for elements that have been switched off:
• Properties, such as weight, stiffness and strength, are not taken into account.
• All stresses are set to zero.
• All inactive nodes will have zero displacements.
• Boundaries that arise from the removal of elements are automatically taken to be
free.
• Steady-state pore pressures (not excess pore pressures) are always taken into
account, even for inactive elements. This means that PLAXIS will automatically
generate suitable water pressures on submerged boundaries caused by the removal
of elements. This may be checked when entering the water conditions mode. On
'excavating' (i.e. deactivating) clusters below the general phreatic level, the
excavation remains filled with water. If, on the other hand, it is desired to remove
the water from the excavated part of the soil, then a new water pressure distribution
should be defined in the water conditions mode. This feature is demonstrated in
Lesson 4 of the Tutorial Manual.
• External loads or prescribed displacements that act on a part of the geometry that is
inactive will not be taken into account.
For elements that have been inactive and that are (re)activated in a particular calculation,
the following rules apply:
• Stiffness and strength will be fully taken into account from the beginning (i.e. the
first step) of the calculation phase.
• Weight will, in principle, be fully taken into account from the beginning of the
calculation phase. However, in general, a large out-of-balance force will occur at
the beginning of a staged construction calculation. This out-of-balance force is
stepwise solved in subsequent calculation steps.
• The stresses will develop from zero.
• When a node becomes active, an initial displacement is estimated by stressless
predeforming the newly activated elements such that they fit within the deformed
mesh as obtained from the previous step. Further increments of displacement are
added to this initial value. As an example, one may consider the construction of a
block in several layers, allowing only for vertical displacements (one-dimensional
compression). Starting with a single layer and adding one layer on top of the first
will give settlements of the top surface. If a third layer is subsequently added to the
second layer, it will be given an initial deformation corresponding to the settlements
of the surface.
• If an element is (re)activated and the Material type of the corresponding material
data set has been set to Undrained, then the element will temporarily behave
drained in the phase where the element was activated. This is to allow for the

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development of effective stresses due to the self weight in the newly activated soil.
If the element remains active in later calculation phases, then the original type of
material behaviour is retained in those phases.

4.7.3 ACTIVATING OR CHANGING LOADS

Loads that were created in the geometry input are deactivated in the initial situation, but
they can be reactivated using a staged construction process. As is the case for structural
objects, loads can be activated or deactivated by clicking once on the load in the
geometry model. Active loads are drawn in their original colour, whereas deactivated
loads are drawn in grey.
When activating loads, the actual value of the load that is applied during a calculation is
determined by the input value of the load and the corresponding load multiplier
(ΣMloadA or ΣMloadB).

Input value of a load

By default, the input value of a load is the value as given during the geometry creation.
The input value of the load may be changed in each calculation phase in the framework
of Staged construction. This can be done by double clicking the load in the geometry. As
a result, a load window appears in which the input values of the loads can be changed.
• After double clicking a point load a window appears in which the x- and y-
components can be entered directly (Figure 4.9).
• After double clicking a distributed load a window appears in which the x- and y-
components can be entered directly at the two respective geometry points (Figure
4.10).

Figure 4.9 Input window for a point load

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Figure 4.10 Input window for a distributed load

The Perpendicular button may be used to make sure that the distributed load is
perpendicular to the corresponding geometry line.

Load multiplier
The actual value of the load that is applied during a calculation is determined by the
product of the input value of the load and the corresponding load multiplier (ΣMloadA
or ΣMloadB). The multiplier ΣMloadA is used to globally increase (or decrease) all
loads of load system A (point loads and distributed loads), whereas ΣMloadB is used to
change all loads of load system B (Section 4.8.1). However, in general it is not
necessary to change the load multipliers when applying or changing loads by means of
staged construction since the program will automatically set the corresponding
multiplier to unity if it is zero. Note that if the existing value of the multiplier is not
equal to zero and not equal to unity, the existing multiplier is retained and the load that
is actually applied in the calculation is different from the input value of the load as
entered in the staged construction mode.

4.7.4 APPLYING PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS

Prescribed displacements that were created in the geometry input are not automatically
applied during calculations, but they can be activated by means of a staged construction
process. As long as prescribed displacements are not active, they do not impose any
condition on the model. Hence, at parts of the model where prescribed displacements
have been defined that are currently inactive, the nodes are fully free. Similar as for
loads, prescribed displacements can be activated or deactivated by selecting and clicking
once on the prescribed displacement in the geometry. Active prescribed displacements
are drawn in their original colour, whereas inactive prescribed displacements are drawn
in grey.
If it is desired to temporarily 'fix' the nodes where prescribed displacements are created,
the input value of the prescribed displacement should be set to 0.0 rather than

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deactivating the prescribed displacement. In the former case a prescribed displacement

of zero is applied to the nodes, whereas if the prescribed displacement is deactivated the
nodes are free.
When activating prescribed displacements, the actual value of the prescribed
displacement that is applied during a calculation is determined by the input value of the
prescribed displacement and the corresponding load multiplier (ΣMdisp).

Input value of prescribed displacement

By default, the input value of a prescribed displacement is the value given during the
geometry creation. The input value of the load may be changed in each calculation phase
using a staged construction procedure. This can be done by double clicking the
prescribed displacement in the geometry. As a result, a prescribed displacement window
appears in which the input values of the prescribed displacement can be changed.

Corresponding multiplier
The actual value of the prescribed displacement that is applied during a calculation is
determined by the product of the input value of the prescribed displacement and the
corresponding load multiplier (ΣMdisp). The multiplier ΣMdisp is used to globally
increase (or decrease) all prescribed displacements (Section 4.8.1). However, in general
it is not necessary to change the multiplier when applying or changing prescribed
displacements by means of a staged construction process since the program will
automatically set the corresponding multiplier to unity if it is zero. Note that if the
existing value of the multiplier is not equal to zero and not equal to unity, the prescribed
displacement that is actually applied in the calculation is different from the input value
of the prescribed displacement as entered in the staged construction mode.

4.7.5 REASSIGNING MATERIAL DATA SETS

The option to reassign material data sets may be used to simulate the change of material
properties with time during the various stages of construction.
The option may also be used to simulate soil improvement processes, e.g. removing
poor quality soil and replacing it with soil of a better quality.
On double clicking a soil cluster or structural object in the geometry model, the
properties window appears in which the material data set of that object can be changed.
Instead of changing the data in the material data set itself, another data set should be
assigned to the cluster or object. This ensures the consistency of data in the material data
base. Hence, if it is desired to change the properties of a cluster during a calculation, an
additional data set should be created during the input of the geometry model.
The material data set of the cluster can be changed by pressing the Change button. As a
result, the material data base is presented with all existing material data sets. The

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parameters of existing data sets can be viewed (not changed) by selecting the desired
data set and pressing the View button.
After selecting the appropriate material data set from the data base tree view and
pressing the OK button the data set is assigned to the soil cluster or structural object.

Figure 4.11 Soil properties window

The change of certain properties, for example when replacing peat by dense sand, can
introduce substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are solved
during the staged construction calculation. This is the most important reason why the
reassignment of material data sets is considered to be a part of a staged construction
process.
If a change in the data set of a plate is considered it is important to note that a change in
the ratio EI / EA will change the equivalent thickness deq and thus the distance separating
the stress points. If this is done when existing forces are present in the beam element, it
would change the distribution of bending moments, which is unacceptable. For this
reason, if material properties of a plate are changed during an analysis it should be noted
that the ratio EI / EA must remain unchanged.

4.7.6 APPLYING A VOLUMETRIC STRAIN IN VOLUME CLUSTERS

In PLAXIS you can impose an internal volumetric strain in soil clusters. This option may
be used to simulate mechanical processes that result in volumetric strains in the soil,
such as grouting.
In the properties window that appears after double-clicking a soil cluster, you can press
the Volumetric strain button. In the Volume strain window that appears you can specify
the volumetric strain. In addition, an estimation of the total volume change is given in
the unit of volume per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
In contrast to other types of loading, volume strains are not activated with a separate
multiplier. Note that the imposed volume strain is not always fully applied, depending
on the stiffness of the surrounding clusters and objects.

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Figure 4.12 Volume strain window

A positive value of the volume strain represents a volume increase expansion, whereas a
negative value represents a volume decrease.

4.7.7 PRE-STRESSING OF ANCHORS

Pre-stressing of anchors can be activated from the geometry configuration mode of the
staged construction window. Therefore the desired anchor should be double-clicked. As
a result, the anchor properties window appears, which indicates by default a pre-stress
force of zero. On selecting the Adjust pre-stress force check box it is possible to enter a
value for the pre-stress force in the corresponding edit box. A pre-stress force should be
given as a force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. Note that tension is
considered to be positive and compression is considered negative.
To deactivate a previously entered pre-stress force, the Adjust pre-stress force parameter
must be deselected rather than setting the pre-stress force to zero. In the former case the
anchor force will further develop based on the changes of stresses and forces in the
geometry. In the latter case the anchor force will remain at zero, which is generally not
correct. After the input of the pre-stress force the OK button should be pressed. As a
result, the anchor properties window is closed and the geometry configuration mode is
presented, where the pre-stressed anchor is indicated with a 'p'.
During the staged construction calculation the pre-stressed anchor is automatically
deactivated and a force equal to the pre-stress force is applied instead. At the end of the
calculation the anchor is reactivated and the anchor force is initialised to match the pre-
stress force exactly, provided that failure had not occurred. In subsequent calculations
the anchor is treated as a spring element with a certain stiffness, unless a new pre-stress
force is entered.

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4.7.8 APPLYING CONTRACTION OF A TUNNEL LINING

To simulate soil volume loss due to the construction of a shield tunnel, the contraction
method may be used. In this method a contraction is applied to the tunnel lining to
simulate a reduction of the tunnel cross-section area. The contraction is expressed as a
percentage, representing the ratio of the area reduction and the original outer tunnel
cross-section area. Contraction can only be applied to circular tunnels (bored tunnels)
with an active continuous homogeneous lining (Section 3.3.8).
Contraction can be activated in the staged construction mode by double clicking the
centre point of a tunnel for which a contraction is to be specified. As a result, the
contraction window appears, in which an input value of contraction can be entered. In
contrast to other types of loading, contraction is not activated with a separate multiplier.
Note that the entered value of contraction is not always fully applied, depending on the
stiffness of the surrounding clusters and objects. The computed contraction can be
viewed in the output program (Section 5.9.3)

4.7.9 CHANGING WATER PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

In addition to, or instead of, a change in the geometry configuration, the
water pressure distribution in the geometry may be changed. Examples of
problems that may be analysed using this option include the settlement of
soft soil layers due to a lowering of the water table, the deformation and force
development of walls or tunnel linings due to excavation and dewatering, and the
stability of a river embankment after an increase of the external water level.
Click on the left-hand side of the ‘switch’ in the tool bar to display the water conditions
mode and to change the water pressure distribution. The window displays the current
situation with an indication of the phreatic levels and eventual boundary conditions for a
groundwater flow calculation. A new set of phreatic levels or boundary conditions for a
groundwater flow calculation may now be created. For a description of the input of
phreatic levels and boundary conditions, reference is made to Section 3.8.2 and 3.8.3
respectively.
After the new input, the water pressures must first be generated before pressing the
Update button. The water pressures can be generated by clicking on the Generate water
pressures button in the tool bar or by selecting the Water pressures option from the
Generate menu. In the Water pressure generation window it must be indicated whether
the water pressures should be generated on the basis of phreatic levels or by means of a
groundwater flow calculation. On pressing the OK button, the calculation will start
(Section 3.8.4).
After the generation, the new water pressure distribution is presented in the Output
program. By clicking on the Update button in the Output program, this program is
closed and the Input program reappears. By subsequently clicking on the Update button
in the Input program, the staged construction window is closed and the Calculation
program reappears. The Water column of the calculation list now shows the number of

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the current phase to indicate that the water conditions have changed in this phase. This
phase number will reappear in subsequent calculation phases as long as the water
pressures are not regenerated.

Excavation and dewatering

Special attention is paid here to the simulation of staged excavation and dewatering, as
considered in Lesson 4 (Chapter 6) of the Tutorial Manual. If dewatering of an
excavation is considered and the bottom of the excavation is not fully 'closed' by means
of an injected or impermeable layer, then groundwater flow will occur. This process can
be simulated by means of a groundwater flow calculation in PLAXIS. Groundwater flow
influences the pore pressure distribution in the surrounding soil.
The boundary conditions for a groundwater flow calculation for such a situation can
conveniently be set by changing the general phreatic level such that it represents the
initial phreatic level at the outer geometry boundary and that it represents the lowered
water table within the excavation. It is likely that the general phreatic level is then
composed of multiple points. Based on this general phreatic level PLAXIS automatically
sets a prescribed groundwater head to permeable geometry boundaries, including the
new 'internal' boundaries that arise due to the excavation, i.e. geometry lines separating
active and inactive clusters. Walls can be made impermeable by activating the adjacent
interface elements, provided that the interface permeability is set to impermeable
(Section 3.3.5). If only one symmetric half of the excavation is modelled, then the
'centre line' must be made impermeable by using the Closed flow boundary option. This
may also apply to the bottom boundary, if in reality the soil is impermeable here.
After the boundary conditions have been set, the water pressures can be generated by
clicking on the Generate water pressures button in the tool bar. In the Water pressure
generation window the Groundwater calculation option must be selected.
When water pressures are generated by means of a groundwater flow calculation, then
the general phreatic line is used for convenience to set the boundary conditions for the
groundwater flow calculation, to generate the external water pressures for a deformation
analysis. The general phreatic line does not have a meaning inside active soil clusters,
since the pore pressure distribution inside active soil clusters is computed in the
groundwater flow calculation from the boundary conditions and the permeability of the
soil.

4.7.10 PLASTIC NIL-STEP

Staged construction may also be used to carry out a plastic nil-step. A plastic nil-step is
a calculation phase in which no additional loading is applied. This may sometimes be
required to solve large out-of-balance forces. Such a situation can occur after a
calculation phase in which large loadings were activated (for example gravity loading).
In this case no changes should be made to the geometry configuration or to the water

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conditions. If desired, the Tolerated error may be reduced by selecting the Manual
setting of the Iterative procedure in the Parameters tab sheet.
When creating a new calculation phase using the Next or Insert button in the
Calculations window, the default setting is such that this phase can directly serve as a
plastic nil-step.

4.7.11 STAGED CONSTRUCTION WITH ΣMSTAGE<1

In general, the total multiplier associated with the staged construction process, ΣMstage,
goes from zero to unity in each calculation phase where staged construction has been
selected as the loading input. In some very special situations it may be useful to perform
only a part of a construction stage. This can be done by clicking on the Advanced button
in the Parameters tab sheet and specifying an ultimate level of ΣMstage smaller than
1.0. The lowest allowed input value is 0.001. If ΣMstage is lower than this value, the
load is considered to be negligible and no calculations take place. A value larger than
1.0 is not normally used. By entering the default value of 1.0, the staged construction
procedure is performed in the normal way.
In general, care must be taken with an ultimate level of ΣMstage smaller than 1.0, since
this leads to a resulting out-of-balance force at the end of the calculation phase. Such a
calculation phase must always be followed by another staged construction calculation. If
ΣMstage is not specified by the user, the default value of 1.0 is always adopted, even if a
smaller value was entered in the previous calculation phase.

Tunnel construction with ΣMstage<1

In addition to the simulation of the construction of shield tunnels using the contraction
method (Section 4.7.8), it is possible with PLAXIS to simulate the construction process of
tunnels with a sprayed concrete lining (NATM). The major point in such an analysis is
to account for the three-dimensional arching effect that occurs within the soil and the
deformations that occur around the unsupported tunnel face. A method that takes these
effects into account is described below.
There are various methods described in the literature for the analysis of tunnels
constructed according to the New Austrian Tunnelling Method. One of these is the so-
called β-method (Reference 11), but other have presented similar methods under
different names. The idea is that the initial stresses pk acting around the location where
the tunnel is to be constructed are divided into a part (1-β) pk that is applied to the
unsupported tunnel and a part β pk that is applied to the supported tunnel (Figure 4.13).
The β-value is and 'experience value', which, among other things, depends on the ratio
of the unsupported tunnel length and the equivalent tunnel diameter. Suggestions for this
value can be found in literature (Reference 11).
Instead of entering a β-value in PLAXIS, one can use the staged construction option with
a reduced ultimate level of ΣMstage. In fact, when deactivating the tunnel clusters an

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initial out-of-balance force occurs that is comparable with pk. In the beginning of the
staged construction calculation, when ΣMstage is zero, this force is fully applied to the
active mesh and it will be stepwise decreased to zero with the simultaneous increase of
ΣMstage towards unity. Hence, the value of ΣMstage can be compared with 1-β. In
order to allow for the second step in the β-method, the ultimate level of ΣMstage should
be limited to a value of 1-β while deactivating the tunnel clusters. This can be done by
clicking on the Advanced button while the Staged construction option has been selected
from the Loading input group of the Parameters tab sheet. In general, care must be
taken with an ultimate level of ΣMstage smaller than 1.0, since this is associated with a
resulting out-of-balance force at the end of the calculation phase. In this case the next
calculation phase is a staged construction calculation in which the tunnel construction is
completed by activating the tunnel lining. By default, the ultimate level of ΣMstage is
1.0. Hence, the remaining out-of-balance force will be applied to the geometry including
the tunnel lining.

Figure 4.13 Schematic representation of the β-method for the analysis of NATM tunnels

The process is summarised below:

1. Generate the initial stress field and apply eventual external loads that are present
before the tunnel is constructed.
2. De-activate the tunnel clusters without activation of the tunnel lining and apply an
ultimate level of ΣMstage equal to 1-β.
3. Activate the tunnel lining.

4.7.12 UNFINISHED STAGED CONSTRUCTION CALCULATION

At the start of a staged construction calculation, the multiplier that controls the staged
construction process, ΣMstage, is zero and this multiplier is stepwise increased to the
ultimate level (generally 1.0). When ΣMstage has reached the ultimate level, the current
phase is finished. However, if a staged construction calculation has not properly
finished, i.e. the multiplier ΣMstage is less than the desired ultimate level at the end of a
staged construction analysis, then a warning appears in the Log info box. The reached
value of the ΣMstage multiplier may be viewed by selecting the Reached values option
in the Show group on the Multipliers tab sheet (4.8.2).

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There are two possible reasons for an unfinished construction stage.

• Failure of the soil body has occurred during the calculation. This means that it is not
possible to finish the construction stage. Note that the out-of-balance force is still
partly unsolved so that further calculations starting from the last calculation phase
are meaningless.
• The maximum number of loading steps was insufficient. In this case the
construction stage should be continued by performing another staged construction
calculation that is directly started without changing the geometry configuration or
water pressures. Alternatively, the phase may be recalculated using a larger number
of Additional steps. Note that it is advised against applying any other type of
loading as long as the multiplier ΣMstage has not reached the value 1.0.
In the case of an unfinished staged construction calculation, the load that has actually
been applied differs from the defined load configuration. The reached value of the
ΣMstage multiplier may be used in the following way to estimate the load that has
actually been applied:

fapplied = f0 + ΣMstage (fdefined − f0)

where fapplied is the load that has actually been applied, f0 is the load at the beginning of
the calculation phase (i.e. the load that has been reached at the end of the previous
calculation phase) and fdefined is the defined load configuration.

4.8 LOAD MULTIPLIERS

During a deformation analysis, it is necessary to control the magnitude of all types of

loading. In general, loads are activated in the framework of staged construction by
entering an appropriate input value. Nevertheless, the loadings to be applied are
calculated from the product of the input value of the load and the corresponding
multiplier. Hence, as an alternative to staged construction, loads can globally be
increased by changing the corresponding multiplier. Distinction is made between
Incremental multipliers and Total multipliers. Incremental multipliers represent the
increment of load for an individual calculation step, whereas total multipliers represent
the total level of the load in a particular calculation step or phase. The way in which the
various multipliers are used depends on the Loading input as selected in the Parameters
tab sheet. Both the incremental multipliers and the total multipliers for a particular
calculation phase are displayed in the Multipliers tab sheet (Figure 4.14). All
incremental multipliers are denoted by M... whereas all total multipliers are denoted by
ΣM.... A multiplier does not have a unit associated with it, since it is just a factor.
Descriptions of the various load multipliers are given below.

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Figure 4.14 Multipliers tab sheet of the Calculations window

4.8.1 STANDARD LOAD MULTIPLIERS

Mdisp, ΣMdisp:
These multipliers control the magnitude of prescribed displacements as entered
in the staged construction mode (Section 4.7.4). The total value of the
prescribed displacement applied in a calculation is the product of the
corresponding input values as entered in the staged construction mode and the
parameter ΣMdisp. When applying prescribed displacements by entering an
input value of prescribed displacement in the staged construction mode, and the
value of ΣMdisp is still zero, ΣMdisp is automatically set to unity. The value of
ΣMdisp may be used to globally increase or decrease the applied prescribed
displacement. In calculations where the Loading input was set to Incremental
multipliers, Mdisp is used to specify a global increment of the prescribed
displacement in the first calculation step.

MloadA, ΣMloadA, MloadB, ΣMloadB:

These multipliers control the magnitude of the distributed loads and point loads
as entered in the load systems A and B (Section 4.7.3). The total value of the
loads of either load system applied in a calculation is the product of the
corresponding input values as entered in the staged construction mode and the
parameter ΣMloadA or ΣMloadB respectively. When applying loads by
entering an input value of load in the staged construction mode, and the value
of the corresponding multiplier is still zero, this multiplier is automatically set
to 1.0. The values of ΣMloadA and ΣMloadB may be used to globally increase

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or decrease the applied load. In calculations where the Loading input was set to
Incremental multipliers, MloadA and/or MloadB are used to specify a global
increment of the corresponding load systems of the first calculation step.

Mweight, ΣMweight:
It is possible in PLAXIS to carry out calculations in which gravity loading is
applied to the problem. The multipliers Mweight and ΣMweight control the
proportion of standard gravity applied in the analysis and thus the portion of the
material weights (soil, water and structures) as specified in the Input program.
The total proportion of the material weights applied in a calculation is given by
the parameter ΣMweight. In calculations where the Loading input was set to
Incremental multipliers, Mweight is used to specify the increment of weight in
the first calculation step.
The multiplier is applied to the material weights as well as to the water weight.
Hence, if ΣMweight is zero then the soil weight is not taken into account and all
water pressures (excluding eventual excess pore pressures generated during
undrained loading) will also be zero. If ΣMweight is set to 1.0 then the full soil
weight and water pressures will be applied. A value of ΣMweight larger than
1.0 is generally not used, except for the simulation of a centrifuge test.
ΣMweight can have a value larger than zero at the start of the Calculations
program. This is the case if the K0-procedure for the generation of the initial
stress field is used in the initial conditions mode of the Input program. In this
case, by default, the value of ΣMweight is set to 1.0 at the start of the analysis
to account for the full soil weight and water pressures.

Maccel, ΣMaccel
These multipliers control the magnitude of the pseudo-static forces as a result
of the acceleration components as entered in the General settings window of
the Input program (Section 3.2.2). The total magnitude of the acceleration
applied during the calculation is the product of the input values of the
acceleration components and the parameter ΣMaccel. Initially, the value of
ΣMaccel is set to zero. In calculations where the Loading input was set to
Incremental multipliers, Maccel can be used to specify the increment of
acceleration of the first calculation step.
Pseudo-static forces can only be activated if the weight of the material is
already active (ΣMweight = 1). For ΣMweight = 1 and ΣMaccel = 1 both
gravity forces and pseudo-gravity forces are active. The figure below gives an
overview of different combinations of soil weight and acceleration. Note that
the activation of an acceleration component in a particular direction results in a
pseudo-static force in the opposite direction. When increasing ΣMweight

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without increasing ΣMaccel the resulting force will be increased without a

change of the resulting direction.

Figure 4.15 Resulting force direction r due to combinations of gravity and

acceleration a

Msf, ΣMsf:
These multipliers are associated with the Phi-c reduction option in PLAXIS for
the computation of safety factors (Section 4.9). The total multiplier ΣMsf is
defined as the quotient of the original strength parameters and the reduced
strength parameters and controls the reduction of tanϕ and c at a given stage in
the analysis. ΣMsf is set to 1.0 at the start of a calculation to set all material
strengths to their unreduced values. Msf is used to specify the increment of the
strength reduction of the first calculation step. This increment is by default set
to 0.1, which is generally found to be a good starting value.

Input values and reached values:

The input values of the multipliers might differ from the values that were
actually reached after the calculation. This may be the case if failure of the soil
body occurs. The radio buttons in the Show group can be used to display either
the Input values or the Reached values.
If the Reached values option is selected another group box appears in which
some other multipliers and calculation parameters are displayed.

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4.8.2 OTHER MULTIPLIERS AND CALCULATION PARAMETERS

ΣMstage:
The ΣMstage parameter is associated with the Staged construction option in
PLAXIS (Section 4.7). This total multiplier gives the proportion of a
construction stage that has been completed. Without input from the user, the
value of ΣMstage is always zero at the start of a staged construction analysis
and at the end it will generally be 1.0. It is possible to specify a lower ultimate
level of ΣMstage using the Advanced option of the Parameters tab sheet.
However, care should be taken with this option. In calculations where the
loading input is not specified as Staged construction, the value of ΣMstage
remains zero.

ΣMarea:
The ΣMarea parameter is also associated with the Staged construction option.
This parameter gives the proportion of the total volume of soil clusters in the
geometry model that is currently active. If all soil clusters are active then
ΣMarea has a value of 1.0.

Stiffness:
As a structure is loaded and plasticity develops then the overall stiffness of the
structure will decrease. The Stiffness parameter gives an indication of the loss
of stiffness that occurs due to material plasticity. The parameter is a single
number that is 1.0 when the structure is fully elastic and reduces in magnitude
as plasticity develops.
At failure the value is approximately zero. It is possible for this parameter to
have negative values if softening occurs.

Force-X, Force-Y:
These parameters indicate the forces corresponding to the non-zero prescribed
displacements (Section 3.4.1). In plane strain models, Force-X and Force-Y are
expressed in the unit of force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. In
axisymmetric models, Force-X and Force-Y are expressed in the unit of force
per radian. In order to calculate the total reaction force under a circular footing
simulated by prescribed displacements, Force-Y should be multiplied by 2π.
Force-X and Force-Y are the value of the total force in the x- and y-directions
respectively, applied to non-zero prescribed displacements.

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Pmax:
The Pmax parameter is associated with undrained material behaviour and
represents the maximum absolute excess pore pressure in the mesh, expressed
in the unit of stress. During undrained loading in a plastic calculation Pmax
generally increases, whereas Pmax generally decreases during a consolidation
analysis.

4.9 PHI-C-REDUCTION

Phi-c reduction is an option available in PLAXIS to compute safety factors. This option
can be selected as a separate Calculation type in the General tab sheet. In the Phi-c
reduction approach the strength parameters tanϕ and c of the soil are successively
reduced until failure of the structure occurs. The strength of interfaces, if used, is
reduced in the same way. The strength of structural objects like plates and anchors is not
influenced by Phi-c reduction.
The total multiplier ΣMsf is used to define the value of the soil strength parameters at a
given stage in the analysis:

tan ϕ input cinput

∑ Msf = tan ϕ reduced
=
creduced
where the strength parameters with the subscript 'input' refer to the properties entered in
the material sets and parameters with the subscript 'reduced' refer to the reduced values
used in the analysis. ΣMsf is set to 1.0 at the start of a calculation to set all material
strengths to their unreduced values.
A Phi-c reduction calculation is performed using the Load advancement number of steps
procedure. The incremental multiplier Msf is used to specify the increment of the
strength reduction of the first calculation step. This increment is by default set to 0.1,
which is generally found to be a good starting value. The strength parameters are
successively reduced automatically until all Additional steps have been performed. By
default, the number of additional steps is set to 30, but a larger value up to 1000 may be
given here, if necessary. It must always be checked whether the final step has resulted in
a fully developed failure mechanism. If that is the case, the factor of safety is given by:

∑ Msf at failure
available strength
SF = = value of
strength at failure
If a failure mechanism has not fully developed, then the calculation must be repeated
with a larger number of additional steps.

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To capture the failure of the structure accurately, the use of Arc-length control in the
iteration procedure is required. The use of a Tolerated error of no more than 3% is also
required. Both requirements are complied with when using the Standard setting of the
Iterative procedure.
When using Phi-c reduction in combination with advanced soil models, these models
will actually behave as a standard Mohr-Coulomb model, since stress-dependent
stiffness behaviour and hardening effects are excluded. The stress-dependent stiffness
modulus (where this is specified in the advanced model) at the end of the previous step
is used as a constant stiffness modulus during the phi-c reduction calculation.
The Phi-c reduction approach resembles the method of calculating safety factors as
conventionally adopted in slip-circle analyses. For a detailed description of the method
of Phi-c reduction see Reference 4.

4.10 UPDATED MESH ANALYSIS

In conventional finite element analysis, the influence of the geometry change of the
mesh on the equilibrium conditions is neglected. This is usually a good approximation
when the deformations are relatively small as is the case for most engineering structures.
However, there are circumstances under which it is necessary to take this influence into
account. Typical applications where updated mesh analyses may be necessary include
the analysis of reinforced soil structures, the analysis of large offshore footing collapse
problems and the study of problems where soils are soft and large deformations occur.
When large deformation theory is included in a finite element program some special
features need to be considered. Firstly it is necessary to include additional terms in the
structure stiffness matrix to model the effects of large structural distortions on the finite
element equations.
Secondly, it is necessary to include a procedure to model correctly the stress changes
that occur when finite material rotations occur. This particular feature of large
displacement theory is usually dealt with by adopting a definition of stress rate that
includes rotation rate terms. Several stress rate definitions have been proposed by
researchers working in this field although none of these are wholly satisfactory. In
PLAXIS the co-rotational rate of Kirchhoff stress (otherwise known as the Hill stress rate)
is adopted. This stress rate would be expected to give accurate results provided that the
shear strains do not become excessive.
Thirdly, it is necessary to update the finite element mesh as the calculation proceeds.
This is done automatically within PLAXIS when the Updated mesh option is selected.
It should be clear from the descriptions given above that the updated mesh procedures
used in PLAXIS involve considerably more than simply updating nodal coordinates as the
calculation proceeds. These calculation procedures are in fact based on an approach
known as an Updated Lagrangian formulation (Reference 2). Implementation of this

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formulation within PLAXIS is based on the use of various advanced techniques that are
beyond the scope of this manual (Reference 16).

Calculation procedures
In order to carry out an updated mesh analysis the Advanced button should be pressed in
the Calculation type box in the General tab sheet. As a result, an Advanced general
settings window appears in which the Updated mesh option can be selected. Updated
mesh calculations are carried out using iteration procedures similar to the conventional
plasticity options within PLAXIS, as described in preceding sections. Therefore an
updated mesh analysis uses the same parameters. However, because of the large
deformation effect, the stiffness matrix is always updated at the beginning of a load step.
Due to this procedure and to the additional terms and more complex formulations, the
iterative procedure in an updated mesh analysis is considerably slower than that for
conventional plasticity analysis.

Practical considerations
Updated mesh analysis tends to require more computer time than an equivalent,
conventional, plasticity calculation. It is recommended, therefore, that when a new
project is under study a conventional plasticity calculation is carried out before an
updated mesh analysis is attempted.
It is not possible to give simple guidelines that may be used to indicate when an updated
mesh analysis is necessary and where a conventional analysis is sufficient. One simple
approach would be to inspect the deformed mesh at the end of a conventional
calculation using the Deformed mesh option in the Output program. If the geometry
changes are large (on a real scale!) then significant importance of geometric effects
might be suspected. In this case the calculation should be repeated using the updated
mesh option. It cannot definitely be decided from the general magnitudes of the
deformations obtained from a conventional plasticity calculation whether geometric
effects are important or not. If the user is in any doubt about whether updated mesh
analysis is necessary then the issue can only be resolved by carrying out the updated
mesh analysis and comparing the results with the equivalent conventional analysis.
In general, it is not appropriate to use an updated mesh calculation for gravity loading to
set up the initial stress field. Displacements resulting from gravity loading are physically
meaningless and should therefore be reset to zero. Resetting displacements to zero is not
possible after an updated mesh analysis. Hence, gravity loading should be applied in a
normal plastic calculation.
Changing from a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis to an updated
mesh analysis is only valid when displacements are reset to zero, because a series of
updated mesh analyses must start from an undeformed geometry. Changing from an
updated mesh calculation to a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis is not
valid, because then all large deformation effects will suddenly be disregarded.

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4.11 PREVIEWING A CONSTRUCTION STAGE

When a construction staged is fully defined, a preview of the situation is presented on

the Preview tab sheet of the Calculations window. This option is only available if the
calculation phase has been defined in the Staged Construction mode. It enables a direct
visual check of construction stages before the calculation process is started.

4.12 SELECTING POINTS FOR CURVES

After the calculation phases have been defined and before the calculation process is
started, some points may be selected by the user for the generation of load-displacement
curves or stress paths. During the calculations information for these selected points is
stored in a separate file. After the calculation, the Curves program may be used to
generate load-displacement curves or stress-paths. The generation of these curves is
based on the information stored in the separate file. It is therefore not possible to
generate curves for points that have not been preselected.
The points can be entered by selecting the Select points for curves option from
the View menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the tool bar. As a
result, the Output program is opened showing the finite element mesh with all
nodes. Up to 10 nodes may be selected for the generation of load-displacement curves.
Selection takes place by moving the mouse pointer to the desired node and clicking the
left mouse button. Selected nodes are indicated by characters in alphabetical order.
These characters will reappear in the Curves program to identify the points for which
load-displacement curves are to be generated. A selected node can be deselected by
clicking again on that node.
In addition to the nodes, stress points may be selected for the generation of stress paths,
strain path and stress-strain diagrams. On clicking on the Select stress points for
stress/strain curves button in the upper right corner, the plot shows all stress points in
the finite element mesh. Up to 10 stress points may be selected for the generation of
curves of stresses and strains. As for the nodes, the stress points are indicated by
characters in alphabetical order.
If it is desired to select additional nodes, then the Select nodes for load-displacement
curves button may be selected, after which the plot with nodes reappears and additional
nodes can be selected. However, when additional nodes are selected after calculations
have been performed, the calculation process must be executed again from the first
calculation phase in the list. To deselect all selected nodes, the Deselect all nodes or
stress points button may be clicked. If this button is clicked when the plot of the nodes is
presented, then only the nodes will be deselected whereas the selected stress points
remain. On the other hand, if this button is clicked when the plot of the stress points is
presented, then only the stress points will be deselected whereas the selected nodes
remain.

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When all desired nodes and stress points have been selected, the Update button in the
upper right corner should be pressed to store the information and return to the
Calculations program.
If the finite element mesh is regenerated (after being refined or modified) then the
position of nodes and stress points will change. As a result, previously selected nodes
and stress points may appear in completely different positions. Therefore nodes and
stress points should be reselected after regeneration of the mesh.
When the calculations are started without the selection of nodes and stress points for
curves, then the user will be prompted to select such points. The user can then decide to
select points or, alternatively, to start the calculations without selected points. In the
latter case it will not be possible to generate load-displacement curves or stress-strain
curves.

4.13 EXECUTION OF THE CALCULATION PROCESS

When calculation phases have been defined and points for curves have been selected,
then the calculation process can be executed. Before starting the process, however, it is
useful to check the list of calculation phases. In principle, all calculation phases
indicated with a blue arrow (→ →) will be executed in the calculation process. By default,
when defining a calculation phase, it is automatically selected for execution. A
previously executed calculation phase is indicated by green tick mark (√ √) if the
calculation was successful, otherwise it is indicated by a red cross (× ×). To select or
deselect a calculation phase for execution, the corresponding line should be double
clicked. Alternatively, the right hand mouse button may be pressed on the corresponding
line and the option Mark calculate or Unmark calculate should be selected from the
cursor menu.

4.13.1 STARTING THE CALCULATION PROCESS

The calculation process can be started by pressing the Calculate button in the tool bar.
This button is only visible if a calculation phase is focused that is selected for execution,
as indicated by the blue arrow. Alternatively, the Current project option can be selected
from the Calculate menu. As a result, the program first performs a check on the ordering
and consistency of the calculation phases. In addition, the first calculation phase to be
executed is determined and all selected calculation phases in the list are subsequently
executed, provided that failure does not occur. To inform the user about the progress of
the calculation process, the active calculation phase will be focused in the list.

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4.13.2 MULTIPLE PROJECTS

In addition to the execution of the calculation process of the current project it is possible
to select more projects for which calculations have to be executed subsequently. This
can be done by selecting the Multiple projects option from the Calculate menu.
As a result the file requester appears from which the desired project can be selected. All
projects for which calculations are to be executed appear in the Calculation manager
window.

4.13.3 THE CALCULATION MANAGER

The Calculation manager window can be opened by selecting the corresponding option
from the View menu. The window shows the status of all projects for which calculations
have been executed or are to be executed. An example is presented in Figure 4.16.

Figure 4.16 Calculation manager window

4.13.4 ABORTING A CALCULATION

If, for some reason, the user decides to abort a calculation, this can be done by pressing
the Cancel button in the separate window that displays information about the iteration
process of the current calculation phase.

4.14 OUTPUT DURING CALCULATIONS

During a finite element deformation analysis, information about the iteration process is
presented in a separate window. The information comprises the current values of the
total load multipliers and other parameters for the running calculation phase. The
significance of load multipliers and some other parameters is described in Section 4.8. In
addition, the following information is presented in the window:

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Load-displacement curve:
During a calculation phase a small load-displacement curve is presented from
which the status of the geometry (between fully elastic and failure) can be
estimated. By default, the displacement of the first preselected node is plotted
against the total multiplier of the activated load system. In the case that
prescribed displacements are activated, the major force parameter (Force-X or
Force-Y) is displayed instead of the ΣMdisp multiplier.
If desired, one of the other preselected nodes may be chosen from the combo
box under the curve.

Figure 4.17 Calculation window.

Step and iteration numbers:

The Current step and Iteration values indicate the current calculation step and
iteration number. The Maximum steps value indicates the last step number of
the current calculation phase according to the Additional steps parameter. The
Maximum iterations value corresponds to the Maximum iterations parameter in
the settings for the iterative procedure.

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Global error:
The Global error is a measure of the global equilibrium errors within the
calculation step. These errors tend to reduce as the number of iterations
increases. For further details of this parameter see Section 4.17.

Tolerance:
The Tolerance is the maximum global equilibrium error that is allowed. The
value of the tolerance corresponds to the value of the Tolerated error in the
settings for the iterative procedure. The iteration process will at least continue
as long as the global error is larger than the tolerance. For details see Section
4.17.

Plastic stress points:

This is the total number of stress points in soil elements that are in a plastic
state. In addition to the points where Mohr's circle touches the Coulomb failure
envelope, the points due to hardening plasticity are included.

Plastic interface points:

This gives the total number of stress points in interface elements that have
become plastic.

Inaccurate stress points:

The Inaccurate values give the number of plastic stress points in soil elements
and interface elements for which the local error exceeds the tolerated error. For
further details see Section 4.17.

Tolerated number of inaccurate stress points:

The Tolerated values are the maximum number of inaccurate stress points in
soil elements and interface elements respectively that are allowed. The iteration
process will at least continue as long as the number of inaccurate stress points
is larger than the tolerated number. For further details see Section 4.17.

Tension points:
A Tension point is a stress point that fails in tension. These points will develop
when the tension cut-off is used in some of the material sets, as explained in
Section 3.5.2.

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Cap/Hard points:
A Cap point occurs if the Hardening Soil model or the Soft Soil model is used
and the stress state in a point is equivalent to the preconsolidation stress, i.e. the
maximum stress level that has previously been reached (OCR ≤ 1.0). A
Hard(ening) point occurs if the Hardening Soil model is used and the stress
state in a point corresponds to the maximum mobilised friction angle that has
previously been reached.

Apex points:
These are special plastic points where the allowable shear stress is zero, i.e.
τmax = c + σ tanϕ = 0. The iterative procedure tends to become slow when the
number of plastic apex points is large.
Apex points can be avoided by selecting the Tension cut-off option in the
material data sets for soil and interfaces.

Cancel button
If, for some reason, the user decides to abort a calculation, this can be done by
pressing the Cancel button on the calculations window. By pressing this button,
the calculation process is aborted and the control is returned to the calculations
part of the user interface. Note that after pressing the button it may take a few
seconds before the calculation process is actually stopped. In the calculations
×) appears in front of the aborted calculation phase, indicating
list, a red cross (×
that the phase was not successfully finished. Moreover, the execution of all
further calculation phases is stopped.

4.15 SELECTING CALCULATION PHASES FOR OUTPUT

After the calculation process has finished, the calculation list is updated. Calculation
phases that have been successfully finished are indicated by a green tick mark (√ √),
whereas phases that did not finish successfully are indicated by a red cross (× ×). In
addition, messages from the calculations are displayed in the Log info box of the
General tab sheet.
When a calculation phase is focused that has been executed, then the tool bar shows an
Output button. On selecting a finished calculation phase and clicking on the Output
button, the results of the selected phase are directly displayed in the Output program.
The user can select multiple calculation phases at the same time by holding down the
Shift key on the keyboard while selecting phases. When subsequently clicking on the
Output button, the results of all selected phases are displayed in separate windows in the
Output program. In this way, results of different calculation phases can easily be
compared.

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4.16 ADJUSTMENTS TO INPUT DATA IN BETWEEN CALCULATIONS

Care should be taken with the change of input data (in the Input program) in between
calculation phases. In general, this should not be done since it causes the input to cease
to be consistent with the calculation data. In some cases there are other ways to change
data in between calculation phases instead of changing the input data itself.
When changing the geometry (i.e. changing the position of points or lines or adding new
objects), the program will reset all data related to construction stages to the initial
configuration. This is done because, in general, after a change of the geometry the
staged construction information ceases to be valid. When doing so, the mesh and the
initial conditions (i.e. water pressures and initial stresses) have to be regenerated. In the
Calculation program, the user has to redefine the construction stages and the calculation
process must restart from the first phase.
When the finite element mesh is regenerated without changing the geometry (for
example to refine the mesh), then all calculation information (including construction
stages) is retained. Note that in this case it is still necessary to regenerate the initial
conditions and to restart the calculation from the first phase.
When changing material properties in existing data sets without changing the geometry,
then all calculation information is retained as well. In this case, clusters refer to the same
data sets, but the properties as defined in these data sets have changed. However, this
procedure is not very useful, since PLAXIS allows for a change of data sets within the
Staged construction calculation option (Section 4.7.5). Hence, it is better to create the
data sets that will be used in later calculation phases beforehand and to use the Staged
construction option to change data sets during calculations. The same applies to a
change in water pressures and a change in input values of existing loads, since the latter
is also possible using the Staged construction option (Section 4.7.3 and 4.7.9).

4.17 AUTOMATIC ERROR CHECKS

During each calculation step, PLAXIS performs a series of iterations to reduce the out-of-
balance errors in the solution. To terminate this iterative procedure when the errors are
acceptable, it is necessary to establish the out-of-equilibrium errors at any stage during
the iterative process automatically. Two separate error indicators are used for this
purpose. One of these is based on a measure of the global equilibrium error and the other
is a local error check. The values of both of these indicators must be below
predetermined limits for the iterative procedure to terminate. These two error indicators
and the associated error checking procedures are described below.

Global error check

The global error checking parameter used in PLAXIS is related to the sum of the
magnitudes of the out-of-balance nodal forces. The term 'out-of-balance nodal forces'

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refers to the difference between the external loads and the forces that are in equilibrium
with the current stresses. To obtain this parameter, the out-of-balance loads are non-
dimensionalised as shown below:

Σ Out of balance nodal forces

Global error =
Σ Active loads

Local error check

Local errors refer to the errors at each individual stress point. To understand the local
error checking procedure used in PLAXIS it is necessary to consider the stress changes
that occur at a typical stress point during the iterative process.
The variation of one of the stress components during the iteration procedure is shown in
Figure 4.18. At the end of each iteration, two important values of stress are calculated by
PLAXIS. The first of these, the 'equilibrium stress', is the stress calculated directly from
the stiffness matrix (e.g. point A on Figure 4.18). The second important stress, the
'constitutive stress', is the value of stress on the material stress-strain curve at the same
strain as the equilibrium stress, i.e. point B on Figure 4.18.

equilibrium
stress
A
stress

B constitutive
stress

strain

Figure 4.18 Equilibrium and constitutive stresses

The dashed line in Figure 4.18 indicates the path of the equilibrium stress. In general
this equilibrium stress path depends on the nature of the stress field and the applied
loading. For the case of a soil element obeying the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the local
error for the particular stress point at the end of the iteration is defined:

σ -σ
e c
Local error =
Tmax

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In this equation the numerator is a norm of the difference between the equilibrium stress
tensor, σe, and the constitutive stress tensor, σc. This norm is defined by:

σ −σ =
e c
(σ e
xx − σ xx
c
) (
2
) (
2
+ σ eyy − σ cyy + σ zze − σ zzc + σ xy
e
) (
2
− σ xy
c
) (
2
+ σ eyz − σ cyz + σ zx
e
) (
2
− σ zx
c
)
2

The denominator of the equation for the local error is the maximum value of the shear
stress as defined by the Coulomb failure criterion. In case of the Mohr Coulomb model,
Tmax is defined as:

Tmax = max (½ (σ 3 - σ 1 ), c cos ϕ )

When the stress point is located in an interface element the following expression is used:

(σ e
n - σ nc ) + (τ
2 e
-τ c )
2

Local error =
ci − σ nc tan ϕ i
where σn and τ represent the normal and shear stresses respectively in the interface. To
quantify the local accuracy, the concept of inaccurate plastic points is used. A plastic
point is defined to be inaccurate if the local error exceeds the value of the user specified
tolerated error (see Section 4.6.1).

Termination of iterations
For PLAXIS to terminate the iterations in the current load step, all of the following three
error checks must be satisfied. For further details of these error-checking procedures see
Reference 18.

Global error ≤ Tolerated error

No. of plastic soil points

No. of inaccurate soil points ≤ 3 +
10

No. of plastic interface points

No. of inaccurate interface points ≤ 3 +
10

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5 OUTPUT DATA POST PROCESSING

The main output quantities of a finite element calculation are the displacements at the
nodes and the stresses at the stress points. In addition, when a finite element model
involves structural elements, structural forces are calculated in these elements. An
extensive range of facilities exist within PLAXIS to display the results of a finite element
analysis. The set of facilities that may be selected from the Output program are
described in this chapter.

5.1 THE OUTPUT PROGRAM

This icon represents the Output program. The Output program contains all
facilities to view and list the results of generated input data and finite element
calculations. At the start of the Output program, the user has to select the model
and the appropriate calculation phase or step number for which the results are to be
viewed. After this selection a first output window is opened, displaying the deformed
mesh.
The main window of the Output program contains the following items (Figure 5.1)

Figure 5.1 Toolbar in main window of the Output program

Output menu:
The Output menu contains all operation and output facilities of the Output
program. The menu items may change, depending on the type of the active
output form. Some options are also available as buttons in the tool bar.

Output forms:
These are windows on which particular output is displayed. Output forms may
contain plots of the full model, plots of special objects of the model, or tables of
output data. Multiple output forms may be opened simultaneously.

Tool bar:
The tool bar contains buttons that may be used as a shortcut to menu facilities.
In addition, a combo box is included that may be used to directly select the type
of presentation of the displayed quantity. For example, displacements can be

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REFERENCE MANUAL

presented as Arrows, Contours or Shadings. Other quantities may be presented

in other ways.

Status line:
The status bar contains information about the type of analysis (plane strain or
axisymmetry) and the position of the cursor (mouse) in the model.

5.2 THE OUTPUT MENU

The main menu of the Output program contains pull-down sub-menus covering most
options for handling files, transferring data and viewing graphs and tables. The major
type of results from a finite element calculation comprises deformations and stresses.
Hence, these two aspects form the major part of the Output menu. When displaying a
full geometry model, the total menu consists of the sub-menus File, Edit, View,
Geometry, Deformations, Stresses, Window and Help. The menu depends on the type of
data that is presented on the output form.

The File sub-menu:

Open To open a project for which output is to be viewed. The file
requester is presented.
Close To close the active output form.
Close all To close all output forms.
Print To print the active output on a selected printer. The print
window is presented.
Work directory To set the default directory where PLAXIS project files will be
stored.
Report generation To generate a project report with input data and computational
results.
(recent projects) To quickly open one of the four most recent projects.
Exit To leave the program.

The Edit sub-menu:

Copy To copy the active output to the Windows clipboard.
Scale To modify the scale of the presented quantity.
Interval To modify the range of values of the presented quantity in
contour line plots and plots with shadings.

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Scan line To change the scan line for displaying contour line labels.
After selection, the scan line must be indicated by the mouse.
Press the left mouse button at one end of the line; hold the
mouse button down and move the mouse to the other end. A
contour line label will appear on each crossing of a contour
line and the scan line.

The View sub-menu:

Zoom in To zoom into a rectangular area on the screen for a more
detailed view. After selection, the zoom area must be specified
with the mouse.
Press the left mouse button at a corner of the zoom area; hold
the mouse button down and move the mouse to the opposite
corner of the zoom area; then release the button. The program
will zoom into the selected area. The zoom option may be used
repetitively.
Zoom out To restore the view of before the most recent zoom action.
Reset view To restore the original plot.
Cross-section To select a user-defined cross-section with a distribution of the
presented quantity. The cross-section must be selected by the
mouse. Press the left mouse button at one end of the cross-
section; hold the mouse button down and move the mouse to
the other end of the line. (Section 5.8).
Table To view a table of numerical values of the presented quantity
(Section 5.7).
Rulers To show or hide the rulers along the active plot.
Title To show or hide the title of the active plot.
Legend To show or hide the legend of contours or shadings.
Grid To show or hide the grid in the active plot.
General info To view the general project information (Section 5.9.1).
Material info To view the material data (Section 5.9.2).
Calculation info To view the calculation information of the presented step
(Section 5.9.3).
Create animation To create an animation (movie) of a series of calculation steps.

The Geometry sub-menu:

Structures To display all structural objects in the model.

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Materials To display the material colours in the model.

Phreatic level To display the general phreatic level in the model.
Loads To display the external loads in the model.
Fixities To display the fixities in the model.
Presc. displacements To display the prescribed displacements in the model.
Connectivity plot To view the connectivity plot (Section 5.9.4)
Elements To display the soil elements in the model.
Nodes To display the nodes in the model.
Stress points To display the stress points in the model.
Element numbers To display the soil element numbers. Only possible when
elements are displayed.
Node numbers To display the node numbers. Only possible when nodes are
displayed.
Stress point numbers To display the stress point numbers. Only possible when
stress points are displayed.
Material set numbers To display the material set numbers in soil elements.
Cluster numbers To display the cluster numbers in soil elements.

The Deformations sub-menu:

The Deformations sub-menu contains various options to visualise the
deformations and strains in the finite element model (Section 5.4).

The Stresses sub-menu:

The Stresses sub-menu contains various options to visualise the stress state in
the finite element model (Section 5.5).

5.3 SELECTING OUTPUT STEPS

Output may be selected by clicking on the Open file button in the tool bar or by selecting
the Open option from the File sub-menu. As a result, a file requester is opened from
which the desired PLAXIS project file (*.PLX) can be selected (Figure 5.2).

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 OUTPUT DATA POST PROCESSING

Figure 5.2 File requester for the selection of an output step

When the user selects a particular project, the file requester displays the corresponding
list of calculation phases from which a further selection should be made. On selecting a
calculation phase, a new output form is opened in which the results of the final
calculation step of the selected phase are presented.
If it is desired to select an intermediate calculation step, then a single mouse click should
be given on the Phase column above the list with calculation phases in the file requester.
As a result, the calculation list changes into a list with all step numbers, from which the
desired step number can be selected.
In addition to this general selection of output data, an alternative option is provided by
the Calculation program, as described in Section 4.15.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

5.4 DEFORMATIONS

The Deformations sub-menu contains various options to visualise the deformations and
the strains in the finite element model. By default, the displayed quantities are scaled
automatically by a factor (1, 2 or 5) !10n to give a diagram that may be read
conveniently.
The scale factor may be changed by clicking on the Scale factor button in the
tool bar or by selecting the Scale option from the Edit sub-menu. The scale
factor for strains refers to a reference value of strain that is drawn as a certain
percentage of the geometry dimensions. To compare strain plots of different calculation
phases, the scale factors in the different plots must be made equal.
If Contours or Shadings are selected from the presentation box in the tool bar, then the
range of values of the displayed quantity may be changed either by selecting the Interval
option from the Edit sub-menu or by clicking on the legend. The maximum value of the
particular quantity is included in the title underneath the plot and may be viewed by
selecting the Title option from the View sub-menu.

5.4.1 DEFORMED MESH

The Deformed mesh is a plot of the finite element mesh in the deformed shape. This plot
may be selected from the Deformations sub-menu. If it is desired to view the
deformations on the true scale (i.e. the geometry scale), then the Scale option may be
used.

5.4.2 TOTAL, HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DISPLACEMENTS

The Total displacements are the absolute accumulated displacements |u|, combined from
the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) displacement components at all nodes at the end of the
current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. Similarly, the Horizontal
displacements and Vertical displacements are, respectively, the accumulated horizontal
(x) and vertical (y) displacement components at all nodes at the end of the current
calculation step. These options may be selected from the Deformations sub-menu. The
displacements may be presented as Arrows or as Contours or Shadings by selecting the
appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar.

5.4.3 INCREMENTAL DISPLACEMENTS

The Total increments are the absolute displacement increments of the current step |∆u|,
combined from the horizontal and vertical displacement increments at all nodes as
calculated for the current step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. Similarly, the
Horizontal increments and Vertical increments are, respectively, the horizontal (x) and
vertical (y) displacement increments at all nodes as calculated for the current step. These
options may be selected from the Deformations sub-menu. The displacement increments

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may be presented as Arrows or as Contours or Shadings by selecting the appropriate

option from the presentation box in the tool bar. The contours of total increments are
particularly useful for the observation of localisation of deformations within the soil
when plastic failure occurs.

5.4.4 TOTAL STRAINS

The Total strains are the accumulated strains in the geometry at stress points at the end
of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be
selected from the Deformations sub-menu.
Total strains can be represented as Principal directions (principal strains), Volumetric
strains (εv) or equivalent Shear strains (εs) by selecting the appropriate option from the
presentation box in the tool bar. Volumetric strains and shear strains can be displayed as
Contours or Shadings.
Principal strains are plotted as crosses in the element stress points. When using 15-node
elements, three stress points per element are displayed. When using 6-node elements
only one point per element is displayed, which represents the average of the total
principal strains in the element. The length of each line represents the magnitude of the
principal strain and the direction indicates the principal direction. Strains that represent
extension are indicated by an arrow rather than a line. Note that compression is
considered to be negative.

5.4.5 CARTESIAN STRAINS

When selecting Cartesian strains from the Deformations sub-menu, a further selection
can be made between the individual total strain components εxx , εyy and γxy. Cartesian
strain components can be represented as Contours or Shadings by selecting the
appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar. Note that compression is
considered to be negative.

5.4.6 INCREMENTAL STRAINS

The Incremental strains are the strain increments in the geometry at stress points as
calculated for the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This
option may be selected from the Deformations sub-menu.
Incremental strains can be represented as Principal directions (principal strain
increments), Volumetric strains (incremental volumetric strains ∆εv) or equivalent Shear
strains (incremental equivalent shear strains ∆εs) by selecting the appropriate option
from the presentation box in the tool bar. Volumetric strains and shear strains can be
displayed as Contours or Shadings.
Principal strain increments are plotted as crosses in the element stress points. When
using 15-node elements, three stress points per element are displayed. When using 6-

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REFERENCE MANUAL

node elements only one point per element is displayed, which represents the average of
the principal strain increments in the element. The length of each line represents the
magnitude of the principal strain and the direction indicates the principal direction.
Strain increments that represent extension are indicated by an arrow rather than a line.
Note that compression is considered to be negative.

5.4.7 CARTESIAN STRAIN INCREMENTS

When selecting Cartesian strain increments from the Deformations sub-menu, a further
selection can be made between the individual strain increment components ∆εxx , ∆εyy
and ∆γxy. Cartesian strain increment components can be represented as Contours or
Shadings by selecting the appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar.
Note that compression is considered to be negative.

5.5 STRESSES

The Stresses sub-menu contains various options to visualise the stress state in the finite
element model. By default, the displayed quantities are scaled automatically by a factor
(1, 2 or 5)· 10n to give a diagram that may be read conveniently.
The scaling may be changed by clicking on the Scale factor button in the tool
bar or by selecting the Scale option from the Edit sub-menu. The scale factor
for stresses refers to a reference value of stress that is drawn as a certain
percentage of the geometry dimensions. To compare stress plots of different calculation
phases, the scale factors in the different plots must be made equal.
When selecting contours or shadings from the presentation box in the tool bar, then
selecting the Interval option from the Edit sub-menu may change the range of values of
the displayed quantity. The maximum value of the particular quantity is included in the
title underneath the plot and may be viewed by selecting the Title option from the View
sub-menu.

5.5.1 EFFECTIVE STRESSES

The Effective stresses are the effective stresses in the geometry at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from
the Stresses sub-menu.
Effective stresses can be represented as Principal directions (principal stresses), Mean
stresses (p') or Relative shear stresses (τrel) by selecting the appropriate option from the
presentation box in the tool bar. Mean stresses and relative shear stresses can be
displayed as Contours or Shadings.
Principal effective stresses are plotted as crosses in the element stress points. When
using 15-node elements, three stress points per element are displayed. When using 6-

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node elements only one point per element is displayed, which represents the average of
the principal effective stress in the element. The length of each line represents the
magnitude of the principal stress and the direction indicates the principal direction.
Stresses that represent tension are indicated by an arrow rather than a line. Note that
pressure is considered to be negative.
The relative shear stress option gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to
the failure envelope. The relative shear stress, τrel, is defined as:

τ
τ rel =
τ max
where τ is the maximum value of shear stress (i.e. the radius of the Mohr stress circle).
The parameter τmax is the maximum value of shear stress for the case where the Mohr's
circle is expanded to touch the Coulomb failure envelope keeping the intermediate
principal stress constant.

5.5.2 TOTAL STRESSES

The Total stresses are the total stresses (i.e. effective stresses + active pore pressures) in
the geometry at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Stresses sub-menu.
Total stresses can be represented as Principal directions (principal stresses), Mean
stresses (p) or Deviatoric stresses (q) by selecting the appropriate option from the
presentation box in the tool bar. Mean stresses and deviatoric stresses can be displayed
as Contours or Shadings.
Principal total stresses are plotted as crosses in the element stress points. When using
15-node elements, three stress points per element are displayed. When using 6-node
elements only one point per element is displayed, which represents the average of the
total principal stress in the element. The length of each line represents the magnitude of
the principal stress and the direction indicates the principal direction. Stresses that
represent tension are indicated by an arrow rather than a line. Note that pressure is
considered to be negative.

5.5.3 CARTESIAN EFFECTIVE STRESSES

When selecting Cartesian effective stresses from the Stresses sub-menu, a further
selection can be made between the individual effective stress components σ'xx , σ'yy , σ'zz
and σ'xy. Cartesian stress components can be represented as Contours or Shadings by
selecting the appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar. Fig. 5.3 shows
the sign convention adopted for Cartesian stresses. Note that pressure is considered to be
negative.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

5.5.4 CARTESIAN TOTAL STRESSES

When selecting Cartesian total stresses from the Stresses sub-menu, a further selection
can be made between the individual total stress components σxx , σyy , σzz and σxy.
Cartesian stress components can be represented as Contours or Shadings by selecting
the appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar. Fig. 5.3 shows the sign
convention adopted for Cartesian stresses. Note that pressure is considered to be
negative.

σyy

y
σyx
σyz σxy
σzy
σxx
x
σxz
z σzz σzx

Figure 5.3 Sign convention for stresses

5.5.5 OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO

The Overconsolidation ratio is only displayed if the Hardening Soil model or the Soft
Soil (Creep) model is used.
The overconsolidation ratio, OCR, as defined in this option, is the ratio between the
isotropic preconsolidation stress, pp, and the current equivalent isotropic stress peq.

pp
OCR =
p eq
where

q2
p eq = p '+ (Soft Soil (Creep) model)
M2 p '+c cot ϕ '

p eq = ( p')2 + q 2 M2 (Hardening Soil model)

The overconsolidation ratio may be displayed as Contours or Shadings by selecting the
appropriate option from the presentation box in the tool bar.

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5.5.6 PLASTIC POINTS

The Plastic points are the stress points in a plastic state, displayed in a plot of the
undeformed geometry. The plastic stress points are indicated by small symbols that can
have different shapes and colours, depending on the type of plasticity that has occurred.
A red open square indicates that the stresses lie on the surface of the Coulomb failure
envelope. A white solid square indicates that the tension cut-off criterion was applied. A
blue crossed square represents a state of normal consolidation where the
preconsolidation stress is equivalent to the current stress state. The latter type of plastic
points only occurs if the Soft Soil (Creep) model or the Hardening Soil model is used.
For details of the use of advanced soil models, the user is referred to the Material
Models manual.
The Coulomb plastic points are particularly useful to check whether the size of the mesh
is sufficient. If the zone of Coulomb plasticity reaches a mesh boundary (excluding the
centre-line in a symmetric model) then this suggests that the size of the mesh may be too
small. In this case the calculation should be repeated with a larger model.

5.5.7 ACTIVE PORE PRESSURES

The Active pore pressures are the total water pressures pw (i.e. steady-state pore
pressures + excess pore pressures) in the geometry at the end of the current calculation
step, displayed in a plot of the undeformed geometry. This plot may be selected from the
Stresses sub-menu. By default, active pore pressures are presented just like principal
stresses, although they are isotropic and do not have any principal direction. The length
of lines represents the magnitude of the active pore pressure and the directions coincide
with the x- and y-axis. Active pore pressures that are tensile are indicated by an arrow
rather than a line. Note that pressure is considered to be negative.
When using 15-node elements, three stress points per element are displayed. When
using 6-node elements only one point per element is displayed, which represents the
average of the active pore pressure in the element.
As an alternative for the Principal directions, the user may select Contours or Shadings
of active pore pressures from the presentation combo box.

5.5.8 EXCESS PORE PRESSURES

The Excess pore pressures are the water pressures due to loading of undrained clusters
at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the undeformed
geometry. This plot may be selected from the Stresses sub-menu. By default, excess
pore pressures are presented just like principal stresses, although they do not have any
principal direction. The length of lines represents the magnitude of the excess pore
pressure and the directions coincide with the x- and y-axis. Excess pore pressures that
are tensile are indicated by an arrow rather than a line. Note that pressure is considered
to be negative.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

When using 15-node elements, three stress points per element are displayed. When
using 6-node elements only one point per element is displayed, which represents the
average of the excess pore pressure in the element.
As an alternative for the Principal directions, the user may select Contours or Shadings
of excess pore pressures from the presentation combo box.

5.5.9 GROUNDWATER HEAD

The groundwater head is an alternative quantity for the active pore pressure. The
Groundwater head is defined as:

p
h= y+
γw
where y is the vertical coordinate, p is the active pore pressure and γw is the unit weight
of water.
The Groundwater head option is available from the Stresses sub-menu. This option is
most relevant in projects where a groundwater flow calculation has been performed to
generate the pore pressure distribution, but also in situations where excess pore
pressures are generated in undrained soil clusters.
The distribution of the groundwater head can only be presented as Contours or Shadings
by selecting the appropriate option from the presentation combo box.

5.5.10 FLOW FIELD

When a groundwater flow calculation has been performed to generate the pore pressure
distribution, then the specific discharges at the element stress points are available in the
Output program in addition to the pore pressure distribution. The specific discharges can
be viewed by selecting the Flow field option from the Stresses sub-menu. The flow field
may be viewed as Arrows or as Contours or Shadings by selecting the appropriate
option from the presentation box in the tool bar.
When the specific discharges are presented as arrows, then the length of the arrow
indicates the magnitude of the specific discharge whereas the arrow direction indicates
the flow direction.

5.5.11 DEGREE OF SATURATION

The groundwater flow module within PLAXIS may be used to calculate a pore pressure
distribution for confined as well as for unconfined flow problems. The determination of
the position of the free phreatic surface and the associated length of the seepage surface
is one of the main objectives of an unconfined groundwater flow calculation. In this case
a relationship is used between the pore pressure and the degree of saturation. Both

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quantities are calculated in a groundwater flow calculation and are made available in the
Output program.
If it is desired to view the Degree of saturation, the corresponding option may be
selected from the Stresses sub-menu. In fact, the degree of saturation is only relevant if a
groundwater flow calculation has been performed. The degree of saturation is generally
100% below the phreatic level and it reduces to zero within a finite zone above the
phreatic level.

5.6 STRUCTURES AND INTERFACES

Structures (i.e. plates, geogrids, anchors) and interfaces are, by default, displayed in the
geometry. Optionally, these objects may be hidden or shown again using the Structures
option from the Geometry sub-menu. Output for these types of elements can be obtained
by double clicking the desired object in the geometry. As a result, a new form is opened
on which the selected object appears. At the same time the menu changes to provide the
particular type of output for the selected object.
If it is desired to display output of multiple structures of the same type in a single form,
then all these objects, except for the last one, should be selected with a single click while
holding down the Shift key on the keyboard, and the last one should be double clicked.

5.6.1 PLATES
The output data for a plate comprises deformations and forces. From the Deformations
sub-menu the user may select the accumulated absolute displacements, |u|, at the end of
the calculation step, or the individual accumulated displacement components ux and uy.
From the Forces sub-menu the options Axial forces Shear forces and Bending moments
are available. For axisymmetric models the Force sub-menu also includes the forces in
the out-of-plane direction (Hoop forces). These forces represent the actual forces at the
end of the calculation step.
In addition to the actual forces, PLAXIS keeps track of the historical maximum and
minimum forces in all subsequent calculation phases. These maximum and minimum
values up to the current calculation step may be viewed after selecting the Force
envelopes option in the Forces sub-menu and subsequently selecting the desired force
option (Axial forces, Shear forces, Bending moments or Hoop forces).
Note that axial forces or hoop forces are positive when they generates tensile stresses, as
indicated in Figure 5.4.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

Figure 5.4 Sign convention for axial forces and hoop forces in plates, geogrids and
anchors

If a circular tunnel (bored tunnel) is modelled and a contraction is applied to the tunnel
lining, then the Total realised contraction and the Realised contraction increment are
displayed in the plot title.

5.6.2 GEOGRIDS
The output data for geogrids can be obtained by double clicking on the corresponding
yellow line in the geometry. The output for a geogrid comprises deformations and
forces. From the Deformations sub-menu the user may select the accumulated absolute
displacements, |u|, or the individual displacement components, ux and uy. From the
Forces sub-menu the option Axial force is available. Tensile forces in geogrids are
always positive. Compressive forces are not allowed in these elements.

5.6.3 INTERFACES
Output for interfaces can be obtained by double clicking on the corresponding dashed
lines in the geometry. The output for an interface comprises deformations and stresses.
From the Deformations sub-menu the user may select Total, Horizontal and Vertical
displacements, Total, Horizontal and Vertical increments, Relative displacements and
Relative increments. Relative displacements are differential displacements between the
node pairs. These options may be used to view if plastic shearing has occurred in the
interface.
From the Stresses sub-menu the options Effective normal stresses, Shear stresses,
Relative shear stresses, Active pore pressures and Excess pore pressures are available.
The Effective normal stresses are the effective stresses perpendicular to the interface,
whereas the Shear stresses are the shear stresses in the interface. The relative shear
stress is defined as the ratio between the shear stress and the maximum value of shear
stress according to the Coulomb failure criterion, while keeping the effective normal
stress constant.
Note that pressure is considered to be negative for the normal stresses and pore
pressures.

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5.6.4 ANCHORS
When double clicking an anchor (either a node-to-node anchor or a fixed-end anchor), a
small window is presented in which the anchor force is displayed. Also the maximum
forces and the anchor stiffness are displayed in this window. If the absolute value of the
anchor force is equal to a maximum force, then the anchor is in a plastic state. Tensile
forces are defined positive, as indicated in Figure 5.4.

5.7 VIEWING OUTPUT TABLES

For all types of plots the numerical data can be viewed in output tables by
clicking on the Table button in the tool bar or by selecting the Table option
from the View menu. As a result, a new form is opened in which the
corresponding quantities are presented in tables. At the same time the menu changes to
allow for the selection of other quantities that may be viewed in tables.

Tables of displacements
When selecting the Table option when a displacement plot is displayed, a table form
appears in which the displacement components at all nodes are presented. The total
displacements ux and uy are the accumulated displacements from all previous calculation
phases, whereas the incremental displacements ∆ux and ∆uy are the incremental
displacements in the current step.

Tables of stresses and strains

When viewing tables of stresses or strains in soil elements, the tables display the
Cartesian components at all stress points. Note that compression (pressure) is considered
to be negative.
The Status column in the table of the stresses indicates whether a stress point is an
Elastic point, a Plastic point, a Tension point, an Apex point, a Hardening point, or a
Cap point. An Elastic point is a stress point that is currently not in a state of yielding. A
Plastic point is a stress point where the Mohr's stress circle touches the Coulomb failure
envelope. A Tension point is a stress point that has failed in tension according to the
tension cut-off criterion. An Apex point is a stress point at the apex of the failure
envelope. A Hardening point is a stress point where stress state corresponds to the
maximum mobilised friction angle that has previously been reached (only Hardening
Soil model). A Cap point is a stress point where the stress state is equivalent to the
preconsolidation stress, i.e. the maximum stress level that has previously been reached.

Tables of nodes and stress points

When tables of stresses or strains are shown, the menu includes the sub-menu Geometry.
This sub-menu contains options to view the position and numbering of the element

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REFERENCE MANUAL

nodes and stress points. The Element stress points option also displays the actual elastic
stiffness modulus, E, the actual cohesion, c, and the actual overconsolidation ratio, OCR.
This facility is particularly interesting when using models where the stiffness or
cohesion increases with depth or when using stress-dependent stiffness models. The
table shows which stiffness and cohesion have actually been applied in all stress points
in the current calculation step.

Stresses and forces in interfaces and structures

When viewing tables of interface stresses, the table presents the effective normal
stresses (σ'n), the shear stress (τ), the active pore pressure (pactive) and the excess pore
pressure (pexcess) at all interface stress points. When viewing tables of plate forces, the
table presents the axial force (N), the shear force (Q) and the bending moment (M) at the
nodes. For geogrids, the table only presents the force in the axial direction of the geogrid
(N). For anchors there is no other table available than the one that is presented after
double clicking the anchor in the geometry.

5.8 VIEWING OUTPUT IN A CROSS-SECTION

To gain insight in the distribution of a certain quantity in the soil it is often

useful to view the distribution of that quantity in a particular cross-section of
the model. This option is available in PLAXIS for all types of stresses and
displacements in soil elements. It can be selected by clicking on the Cross-section
button in the tool bar or by selecting the corresponding option from the View menu.
After selection of this option the user has to specify the cross section on one end of the
cross-section line in the geometry and moving the cursor to the other end while holding
down the mouse button. Exact horizontal or vertical cross-sections may be drawn by
simultaneously holding down the Shift key on the keyboard. After releasing the mouse
button, a new form is opened in which the distribution of the currently displayed
quantity is presented along the indicated cross-section. At the same time, the menu
changes to allow for the selection of all other quantities that may be viewed along the
indicated cross-section.
Multiple cross-sections may be drawn in the same geometry. Each cross-section will
appear on a different output form. To identify different cross-sections, the end points of
a cross-section are indicated with characters in alphabetical order.
The distribution of quantities in cross-sections is obtained from interpolation of nodal
data (for displacements) or extrapolation from the stress points (for stresses and strains).
Note that in the latter case, the results might be less accurate than the values at the stress
points.

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Deformations
In addition to the horizontal and vertical displacement and Cartesian strain components,
as available for the full geometry, the cross-section option allows for Normal strains and
Shear strains. The Normal strain is defined as the strain perpendicular to the cross-
section line, and the Shear strain is defined as the shear strain along the cross-section
line.

Stresses
Different options are available to draw the effective and total stresses in the cross-
section. In addition to the Cartesian effective and total stress components, active and
excess pore pressures, as available for the full geometry, the cross-section option allows
for Normal stresses and Shear stresses. The Normal stresses are defined as the stress
perpendicular to the cross-section, and the Shear stress is defined as the shear stress
along the cross-section line. Note that pressure is considered to be negative.

Integration of stresses: Equivalent force

When normal stress components are plotted in a cross-section, PLAXIS automatically
calculates and displays an equivalent force that represents the integral of the normal
stress over the cross-section. The value and position of the equivalent force are
displayed in the plot title.

5.9 VIEWING OTHER DATA

The View menu includes options to view general model data (General info) and material
data (Material info). In addition, some general output data relating to the calculation
process (Calculation info) is available from this sub-menu.

5.9.1 GENERAL PROJECT INFORMATION

The General info option of the View sub-menu contains some general information about
the project (file name, directory, title), the model (plane strain or axisymmetry) and the
generated finite element mesh (basic element type, number of elements, nodes, stress
points, average element size le).

5.9.2 MATERIAL DATA

Material properties and model parameters can be viewed with the Material info option
of the View sub-menu. Within this option a selection can be made from the four types of
data sets: Soil and interfaces, plates, geogrids, anchors. Within the Soil and interfaces
option the data sets are arranged in tab sheets according to the material models. The data
may be send to the printer by clicking on the Print button.

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5.9.3 MULTIPLIERS AND CALCULATION PARAMETERS

If the option Calculation info is selected from the View menu, then a window appears
presenting the load multipliers and various calculation parameters corresponding to the
end of the calculation step.
In the Multipliers tab sheet, the status of the loading process is given including the
values of the incremental and total multipliers. The incremental multipliers give the
increase of load in the current step; the total multipliers give the total load that is present
at the end of the current step. The significance of the individual multipliers is discussed
in Section 4.8. The screen also shows the Extrapolation factor and the Relative stiffness.
The extrapolation factor gives the factor relating the current loading step to the previous
one in the case of a continuation of the same load (Section 4.6.1). The relative stiffness
gives an indication of the significance of plasticity in the soil body. When loading a
body to failure, the relative stiffness gradually reduces from 1.0 (elasticity) to zero
(failure).
The Additional info tab sheet displays the status of a construction stage and the forces on
boundaries with a prescribed non-zero displacement. In the Staged construction box the
parameter ΣMarea gives the proportion of the total volume of soil elements that are
currently active, whereas the incremental parameter Marea gives the proportional
increment of volume that has been applied in the current step. The parameter ΣMstage
gives the proportion of the construction stage that has been completed, and the
incremental parameter Mstage gives the proportional increment that has been applied in
the current step (see also Section 4.7 and 4.8.2).
The Forces box gives the values of the parameters Force-X and Force-Y (the force
component in the x- and y -direction, respectively, due to non-zero prescribed boundary
displacements). In addition, when undrained soil clusters are used, the Consolidation
box shows the maximum value of excess pore pressure in the current step.
The Step info tab sheet gives information about the iteration process in the current step.
The significance of the data shown is discussed in Section 4.6.1.

5.9.4 CONNECTIVITY PLOT

A Connectivity plot is a plot of the mesh in which the element connections are clearly
visualised. This plot is particularly of interest when interface elements are included in
the mesh. Interface elements are composed of pairs of nodes in which the nodes in a pair
have the same coordinates. In the Connectivity plot, however, the nodes in a pair are
drawn with a certain distance in between so that it is made clear how the nodes are
connected to adjacent elements.
In the Connectivity plot it can, for example, be seen that when an interface is present
between two soil elements, that the two soil elements do not have common nodes and
that the connection is formed by the interface. In a situation where interfaces are placed
along both sides of a plate, the plate and the adjacent soil elements do not have nodes in

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common. The connection between the plate and the soil is formed by the interface. This
can also be viewed in the Connectivity plot.

5.9.5 CONTRACTION
When contraction is applied to a circular tunnel lining, the actual (or realised)
contraction developed in the finite element analysis may differ slightly from the input
value specified in the staged construction. After double-clicking a circular tunnel lining,
the Total realised contraction and the Realised contraction increment are displayed in
the plot title. The Total realised contraction is defined as:

original tunnel area minus tunnel area at current step

Total realised contraction =
original area of tunnel

Note that the Total realised contraction is usually slightly smaller than the input value.
This is caused by the fact that contraction of the lining is reduced by the stiffness of the
surrounding soil skeleton. For relatively stiff linings with respect to the surrounding soil,
the Total realised contraction will only be slightly smaller. For linings that are relatively
flexible, however, the difference may become more significant. If the Total realised
contraction turns out to be too low, it is necessary to slightly increase the input value in
the corresponding calculation phase and then repeat the calculation.

5.9.6 OVERVIEW OF PLOT VIEWING FACILITIES

To enhance the interpretation of output results, PLAXIS has several facilities to view the
finite element model. An overview of these facilities is given below:

Zooming
To enlarge a part of the model for viewing a particular detail, the zoom option of the
View sub-menu may be used. After selection of the zoom option, the zoom area
(a rectangular area on the screen) must be selected with the mouse. The zoom option
may be used repetitively.

Viewing structural objects

Output of structural objects can be viewed in more detail by double clicking the desired
structural object in the geometry.

Viewing cross-section
Users may define cross-sections to view output. This can be done by selecting the
Cross-section option of the View sub-menu.

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Changing the intensity of material data set colours

Material data set colours can appear in three different intensities. To globally increase
the intensity of all data set colours, the user may press <Ctrl><Alt><C> simultaneously
on the keyboard. There are three levels of colour intensity that can be selected in this
way.

5.10 REPORT GENERATION

To document project input data and computational results, a Report generation

facility is available in the PLAXIS Output program. This option requires the
presence of the Microsoft Word software. The Report generation option can
be selected from the File sub-menu or by clicking on the corresponding button in the
tool bar. By doing so, the report generation window appears in which a selection can be
made of the project data that is to be included in the report.

Figure 5.5 Report generation window

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By default, the various groups of items that can be selected are presented in a tree view.
Groups of items and individual items that are selected to be included in the report are
indicated by a filled black square, whereas unselected (groups of) items are indicated by
an open square. By clicking on a square, (groups of) items can be toggled from being
selected to being unselected and vice versa. By clicking on the +sign in front of a group,
the items in the group can be selected individually.
The Select group box allows for a further selection of Phases, Curves, Structures and
Cross sections. The Phases option enables a further selection of all available and
performed calculation phases. The Curves option enables a selection of existing (saved)
curves. The Structures option enables a selection of plates, geogrids or interfaces that
are currently displayed in separate output windows. The Cross sections option enables a
selection of existing cross sections. Hence, to include output data of structures or cross-
sections in the report it is necessary to first display the desired structures or cross-
sections in separate output windows.
After the selection of all desired items, the Contents view button may be pressed to view
the contents of the report to be created. The Tree view button may be used to restore the
tree view of selected and unselected items, providing the possibility to change the
current selections.
If the selections are satisfactory, then the Start button should be pressed to generate the
report. As a result, the Microsoft Word program is started and the report is created in a
new document. From there it may be printed or included in other documentation. For
details on the use of the Microsoft Word program, reference is made to the
corresponding manual.
By default, plots are included as metafiles in a report and legends of contour plots or
shadings are divided into 16 intervals. The Settings button may be used to select the
format of plots (Metafile or Bitmap) or to change the interval number of contour plots or
shadings.

5.11 EXPORTING DATA

Data as displayed in output forms may be exported to other programs using the
Windows clipboard function. This function can be activated by clicking on the Copy to
clipboard button in the tool bar or by selecting the Copy option from the Edit menu.
Plots are exported such that they appear, for example, as figures in a drawing package or
in a word processor when pasting the clipboard data. Data in tables are exported such
that they appear in different cells in a spreadsheet program when pasting the clipboard
data.
In addition to the clipboard function, hardcopies of graphs and tables can be produced
by sending the output to an external printer. When clicking on the Print button or
selecting the corresponding option from the File menu, the print window appears in
which selections can be made of the various plot components that are to be included in

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the hardcopy. In addition, basic information is presented in a frame around the plot. For
this purpose, a project title and a project description may be entered, which are
presented on the hardcopy. When pressing the Set-up button, the standard printer set-up
window is presented in which specific printer settings can be changed.
When clicking on the Print button, the plot is send to the printer. This process is fully
carried out by the Windows operating system. For more information on the installation
of printers or other output devices reference is made to the corresponding manuals.
When the Copy to clipboard option or the Print option is used on a plot that shows a
zoomed part of the model, only the part that is currently visible will be exported to the
clipboard or the printer.

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6 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

The Curves program can be used to draw load- or time-displacement curves, stress-
strain diagrams and stress or strain paths of pre-selected points in the geometry. These
curves visualise the development of certain quantities during the various calculation
phases, and this gives an insight into the global and local behaviour of the soil. The
points at which curves may be generated must be selected using the Select points for
curves option in the Calculations program before starting the calculation process
(Section 4.12). Distinction is made between nodes and stress points (Figure 3.4). In
general, nodes are used for the generation of load-displacement curves whereas stress
points are used for stress-strain diagrams and stress paths. A maximum of 10 nodes and
10 stress points may be selected. During the calculation process, information related to
these points is stored in curves data files. The information in these files is then used for
the generation of the curves. It is not possible to generate curves for points that have not
been pre-selected, since the required information is not available in the curves data files.

6.1 THE CURVES PROGRAM

This icon represents the Curves program. The Curves program contains all
facilities to generate load-displacement curves, stress paths and stress-strain
diagrams. At the start of the Curves program, a choice must be made between
the selection of an existing chart and the creation of a new chart. When selecting New
chart, the Curve generation window appears in which parameters for the generation of a
curve can be set (Section 6.2). When selecting Existing chart, the selection window
allows for a quick selection of one of the four most recent charts. If an existing chart is
to be selected that does not appear in the list, the option <<<More files>>> can be
used. As a result, the general file requester appears which enables the user to browse
through all available directories and to select the desired PLAXIS chart file (*.G## where
## is any number between 00 and 99). After the selection of an existing project, the
corresponding chart is presented in the main window. The main window of the Curves
program contains the following items (Figure 6.1):

Figure 6.1 Tool bar in main window of the Curves program

Curves menu:
The Curves menu contains all options and operation facilities of the Curves
program. Some options are also available as buttons in the tool bar.

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Chart windows:
These are windows on which charts are displayed. Multiple chart forms may be
opened simultaneously and each chart can contain a maximum of ten curves.

Tool bar:
This bar contains buttons that may be used as a shortcut to menu facilities.

6.2 THE CURVES MENU

The Curves menu consists of the following sub-menus:

The File sub-menu:

New To create a new chart. The file requester is presented.
Open To open a chart. The file requester is presented.
Save To save the current chart under the existing name. If a name
has not been given before, the file requester is presented.
Close To close the active chart window.
Add curve To add a new curve to the current chart (Section 6.4).
Print To print the active chart on a selected printer. The print
window is presented.
Work directory To set the directory where curve files will be stored.
(recent charts) To quickly open one of the four most recently edited charts.
Exit To leave the program.

The Edit sub-menu:

Copy To copy the current chart to the Windows clipboard.

The Format sub-menu:

Curves To change the presentation or regenerate the curves in the
current chart window (Section 6.6.1).
Frame To change the presentation of the frame (axes and grid) in the
current chart window (Section 6.6.2).

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 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

The View sub-menu:

Zoom in To zoom into a rectangular area for a more detailed view. The
zoom area must be selected using the mouse. Press the left
mouse button at a corner of the zoom area; hold the mouse
button down and move the mouse to the opposite corner of the
zoom area; then release the button. The program will modify
the range on the axes according to the selected area. The zoom
option may be used repetitively.
Zoom out To restore the view of before the most recent zoom action.
Reset view To restore the original draw area.
Table To view the table with the values of all the curve points.
Legend: To view the legend of the current chart. The symbols and
colours of the lines in the legend correspond to the symbols
and colours of the curves.
Value indication To view detailed curve data when the cursor (mouse pointer) is
positioned on a curve.

6.3 CURVE GENERATION

A new curve can be generated by starting up the Curves program or by selecting the
New option in the File menu. As a result, the file requester appears and the project for
which the curve has to be generated for must be selected. After selection of the project,
the Curve generation window appears, as presented in Figure 6.2.
Two similar boxes with various items are shown, one for the x-axis and one for the y-
axis. In general, the x-axis corresponds to the horizontal axis and the y-axis corresponds
to the vertical axis. However, this convention may be changed using the Exchange axes
facility in the Frame settings window (Section 6.6.2). For each axis, a combination of
selections should be made to define which quantity is plotted on that axis. The Invert
sign option may be selected to multiply all values of the x-quantity or the y-quantity by
-1. This option may, for example, be used to plot stresses (which are generally negative)
as positive values.
The combination of the step-dependent values of the x-quantity and the y-quantity form
the points of the curve to be plotted. The curve point numbers correspond to the
calculation step numbers plus one. The first curve point (corresponding to step 0) is
numbered 1. When both quantities have been defined and the OK button is pressed, the
curve is generated and presented in a chart window.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

Figure 6.2 Curve generation window

Load-displacement curves
Load-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the applied
loading and the resulting displacement of a certain point in the geometry. In general, the
x-axis relates to the displacement of a particular node (Displacement), and the y-axis
contains data relating to load level (Multipliers). Other types of curves can also be
generated.
The selection of Displacement must be completed with the selection of a pre-selected
node in the Point combo box and the selection of a displacement component in the Type
combo box. The type of displacement can be either the length of the displacement vector
(│u│) or one of the individual displacement components (ux or uy). The displacements
are expressed in the unit of length, as specified in the General settings window of the
input program.
The selection of Multiplier must be completed with the selection of the desired load
system, represented by the corresponding multiplier in the Type combo box. For a
description of the multipliers the user is referred to Section 4.8. As the activation of a
load system is not related to a particular point in the geometry, the selection of a Point is
not relevant in this case. Note that the 'load' is not expressed in units of stress or force.

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 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

To obtain the actual load, the presented value should be multiplied by the input load as
specified in the Staged Construction mode.
Another quantity that can be presented in a curve is the Excess pore pressure. The
selection of Excess pore pres. must be completed with the selection of a pre-selected
node in the Point combo box. The Type combo box is not relevant in this case. Excess
pore pressures are expressed in the units of stress.
When non-zero prescribed displacements are activated in a calculation, the reaction
forces against the prescribed displacements in the x- and y-direction are calculated and
stored as output parameters. These force components can also be used in load-
displacement curves by selecting the Force option.
The selection of the Force option must be completed with the selection of the desired
component (Force-X or Force-Y) in the Type combo box. In plain strain models the
Force is expressed in the units of force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. In
axisymmetric models the Force is expressed in the unit of force per radian. Hence, to
calculate the total reaction force under a circular footing that is simulated by means of
prescribed displacements, the Force-Y value should be multiplied by 2π.

Time-displacement curves
Time-displacement curves can be useful to interpret the results of calculations in which
the time-dependent behaviour of the soil plays an important role (e.g. consolidation and
creep). In this case the Time option is generally selected for the x-axis, and the y-axis
contains data for the displacements of a particular node. The selection of Time does not
require additional selections in the Point and Type combo boxes. Time is expressed in
the unit of time, as specified in the General settings window of the input program.

Stress-strain diagrams
Stress-strain diagrams can be used to visualise the local stress-strain behaviour of the
soil. In fact, stress-strain diagrams represent the idealised behaviour of the soil
according to the selected soil model. The selections Stress or Strain must be completed
with the selection of a pre-selected stress point from the Point combo box and the
selection of a certain component in the Type combo box. The following stress and strain
components are available:

Stresses:
σ'xx effective horizontal stress (x-direction)
σ'yy effective vertical stress (y-direction)
σ'zz effective stress in the out-of-plane direction (z-direction)
σxy shear stress
σ'1 in absolute sense the largest effective principal stress

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σ'2 the intermediate effective principal stress

σ'3 in absolute sense the smallest effective principal stress
p' isotropic effective stress (mean effective stress)
q deviatoric stress (equivalent shear stress)
pexcess excess pore pressure

Strains:
εxx horizontal strain (x-direction)
εyy vertical strain (y-direction)
γxy shear strain
ε1 in absolute sense the largest principal strain
ε2 the second principal strain
ε3 the third principal strain
εv volumetric strain
εq deviatoric strain (equivalent shear strain)
See the Scientific Manual for a definition of the stress and strain components. The
phrase 'in absolute sense' in the description of the principal components is added
because, in general, the normal stress and strain components are negative (compression
is negative). Note that the deviatoric stress and strain components are always positive.
Stress components are expressed in the units of stress; strains are dimensionless.

Stress paths and strain paths

A stress path represents the development of the stress state at a local point of the
geometry. Similarly, a strain path represents the development of strain. These types of
curves are useful to analyse the local behaviour of the soil. Since soil behaviour is
stress-dependent and soil models do not take all aspects of stress-dependency into
account, stress paths are useful to validate previously selected model parameters. For the
generation of stress paths and strain paths, a selection can be made from the available
stress and strain components as listed above.

6.4 MULTIPLE CURVES IN ONE CHART

It is often useful to compare the development of displacements or stresses at

different points in a geometry, or even in different geometries or projects.
Therefore PLAXIS allows for the generation of a maximum of ten curves on the
same chart. Once a single curve has been generated, the Add curve option can be used to

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 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

generate a new curve in the current chart. This option can be selected by clicking on the
Add curve button in the tool bar or by selecting the corresponding option from the File
sub-menu. In addition, a selection must be made to specify whether the curve is based
on the Current project or on Another project. In the latter case, the project can be
selected using the file requester.
The Add curve procedure is similar to the New option (Section 6.3). However, when it
comes to the actual generation of the curve, the program imposes some restrictions on
the selection of data to be presented on the x- and the y-axis. This is to ensure that the
new data are consistent with the data of any existing curve or curves.

6.5 REGENERATION OF CURVES

If, for any reason, a calculation process is repeated or extended with new calculation
phases, it is generally desirable to update existing curves to comply with the new data.
This can be done by means of the Regenerate facility. This facility is available in the
Curve settings window (Section 6.6.1), which can be selected by clicking on the Change
curve settings button in the tool bar or by selecting the Curves option in the Format
menu. When clicking on the Regenerate button, the Curve generation window appears,
showing the existing setting for x- and y-axis. Pressing the OK button is sufficient to
regenerate the curve to include the new data. Another OK closes the Curve settings
window and displays the newly generated curve.
When multiple curves are used in one chart, the Regenerate facility should be used for
each curve individually.
The Regenerate facility may also be used to change the quantity that is plotted on the x-
or y- axis.

6.6 FORMATTING OPTIONS

The layout and presentation of curves and charts may be customised by selecting the
options in the Format menu. Distinction is made between the Curve settings and the
Frame settings. The Curves option is used to modify the presentation of curves, and the
Frame option is used to set the frame and axes in which the curves appear.

6.6.1 CURVE SETTINGS

The Curve settings can be selected from the Format menu. Alternatively, the
Curve settings button in the tool bar may be clicked. As a result, the Curve
settings window appears, as presented in Figure 6.3. The Curve settings
window contains for each of the curves in the current chart a tab sheet with the same
options.

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If the correct settings are made, the OK button may be pressed to activate the settings
and to close the window. Alternatively, the Apply button may be pressed to activate the
settings, but the window is not closed in this case. When pressing the Cancel button the
changes to the settings are ignored.

Figure 6.3 Curve settings window

Title:
A default title is given to any curve during its generation. This title may be
changed in the Curve title edit box. When a legend is presented for the active
chart in the main window, the Curve title appears in the legend.

Show curve:
When multiple curves are present within one chart, it may be useful to hide
temporarily one or more curves to focus attention on the others. The Show
curve option may be deselected for this purpose.

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 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

Phases:
The Phases button may be used to select for which calculation phases the curve
has to be generated. This option is useful when not all calculation phases
should be included in the curve. For example, when the development of the
ΣMsf multiplier is plotted against a displacement component to determine
safety factors, then only phi-c reduction calculation phases are relevant. The
Phases option may then be used to de-select the other calculation phases.

Line and marker presentation:

Various options are available to customise the appearance of the curve lines
and markers.

Fitting:
To draw a smooth curve, the user can select the Fitting item. When doing so,
the type of fitting can be selected from the Type combo box. The Spline fitting
generally gives the most satisfactory results, but, as an alternative, a curve can
be fitted to a polynomial using the least squares method.

Regenerate:
The Regenerate button may be used to regenerate a previously generated curve
to comply with new data (Section 6.5).

Add curve:
The Add curve button may be used to add new curves to the current chart
(Section 6.4).

Delete:
When multiple curves are present within one chart, the Delete button may be
used to erase a curve.

6.6.2 FRAME SETTINGS

The Frame settings relate to the presentation of the frame and axes in the chart.
These settings can be selected from the Format menu. Alternatively, the Frame
settings button in the tool bar may be clicked. As a result, the Frame settings
window appears, as shown in Figure 6.4.

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REFERENCE MANUAL

Figure 6.4 Frame settings window

If the correct settings are made, the OK button may be pressed to activate the settings
and to close the window. Alternatively, the Apply button may be pressed to activate the
settings, but the window is not closed in this case. When pressing the Cancel button, the
changes to the settings are ignored.

Titles:
By default, a title is given to the x-axis and the y-axis, based on the quantity
that is selected for the curve generation. However, this title may be changed in
the Title edit boxes of the corresponding axis group. In addition, a title may be
given to the full chart, which can be entered in the Chart title edit box. This
title should not be confused with the Curve title as described in Section 6.6.1.

Scaling of x- and y-axis:

By default, the range of values indicated on the x- and y-axis is scaled
automatically, but the user can select the Manual option and enter the desired
range in the Minimum and Maximum edit boxes. As a result, data outside this

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 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

range will not appear in the plot. In addition, it is possible to plot the x- and/or
y-axis on a logarithmic scale using the Logarithmic check box. The use of a
logarithmic scale is only valid if the full range of values along an axis is
positive.

Grid:
Grid lines can be added to the plot by selecting items Horizontal grid or
Vertical grid. The grid lines may be customised by means of the Style and
Colour options.

Orthonormal axes:
The option Orthonormal axes can be used to ensure that the scale used for the
x-axis and the y-axis is the same. This option is particularly useful when values
of similar quantities are plotted on the x-axis and y-axis, for example when
plotting stress paths or strain diagrams.

Exchange axes:
The option Exchange axes can be used to interchange the x-axis and the y-axis
and their corresponding quantities. As a result of this setting, the x-axis will
become the vertical axis and the y-axis will become the horizontal axis.

Flip horizontal or vertical:

Selecting the option Flip horizontal or Flip vertical will respectively reverse
the horizontal or the vertical axis. This option is particularly useful when
plotting stress paths or stress-strain diagrams, since stresses and strains are
generally negative.

6.7 VIEWING A LEGEND

By default, a legend is presented at the right hand side of each curves window. The
legend gives a short description of the data presented in the corresponding curve. The
description appearing in the legend is actually the Curve title, which is automatically
generated based on the selection of quantities for the x- and y-axis. The Curve title can
be changed in the Curve settings window. The legend can be activated or deactivated in
the View menu. The size of the legend can be changed with the mouse.

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6.8 VIEWING A TABLE

To view the numerical data presented in the curves, a table may be opened. The Table
option can be selected by clicking on the Table button in the tool bar or by selecting the
corresponding option in the View menu. As a result, a table appears showing the
numerical values of all points on a curve in the current chart. The desired curve to be
displayed can be selected in the curve combo box above the table. There are options
available in the table menu for printing or copying all the data, or a selected part of it, to
the Windows clipboard. Copied data can be pasted in a spreadsheet program for further
elaboration.

Editing curve data

In contrast to the Output program, the Curves program allows for editing of the table by
the user. After selection of the appropriate curve from the combo box, curve points can
be inserted or deleted and existing values can be modified. These options are available
by clicking on the right hand mouse button when the Table window is active. Using the
Insert option results in a new zero x- and y-value at the position of the cursor. The
values may be edited by typing a new value at the position of an existing value. Using
the Delete option results in a deletion of both the x- and y-value, so that the point
disappears from the curve.
Editing load-displacement curves is often needed when gravity loading is used to
generate the initial stresses for a project. As an example of the procedures involved,
consider the embankment project indicated in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 Raising an embankment

In this example project soil is to be added to an existing embankment to increase its

height. The purpose of this example analysis is to calculate the displacement of point A
as the embankment is raised. One approach to this problem is to generate a mesh for the
final embankment and then deactivate the clusters corresponding to the additional soil
layer by using the Initial geometry configuration item of the Input program.

6-12 PLAXIS Version 8

 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES AND STRESS PATHS

An alternative procedure would be to generate the initial stresses for the project, i.e. the
stresses for the case where the original embankment has been constructed but the new
material has not yet been placed. This should be done using the gravity loading
procedure. In this procedure the soil self-weight is applied by increasing ΣMweight from
zero to 1.0 in a Plastic calculation using Total multipliers as Loading input.
The settlement behaviour of point A when gravity loading is applied is shown by the
initial horizontal line in Figure 6.6a. This line will, in general, consist of several plastic
calculation steps, all with the same value of ΣMarea.
To model the behaviour of the soil structure as a whole as the additional material is
placed, then the cluster of the additional material should be activated using a staged
construction calculation. At the start of this staged construction calculation, all
displacements should be reset to zero by the user. This removes the effect of the
physically meaningless displacements that occur during gravity loading.
The load-displacement curve obtained at the end of the complete calculation for point A
is shown in Figure 6.6a. To display the settlement behaviour without the initial gravity
loading response it is necessary to edit the corresponding load-displacement data. The
unwanted initial portion, with the exception of point 1, should be deleted. The
displacement value for point 1 should then be set to zero. The resulting curve is shown
in Figure 6.6b.

Σ-Marea Σ-Marea

1 1

Staged construction Staged construction

Point 1 Point 1
Gravity loading

Vertical displacement point A Vertical displacement point A

a. Before editing b. After editing
Figure 6.6 Load-displacement curves of the embankment project.

As an alternative to the above editing procedure, the gravity loading phase can be
excluded form the list of calculation phases that are included in the curve (Section
6.6.1).

6-13
REFERENCE MANUAL

6-14 PLAXIS Version 8

 REFERENCES

7 REFERENCES

[1] Bakker, K.J. and Brinkgreve, R.B.J. (1990). The use of hybrid beam elements to
model sheet-pile behaviour in two dimensional deformation analysis. Proc. 2nd
European Specialty Conference on Numerical Methods in Geotechnical
Engineering. Santander, Spain, 559-572.
[2] Bathe, K.J. (1982). Finite element analysis in engineering analysis. Prentice-
Hall, New Jersey.
[3] Bolton, M.D. (1986). The strength and dilatancy of sands. Geotechnique 36(1),
65-78.
[4] Brinkgreve, R.B.J. and Bakker, H.L. (1991). Non-linear finite element analysis
of safety factors. Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Comp. Methods and Advances in
Geomechanics, Cairns, Australia, 1117-1122.
[5] Burd, H.J. and Houlsby, G.T. (1989). Numerical modelling of reinforced
unpaved roads. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Numerical Models in Geomechanics,
Canada, 699-706.
[6] De Borst, R. and Vermeer, P.A. (1984). Possibilities and limitations of finite
elements for limit analysis. Geotechnique 34(20), 199-210.
[7] Hird, C.C. and Kwok, C.M. (1989). Finite element studies of interface behaviour
in reinforced embankments on soft grounds. Computers and Geotechnics, 8, 111-
131.
[8] Nagtegaal, J.C., Parks, D.M. and Rice, J.R. (1974). On numerically accurate
finite element solutions in the fully plastic range. Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech.
Engng. 4, 153-177.
[9] Rheinholdt, W.C. and Riks, E. (1986). Solution techniques for non-linear finite
element equations. State-of-the-art Surveys on Finite Element Techniques, eds.
Noor, A.K. and Pilkey, W.D. Chapter 7.
[10] Rowe, R.K. and Ho, S.K. (1988). Application of finite element techniques to the
analysis of reinforced soil walls. The Application of Polymeric Reinforcement in
Soil Retaining Structures, eds. Jarett, P.M. and McGown, A. 541-553.
[11] Schikora K., Fink T. (1982). Berechnungsmethoden moderner bergmännischer
Bauweisen beim U-Bahn-Bau. Bauingenieur, 57, 193-198.
[12] Sloan, S.W. (1981). Numerical analysis of incompressible and plastic solids
using finite elements. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge, U.K.
[13] Sloan, S.W. and Randolph, M.F. (1982). Numerical prediction of collapse loads
using finite element methods. Int. J. Num. Analyt. Meth. in Geomech. 6, 47-76.
[14] Smith I.M. (1982). Programming the finite element method with application to
geomechanics. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.

7-1
REFERENCE MANUAL

[15] Song E.X. (1990). Elasto-plastic consolidation under steady and cyclic loads.
Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
[16] Van Langen, H. (1991). Numerical analysis of soil structure interaction. Ph.D.
Thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
[17] Van Langen, H. and Vermeer, P.A. (1990). Automatic step size correction for
non-associated plasticity problems. Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng. 29, 579-598.
[18] Vermeer, P.A. and Van Langen, H. (1989). Soil collapse computations with
finite elements. Ingenieur-Archive 59, 221-236.
[19] Vermeer P.A. and Verruijt A. (1981). An accuracy condition for consolidation
by finite elements. Int. J. for Num. Anal. Met. in Geom., Vol. 5, 1-14.
[20] Zienkiewicz, O.C. (1977). The Finite Element Method. McGraw-Hill, London.
[21] Owen D.R.J. and Hinton E. (1982). Finite Elements in Plasticity. Pineridge Press
Limited, Swansea.
[22] Van Langen, H. and Vermeer, P.A. (1991). Interface elements for singular
plasticity points. Int. J. Num. Analyt. Meth. in Geomech. 15, 301-315.

7-2 PLAXIS Version 8

 INDEX

INDEX

staged construction· 3-56; 4-22; 4-

36; 6-13
A CamClay· 3-39
Cap point· 4-50; 5-15
Advanced Mohr-Coulomb parameters· Chart· 6-2; 6-11
3-47 Circular tunnel· 3-27
Anchor Cluster· 3-37; 3-78; 5-4
fixed-end anchor· 3-21; 5-15 Cohesion· 3-45
node-to-node anchor· 3-21; 5-15 Collapse· 4-11
pre-stressing· 4-31 Connectivity plot· 3-59; 5-4; 5-19
properties· 3-57 Contraction· 4-32; 5-19
Apex point· 4-50; 5-15 Coordinate
Arc-length control· 4-18; 4-19; 4-23; system· 2-3
4-43 x-coordinate· 3-3; 3-30; 3-63
Automatic y-coordinate· 3-3; 3-30
error checks· 4-51 Copy
mesh generation· 3-58 to clipboard· 5-22
step size· 4-10; 4-12; 4-17; 7-2 Coulomb point· 3-79
Curve
generation· 6-3; 6-7
B
settings· 6-8
Beam
element· 3-14 D
Boundary conditions
adjustments during calculation· 4-51 Dilatancy
displacements· 3-28 angle· 3-47
fixities· 3-29 Displacement
groundwater head· 3-66; 5-12 incremental· 5-6; 5-15
submerged boundaries· 4-26 prescribed· 3-28; 4-29; 4-38; 5-4; 6-
Bulk modulus 5
water· 3-40 reset to zero· 4-14; 6-13
total· 5-6; 5-15
Distributed load· 3-30
C
Drained behaviour· 3-39
Drains· 3-33
Calculation
automatic step size· 4-10; 4-17
manager· 4-4; 4-47 E
phase· 4-3; 4-4; 4-50
phi-c reduction· 4-43 Elastic model· 3-78
plastic· 4-7; 4-24 Element
beam· 3-14

8-1
REFERENCE MANUAL

interface· 5-19; 7-2 H

plate· 3-14
soil· 3-9; 3-59 Hardening point· 5-15
Error Hardening Soil model· 3-39; 3-78; 4-
equilibrium· 3-62; 4-15; 4-49; 4-52 50; 5-10
global error· 4-49; 4-52 Help facilities· 2-4
local error· 4-49; 4-52 Hinges· 3-15
tolerated· 4-16; 4-54
Excess pore pressure· 3-62; 5-11; 6-6
Extrapolation· 4-19; 5-18 I

Ignore undrained behaviour· 4-14

F Incremental multiplier· 4-20; 4-21; 4-
23; 4-37; 4-38; 4-39
File Initial
requester· 5-5 geometry· 3-75; 6-13
Flip stress· 3-77
horizontal· 6-11 water condition· 3-61; 4-25; 4-33
vertical· 6-11 Input· 3-1
Force Interface
anchor· 3-57; 4-32; 5-15 elements· 5-19; 7-2
pre-stressing· 4-31 real interface thickness· 3-53
unit of· 4-41 virtual thickness· 3-18; 3-52
Friction angle· 3-46 Interface element· 3-18; 3-59; 5-19
Interface permeability· 3-53
G
J
Generation
curve· 6-3 Jointed Rock· 3-38
initial stress· 3-77
mesh· 3-58
water pressure· 3-70 L
Geogrids· 3-16; 3-56; 5-14
Geometry Line
line· 3-12 geometry line· 3-5; 3-12
Global coarseness· 3-59 scan line· 5-3
Global error· 4-49; 4-52 Linear elastic model· 3-38
Gravity Load advancement· 4-9
initial stress generation· 3-77 number of steps· 4-10
loading· 3-41; 3-77; 4-39 ultimate level· 4-9
Groundwater· 3-62; 5-12 Load multiplier· 4-28; 4-37; 5-18
incremental· 4-18; 4-37; 5-18
total· 4-37; 5-18
Load-displacement· 4-48; 6-1; 6-4

8-2 PLAXIS Version 8

 INDEX

curves· 4-48; 6-1; 6-4 P

Local coarseness· 3-60
Phi-c reduction· 4-7; 4-40; 4-42
Phreatic level· 3-62
M
Plastic calculation· 4-7
Plastic nil-step· 4-34
Maccel· 4-39
Plastic point
Manual
Apex point· 4-50
input· 3-3
Cap point· 4-50; 5-15
Marea· 4-25; 4-41; 5-18; 6-13
Coulomb point· 3-79; 5-11
Material Hardening point· 5-15
model· 3-38; 3-78 inaccurate· 4-53
properties· 3-33; 5-18
Plate
type· 3-39
element· 3-14
Maximum iterations· 4-17; 4-18; 4-49
Plates· 3-13
Mdisp· 3-29; 4-29; 4-38; 4-48 Point
Mesh geometry point· 3-12
generation· 3-58
plastic point· 3-79; 4-50; 4-53; 5-11
MloadA· 3-31; 3-32; 4-27; 4-28; 4-38
points for curves· 4-4; 4-45; 6-1; 6-4
MloadB· 3-31; 3-32; 4-27; 4-28; 4-38
Point loads· 3-31
Model see Material model· 3-8; 3-78
Pore pressure· 3-39; 3-62; 5-11
Mohr-Coulomb· 3-36; 3-37; 3-38; 3- active· 3-61; 5-9; 5-11; 5-16
44; 4-43 excess· 3-40; 3-49; 3-61; 4-14; 4-26;
Msf· 4-40; 4-42
4-42; 5-11; 5-16; 6-6
Mstage· 4-22; 4-25; 4-34; 4-35; 4-36;
initial· 3-79
4-37; 4-41; 5-18
Multiplier see Load multiplier· 6-4
Mweight· 3-41; 3-55; 3-71; 3-78; 4-39 R

Radius· 3-25
N
Real interface thickness· 3-53
Refine· 3-60
Nodes· 5-4
around point· 3-60
Non-porous material· 3-41 cluster· 3-60
line· 3-60
O Relative shear stress· 5-14
Relative stiffness· 5-18
Output· 5-1 Report generation· 5-20
clipboard· 3-5; 5-2; 5-22; 6-2; 6-12 Reset displacements· 4-14
displacements· 5-15; 6-5 Rotation· 3-3; 3-32
printer· 3-4; 5-2; 5-18; 5-22; 6-2 Rotation springs· 3-15
Over-relaxation· 4-17

8-3
REFERENCE MANUAL

S Tolerance· 4-49
Tolerated error· 4-15; 4-16; 4-43; 4-54
Scaling· 5-6; 5-8; 6-11 Total multiplier· 4-37
Scan line· 5-3 Triangle· 3-58
Settings Tunnel
curve· 6-7 centre point· 3-25; 4-32
Sign convention· 2-2; 5-10; 5-14 designer· 3-22
Skempton B-parameter· 3-49 reference point· 3-23; 3-27
Soft Soil Creep model· 3-39
Soft Soil model· 3-39
U
Soil
dilatancy angle· 3-36; 3-37; 3-38; 3-
Undo· 3-5
47; 3-51
Undrained behaviour· 3-39; 4-14
friction angle· 3-36; 3-38; 3-46; 3-
50 Units· 2-1
material properties· 3-33; 3-58; 4-30 User-defined Soil model· 3-39
saturated weight· 3-41
undrained behaviour· 3-39; 4-14 V
unsaturated weight· 3-41
Soil elements· 3-9; 3-59 Virtual thickness· 3-18
Spline fitting· 6-9 Volume strain· 4-31
Staged construction· 3-77; 4-11; 4-21;
4-24; 5-18
Standard setting· 4-15; 4-43 W
Steady-state Groundwater flow
calculation· 3-72 Water
Stress conditions· 3-61
effective· 3-61; 3-76; 5-8; 5-14 pressures· 3-62; 3-70; 4-33
inaccurate· 4-49; 4-52 weight· 3-62
initial· 3-77; 4-51 Weight· 3-55
paths· 6-6 saturated weight· 3-41
tensile· 3-50; 5-14 soil weight· 3-41; 3-55; 3-78; 4-39
total· 5-9 unsaturated weight· 3-41
Stress point· 3-8; 5-4 Wells· 3-33
Switching· 3-61; 4-25 Window
calculations· 4-6; 4-13; 4-38; 4-48
curves· 6-12
T generation· 3-77
input· 3-2; 3-22
Tension output· 5-1
cut-off· 3-50; 4-50 tunnel designer· 3-23
point· 4-50; 5-15
Time
unit of· 4-22; 4-23; 4-24; 6-5

8-4 PLAXIS Version 8

 INDEX

x-coordinate· 3-3; 3-30; 3-63

y-coordinate· 3-3; 3-30

Zoom· 3-5; 5-3; 6-3

8-5
REFERENCE MANUAL

8-6 PLAXIS Version 8

 APPENDIX A – GENERATION OF INITIAL STRESSES

APPENDIX A - GENERATION OF INITIAL STRESSES

Many analysis problems in geotechnical engineering require the specification of a set of
initial stresses. These stresses, caused by gravity, represent the equilibrium state of the
undisturbed soil or rock body.
In a PLAXIS analysis these initial stresses need to be specified by the user. Two
possibilities exist for the specification of these stresses:
K0 -procedure
Gravity loading
As a rule, one should only use the K0 -procedure in cases with a horizontal surface and
with any soil layers and phreatic lines parallel to the surface. For all other cases one
should use Gravity loading.

Figure A.1 Examples of non-horizontal surfaces and non-horizontal weight

stratifications

A-1
REFERENCE MANUAL

A.1 THE K0-PROCEDURE

If this approach is chosen, the user should select the Initial stresses option from the
Generate sub-menu in the Initial conditions mode. When selecting this option, then it is
possible to enter values for the coefficient of lateral earth pressure for each individual
soil cluster. In addition to the parameter K0, one has to enter a value for ΣMweight. For
ΣMweight = 1.0 gravity will be fully activated. The coefficient, K0, represents the ratio
of the horizontal and vertical effective stresses:

K0 = σ'xx / σ'yy
In practice, the value of K0 for a normally consolidated soil is often assumed to be
related to the friction angle by the empirical expression :

K0 = 1 – sinϕ
In an over-consolidated soil, K0 would be expected to be larger than the value given by
this expression.
Using very low or very high K0-values in the K0 -procedure may lead to stresses that
violate the Coulomb failure condition. In this case PLAXIS automatically reduces the
lateral stresses such that the failure condition is obeyed. Nevertheless, care should be
taken because the stresses might be different form what the user expects. Anyhow, these
stress points are in a plastic state and are thus indicated as plastic points. The plot of
plastic points may be viewed after the presentation of the initial effective stresses in the
Output program by selecting the Plastic points option from the Stresses. Although the
corrected stress state obeys the failure condition, it may result in a stress field that is not
in equilibrium. It is generally preferable to generate an initial stress field that does not
contain plastic points. For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to avoid
soil plasticity the value of K0 is bounded by:

1 − sin ϕ 1 + sin ϕ
< K0 <
1+ sin ϕ 1 − sin ϕ
When the K0 -procedure is adopted, PLAXIS will generate vertical stresses that are in
equilibrium with the self-weight of the soil. Horizontal stresses, however, are calculated
from the specified value of K0. Even if K0 is chosen such that plasticity does not occur,
the K0 -procedure does not ensure that the complete stress field is in equilibrium. Full
equilibrium is only obtained for a horizontal soil surface with any soil layers parallel to
this surface and a horizontal phreatic level. If the stress field requires only small
equilibrium corrections, then these may be carried out using the calculation procedures
described below. If the stresses are substantially out of equilibrium, then the K0 -
procedure should be abandoned in favour of the Gravity loading procedure.

A-2 PLAXIS Version 8

 APPENDIX A – GENERATION OF INITIAL STRESSES

Plastic nil-step
If the K0 -procedure generates an initial stress field that is not in equilibrium or where
plastic points occur, then a plastic nil-step should be adopted. A plastic nil-step is a
calculation phase in which no additional load is applied (Section 4.7.10). After this
phase has been completed, the stress field will be in equilibrium and all stresses will
obey the failure condition.

Divergence
If the original K0-procedure generates a stress field that is far from equilibrium, then the
plastic nil-step may fail to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 -procedure
is applied to problems with very steep slopes. For these problems the Gravity loading
procedure should be adopted instead.

Initial displacements
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-step (if one is
used) do not affect later calculations. This may be achieved by using the Reset
displacements to zero option in the subsequent calculation phase.

A-3
REFERENCE MANUAL

A.2 GRAVITY LOADING

If Gravity loading is adopted, then the initial stresses (i.e, those corresponding to the
'Initial phase') are zero. The initial stresses are then set up by applying the soil self-
weight in the first calculation phase.
In this case, when using an elastic perfectly-plastic soil model such as the Mohr-
Coulomb model, the final value of K0 depends strongly on the assumed values of
Poisson's ratio. It is important to chose values of Poisson's ratio that give realistic values
of K0. If necessary, separate material data sets may be used with Poisson's ratio adjusted
to provide the proper K0-value during gravity loading. These sets may be changed by
other material sets in subsequent calculations (Section 4.7.5). For one-dimensional
compression an elastic computation will give:

K0
ν=
(1+ K 0 )
If a value of K0 of 0.5 is required, for example, then it is necessary to specify a value of
Poisson's ratio of 0.333.
It is often the case that plastic points are generated during the Gravity loading
procedure. For cohesionless soils, for example, plastic points will be generated unless
the following inequality is satisfied:

1 − sin ϕ ν
<
1 + sin ϕ 1 −ν
The generation of a small number of plastic points during Gravity loading is quite
acceptable.

Plastic calculation
Gravity loading may be applied, if desired, in a single calculation phase. This should be
carried out using a Plastic calculation in which the Loading input is set to Total
multipliers and ΣMweight set to 1.0.

Initial displacements
Once the initial stresses have been set up, then displacements should be reset to zero at
the start of the next calculation phase. This removes the effect of the Gravity loading
procedure on the displacements developed during subsequent calculations.

A-4 PLAXIS Version 8

 APPENDIX B – PROGRAM AND DATA FILE STRUCTRURE

APPENDIX B - PROGRAM AND DATA FILE STRUCTURE

B.1 PROGRAM STRUCTURE

The full PLAXIS program consists of various sub-programs, modules and other files
which are copied to various directories during the installation procedure (see Installation
in the General information part). The most important files are located in the PLAXIS
program directory. Some of these files and their functions are listed below:
GEO.EXE Input program (pre-processor) (see Chapter 3)
BATCH.EXE Calculations program (see Chapter 4)
PLAXOUT.EXE Output program (post-processor) (see Chapter 5)
CURVES.EXE Curves program (see Chapter 6)
PLXMSHW.EXE Mesh generator
GEOFLOW.EXE Groundwater flow analysis program
PLASW.EXE Deformation analysis program (plastic calculation,
consolidation, updated mesh)
PLXSSCR.DLL Module presenting the PLAXIS logo's
PLXCALC.DLL Module presenting the screen output during a deformation
analysis (Section 4.14)
PLXREQ.DLL PLAXIS file requester (Section 2.2)
The material data sets in the global data base (Section 3.5) are, by default, stored in the
DB sub-directory of the PLAXIS program directory. The sub-directory EMPTYDB
contains an empty material data base structure which may be used to 'repair' a project of
which, for any reason, the material data base structure was damaged. This can be done
by copying the appropriate files to the project directory (see B.2). The precise material
data have to be re-entered in the Input program.

B-1
REFERENCE MANUAL

B.2 PROJECT DATA FILES

The main file used to store information for a PLAXIS project has a structured format and
is named <project>.PLX, where <project> is the project title. Besides this file,
additional data is stored in multiple files in the sub-directory <project>.DTA. The files
in this directory may include:
CALC.INF
DBDWORK.INI
PLAXMESH.ERR
PLAXIS.* (.MSI; .MSO)
ANCHORS.* (.LDB; .MDB)
BEAMS.* (.LDB; .MDB)
GEOTEX.* (.LDB; .MDB)
SOILDATA.* (.LDB; .MDB)
<project>.* (.H00; .INP; .L## 1; .MSH; .S; .SF2; .SF4; .SIS; .CXX; .W00;
.W## 1; .000; .### 2)
1
= Two digit calculation phase number (01, 02, …). Above 99 gives an additional digit
in the file extension.
2
= Three digit calculation step number (001, 002, …). Above 999 gives an additional
digit in the file extension.
When it is desired to copy a PLAXIS project under a different name or to a different
directory, it is recommended to open the project that is to be copied in the Input program
and to save it under a different name using the Save as option in the File menu. In this
way the required file and data structure is properly created. However, calculation steps
(<project>.### where ### is a calculation step number) are not copied in this way. If it
is desired to copy the calculation steps or to copy a full project manually, then the user
must take the above file and data structure exactly into account, otherwise PLAXIS will
not be able to read the data and may produce an error.
During the creation of a project, before the project is explicitly saved under a specific
name, intermediately generated information is stored in the TEMP directory as specified
in the Windows® operating system using the project name XXOEGXX. The TEMP
directory also contains some backup files ($GEO$.# where # is a number) as used for
the repetitive undo option (Section 3.2). The structure of the $GEO$.# files is the same
as the PLAXIS project files. Hence, these files may also be used to 'repair' a project of
which, for any reason, the project file was damaged. This can be done by copying the
most recent backup file to <project>.PLX in the PLAXIS work directory.

B-2 PLAXIS Version 8