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 vibration | Asset Condition Management

Vib

Torsional
Fatigue Failures
Identification, Diagnosis
and Prevention
Figure 1: Torsional fatigue fracture
of a pump shaft with fracture face
45 degrees to the shaft
by Thomas Brown

Torsion fatigue failures occur more frequently than we realize. Ratchet marks

As a teacher of failure mode identification, it is common to have

one or more individuals in every class bring an unusual failure
to class that, upon examination, is torsional fatigue. Depending
on the particular industry, torsional fatigue is involved in 10 to
25 percent of rotating equipment failures. Origin

Identifying Torsional Failures ure 2, the fracture travels around the shaft, climb-
Identification of torsion fatigue failures is ing toward the surface so the outer part of the shaft
straightforward. Just look for the fracture oriented looks like it was peeled away. The fracture surface Progression lines
45 degrees to the shaft centerline, like the example has characteristics of a fatigue fracture: one or more
in Figure 1. The fracture face typically has one or origins, ratchet marks and a fatigue zone with pro- Figure 2: Torsional fatigue fracture of a shaft inside a
more origins, a fatigue zone with progression lines gression lines. The shaft fragment is usually held in hub that started at the keyway on the left-hand side
and an instantaneous zone. place by the coupling or hub, so there is typically a and progressed around the shaft
A large fatigue zone and small instantaneous very small or no instantaneous zone.
zone mean the fatigue load was small. A small fa- A less common torsional fatigue failure is
tigue zone and large instantaneous zone mean caused by reversing loads. When the load chang- If there are two 45 degree fracture planes in a
the fatigue load was high. More information about es direction, two fractures occur at 45 degrees to shaft whose load does not change direction, it is an
fatigue failure characteristics can be found in the the shaft centerline. Figure 3 shows a shaft with a indicator of torsional vibration.
“Preventing Mechanical Failures – An Introduction reversed torsional fatigue fracture starting at the A shaft fracture may have both torsion and
to Failure Mode Identification” article in the Febru- keyway. bending fatigue forces applied to it. When this oc-
ary / March 2012 issue of Uptime. Reversed torsional fatigue fractures may have curs, the orientation of the fracture face may vary
Torsional fatigue fractures frequently occur in a starburst pattern. Each of the splines in Figure 4 from 45 degrees to 90 degrees with respect to the
a shaft that is inside a hub or coupling. These frac- has two cracks, each at a 45 degree angle. These shaft centerline. The shaft shown in Figure 5 com-
tures usually start at the bottom of a keyway and usually occur on splined shafts that rotate in both bines dominant bending with torsion, so the frac-
progress around the shaft’s circumference. In Fig- directions. ture is closer to 90 degrees.

20 oct/nov 14
 Figure 3: Reversed torsional fatigue, where two 45 degree cracks started at the keyway

Figure 4: Reversed torsional

fatigue failure of a splined tion and torsional vibration. Several types of wire- Preventing Torsional
shaft; each spline has less systems are available for measuring torque Fatigue Failures
two cracks, each at variation and torsional vibration. Two common
45 degrees to the shaft measurement transducers are a strain gage and Torsional fatigue failure prevention can be
wireless transmitter, and a ring containing accel- grouped into three categories:
erometers and a wireless transmitter. Strain gage
systems can be used to measure bending, applied 1. Correct machining, assembly and installation
The fracture angle
torque and torsional vibration. However, strain to eliminate:
offers key evidence. If the
angle of a fatigue failure is: gages are small and must be carefully adhered to • Incorrect fit/finish of a shaft and bore.
the shaft for good results. Rings containing accel- • Small radius in a keyseat.
• Closer to 90 degrees, it is a erometers are easier to attach, but may require • Excess clearance between the key and keyseat.
dominant bending force. a bushing for different shaft sizes. They measure • Misalignment.
•
Midway between 45 degrees torsional vibration, but not shaft torque, and have
and 90 degrees, it is a combination of tor- a higher frequency range. These are the easiest to fix. Frequently, the ef-
sion and bending forces. The output of a strain gage torsional vibration fort stops here and the failures continue. However,
• Closer to 45 degrees, it is a dominant torsion force. system can be coupled to a data collector or signal with more investigation, torsional fatigue failures
analyzer capable of accepting a 0-10 volt signal. can be eliminated.
Evidence of torsional fatigue also may be There are two components in the output signal,
found on gear and coupling teeth. Most equip- absolute torque and torsional vibration. 2. Identify torque characteristics of the system:
ment runs in one direction, so wear is expected on
one side of a gear or coupling teeth. Wear on both
Absolute torque is measured using DC cou-
pling at the signal analyzer or data collector. The
• Machine characteristics–Repetitive events,
such as gear mesh, vane pass, cutting tools,
sides of a gear or coupling teeth that rotate in one time waveform in Figure 6 shows the absolute
electric motor faults, fluid pulsation, lateral
direction is an indication of varying torsional force. torque variation using DC coupling. Torque in this
and torsional interaction, or any repetitive
When coupling alignment is good and wear occurs shaft varied from zero to just over 7,000 ft-lbs.
event that momentarily changes the absolute
uniformly on both sides of all coupling teeth, it usu- The second component of the signal is tor-
torque.
ally indicates torsional vibration. Alignment quality
can be verified from vibration spectra and phase
sional vibration. AC coupling allows the torsional vi-
bration portion of the signal to be analyzed. When
• Reversing loads – Direction of rotation changes.

readings. An absence of 2X running speed spectral the output of the torsional vibration system is AC
Torque measurements, both absolute and
peaks and uniform phase across the coupling oc- coupled, the signal analyzer or data collector can
vibration, can be used to identify these sources
curs when the alignment is good. calculate a frequency spectrum.
of torsional vibration. Torsional failures can be
The spectrum in Figure 7 shows torsional vi-
stopped once machining and assembly are cor-
Torsional Measurement and Analysis bration peaks occurring at 8 Hz and 105 Hz from
rect; the variations are identified; stress analysis
When torque applied to a machine by an elec- an AC coupled signal. The source of these spectral
is done to verify components have sufficient fa-
tric motor is constant, a torsional fatigue failure that peaks can be determined from machine character-
tigue strength; and, if required, components are
requires a varying torque can occur. Changes in istics or a torsional model.
strengthened.
torque may happen in one of three ways: Evidence of torsional fatigue failures or mea-
surements indicating torsional natural frequencies
3. Identifying and correcting torsional resonance
• Machine characteristics – Repetitive events, warrant further analysis using a torsional model. A
by requiring:
Holzer or an eigenvector/eigenvalue matrix model
such as gear mesh, vane pass, cutting tools,
electric motor faults, fluid pulsation, lateral and will calculate the undamped natural frequencies • Construction of a torsional model using Holzer
and torsional mode shapes. or matrix methods.
torsional interaction, or any repetitive event
that momentarily changes the shaft torque. • Validating the model with torsional measure-
• Reversing loads – Occur when the direction of ments.
• Changing the mass or stiffness of the system
rotation changes. Figure 5: Fatigue failure caused by
• Torsional resonance – Occurs when the fre- bending and fatigue that started
to shift one or more natural frequencies, or
changing the forcing frequency of a compo-
quency of an exciting torque and a polar natural at a keyway; the fracture angle is
frequency are the same; the response is twist- nent.
between 45 and 90 degrees and
ing of the shaft around its longitudinal axis (fur- progression lines are visible
ther explanation can be found in Chapter 38 of Everyone in equipment reliability knows that
Reference 1). things interact. When this happens, changes must
be made in all three categories to eliminate future
To eliminate a torsional fatigue failure, one torsional fatigue failures.
must be able to measure the shaft torque varia-

oct/nov 14 21
 vibration | Asset Condition Management

Vib
The Holzer method was developed in the ear-
ly 1900s and is readily adaptable to a spreadsheet.
Matrix methods are more versatile, but require spe-
cialized proprietary or matrix software to solve the
matrices. Both will produce good results that can
be verified with AC coupled spectrum analysis.
Modeling a torsional system requires care to
ensure accuracy. A consistent set of units must be
used throughout the analysis, especially where sev-
eral sets of vendor prints or data are used. Details
and procedures for the Holzer and matrix model-
ing methods can be found in the references listed
at the end of this article. Figure 6: Time waveform of shaft torque from 0 to over 7,000 ft-lbs during 7 hours

Fits and Finishes

When a torsional failure occurs in a shaft in-
side a coupling or hub, the fit between the shaft
and bore should be verified. The clearance be-
tween the side of the key and keyway is sufficient 62.19588 (ft-lbs)
for microscopic movement if there is not enough 105.3124 (Hz)

interference fit. Even then, low levels of torsional

vibration will cause movement. The shaft and bore
wear and fret, causing premature repair or failure.

Figure 8: Rough finish of a shaft at 60X

The shaft and bore finish also has significant

influence on the ability of the shaft and hub or Figure 7: Spectrum of torsional vibration
coupling to tolerate torsional vibration. If the finish
is rough or ridged like the surface of the shaft in
Figure 8, the frictional area is reduced, leaving the particular standard, never assume friction is suffi- References:
shaft and bore susceptible to premature wear and cient to prevent micromotion between the bore 1. Harris, Cyril M. Shock and Vibration Handbook. New York City: Mc-
fretting. and shaft. Graw-Hill Companies, 1996.
One frequent contributor to torsional fatigue If torsional vibration data is available, the min- 2. Nestorides, E.J. A Handbook on Torsional Analysis. Cambridge:
failure is a small radius in the keyseat. If the radius imum required amount of fit may be calculated us- Cambridge University Press, 2011.
does not meet the ANSI B17.1-1967 (R2013) stan- ing equations that can be found in most machine 3. American Petroleum Institute. API Standard 684, Tutorial on
dard for keys and keyseats, it should be corrected design books. the API Standard Paragraphs Covering Rotor Dynamics and
by remachining the keyseat using a cutter with the Balancing (An Introduction to Lateral Critical and Train Torsional
correct radius. When this is done, an oversized key is Conclusion Analysis and Rotor Balancing). Washington, D.C.: American Pe-
typically required, especially when the original key- Torsional resonance and failures are more com- troleum Institute, 1996.
seat and key had a slide or interference fit. mon than recognized. They can be eliminated by: 4. Shigley, J., Mischke, C. Standard Handbook of Machine Design.
The ANSI standard also defines several classes New York City: McGraw-Hill Companies, 1996.
of keys and keyseat fits. When torsional vibration is • Careful machining and assembly.
occurring and an ANSI Class 1 fit is used for the key • Measurement and correction of torsional Thomas Brown, P.E., is the
and keyseat, it may help to increase the fit to a Class variations. principal engineer of Reliability
2 or 3. However, more care will be required during • Changing the natural frequency(ies) of the Solutions, headquartered in
Duluth, Minnesota. Tom is
assembly. system. an educator and practitioner
The interference fit between the shaft and of failure analysis, FMEA and
bore should be sufficient to transmit the torsional Analysis of a torsional failure may seem daunt- equipment reliability skills across
ing at first, but it is always easier and less expensive a broad spectrum of industries.
vibration forces in a shaft using keyseats and keys. www.reliabilitysolutions.us
Even if dimensions and resultant fits are within a than fixing repeat failures.

22 oct/nov 14
 Uptime1011-14quarter.qxp 7/24/2014 7:57 PM Page 1

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Figure 9: Before and after results of coupling change oct/nov 14 23