Topic 2

Vector Algebra

2.1. Introduction
Many physical quantities can be specified using a single real number.
Other quantities require that you specify both a magnitude and a direction.
We thus distinguish between scalars and vectors.

2.2. Scalars
A scalar is a real number. Scalars can be thought of as numbers on a
scale. The word scalar comes from the Latin scala for ladder. Over time,
the steps of a ladder became associated with the regular marks on a scale or
ruler.

Example: Some well-known scalars include

temperature T
length l
time t
charge q
An electric charge, for example, is specified by a positive or negative num-
ber, according to whether the charge itself is ‘‘positive’’ or ‘‘negative.’’

2.3. Vectors
A vector has both direction and magnitude. A vector, in Latin, is a
carrier. (Think disease vectors.) In mathematics, a vector carries you a
given distance (the vector’s magnitude) in a specified direction.

Example: Typical vectors include

→
displacement r
→
velocity v
→
force F
→
electric field E
→
magnetic induction B

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We will represent vectors in two ways:

2.3.1. Geometrically
To represent a vector geometrically, we use a directed line segment or
an arrow.

In general, two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direc-
tion. That is, two vectors can be parallel translations of one another and still
be equal. Such vectors are known as free vectors. They may roam about.
The effect of a free vector may, however depend upon where it is applied. In
addition, we occasionally find it useful to restrict one endpoint of a vector so
that it is a bound vector rather than a free vector.

2.3.2. With coordinates

We will often write out the components of a vectors in some coordi-
nate system. I will start out using a right-handed rectangular or Cartesian
coordinate system.

Example: → → → →
v = 3i + 2 j + 4k , (2.1)
→
v = 3 ê1 + 2 ê2 + 4 ê3 , (2.2)
→
v = (3, 2, 4) (2.3)
are three different ways for writing a vector whose tip and tail coordinates
differ by 3, 2, and 4 in the x, y, and z directions.

Later, I will use other coordinate systems, such as cylindrical and

spherical coordinates, that are orthogonal but not Cartesian. (There is also a
fascinating literature on oblique coordinate systems that leads naturally to
tensor analysis, but this is beyond the scope of this class.) Most of my
examples will be in two or three dimensions, but, if time permits, I will also
sneak in some examples in four dimensions. (For example, we will compute
the volume of a sphere in four dimensions.)

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2.4. Vector algebraic operations

There are a variety of vector algebraic operations. You have all seen
these operations in other classes and so I will quickly summarize the main
facts without proof. Read any vector analysis book for more details. Each
algebraic operation has both a geometric and a coordinate interpretation and
I will try to state both.

2.4.1. Magnitude or norm

→
v (2.4)

Geometry: We measure the length of the vector.

Coordinates: For Cartesian coordinates,
→
v = (v x , v y , v z ) , (2.5)
we compute the norm as

√

→
v = v 2x + v 2y + v 2z . (2.6)

Example:
(3, 2, 4) = √ 9 + 4 + 16 = √
 29 (2.7)

2.4.2. Addition
→ →
u+v (2.8)

Geometry: We add vectors head to tail.

→
u+v
→

→
v

→
u

Another way of stating this is that vector addition obeys the parallelogram
law: When two vectors are the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the sum of
the two vectors is the diagonal of the parallelogram. Actually, obeying this

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law is part of the definition of a vector: Vectors are quantities that have mag-
nitude and direction and that obey the parallelogram law of addition. There
are some quantities, such as finite rotations of rigid bodies, that are assigned
direction and magnitude but that do not obey the parallelogram law. They
are not vectors.
Coordinates: In Cartesian coordinates, we add the coordinates,
→ →
u + v = (u x + v x , u y + v y , u z + v z ) . (2.9)

There are three kinds of (binary) multiplication.

2.4.3. Multiplication by a scalar

→
cu (2.10)

Geometry:

→
2v
→
→
v −v

Coordinates:
→ →
v = (1, 2) , 2 v = (2, 4) (2.11)

2.4.4. Scalar product of two vectors

→ →
u⋅v (2.12)

This product is also known as an inner or dot product.

Geometry:
→ → → →
u⋅v = u v cos θ (2.13)

Example:

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3 F
→ →
W = F ⋅r

π /4

2 →
r

√2
W = 3⋅2⋅ = 3√
2 (2.14)
2

Some obvious properties of the dot product include:

→ → → →
(a) u ⋅ v = v ⋅ u ,
→ → → →
(b) u ⋅ v ≤ u v ,
→ → →
(c) u ⋅ u = u 2,
→ → → →
(d) if u ⊥ v, then u ⋅ v = 0,
→ → → → →
(e) if v = 1, then u ⋅ v gives the component of u in the v direction.

Coordinates:
→ →
u = (u x , u y , u z ), v = (v x , v y , v z ), (2.15)
→ →
u ⋅ v = ux v x + uy v y + uz vz (2.16)

Example:
(1, 3, 3) ⋅ (2, 3, 7) = 32 (2.17)

Example: Find the angle between the diagonal and base of a cube.
→ →
u = (1, 1, 1), v = (1, 1, 0) (2.18)
→ →
u⋅v 2 √6
cos θ = → → = = (2.19)
u v √3 √
2 3

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θ ≈ 0. 62 ≈ 35° (2.20)

2.4.5. Vector product of two vectors

→ → →
w = u×v (2.21)

This product is also known as the cross product. (Names that should not be
used include exterior product, outer product, and wedge product. These all
differ from the cross product.)

Geometry: Since the cross product produces a vector, we must specify both
the magnitude and the direction of the product.
Magnitude:
→ → → →
u×v = u v sin θ (2.22)
The magnitude is the same as the area of the parallelogram defined by the
two vectors:

→ →
v v sin θ

θ
→
u

Direction:
→ → →
(u × v) ⊥ u (2.23)
→ → →
(u × v) ⊥ v (2.24)
The direction is given by the right-hand rule.

Example: (Lorentz Force)

→ → →
F = qv × B (2.25)

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→
B →
v

→
F

Two obvious properties of the cross product are that

→ → → →
(a) u × v = − v × u ,
→ → →
(b) u × u = 0 .
We will occasionally also need to use Lagrange’s identity ,
→ → → → → →
(c) u×v 2
= u 2
v 2
− (u ⋅ v) 2 .

Cartesian Coordinate Representation:

→ → →
 i j k 
u × v =  ux uz 
→ →
uy (2.26)
 
 vx vy vz 
→ →
u × v = (u y v z − u z v y , u z v x − u x v z , u x v y − u y v x ) (2.27)

Example:
→ →
u = (2, 1, − 1), v = (1, 1, 1) (2.28)
→ →
u × v = (2, − 3, 1) (2.29)
→ →
u×v = √
14 (2.30)

There are also an assortment of triple products.

2.4.6. Scalar triple product

→ → → → → →
u ⋅ v × w = u ⋅ (v × w) (2.31)
→ → →
≠ (u ⋅ v) × w (2.32)

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 ux uy uz 
u ⋅ v × w =  vx vz 
→ → →
vy (2.33)
 
 wx wy wz 

→
u
→
w

→
v

→ → → (signed) volume of
u⋅v × w = (2.34)
a parallelepiped.
→ → →
In particular, this volume is positive if u and the cross product of v and w are
→ →
on the same side of the plane spanned by v and w. This scalar triple product
will play an important role when we talk about volume integrals.

2.4.7. Vector triple-product

(WARNING !)
The product
→ → →
u ×v ×w (2.35)
is ambiguous. In general,
→ → → → → →
(u × v) × w ≠ u × (v × w) . (2.36)

Consider, for example,

→ → →
i×j×j . (2.37)
On the one hand,
→ → → → → →
(i × j ) × j = k × j = − i . (2.38)
On the other hand,
→ → → → → →
i ×(j × j) = i ×0 = 0 .

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These two products are clearly unequal. Another way of saying this is that
the cross product is not associative.
A vector triple product can sometimes be simplified using the triple
product expansion (sometimes also called Lagrange’s formula)
→ → → → → → → → →
u × (v × w) = (u ⋅ w) v − (u ⋅ v) w . (2.39)
You might try to see whether you can prove this identity.

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