DESIGNING EFFECTIVE

INSTRUCTION
Second Edition

JERROLD E. KEMP
Professor Emeritus
San Jose State University

GARYR. MORRISON
University of Memphis

STEVEN M. ROSS
University of Memphis

Merrill,
an imprint of Prentice Hall
Upper Saddle River, NewJersey Columbus, Ohio
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kemp.Jerrold E. .
Designing effective insu'uction / Jerrold E. Kemp, Gary R.
Morrison, Sleven M. Ross. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-13-262080-4
1. Instructional systems--Design. 2. Curriculum planning.
1. Morrison, Gary R. II. Ross, Steven M., 1947- . III. Title.
LB1028.38.K46 1998
371.33-dc21 97-7380
CIP

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•

INTRODUCTION TO THE
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

"Why examine the teaching/learning process?"

"How does curriculum planning differ from instructional design?"

"What are the components of a comprehensive instructional design plan?"

"What premises underlie the instructional design process?"

"What benefits can result from applying the instructional design process?"

"What is the value ofinstructional design to teachers?"

 Planning

Revision

Evaluation Learner
Instruments Characteristics

Instructional
Delivery

Instructional
Objectives

Content
Sequencing

Formative Evaluation

Project Management

T
he preceding questions represent the important concepts treated in this
introductory chapter. Understanding them is the basis for systematic instruc-
tional planning.

WHY ExAMINE THE TEACHING/LEARNING PROCESS?

The United States is moving toward a global, information-based economy, with an
increasingly diverse work force. One result of these changes is a need for better-
trained, competent managers, professionals, and technicians who are capable of
using complex technologies to improve services, increase quality, and raise produc-
tivity. Also, more jobs require individuals to reason in high-level, abstract terms in
order to make inferences and solve intricate problems.
The conventional structure and delivery of education, however, are at odds
with these societal changes. Learning must be more effective and efficient. This

1
2 CHAPTER 1

need has given rise to the instructio~al design process, a planning method that
results in successful learning and performance. Learning is haphazard; instruction
is planned. Thus, our goal as designers is to create sound instruction that will lead
to appropriate learning.
Before examining the elements of the instructional design process, it is useful
to have a basic understanding of curriculum and its relationship to instructional
design. Developing curriculum is often considered the starting point for instruc-
tional planning.

A DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
The purpose of education or training is to provide a series of structured learning expe-
riences. These may involve classes in an elementary school, courses in a secondary
school or a higher education institution, or a training program in a business setting.
The term curriculum refers to the subject content and skills that make up an
educational program. A school or curriculum includes the course offerings; at a
company, the training programs may represent the curriculum. Curriculum design
is a process of formulating a specific educational platform that defines the beliefs of
what should be in the curriculum (Henderson & Hawthorne, 1995).
The emphasis of a curriculum depends on philosophical, social, and cultural
forces that affect the school in terms of the broad society and the specific commu~
nity it serves. For a business concern, a training curriculum reflects the organiza-
tion's management policies, strategic plans, and identified needs. One caution we
offer is to avoid building a curriculum in business that serves no other purpose
than to offer a series of courses. All courses should serve to improve employee per-
formance, thus supporting the mission and goals of the organization. The following
questions help determine a curriculum:
1. What is the purpose or mission of the institution or department or the
strategic plan of the organization?
2. What goals for education or training are necessary to serve the mission or
plan?
3. How can instruction be categorized and organized to accomplish the goals?
Answering these questions can help in selecting subject areas, courses, instruc-
tional themes, or content categories. See Figure 1-1 for examples.

THE ROLE FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

The major goal of this book is to illustrate how to plan, develop, evaluate, and
manage the instructional process effectively so that it will ensure competent perfor-
mance by students. This systematic method is termed instructional design (often
abbreviated as ID). It is based on what we know about learning theories, information
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 3

FIGURE 1-1
Organizing subject contents for curriculum

Education
Subject Areas Courses Themes Across Courses
Physical science Physics Patterns of change
Earth science Chemistry Scale and structure
Life science Geology Stability
Biology Systems and interactions

Training
Training Areas Content Categories
Management development Managing change
Employee development Effective presentations
Product development Project management
Marketing development Negotiating skills
Field training Product troubleshooting
Economic analysis

technology, systematic analysis, and management methods. Dewey (1900) saw a need
in the early part of this century for a science that could translate what was learned
through research into practical applications for instruction. This science would make
decisions about instructional practices that are based on sound research rather than
intuition. Snellbecker (1974) and others have proposed that instructional design is
the linking science described by Dewey. We agree with Snellbecker and see instruc-
tional design as the process for designing instruction based on sound practices.
The ID approach considers instruction from the perspective of the learner
rather than from the perspective of the content, the traditional approach. It
involves many factors that influence learning outcomes, including:
• What level of readiness do individual students need for accomplishing the
objectives?
• What instructional strategies are most appropriate in terms of objectives
and learner characteristics?
• What media or other resources are most suitable?
• What support is needed for successful learning?
• How is achievement of the objectives determined?
• What revisions are necessary if a tryout of the program does not match
expectations?
There are other issues that also influence student learning. These issues are
inherent in the instructional design process. This process is applicable for
designing instruction in public education, higher education, and skills training.
4 CHAPTER 1

The information, concepts, and procedures presented here can aid teachers and
instructors, instructional designers, and planning teams-anyone who wants to
develop effective, appealing instruction.
How would you answer this question: "If you were about to start planning a
new unit in a course or training program, to what matter would you first give atten-
tion?" Here is how various individuals might answer:
Primary grade teacher: "I think first about the children. How important is the
topic for them? Then, how well prepared are they to study it (physically,
emotionally, intellectually)?"
High school teacher: 'Td start by writing down what I want to accomplish in
teaching the unit. This becomes the goal around which I'll plan the
instruction. "
College professor: "My approach is to list the content that needs to be covered rel-
ative to the selected topic. This would include the terms, definitions, con-
cepts, and principles that I feel need to be communicated to my students."
Instructional designer in industry: "It's important to start by listing the compe-
tencies I expect trainees to have after receiving instruction on the topic.
These would be the outcomes or objectives to be accomplished."
The foregoing replies represent a sampling of approaches that might be taken
as different individuals initiate their instructional planning. There could be other
replies to the question. For example, one community college instructor always starts
by writing the final examination for a new unit! He believes that passing the final
exam is the students' greatest concern. Therefore, he writes questions that indicate
what should receive emphasis in his teaching. His reasoning seems plausible.
As you read the replies to the question, and formulated your own answer, two
conclusions should have become apparent. First, a number of different considera-
tions appeal to educators and instructional designers as each starts planning. Second,
each of us selects an order or sequence of our own in which to treat these elements.

KEy ELEMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

Of the planning elements identified in the quoted statements,fourare fundamental
in instructional design. You will find them addressed in almost every planning
model. They can be represented by answers to these questions:
1. For whom is the program developed? (characteristics of learners or trainees)
2. What do you want the learners or trainees to learn or demonstrate? (objec-
tives)
3. How is the subject content or skill best learned? (instructional strategies)
4. How do you determine the extent to which learning is achieved? (evalua-
tion procedures)
These four fundamental components-learners, objectives, methods, and eval-
uation-form the framework for systematic instructional planning (see Figure 1-2).
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 5

FIGURE 1-2
The fundamental components
of instructional design

These components are interrelated and could conceivably make up an entire

instructional design plan. In actuality, there are additional components that should
require attention and that, when integrated with the basic four, form a complete
insu'uctional design model. The following section introduces nine elements of the
instructional design process necessary for a comprehensive design plan.

THE COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PLAN

The following paragraphs describe the nine elements in a comprehensive instruc-
tional design plan:
1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instruc-
tional program.
2. Examine leamer characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals
and purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instructional message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.
The nine elements of this instructional design plan are illustrated in Figure 1-3.
The starting place for instructional planning should be to decide whether
instructional design is appropriate for a potential project. The diagram shows this
first element, instructional problems, at the twelve o'clock position.
Although the list of nine elements forms a logical, clockwise sequence as illus-
u'ated, the order in which you address the individual elements is not predetermined.
It is for this reason that the oval pattern is used. An oval does not have a specific
6 CHAPTER 1

FIGURE 1-3
Components of the instructional design plan
--------
Planning

Revision

Instructional
Problems

Designing the Instructional

Message Objectives

Instructional
Strategies

Formative Evaluation

Project Management

starting point. Recall the answers to the question asked of various persons earlier in
this chapter. Individuals may proceed through the instructional design process in
their own preferred way, starting with one element or another and following whatever
order they consider logical or suitable.
In Figure 1-3, the elements are not connected with lines or arrows. Connec-
tions could indicate a sequential, linear order. The intent is to convey flexibility yet
some order in the way the nine elements may be used. Also, some instances may not
require treating all nine elements. For example, in some programs evaluation
instruments may not be necessary.
Another reason for using the oval form is that a flexible interdependence
exists among the nine elements. Decisions relating to one may affect others. As
instructional objectives are stated, items of subject content may be added or
reordered. Or, while instructional delivery methods are being chosen, the intent of
an instructional learning objective may become clearer than :\s initially stated and
require revision. Consequently, the procedure permits and encourages flexibility in
the selection of elements, the order of their treatment, and back-and-forth activity
among the elements. This procedure allows for additions and changes as the
instructional design plan takes shape.
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 7

Many instructional design models identifY and use features similar to those
described in this book. Such models are often represented by a diagram with boxes
and arrows as a series of steps in a set order, as shown in Figure 1-4. The intent of
such a model is to establish a 1-2-3 sequential order. In actual use, the process often
is not so linear. The open, circular pattern seems more appropriate and useful.
When starting to design instruction, if you feel somewhat insecure with the open,
flexible format, follow the logical arrangement, starting with instructional problems.
Then move to learner characteristics, and proceed clockwise through the nine elements.
As you gain experience with using this instructional design plan, you no
doubt will establish your own arrangement of components for the design of a
course. But even when following a sequence with which you are comfortable, you
will need to make adjustments. Romiszowski (1981) refers to this as a heuristic,
p'TOblem-solving approach. With each project, you modifY your strategy, based on how
things work in each situation.
The word element is used as a label for each of the nine parts of our instruc-
tional design plan. This term is preferable to the terms step, stage, level, or sequential
item, which are expressions in keeping with the linear concept.
Another part of our diagram is the indication of revision around the elements.
The two outer ovals illustrate the feedback feature, which allows for changes in the
content or treatment of elements at any time during development. The treatment
of elements may require revisions when, for example, data about learning are col-
lected during instructional tryouts (called formative evaluation) or at the end of a
course offering (called summative evaluation). If you want learners to succeed,
accomplishing instructional objectives at a satisfactory level of proficiency, then you
will want to improve any weak parts of the program as they are discovered.
Various expressions are used to label systematic instructional planning. In
addition to the term instructional design used in this book, you will find reference to
the following in the literature:

• Instructional systems
• Instructional systems design
• Instructional systems development

FIGURE 1-4
A typical instructional design model
8 CHAPTER 1

• Learning systems design

• Competency-based instruction
• Criterion-referenced instruction
• Performance technology
Another expression, instructional development, represents the management
function in systematic instructional planning. This term includes assigning and
supervising personnel, handling allocated budgets, arranging for necessary sup-
port services, and checking time schedules for compliance.
Thus, the instructional developrnent procedure is used to direct and control
projects, while the instructional design procedure plans instruction. The chapters
that follow will focus mainly on the instructional design elements shown in Figure
1-3. But in Chapter 14, "Managing Instructional Development Services," the
instructional development category receives attention.

PREMISES UNDERLYING THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

We have identified seven basic premises to help you understand the ID process and
apply it successfully. These premises can influence both your thinking and your
treatment of the instructional design plan.
Premise 1: The instructional design process requires attention to both a system-
atic procedure and a specificity for treating details within the plan.
The term systematic refers to an orderly, logical method of identifying, developing,
and evaluating a set of strategies aimed at attaining a particular instructional goal.
This task is accomplished using the nine interrelated elements of the instructional
design plan.
Treating each element requires exacting mental effort. Each element of the
plan must be applied with attention to precise details. This means being specific. For
example, an instructional objective is a statement that includes a particular verb
that guides the development of an instructional strategy and indicates how achieve-
ment will be evaluated. The details of the instructional strategy-with the descrip-
tion of certain required student participation-that you choose to accomplish an
objective are another indication of the specific treatment required when imple-
menting the instructional design process.
Attention to detail is critical for the success of any instructional design work.
By applying systematic procedures and being attentive to specific details, you can
design effective instruction.
Premise 2: The instructional design process usually starts at the course devel-
opment level.
Decisions about curricula and broad goals for a school or training program
precede the design of specific courses. Although instructional designers can help
administrators, managers, and committees make decisions about the purposes,
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 9

directions, and emphasis of a program, instructional design work usually starts with
identification of the instruction or training needs to be served. Units or topics com-
prising a course are then selected. This selection is followed by the development of
instructional components related to the various planning elements.

Premise 3: An instructional design plan is developed primarily for use by the

instructor and planning team.
Some people believe that all details developed during planning (instructional
needs analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, etc.) are to be given to
learners, often in the form of a study guide. This assumption is not true. The
learners will use many of the items written as elements in the plan, but not always in
the form or order in which they are being developed and stated. We distinguish
between the planning documents (instructional needs, instructional strategies, etc.)
and the instructional materials the learners will actually see and use. The design team
uses planning documents to design and develop the instructional units. Once the
instructional materials are in final form, the planning documents lose their value
and usually are filed.
Also, the order in which elements are treated during planning may differ sub-
stantially from the order in which they are eventually presented to learners. For
example, a pretest might be developed after the final examination is devised even
though students will complete it prior to the start of instruction.

Premise 4: While planning, every effort should be made to provide for a level of
satisfactory achievement for all learners.
A study by Bloom (1976) concluded that up to 95% of all public school stu-
dents can accomplish what is required of them if each individual has suitable acad-
emic background, appropriate instruction, and sufficient time for learning. Other
research has shown that if a student is prepared to learn and puts forth the effort to
study but is unsuccessful in learning, a more careful design of the instructional plan
can help overcome this shortcoming. This conclusion applies to training as well as
to education. It justifies the need to test a plan before its implementation, as indi-
cated by the revision oval in Figure 1-3.

Premise 5: The success of the instructional product is dependent on the accu-

racy of the information flowing into the instructional design process.
To solve a performance problem, the designer must identify what the exact
training needs are through the use of needs assessment, goal analysis, and/or perfor-
mance. Creating instruction for a task that is not a performance problem is not likely
to lead to an improvement in learner achievement. Similarly, the designer must accu-
rately identify the target audience to design materials that are appropriate for the
audience's reading and skill levels. The information obtained from the subject-matter
expert must be accurate and complete. Selecting an appropriate instructional
strategy for the content and objectives is essential for both efficient and effective
instruction. And last, accurate information is needed from the formative evaluation
10 CHAPTER 1

of the materials to make appropriate modifications. Failure to obtain accurate infor-

mation and to make the correct decisions can result in ineffective instruction.
Premise 6: The instructional design process focuses on the individual rather
than the content.
Instructional design focuses on the individual and how to improve learner per-
formance rather than on what content to cover. During learner analysis, the process
focuses on individual characteristics. As we design the instruction, we consider these
characteristics in the selection of the instructional strategies and delivery methods.
The results can range from a highly adaptive computer-based instructional system
that uses personalized information from each learner, responds in a different
manner to each learner response, and is self-paced; to a group-paced classroom lec-
ture that is carefully designed and incorporates media and supplementary materials
to address the various learner characteristics. Throughout the design process, the
designer focuses on the individual learner and what the learner must achieve to alle-
viate a problem rather than on what content to cover.
Premise 7: There is no single "best" way to design instruction.
Applying the instructional design process can reduce reliance on intuition or
trial-and-error in planning. Yet the instructional design process has not reached a level
ofscientific exactness. Many paths can be conceived to reach the same goals and objec-
tives. Instructors and designers are unique individuals, just as learners are unique.
Each designer will formulate activities and apply elements of the instructional design
plan in an individual way. The proof of an instructional plan's success will be whether
a satisfactory level of learning is achieved in an acceptable period of time.

BENEFITS OF USING THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

For any enterprise to be successful, those involved in the endeavor must derive some
benefit. In a business operation the owner makes a profit, the customer is satisfied
with the price and quality of the product or service, and the worker or craftsperson
receives sufficient pay while feeling a sense of pride in workmanship. Those of us asso-
ciated with teaching and learning must have equal benefits as well:
• The administrator or program manager wants evidence of effective, efficient
learning within an acceptable cost base. The time is past when we could say,
"It looks like a good program" or "It's acceptable because the students cer-
tainly enjoyed the course." We need hard evidence of success.
• The instructional designer wants evidence that a satisfactory program has
been designed. The best indication is the accomplishment of program
objectives by learners within an appropriate time period.
• The teacher or instructorwants to see learners achieve the required competen-
cies and also wants personally to develop a positive relationship with learners.
• Learners want to succeed in their learning and also to find the learning
experience to be pleasant and satisfying.
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 11

When the design of an instructional program follows the procedures outlined

in this book or those of another suitable model, such benefits as these are realized.
In other words, employing the instructional design process increases the probability
of goal attainment.
In addition to enhancing learning of knowledge and skills, insu'uctional design
can foster a positive attitude toward the subject and better study habits. In our evalua-
tion of a variety of instructional materials, we have found that well-designed instruc-
tion fosters a positive attitude and motivation. In many cases, the students inquire if
more instruction will be available in the same format. We have also noticed similar
responses when evaluating prototypes that present only a sample of the content.

APPLYING THE PROCESS TO BOTH ACADEMIC

EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMS
Specific job training has precise, immediate requirements with identifiable and often
measurable outcomes. The program must stress the teaching of knowledge and skills
for the performance of assigned tasks. Academic education, on the other hand, often
has broad purposes and more generalized objectives. Application of the knowledge
and skills to be taught may not become important until sometime in the future.
Whether one is studying history or carpentry, the identical principles oflearning
apply to structuring experiences for individuals. While the emphasis, certain details,
and terminology differ, both situations treat similar elements of the instructional design
plan. Thus, the procedures presented in this book can be effective for either an acad-
emic or a training situation. Where particulars differ, special explanations and exam-
ples will be included in either the academic instruction or the planning for training.

Benefits of Instructional Design in Business

The benefits of the application of instructional design in business can take many
forms. Results can vary from simply reducing the amount of time it takes to com-
plete a course to solving a performance problem by designing effective instruction
that increases worker productivity. In the late 1980s Motorola University conducted
three limited studies of the benefits of training. They found that for every dollar
invested in training, they realized a return on investment of $30 (The Value oj
Training, 1995). Although we do not have the specifics of how the return on invest-
ment was calculated, it is interesting to note that many corporations consider a
return of 13% acceptable for most projects. The role of instructional design and
training varies from company to company, as do the benefits. For example, Speedy
Muffler King, which experienced high revenues and profits for 1994, made extensive
use of training. During 1994, they provided more than 100,000 hours of employee
training to improve customer satisfaction and loyalty (Canada NewsWire, 1995).
Appropriate training can produce a return on investment for both tangible (e.g.,
increased output) and intangible (e.g., worker loyalty) measures.
12 CHAPTER 1

Benefits of Instructional Design in P,...12 Education

Do P-12 teachers have to be instructional designers in addition to their traditional
roles of classroom managers, presenter-lecturers, and mentors? Our definitive
answers are "to some degree" and "it all depends." By saying "to some degree," we
mean that textbooks, workbooks, basal readers, and other standard instructional
resources will rarely, if ever, be sufficient to satisfy formal curriculum objectives
while keeping students occupied and interested. There will be numerous occa-
sions (many teachers might say "every day") where the need for teacher-developed
materials-drill-and-practice exercises, remedial lessons, or even full-fledged
instructional units-will arise. Knowing the basic principles of instructional design
(see the seven premises above) can help to ensure that what is produced serves a
necessary purpose; meets the needs of students; is attractive and well organized; is
delivered in an appropriate mode; and is continually evaluated and improved.
Unlike professional instructional designers, however, the typical teacher is not
likely to need formal expertise in the various instructional design processes. How-
ever, basic familiarity with major principles and procedures (e.g., how to present
text, write and deliver a lecture, or prepare a test) can be extremely helpful, both
for their own work and for evaluating commercial educational products.
How much teachers use instructional design will also depend a great deal
upon situational factors. Teachers working in today's restructuring schools may find
themselves increasingly involved in design activities. Specifically, in recent years,
national initiatives for educational reform (Sarason, 1995) have generated support
for activity-oriented, student-centered methods of teaching that stress meaningful
learning applied to real-world problems. Following the classic ideas of Dewey and
Piaget, modern constructivist theories view knowledge as primarily created (con-
structed) by the learner rather than transmitted by teachers (Prewat, 1995).
To promote active learning both school-wide and district-wide, comprehensive
restructuring models, such as those developed by New American Schools (Kearns &
Anderson, 1997), are being disseminated nationally. Nearly all of these models
emphasize extensive use of project-based activities in which learners integrate con-
cepts and skills across multiple subjects to develop products, perform experiments,
and solve problems. One example is the Expeditionary Learning-Outward Bound
model (Campbell, Farrell, Kamii, Lam, Rugen, & Udall, 1997). By participating in
learning expeditions around the school and community (e.g., interviewing local
police and citizens about neighborhood crime and presenting the findings in a
group report and exhibition), the students acquire opportunities to connect
learning and curriculum objectives to real-world events.
Implementing these approaches obviously requires well-designed expeditions
and projects. Where do they come from? For the most part, that responsibility falls
on the individual teachers. Not surprisingly, however, many find themselves unpre-
pared for the task, and the implementations of the new strategies suffer as a result
(see Bodilly, 1996). By learning more about instructional design, teachers should
become better equipped to either create high-quality student-centered lessons or
adapt commercial materials to fit their course needs.
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 13

WHO'S WHO IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

As you prepare to study the instructional design process, you will want to view it
from your own perspective. What role or roles will you assume in planning? What
specific responsibilities might you have? What relationship do you have with
other persons in your organization who are involved in aspects of teaching or
training? These are all matters to keep in mind as you study the elements of
instructional design.
In Chapter 13 we will examine in detail the roles and responsibilities of those
persons engaging in instructional planning, development, implementation, and
evaluation. At this point, however, you should recognize that four essential roles
must be performed during instructional planning. You may be expected to fill one
or more of these positions:
• Instructional designer: A person responsible for carrying out and coordi-
nating the planning work; competent in managing all aspects of the
instructional design process.
• Instructor: A person (or member of a team) for and with whom the instruc-
tion is being planned; well informed about the learners to be taught, the
teaching procedures, and the requirements of the instructional program;
with guidance from the designer, capable of carrying out details of many
planning elements; responsible for trying out and then implementing the
instructional plan that is developed.
• Subject-matter expert (SME): A person qualified to provide information about
content and resources relating to all aspects of the topics for which instruc-
tion is to be designed; responsible for checking accuracy of content treat-
ment in activities, materials, and examinations. The teacher or instructor
may also serve as SME.
• Evaluator: A person qualified to assist the staff in developing testing instru-
ments for pretesting and for evaluating student learning (posttesting);
responsible for gathering and interpreting data during program tryouts
and for determining effectiveness and efficiency of the program when fully
implemented.

ANSWERING THE CRITICS

"Isn't the instructional design process actually a mechanistic rather than a human-
istic method of instructional planning?" "Doesn't this procedure discourage cre-
ativity in teaching?" "Isn't teaching more of an art than a science?" These and
similar questions are frequently raised and need to be answered realistically. After
studying this book, you should make up your own mind about how to answer them.
Following are our responses to such questions:
Question: "Isn't the instructional design process actually a mechanistic rather
than a humanistic method of instructional planning?"
14 CHAPTER 1

As explained earlier, some ID models exhibit a rigidity when only a single,

linear path for planning, as created with boxes and arrows, is followed without
exception. Figure 1-4 illustrates this approach. The sequences should be flexible,
with elements developed in different orders or arrangements as necessary. An
instructional designer's style of working, the nature of a subject, or the learners'
needs all can influence how the components are handled in planning. The ID
process would only be mechanistic if elements were treated in a fragmented
manner rather than following an integrated approach.
A humanistic approach to instruction recognizes the individual learner (stu-
dent or trainee) in terms of his or her own capabilities, individual differences, pre-
sent ability levels, and personal development. It should be apparent that these
matters do receive attention in the instructional design process. Elements of the
process include an examination of learner characteristics and an identification of
readiness levels for learning. Furthermore, the application of systematic planning
for designing various forms of individualized or self-paced learning also can allow
for various individualized styles of learning.
Philosophically, as the planning starts, the instructional designer or instructor
might have the following perspective: "I am designing a program of learning expe-
riences for learners so that together we ,,'/ill be successful in accomplishing the stated
goals and objectives. While it is important for each person to learn, it is equally
important for me that the learner becomes proficient."
Therefore, a successful instructional program is one in which as many stu-
dents as possible have succeeded, reaching a mastery level for accomplishing the'
specified outcomes. Grading on a bell-shaped normal curve and assigning letter
grades would have no place in such instruction.
Oy,estion: "Doesn't the ID procedure discourage creativity in teaching?"
When a fine work of art is created, the artist has used a number of widely
accepted design elements (unity, emphasis, balance, space, shape, color, etc.) cre-
atively. This same principle applies to instructional planning.
Certain accepted learning principles, characteristics of individual components,
and necessary relationships among elements require consideration in planning.
These nine design elements, discussed earlier, can be developed and manipulated in
imaginative and creative ways.
Two persons teaching the same subject or topic and targeting the same out-
come goals might very well design different plans. Both can result in satisfactory
student learning. The process demands dynamic interactions between students and
instructor and between student and media, and different activities may be devel-
oped to satisfy those demands. This process encourages creativity, even to the
extent of providing for open-ended or unanticipated learning experiences.
Oy,estion: "Isn't the main attention in ID given to low-level, immediate
learning outcomes rather than to higher-order, long-term outcomes?"
Examine the test questions in a typical unit or end-of-course examination. Fre-
quently they are multiple-choice or true/false items that involve defining, labeling,
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIO TAL DESIGN PROCESS 15

naming; recognizing; and other memory or recall of subject content. The ID process, in
keeping with the goal to be accomplished, logically emphasizes more advanced intel-
lectual thought processes that build on basic factual information. This emphasis may
include learning related to comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
In many academic subject areas, learners achieve major learning outcomes
only after they have completed a class and enroll in an advanced course or begin
working on the job. Instructional design includes procedures for directly and indi-
rectly evaluating postcourse behavior and content application outcomes.
These answers to the critics may seem unconventional. Many educators and
trainers, based on their beliefs and experience, might not accept them. Often
people must become dissatisfied with present practices or results before they recog-
nize the need for change and improvement (e.g., getting beyond passive learning
and rote memorization to attaining higher-level objectives and providing more
meaningful educational experiences). At that point, they are probably ready to
explore a fresh approach to instructional planning. Providing explanations and
offering opportunities, as described in this introductory chapter, can help counter
criticism of the instructional design process.

QUESTIONS ... QUESTIONS ... QUESTIONS

As you read and study the following chapters, you will frequently see questions
being raised or referred to in relation to the topic under consideration. Such ques-
tions may appear at the beginning of a chapter to indicate the important matters
that will follow. Then, as the discussion proceeds, other questions help direct
thinking toward decisions that must be made.
An instructional designer continually probes for clarification, explanations,
and details. You must help the persons with whom you carry out instructional plan-
ning to communicate effectively with you. This can best be done by using questions.
Therefore, pay particular attention to the questions raised throughout the book.
Then let questioning become a common part of your behavior as you explore and
eventually practice the instructional designer role.

SUMMARY
1. Curriculum includes subject matter, skills, and courses that comprise an
educational program.
2. The key elements of ID involve learner characteristics, objectives,
teaching methods and activities, and evaluation of learning.
3. A complete ID plan consists of nine elements arranged in a flexible config-
uration and formative and summative evaluations for potential revisions.
4. A number of expressions may substitute for the term instructional design in
the literature and in practice. The expression instructional development
applies to the management of ID projects.
5. The ID process has the following qualities: it follows a systematic proce-
dure with specific details, it usually starts at the course development level,
16 CHAPTER 1

it can enhance learning at a satisfactory level, and it may result in dif-

ferent planning results by different designers.
6. The ID process can benefit administrators and program managers,
instructional designers, instructors, and learners.
7. The ID process applies to both academic education and industrial
training programs.
8. Roles involved in the ID process include instructional designer,
instructor, subject-matter expert, and evaluator.
9. Criticism of the ID process that must be answered includes the opinions
that it is a mechanistic rather than humanistic planning method; it dis-
courages teacher creativity; and main attention is given to low-level,
immediate outcomes.
10. Asking questions during all phases of the ID process can help direct
thinking toward decisions.

-
FROM HERE TO THERE

At last, you have finished your degree and you are now ready to start
practicing instructional design at your new job with a corporation in the
top Fortune 25. Your first day on the job, however, has a few surprises. Of
most concern is that the manager you thought you were going to work
for has transferred to a different division. Your new manager does not
have a background in instructional design, but rather has worked as a
chemical engineer and project manager for this corporation for the past
15 years. Needless to say, you are a little apprehensive about your
predicament, considering that you are the first instructional designer
hired by this corporation.
Shortly after the morning coffee break, your manager invites her
staff in for an introductory meeting. The staff includes three trainers
who have more than 35 years combined experience in teaching courses
for the corporation, an administrative assistant who schedules and
makes arrangements for courses, two engineers (who have worked in
the department for four years each) who write new curriculum, and you.
The meeting starts with each individual describing his or her back-
ground and role in the department. The other staff members can easily
impress the new manager with their mastery of company lingo and
number of hours of training they produce each quarter.
Turning slowly, the manager sizes you up and asks you to describe
your background and your role in hernew department. The manager and
other staff members are not impressed by your degree in instructional
INTRODUCTION TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS 17

design or the fact that you received it from ·a leading program in the
area-probably because they have never heard of instructional design.
After a brief pause and a few frowns, one of the senior trainers asks you to
explain exactly what it is that you do-seems they all thought you said
"interior design" and thought you were there to spruce up their offices
and classrooms.
The next few minutes are critical. You can either win this manager
and staff over to a new way of viewing training, or you can overwhelm
them with your knowledge so they decide you are one of those intellec-
tual types. What will you say to this group that will help ensure your
longevity with the company?

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