ChEg4183 –Process Dynamics & Control 2010 E.C.

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A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat exchangers,

pumps, distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks, etc.), integrated with each other in
a systematic and rational manner. The plant's overall objective is to conver t certain raw
materials (input feedstock) into desired products using available sources of energy, in the
most economic, way.

Process: The conversion of raw materials to products using chemical and physical
operations. In practice, the term process tends to be used for both the processing operation
and the processing equipment.

During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements imposed by
its designers and the general technical, economic and social conditions in the presence of
ever-changing external influences (disturbances).

A further complication is that modern plants have become more difficult to operate
because of the trend toward complex and highly integrated processes. For such plants, it is
difficult to prevent disturbances from propagating from one unit to other interconnected units.

Among such require ments are the following:

(i) Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement, for
the well-being of the people in the plant and its continued contribution to the
economic development. Thus, the operating pressures, temperatures, concentration of
chemicals, etc. should always be within allowable limits. For example, if a reactor has
been designed to operate at a pressure up to 100 psig, we should have a control
system that will maintain the pressure below this value. As another example, we
should try to avoid the development of explosive mixtures during the operation of the
plant.
(ii) Production specifications: The plant should produce the desired amounts and
quality of the final products. For example, we may require the production of two
million pounds of ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity, from an ethylene plant.
Therefore, a control system is needed to ensure that the production level (2 million
pounds per day) and the purity specifications (99.5% ethylene) are satisfied.
(iii) Environmental regulations: Various federal and state laws may specify that the
temperatures, concentrations of che micals and flow rates of the effluents from a
plant should be within certain limits. Such regulations for example exist on the
amounts of SO2 that a plant can eject to the atmosphere, and the quality of water
returned to a river or a lake.
(iv) Ope rational constraints: The various types of equipment used in a chemical
plant have constraints inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be
satisfied throughout the operation of a plant. For example, pumps must maintain a
certain net positive suction head; tanks should not overflow or go dry; distillation
columns should not be flooded: the tempe rature in a catalytic reactor should not
exceed an uppe r limit since the catalyst will be destroyed. Control systems are
needed to satisfy all these operational constraints.
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(v) Economics: The operation of a plant must conform with the market conditions, i.e.
the availability of raw materials and the demand of the final products. Furthermore, it
should be as economic as possible in its utilization of raw materials, energy, capital
and human labour. Thus, it is required that the operating conditions are controlled
at given optimum levels of minimum ope rating cost, or maximum profit; etc.

In view of the increased emphasis placed on safe, efficient plant operation, it is only
natural that the subject of process control has become increasingly important in recent years.
Without computer-based process control systems it would be impossible to operate modern
plants safely and profitably while satisfying product quality and environmental requirements.
Thus, it is important for chemical engineers to have an understanding of both the theory and
practice of process control.

The term process dynamics refers to unsteady-state (or transient) process behavior.
By contrast, most of the chemical engineering curricula emphasize steady-state and
equilibrium conditions in such courses as material and energy balances, thermodynamics, and
transport phenomena. But process dynamics are also very important. Transient operation
occurs during important situations such as start- ups and shutdowns

All the above requirements dictate the need for a continuous monitoring of the operation of a
chemical plant and an external intervention (control) to guarantee the satisfaction of the
operational objectives. This is accomplished through a rational arrangement of various
equipment (measuring devices, valves, controllers, computers) and human intervention (plant
designers, plant operators), which constitutes the control system.

There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called to satisfy:
 The Suppressing the influence of external disturbances
 Ensuring the stability of a chemical process
 Optimization of the performance of a chemical process

1. The Suppressing the influence of external disturba nces

Suppressing the influence of the external disturbances on a process is the most common
objective of a controller in a chemical plant. Such disturbances denote the effect that the
surroundings (external world) have on a reactor, separator, heat exchanger, compressor, etc.,
and usually they are out of the reach of the human operator. Consequently, we need to
introduce a control mechanism that will make the proper changes on the process to cancel the
negative impact that such disturbances may have on the desired operation of a chemical plant.
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Example: Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater

Consider the tank heater system shown in below Figure. A liquid enters the tank with
a flow rate Fi and a temperature Ti , where it is heated with steam having a flow rate FSt . Let
F and T be the flow rate and temperature of the stream leaving the tank. The tank is
considered to be well stirred, which implies that the temperature of the effluent is equal to the
temperature of the liquid in the tank.
Objectives: Achieve Set-point
T =Ts
h = hs
After reaching steady-state from start-up, disturbances in Fi and Ti cause changes in F, T.

How to achieve the objective?

Controlling T in a Stirred Tank Heater

Stirred Tank Heater

Feed Control in a Stirre d Tank Heater
 measure T
 compare measured T with T s
 Compute error:
 = Ts - T
  > 0; Ts> T (increase Fst )
  < 0; Ts< T (reduce Fst )

Controlling the Temperature in the Stirred Tank Heater System

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Controlling the level of the liquid in the tank in alternative methods

2. Ensuring the stability of a chemical process

Consider x or y can be T, CA, F; x is disturbed at t0

x returns to steady-state without an y never returns to steady-state in three

intervention in a self-regulating process different unstable processes (A, B, C)

3. Optimization of the Performance of chemical process

Case I: Liquid can be pumped between two points by choosing different pipe diameters (with
right pumping system). The total cost of transportation includes the pumping (and power)
cost and piping cost.

Scenario One:

Pipe with smaller diameters are cheaper but pumping cost increases.

Scenario Two:
Pumping cost is small in a pipe with large diameter but pipes are expensive.

What is the „best‟ pipe-pump combination?

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Case II:
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Classification of the Variables in a Chemical Process

The variables (flow rates, temperatures, pressures, concentrations, etc.) associated with a
chemical process are classified into:

A. Input variables, which denote the effect of the surroundings on a chemical process, and
B. output variables, which denote the effect of the process on the surroundings.

For the CSTR reactor given below we have:

The input variables can be further classified into the following categories:
I. Manipulated (or adjustable) variables, (MV) if their values can be adjusted freely by the
human operator or a control mechanism and

II. Disturbances, (or) Load Variables (LV) if their values are not the result of adjustment by
an operator or a control system.

The output variables are also classified into the following categories:
I. Measured output variables, if their values are known by directly measuring them, and

II. Unmeasured output variables, if they are not or cannot be measured directly.

When an output variable is chosen as a manipulated variable, it becomes an input variable

A manipulated variable is always an input variable

Example I:

Input variables: CAi , Ti, Fi, Tci , Fc,(F)

Output variables: CA, T, F, Tco , V

Notice that the effluent flow rate F can be considered either as input or output.

If there is a control valve on the effluent stream so that its flow rate can be manipulated by a
controller, the variable F is an input, since the opening of the valve is adjusted externally,
otherwise F is an output variable. (the manipulated variables are comes under input variables)
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Example II:
For the tank heater given below we have:

Input variables: Fi, Ti, Fs,(F)

{The (F) denotes an input variable when it is considered as manipulated variable}

Output variables: F, h, T

Example III:

Suppose that the inlet stream in the CSTR system given above comes from an upstream unit
over which we have no control. Then, C Ai, Fi, Ti are disturbances. If the coolant flow-rate is
controlled by a control valve, then FC is a manipulated variable, while Tci is a disturbance.
Also, if the flow rate of the effluent stream is controlled by a valve, then F is a manipulated
variable, otherwise it is an output variable.
With respect to the output variables we have the following: T, F, Tco ,V are measured
outputs since their values can be known easily using thermocouples (T, Tc ), a venturi meter
(F), and a differential pressure cell (V).

The concentration C A can be measured variable if an analyzer (gas chromatograph, infrared

spectrometer, etc.) is attached to the effluent stream.

In many industrial plants such analyzers are not available because they are expensive and/or
have low reliability (give poor measurements or break down easily).

Consequently, in such cases CA is an unmeasured output variable.

The disturbances Fi and Ti of the stirred tank heater are easily measures, so they are
considered as measured disturbances
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The feed composition for a distillation column, an extraction unit, reactors and are not
normally measured hence these are known as unmeasured disturbances

Figure below summarizes all the classes of variables that we have around a chemical process

DESIGN ELEMENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

Let us see now what are the basic questions that we must ask while attempting to design a
control system that will satisfy the control needs for a chemical process?

A. Define Control Objectives

The central element in any control configuration is the process that we want to control. The
first question that is raised by the control designer is:
Question 1: "What are the operational objectives that a control system is called to
achieve?"

The control objectives are

(i) Ensuring the stability of the process, or
(ii) Suppressing the influence of external disturbances, o r
(iii)Optimizing the economic performance of a plant, or
(iv) A Combination of the above
At the beginning the control objectives are 'defined qualitatively and subsequently they are
quantified, usually in terms of the output variables.

Example

For the stirred tank heater of Example discussed above the control objectives are to maintain
the temperature of the outlet (T) and the height (volume) of the fluid in the tank at desired
values. For this example the quantification of the control objectives is direct and
straightforward, i.e.

T = Ts h =hs
Where Ts and hs are given, desired values.

B. Select Measure ments

Whatever are our control objectives, we need some means to monitor the performance of the
chemical process. This is done by measuring the values of certain processing variables
(temperatures, pressures, concentrations, flow rates, etc.). The second question that arises is:
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Question 2: "What variables should we measure in order to monitor the operational

performance of a plant?"

It is self-evident that we would like to monitor directly the variables that represent our control
objectives, and this is what is done whenever possible. Such measurements are called primary
measurements.
Example

For the tank heater system given below our control objectives are to keep the volume a nd the
temperature of the liquid in the tank at desired levels, i.e.keep T = T and h = hs.

Consequently, our first attempt is to install measuring devices that will monitor T and V
directly. For the present system this is simple by using a thermocouple (for T) and a
differential pressure cell (for V).
Sometimes it happens that our control objectives are not measurable quantities, i.e. they
belong to the class of unmeasured outputs. In such cases we must measure other variables
which can be measured easily and reliably. Such supporting measurements are called
secondary measurements.
Then we develop mathematical relationships between the unmeasured outputs and the
secondary measurements, i.e.
Unmeasured output = f (secondary measurements)
Which allow us to determine the values of the unmeasured outputs (once the values of the
secondary measurements are available). In a subsequent chapter we will see that the above
mathematical relationship between measured and unmeasured outputs results from empirical,
experimental or theoretical considerations.
The third class of measurements that we can make to monitor the behavior of a chemical
process includes the direct measurement of the external disturbances. Measuring the
disturbances before they enter the process can be highly advantageous because it allows us to
know a priori what the behavior of the chemical process will be and thus take remedial
control action to alleviate any undesired consequences. Feed forward control uses direct
measurements of the disturbances
C. Select Manipulated Variables
Once the control objectives have been specified and the various measurements identified, the
next question is how do we effect a change on the process, i.e.
Question 3: "What are the manipulated variables to be used in order to control a
chemical process?"

Usually in a process we have a number of available input variables which can be adjusted
freely. Which ones we select' to use as manipulated variables is a crucial question as the
choice will affect the quality of the control actions we take.
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Example
In. order to control the level of liquid in a tank we can either adjust the flow rate of the inlet
stream (Figure b) or the flow rate of the outlet stream (Figure a) below. Which one is better is
an important question that we will analyze later.

D. Select the Control Configuration

After the control objectives, the possible measurements, and the available manipulated
variables have been identified, the final problem to be solved is that of defining the control
configuration.

Before we define what a control configuration is, let us look at some control systems with
different control configurations.
The two feedback control systems in Figures a and b above constitute two different control
configurations. Thus, the same information (measurement of liquid level) flows to different
manipulated variables, i.e. F (Figure a) and Fi (Figure b). Similarly, the feedback control
system (Figure c) and the feed forward control system (Figure d) for the tank heater
constitute two distinctly different control configurations. For these two control systems we
use the same manipulated variable, i.e. Fs but different measurements. Thus, for the feedback
system of Figure c we use the temperature of the liquid in the tank, while for the feed forward
system of Figure d we measure the temperature
of the inlet.

Figure c Figure d
In the above examples we notice that two control configurations differ either in:

I. The information (measurement) flowing to the same manipulated variable or

II. The manipulated variable where the information flows.
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Thus, for the two feedback control systems in Figures a and b we use the same
information (measure ment of the liquid level) but different manipulated variables (F or
Fi).

On the contrary, for the control systems in Figures c and d, we have diffe rent
measurements (T or Ti ) which are used to adjust the value of the same manipulated
variable (Fs ).

Definition
Control configuration is the information structure that is used to connect the available
measurements to the available manipulated variables

Question 4: "What is the best control configuration for a given che mical process control
situation?"

The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the control system we are asked
to design.

Depending on how many controlled outputs and manipulated inputs we have in a chemical
process we can distinguish the control configurations into:

 Single- input, single-output (SISO) or

 Multiple- input, multiple-output (MIMO) control systems.

For example, for the tank heater system:

a) If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid level at a desired value
by manipulating the effluent flow rate, then we have a SISO system.
b) On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to keep the level and the
temperature of the liquid at desired values, by manipulating (more than one) the steam
flow rate and the effluent flow rate, and then we have a MIMO system.

In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are multiple input, multiple-output
systems. Since the design of SISO systems is simpler we will start first with them and
progressively we will cover the design of MIMO systems.

Three general types of control configurations.

1. Feedback control configuration: Uses direct measurements of the controlled variables
to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. The objective is to keep the controlled
variables at desired levels (set points).
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Feedback control makes use of an output of a system to influence an input to the same
system

Feedback Control Loop

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2. Infe rential control configuration: Uses secondary measurements, because the controlled
variables are not measured, to adjust the values of the manipulated variables. The objective
here is to keep the (unmeasured) controlled variables at desired levels. The estimator uses the
values of the available measured outputs, along with the material and energy balances that
govern the process, to compute mathematically (estimate) the values of the unmeasured
controlled variables. These estimates in turn are used by the controller to adjust the values of
the manipulated variables.

3. Feed forward control configuration: Uses direct measurements of the disturbances to

adjust the values of the manipulated variables. The objective here is to keep the values of the
controlled output variables at desired levels.
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E. Design the Controller

In every control configuration, the controller is the active element that receives the
information from the measurements and takes appropriate control actions to adjust the values
of the manipulated variables. For the design of the controller we must answer the following
question:

Question 5: "How is the information taken from the measurements used to adjust the values
of the manipulated variables?"

The answer to this question constitutes the control law, which is implemented automatically
by the controller.
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Hardware for a process control system:

Every control configuration has the following hardware elements:

1. The Che mical Process: It represents the material equipment together with the
physical or chemical operations that occur there

2. The measuring Instruments or Sensors: These are used to measure the

disturbances, the controlled output variables, secondary output variables

Examples: Thermocouples or resistance thermometers are used to measure

temperature

Venturi meter is used to measure flow rate

Gas chromatograph is used to measure compositions of a stream

Manometer or Diaphragm is used for measurement of pressure

Liquid height can be measured by using differential pressure cell (DP Cell)

Note: Hg thermometer is not good for measuring as it cannot be readily transmitted the
signal; because trans mission is a very important/crucial factor in selecting the
measuring devices
3. Transducers: measurements cannot be used for control until they are converted to
physical quantities. Physical quantities say for example voltage, say for example
current, say for example pneumatic signal; Transducers are used for this purpose

4. Transmission Lines: These are used to carry the measurement signal from sensor to
the controller and from the controller to the final control valve. If the measurement
signal is very weak, the transmission line is equipped with amplifier.
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5. The Controller: This is another hardware which receives measurement signal from
the sensor. The controller basically receives measurement signal from sensor and
then, it decides, what action should be taken based on the major values. This is the
hardware element that has “Intelligence”

6. The final Control Ele ment: Control action is implemented through the final control
element. The control valve is the most frequently encountered Final Control Element.

Examples: Relay switches – providing on – off control

Variable – speed pumps

Variable – speed compressors

7. Recording Ele ments: This is used to visualize the plant behavior through the
measurement signals. If we used to visualize the plant behavior at different situations,
we need one recording device and that realization we can achieve through the
measured values

Determining Plant Operating Conditions:

A key factor in good plant operation is the determination of the best operating conditions,
which can be maintained within small variation by automatic control strategies. Therefore,
setting the control objectives requires a clear understanding of how the plant operating
conditions are determined. A complete study of plant objectives requires additional
mathematical methods for simulating and optimizing the plant operation. For our purposes,
we will restrict our discussion in this section to small systems that can be analyzed
graphically.
Determining the best operating conditions can be performed in two steps.
First, the region of possible operation is defined. The following are some of the factors that
limit the possible operation:
• Physical principles; for example, all concentrations > 0
• Safety, environmental, and equipment protection
• Equipment capacity; for example, maximum flow
• Product quality
The region that satisfies all bounds is termed the feasible operating region or, more
commonly, the operating window. Any operation within the operating window is possible.
Violation of some of the limits, called soft constraints, would lead to poor product quality or
reduction of long-term equipment life; therefore, short term violations of soft constraints are
allowed but are to be avoided. Violation of critical bounds, called hard constraints, could lead
to injury or major equipment damage; violations of hard constraints are not acceptable under
any foreseeable circumstances. The control strategy must take aggressive actions, including
shutting down the plant, to prevent hard constraint vio lations. For both hard and soft
constraints, debits are incurred for violating constraints, so the control system is designed to
maintain operation within the operating window. While any operation within the window is
possible and satisfies minimum plant goals, a great difference in profit can exist depending
on the conditions chosen. Thus, the plant economics must be analyzed to determine the best
operation within the window.
The control strategy should be designed to maintain the p lant conditions near their most
profitable values.