TABLE OF CONTENTS

NUMBER CONTENTS PAGE

PART 1- LECTURE NOTES
1 Child and Adolescent Development 3-22
2 Facilitating of Learning 23-27
3 Social Dimension of Education 28-50
4 The Teaching Profession 51-69
5 Curriculum Development 70-83
6 Educational Technology 84-113
7 Principles and Strategies of Teaching 114-133
8 Assessment of Learning 134-165
9 PART 2- PRACTICE TEST 166-234
10 PART 3- ANSWER KEY 235-244

PART 1
 LECTURE NOTES
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

A. The Child and Adolescent Learner

Childhood- Childhood is defines as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is
more circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty.

The Convention of the Rights if the Child defines a child as” every human being below the age of 18
years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”.

Adolescence- According to Stuart Judge, a noted educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period
of transition from childhood to adulthood. Although sometimes described as beginning in parallel with
fertility or puberty and ending with maturity and independence, adolescence has a very variable and
imprecise duration

The onset of adolescence cannot be pointed in physiological term, although it is influenced by the same
sex hormones and refers to the same general period as physical sexual development. It represents a
complex and sometimes disturbing psychological transition, accompanying the requirement for the
accepted social behavior of the particular adult and culture.

B. Physical and Motor Development.

A. Physical and Motor development

 Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks,
a process better known as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are
simply the uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are born with, over time, they
learn to move their body parts voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine
(small) motor skills. In general, babies begin developing motor skills form head to
tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward( proximodistal). They learn to
control their head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; they learn to
maneuver their arms before they learn to manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to
move their torso before the learn how to move their arms and legs.
 The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves in the days
of life.
 Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard turning in the first days of
life.
 Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex allows a baby
to turn his head if something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is blocking his
airflow.
 Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting reflex. When babies root, they
may nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregiver’s chest or shoulder.
 The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still notable. For the first 3 to
4 months, babies have an amazing grasping ability and reflex. They will grasp
anything place in their palm and hold it with amazing strength for their size. Some

2
 infants in the first weeks of life can support their entire body weight through that
grasp.
 While this reflex may not have any survival function in modern times, it does help
babies bond with caregivers and family in the first weeks of life. Similarly, for the
first two months, babies will ‘step” with their legs if they are held vertically with
their feet touching a surface. Even though this reflex disappears months before
babies begin walking purposely, experts believes stepping helps infants learn how
their legs works can be used.
 The Moro response is another reflex that is present during the first 6 months of life,
but doesn’t seem to have a purpose in modern life. A baby with arch her back, flail
out, and then curl up if she feels as although she is being dropped.
 The final reflex is Tonic Neck. During the first 4 months, when babies lie awake
on their backs with their heads facing to one side, they will extend the arm on the
side of their body that they’re facing and reflex the other arm at an angle, in a
position that resembles a fencing pose. This reflex may help prepare them for
voluntary reaching later in their environment.
 Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling”, or using the awkward,
wide-legged robort-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop
a smoother gait, they also develop the ability to run, and hop. Children of this age
can participate in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push
themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
 Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing
both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adult
place one foot on each step in sequence); However, young children may still need
some “back up” assistant to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new
skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it’s time to go back down the
stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4 years
old can jump and hop higher as higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. Many
can even hop on one foot for shorts period of time.
 By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion
(i.e. taking one step at a time);Their running continues to smooth out and increase
in speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. The also
have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and can be drive them
faster.
 During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine easier skills. They’re running
even faster and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In
addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms
of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and
swing on their own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats,
and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports as
soccer, basketball, t-bale or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 years old often like to
participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or
dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age
7 and beyond.

3
B. Brain Development
 The bran’s ability to change from experience is known as Plasticity. The human
brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the
equation is so important
Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic-this is the mechanism of learning-
but plasticity declines in adulthood.
As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several’critical periods, a s
developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input ot it
will not develop normally.

Early Milestones in Brain Growth

 4 months: the infant’s brain responds to every sound produced in all the languages
of the world.
 8 to 9 months: Babies can form specific memories from their experiences, such as
how to push a ball to make it roll.
 10 months: Babies can now distinguish and even produce the sounds of their own
language (such as “da-da”) no longer pay attention to the sounds of language that
are foreign.
 12 months: Babies whose parents say, for example” Lookee at the doggie” will go
to the appropriate picture of a dog in a picture book more often than those babies
who are talked to normal, flatter voices.
 12 to 18 months: Babies can keep in memory something that has been hidden and
find it again, even if it has completely covered up. They can also hold memory
sequences of simple activities, such as winding up a jack-in-the-box until the figure
pos up.
 24 months: Preschool children now clear picture in mind of people who are dear to
them, and the get upset when separated from these people (even their peers)
 30 months: Preschool children can hold in mind a whole sequence of spatial maps
and know where things are in their environment.
 36 months: A preschool child can now two different emotions in his mind at the
same time, such as being sad that he spilled ice cream on his cloths but glad that
he’s at birthday party.

C. Factors Affecting Development

Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women during adolescent pregnancy and
lactation has a direct impact on the child’s health and development.

Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early developmental
age.
Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation
contribute to the child’s development.

4
 D. Exceptional Development

Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience functional, visual,
orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their ability to walk,
play and learn. Physical disabilities are also often defined and categorized by some degree
of limitation in the use of upper or lower extremities and maintaining posture and
positioning.

Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)-
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Hyperkinetic Disorder (as officially
know in U.K., through ADHD is more commonly used) is generally considered to be a
developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the world’s
population. The disorder typically presents itself during childhood, and is characterized by
a present pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, poor impulse
control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is currently considered to be a persistent
and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available ADHD is most commonly
diagnosed in children and, over the past decade.

E. Linguistic and Literary Development

A. Natural History and Language Development
Language development is a process that starts early in human life, when a person begins to
acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. Children’s language development
moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants start without language. Yet by four months of age,
babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.
 Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning, but
as children age, words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed, in
time, sentences start to form as words are joined together to create logical meaning. As
a person gets older, new meaning and new associations are created and vocabulary
increases as more words are learned.
 Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal vocalizations to communicate
their wants, needs and dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize and
eventually verbalize at various ages and at different rates, they learn their first language
without conscious instruction from parents or caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task
that grows increasingly difficult with age. Ofcourse, before any learning can begin, the
child must be biologically and socially mature enough.

Biological Preconditions- Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors contribute to language
development, how ever most do agree that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific
to the human species, Furthermore, our ability to learn language may have been developed through the
evolutionary process and that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically.

Second Preconditions- it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with other peope who
can vocalize and respond to questions. For language acquisition to develop successfully, children must
be in an environment that allows them to communicate socially in that language.

5
There are a few different theories as to why and how children develop language. The most popular
explanation is that language is acquired through imitation. However, this proves to be more of a folk tale
than anything. Two most accepted theories in language development are psychological and functional.
Psychological explanations focus on the mental processes involved in childhood language learning.
Functional explanations look at the social process involved in learning the first language.

B. Bilingual Language Development

 There are two major patters in bilingual language acquisition; simultaneous
Bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child
acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may
mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4
years and older when distinction between the two languages takes place, and the child
uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3
years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language
while acquiring the second language.
 Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children presents a
challenge. The authors state that “the key is to obtain information about the child’s entire
language system, not just the primary or secondary language”.
 The following “red flags” may indicates that the child who is simultaneously acquiring
two languages id experiencing problems with language development.
 No sounds by 2-6 months
 Less than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old children.
 Less than 20 words ( in the two languages combined by 20 months: and
 No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age 2-3 years
 Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential acquisition of
two language include.
 Lack of normal milestones in the first language
 Prolonged phase of not talking
 Difficulty of retrieving words

Factors Affecting Language Development

1. Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child)

2. Delayed general development (global developmental delay), physical development motor
skills), cognitive development etc.
3. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers other
modalities e.g. physical activities
4. Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles; lips, tongue etc.
5. Medical problems
6. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” communication intent”
7. Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc.
8. Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving
9. Exposure to too many languages for the child
10. Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks for, the “babied” child has a
more dominant sibling etc.

6
 11. Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to perform etc.
12. Short attention span.
13. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties

C. Exceptional Development

Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language due to
injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or
psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from
aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other
deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak.

Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written
language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a neurological differences but
is not intellectual disability. Most people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence.

Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in how the brain processes written and/or verbal
language. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as
deficiencies in intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or
inadequate reading instruction.

D. Cognitive Development
A. Theories of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory provided many central concepts
in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of the intelligence,
which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform
logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the world. The theory
concerns the emergence and acquisitions of the schemata-schemes, of one perceives the
world-in”developemental stages”, time when children are acquiring new ways of mentally
representing-information.

1. Sensorimotor period (years 0-2)

Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to
explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the
congenital reflexes:

 The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs form birth to six
weeks and is associated primarily with the developmental reflexes. Three
primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth
following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand
when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over this first six
weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example,
the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.

7
 The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs form six weeks
to four months and is associates primarily with the development of habits.
Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action involving only one’s body
begins. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an
infant repeating the motion of passing their hands before their face. The schema
developed during this stage inform the infant about the relationships among his
body parts (e.g. in passing the hand in form of his eyes he develop a motor
schema for moving his arm so that the hand becomes visible.

 The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase, occurs from four
to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination
between vision and apprehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage:
intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and
differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally
grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of
friends, family, younger and older siblings, grandparents, etc. Secondary
circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object
begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The
differentiation between means also occurs. This is perhaps of one of the most
important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies the drawn for logic. However,
babies still only have a very early rudimentary grasp of this and most of their
discoveries have an “accidental” quality to them in that the initial performance
of what will soon becomes a secondary circular reactions occurs by chance; but
the operant conditioning causes the initial “ accidental” behavior (which was
followed by an “interesting pattern of stimulation) to be repeated. And the
ability to repeat the act is the result of primary circular reactions established in
the previous stage. For example, when the infant’s hand accidentally makes
contact with an object in hid field of vision is based on the primary circular
reaction bringing his hand into his field of vision. Thus, the child learns (at the
level of schemata) that “if he can see it then he can also touch it” and this results
in a schemata which is the knowledge that is external environment is populated
with solid objects.

 The fourth sub-stage, called the coordination of secondary circular reactions

stage, which occurs from nine to twelve months, is when Piaget thought that
object permanence developed. In addition, the stage is called the coordination
of secondary circular reactions stage, and is primarily with the development of
logic and the coordination between means and ends, this is extremely important
marks the beginning o goal orientation or intentionally, the deliberate planning
of steps to meet an objective.

 The fifth sub-stage, tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from twelve to
eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means

8
 to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the “young scientist”,
conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting
challenges.

 The six sub-stage, considered “beginning of symbolic representation”, is

associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. In this
stag the trial- and error application of schemata, which was observable during
the previous stage, occurs internally ( at the level of schemata rather than of
motor responses), resulting in the sudden appearance of new effective behaviors
(without any observable trial-and-error). This is also the time when symbols
(words and images) begin to stand for other objects. This marks the passage
into the preoperational stage.

2. Preoperational period (years 2-7)

The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of cognitive development. By
observing sequence of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the
second year a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs (Pre)
Operatory Thought in Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects.
The hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and logically inadequate mental
operations.

According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of development follows the Sensorimotor
stage and occur between 2-7 years of age. It includes the following processes.

1. Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of mental symbols, words, or

pictures, which the child uses to represent something which is not physically present

2. Centration-characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a

stimulus or situation. For example, in pouring a quantity of liquid from an narrow
beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child might judge the quantity of liquid to
have decreased, because it is”lower”- that is, the child attends to the height of the
water, but not the compensating increase in the diameter of the container.

3. Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to believe in something without
knowing why she or he believes it.

4. Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only

think for her or his own point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point
of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she might cover her eyes
thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either.

5. Inability to Conserve-though Piaget’s conservation experiments (conservation of

mass, volume and number after the original for m has been changed. For example,
a child in this phase will believe that a string which has up in”o-o-o-o” pattern will

9
 have a larger number of beads than a string which has a oooo: pattern, because the
latter pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more
liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup.

6. Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects have :lifelike” qualities and are
capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it likes a real person.
In a way this like using their imagination.

3. Concrete operational period (years 7-11)

The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in
Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the
ages 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important
process during this stage are:

a. Seriation- the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any
other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make
a colour gradient.

b. Classification-the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to

appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects
can include another, a child is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of
animasim ( the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings)

c. Decentering- where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to
solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but
short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
d. Reversibility- where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed,
then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly
determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will equal 4, the original quantity

e. Conservation- understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated

to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child
is presented with two equally-sized, full cup they will be able to discern that if water
is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled
up.

f. Elimination of Egoncentrism- the ability to view things from another’s perspective

(even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in whom Jane
puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer,
and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operation stage will stay that Jane will
still think it’s under the box even through the child knows it is in the drawer

4. Formal operation period (years 11-adulthood)

10
 The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive
development in the Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational
stage, commences at around 11 years of age ( puberty) and continuous into adulthood.
It is characterized by acquisition of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and
draw conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult is
able to understand such things as love”shades of gray”, logical proofs, and values,

Lev Vtgotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarys (then a part of the
Russian Empire). Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomom Asphiz and graduated
from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Pyschology
in Moscow (1924-34), where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive
development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His writings
emphasized the roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued
that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society.

Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of

language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book
“Thinking and Speaking”, establishes the explicit and profound connection between
speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental
concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner
speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For Vygotsky,
social interaction is important for learning, e.i. children learn adults and other children

Information Processing Theory

There are three primary stages in IP Theory:

 Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended .

 Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time
depending upon the processes following encoding
 Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate time, and reactivated fr
use on a current task, the true test of effective memory.

The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive processes could be
described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path along which information is taken
into the memory system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing center
around three main stages in the memory process.

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model, hold ALL sensory information for a VERY BRIEF time period.

 Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we can ever perceive.

 Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds

The Role of Attention

11
  To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only have the
ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the attention gate.

Short Term Memory ( working Memory)

 Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/_2 items.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse
 There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and Elaborative

Long Term Memory

The final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory store holds information until
needed again.

 Capacity: unlimited?
 Duration: indefinite?

Executive Control Processes

 Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive skills

 Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make informed
 Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization, Sometimes call METACOGNITVE
SKILLS

Forgeting

The ability to access information when needed

 There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

 Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away. Very prevalent in Working
memory.
 Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering

 Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be recalled

 Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning.
 Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
 Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
 Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information
 Personalization- making the information relevant to the individual
 Memory Methods
 Memorization ( note the same as learning)
 Serial Position Effect ( recency and primacy) you will remember the beginning and end of list
most readily
 Part Learning- Break up the list to increase memorization

12
  Distributed Practice- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (
Massed Practice)
 Mnemonics Aids
 Loci Method- Familiar place, associate list with items in place (i.e. living room)
 Peg-type- Standard list is a cue to the target list.
 Acronym – SCUBA
 Chain Mnemonics- EGBDF
 Key word Method- Association of new word/ concept with well know word/concept that sounds
similar.

Theories of Intelligence

1. Psychometric Theories
Psychometric theories have sought to understand the structure of intelligence; the from it takes,
it categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric intelligence theory is a
psychological model according to which intelligence is a combination of abilities that can be
measured by mental testing. These tests often include analogies , classification / identification,
and series completion. Each test score is equally weighted according to the evidence of
underlying ability in each category

British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory 1904. His
theory noted that people who excelled on one mental ability test often did well on the others,
and people who did poorly on one of them tended to do poorly with others. Using this concept,
Spearman devised a technique of statistical analyzing that examined patterns of individual
scores. This analysis helped him discover what he believed to be the two sources if these
individual differences: the”general factor” which is our general intellectual ability, and a test-
specific factor.

American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disregarded with Spearman’s theory and his isolation of
the “general factor” of intelligence. Thurstone believed that the “general factor “ resulted from
Spearman;s method of analysis, and that if analysis were more thorough, seven factors would
emerge. These seven factors were collectively called the “primary mental abilities” and included
verbal comprehension, verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numbers, spatial visualization,
inductive reasoning, memory, memory and perceptual speed.

Most psychologists agree that a broader subdivision of abilities than Spearman’s classification
is necessary, but only some agree with hierarchal subdivision. It quickly became apparent to
many psychologists that were problems that could not be addressed by psychometric theories.
The number of abilities could not be positively identified, and the differences between them
could not be clearly defined due to the limitations of testing and analysis. However ,the most
significant problem extended beyond the number of abilities: what happens in someone’s mind
when they are using the ability in question? Psychometric theories had no means of addressing
this issue, and cognitive theories began to fill this gap.

2. Cognitive Theories

13
During the era of psychometric theories, people’s test scores dominated the study of intelligence.
In 1957, American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some psychologists study
individual differences and other study commonalities in human behavior, but the two methods
never meet. Cronbach voiced the need for two methods to be united, which let to the
development of cognitive theories of intelligence.

Without understanding the processes underlying intelligence, we cannot come to accurate

conclusions when analyzing test scores or assessing someone’s performance. Cognitive analysis
helps the interpretation of the test scores by determining to what degree the score reflects
reasoning ability and the degree to which it is a result of not understanding the questions or
vocabulary. Psychometric theories did not differentiate between these two factors, which have
a significant effect on the determination of intelligence. Many people are excellent reasoners
but have modest vocabularies, and vice versa.

Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence is the assumption that intelligence is

comprised of a set of mental representations of information, and a set of processes that operate
the mental representations. It is assumed that a more intelligent person represents information
better, and operates more quickly on these representations than does a less intelligent person.
Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have emerged over the years. One was
introduced by Earl Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg, who in 1973 showed one way
on which psychometric and cognitive modeling could be combined. Instead of using
conventional psychometric tests, they used tasks that allowed them to study the basis of
cognition-perception, learning and memory. Individual differences in the tasks became
apparent, which they related to differing patterns of performing and operating manual
representations.
Several years later, Robert Stemberg suggested an alternative approach to studying cognitive
process. He argued, based on evidence he had gathered, that there weak only a weak relationship
between basic cognitive tasks and psychometric test scores because the tasks being used were
too simple. Although simple task involve cognitive processes, they are peripheral rather than
central.
Although opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all based on the serial processing of
information, which means that cognitive processes are executed one after another in a series.

The assumption is that we process chunks of information one at a time, trying to combine the
processes into an overall problem-solving strategy. Other psychologists have challenged this
idea, arguing that cognitive processing is parallel, meaning that we process large amounts of
information simultaneously. However, it has proved difficult to distinguish between serial and
parallel models of information processing.

Despite evidence and support of cognitive intelligence theories, a major problem remains
regarding the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take into account that the
description of intelligence may differ from one cultural group to another. Even within
mainstream cultures, it will known that conventional tests do not reliably predict performance.

14
Therefore in addition to cognition, the context in which the cognition operates also needs to be
accounted for.

Exceptional Development ( Cognitive Development)

Giftedness- For many years, psychometricians and psychologists, following the footsteps of
Lewis Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This “legacy” survives to the present
day, in that giftedness and high IQ continue to be equated in some conceptions of giftedness.
Since that early time, however, other researchers (e.g, Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have
argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more
multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s has provided data
which support notions of multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly evident in the
examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge and Davidson in their edited Conceptions of
Giftedness. The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are
interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple
qualities, not all of which are intellectual, IQ socres are often viewed as in adequate measures
of giftedness. Motivation, high self concept, and creativity are they key qualities in many of
these broadened conceptions of giftedness.

Mental Retardation- is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and
language skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly below-normal global
intellectual capacity as an adult. One common criterion for diagnosis of mental retardation is
tested intelligence quotient (IQ ) of 70 or below and deficits in adaptive functioning.

People with mental retardation may be described as having developmental disabilities, global
development delay or learning qualities.

Autism- is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and

communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before a child is three years
old. These characteristics distinguish autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD).

Autism affects many parts of the brain, how this occurs is poorly understood. Parents usually
notice signs in the first year or two of their child’s life, Early intervention may help children
gain self-care and social skills, although few of these interventions are supported by scientific
studies. There is no cure, with severe autism, independent living is unlikely; with milder autism,
there are some success stories for adults, and an autistic culture has developed, with some
seeking a cure and others believing that austism is a condition rather than a disorder.

Asperger’s Syndrome- (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, Asperger’s AS, or AD

) is one of several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by difficulties in social
interaction and by restricted and stereotyped interests and activities. AS is distinguished for
other ASDs in having no general delay in language or cognitive development,
There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is
supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The

15
 mainstay of treatment is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor
communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with
AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support
encouragement to maintain an independent life. Adults with AS have reached the highest levels
of achievement in fields such as mathematics, physics and computer science, Researchers and
people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a
difference rather than a disability.

Down Syndrome_ Down syndrome or Trisonomy 21 ( usuall Down’s Syndrome in Bristish

English) is a specific disorder caused by the presence of all or part if an extra 21st chromosome.
It is named after John Longdon Down, the Bristish doctor who described it in 1866. The
condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in structure. Often
Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth
as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome can be identifies during pregnancy or at birth.
Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging
form mild to moderate learning disabilities. Developmental disabilities often manifests as
tendency toward concrete thinking or naivete. A small number have severe to profound mental
disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,00 births.

Social and Emotional Development

Theories of Socio-Emotional Development

Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental psychologist and

psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coing the
phrase identity crisis.
 Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for
which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for example, trust vs.
mistrust, and by an important event that is conflict resolves itself around, for example,
meaning of one’s life.
 Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as “ virtues”, a term used, in
the context of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning” potencies”For
example, the virtue that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly
counter-intuively, Erikson’s research reveals with breath-taking clarity how each
individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in
tension with one another not rejecting one end of the tension or the other.
 Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both
required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, “trust” and
“mistrust” must both the understood and accepted, in order for realistic “hope” to
emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly,”integrity” and “despair” must
both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable
solution at the last stage.

The Erikson life-stage virtues, in order of the stages in which they may be acquired are:

16
Hope- basic Trust vs. Mistrust

Will- Autonomy vs, Shame and Doubt

Purpose- Initiative vs.Guilt

Competence- Industry vs. Inferiority

Fidelity-Identity vs. Role Confusion

Love- (in intimate relationships, work and family ) Intimacy vs, Isolation

Caring- Generativity vs, Stagnation

Wisdom- Integrity vs. Despair

Albert Bandura ( Social Cognitive Theory)

 Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a triangular diagnram
illustrating the interactive effect of various factors. These three factors are behavior (B), the
environment (E), and the internal events that influence perceptions and actions. (P). the
relationship between these three factors is known as reciprocal determinism.
 Bandura identified three types of rienforcers of behavior. These were direct reinforcement,
vicarious reinforcement and self reinforcement. Direct reinforcement would be directly
experienced by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of
the behavior of the model. Self reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction or displeasure
for behavior gauged by personal performance standards.
 Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models, symbolic models,
and verbal descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in American society, the greatest range
of exposure is in the form of symbolic models through mass media.
 In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory. These
are his work on the self regulatory system and self efficacy. In the area of self regulatory system/
self evaluative behaviors he said that this system us based upon cognitive subprocesses that:
- Perceive
- Evaluate
- Regulate behavior

Social Cognitive Theory- Utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an
individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of
social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences

An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learner’s behavior is guided by cognitive
processes rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. Four component parts are responsible
for the learning and performance acquisition. These are:

1. Attentional processes
 Observer characteristics
-perceptual/cognitive capacities

17
 -arousal level
-past performance

 Event characteristics
-relevance
-affective valence
-complexity
-functional value
-model’s characteristics
Intrinsic rewards

2. Retentional processes
 Observer characteristics
-cognitive skills
 Event characteristics
-cognitive organization
-cognitive rehearsal

3. Motor reproduction process

 Observer characteristics
-physical capabilities
-subskill mastery
 Event characteristics
-selection & organization of responses
-feedback
4. Motivational processes
 Observer characteristics
-incentive preference
-social bias
-internal standards

 Event characteristics
-external reinforcement
-self- reinforcement
-vivacious reinforcement

Emotional Intelligence- (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ), describes an
ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of one’s self, of others, and of
groups. As relatively new area of psychological research, the definition of EI is constantly changing.

The Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model

The El model instroduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL as wide array of competencies and skills
that drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater assessment and self-assessment ( Bradberry
and Greaves, 2005). In working with Emotional Intelligence (1998) Goleman explored the function of

18
EI on the job, and claimed EI to be the largest single predictor of success in the workplace, with more
recent confirmation of these findings on a worldwide sample seen in Bradberry and Greaves, “The
Emotional Intelligence Quick Book” (200%)

Goleman’s model outlines four main EI constructs:

Self-awareness- the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while using gut feelings
to guide decisions.

Self- management-involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to changing
circumstances.

Social awareness- the ability to sense, understand, and react to other’s emotions while comprehending
social networks.

Relationships management- the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict.

Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies
are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve
outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence
that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.

Moral Developmental Theory.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are places of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence
Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the
University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work if Jean Piaget and a fascination with
children’s reactions to moral dilemmas. He wrote his doctoral dissertation at the university in 1958,
outlining what are now know as his stages of moral development.

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)

1. Obedience and punishment orientation

2. Self-interest orientation
(What’s in it for me)

Level 2 (Conventional)

3. Interpersonal accord and conformity

(The good boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)

Level 3 ( Post- Conventional)

5. Social contract orientation

6. Universal ethical principles

19
 (Principled conscience)

Carol Gilligan- her fame rests primarily on in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s
Development (1982) in which she criticized Kohlberg’s research on the moral development of used
children. Which at the time showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development
than boys did. Giligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male, and
that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to a favor a principled way of reasoning that was more
common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on relations, which would be more amenable
to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise his scoring method as a result of Gilligan’s critique, after which
boys and girls scored evenly.

Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that
contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice.

Factors Affecting Development

The following are some major factors affecting the social and emotional development of children and
adolescents:

 Media
 Parenting
 Role Models
 Peer groups

Exceptional Development in the Area of Social Development

Leadership- the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute toward
the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members.

Juvenile Deliquency- Juvenile delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed
by persons who are (usually) under the age of eighteen and are still considered to be a minor. There is
much debate about whether or not such a child should be held criminally responsible foe his or her own
actions. There are many different inside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both
negatively and positively, some of which are as follows:

 Abandonment
 Social institutions
 Peer pressure

Affective and Mode Disorders- The mood or affective disorders are mental disorders that primarily
affect mood and interfere with the activities of daily living. Usually it includes major depressive disorder
(MDD) and bipolar disorder ( also called Manic Depressive Psychosis.

20
 FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING

Understanding Learning and Knowledge Acquisition

Definition of learning- is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills,
knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience.
It is therefore a relatively permanent change in behavior.

Other Definitions:

1. A process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result through practice of
interaction with and adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and Klausmeier)
2. The development of new associations as a result of experience ( Good and Grophy).
3. The modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental
experience.

Theories of Learning

A. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionis,/Associationism Theory:

Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response.

a. Law of effect
b. Law of exercise
c. Law of readiness

21
 B. Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov):
It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a response is attached to a stimulus
through the stimulus occurring just prior to he response so that the recurrence of the stimulus
will evoke or cause the response. (ex. Dog’s salivation experiment)

C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner)

Organism has to do something in order to get reward that is, it must operate on its environment.
 Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases
the likelihood of the recurrent of a particular type of response.
 Types of reinforcement:
-Positive Reinforcement: These reinforcers increase frequency.
-Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by their removal.
-Primary Reinforcement: food, water, sleep
-Secondary Reinforcement: money, grades, starts, tokens etc.

D. Social Learning Theory ( Albert Bandura) –plus emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.

E. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory- Gaining insight is a gradual processes of exploring analyzing and
restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived at.

F. Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm Wertheimer and Koffka)- The primary focus of this theory is on
PERCEPTION and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli,”The whole is more than the sum of
all its parts”

G. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory)- the behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External
forces).

H. Jerome Bruner’s Theory- Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism. Learning involves 3

simultaneously processes: acquisition transformation and evaluation.

I. Information processing Theory- The theory describes the psychological events in terms of
transformations of information form input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and
memory in the learning process.

Type of Learning:

a. Cognitive Learning- is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts.

b. Affective Learning- Involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions and acquisition of
attitudes
c. Psychomotor Learning- understanding the external world through the senses and muscles.

Cognitive and Meta-cognitive factors in Learning

Analogical Process and Transfer of Learning

22
The Theory of Transfer of Learning was introduced by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They
explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar
characteristics. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the learning task and the
transfer task being identical, also known as “identical elements. There is a close relationships between
transfer of learning and problem solving a problem in a new situation.

Type Characteristics
Near Overlap between situations, original and transfer
contexts as similar
Far Little overlap between situations, original and
transfer settings are dissimilar
Positive What is learned in one context enhances learning
in different setting
Negative Knowledge if a previous topic essential to acquire
new knowledge
Vertical Knowledge of previous topic is not essential to
acquire new knowledge
Horizontal Knowledge of a previous topic is not essential but
helpful to learn a new topic
Literal Intact knowledge transfers to new task
Figural Use some aspect of general knowledge to think or
learn about a problem
Low Road Transfer of well-established skills in almost
automatic fashion
High Road Transfer involves abstraction so conscious
formulations of connections between contexts
High Road/Forward Abstracting situations from learning context to a
Reaching Potential transfer context
High Road/Backward Abstracting in the transfer context features of a
Reaching Previous situation where new skills and
knowledge were learned

Metacogntion- refers to thinking about cognition ( memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.)
itself or to think/reason about one’s own thinking.

 Metacognition involves two types of knowledge: 1) explicit, conscious, factual knowledge, and
2) implicit/unconsciousness knowledge.
 The efforts of metacognition are aimed at developing learner autonomy, independence and self-
regulated learners.

Motivational Factors in Learning

Reward and Reinforcement

23
A reward is that which follows an occurrence of a specific behavior with the intention of acknowledging
the behavior in a positive way. A reward often has the intent of encouraging the behavior to happen
again.

There are two kinds of rewards, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are external to, or outside of, the
individual; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to or within, the individual; for
example, satisfaction or accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: on based on enjoyment, the other
on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation bases on what an individual thinks ought
to be done. For, instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond
what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

A reinforce is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in
the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious
external incentive present. A hobby is a typical example.

Intrinsic motivation has been intensely studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and
numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by
the students.

There us currently no”grand unified theory” to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation.
Most explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self-
efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Thus it is thought that students
are more like to experience intrinsic motivation if they:

Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (eg. The amount of effort they
put in, not fixed ability).

Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (eg. The results are not determined by
dumb luck).

Are motivated towards deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-learning performance to get good
grades.

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their
participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentoship or
giving back”. This model if intrinsic motivation has emerged from three decades of research by hundreds
of educationalists and still evolving.

In work environments, money is typically viewed as an important goal ( having food, clothes etc) may
well be more powerful than the direct motivation provided by an enjoyable worklace.

Learning styles vs. learning strategies.

24
Issues regarding learning style are somewhat related, i.e students that willing and able to think in more
abstract terms and/or to critically examine what they do may show better performance.

A learning style refers to the relationship between individuals and their ways of learning whereas
learning strategies refer to attitudes and behavior that is oriented towards goals . As an example, one
could compare/oppose.

Learning style Learning strategy

Self-assessment Self-assessment
Field-dependent Field- independent
Cognitive level Plus meta-cognitive level
Learner preference Learner competence

Socio-cultural Dimensions of Learning

Theories of Situated Learning

Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and Vygotsky ( social
learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfield on mathematical problem solving embodies some of the
critical elements of situated learning framework. Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge
acquisition. It has been applied in the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that
focus in problem-solving skills.

Principles of Situated Learning:

1. Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e, setting and applications that would
normally involve that knowledge
2. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.

Individual Differences in Learning

Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligence was developed in 1983 by Dr, Howard Gardner, professor of
education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligences to account for a
broader range of human potential inchildren and adults.

Learning Preferences

Visual/Verbal

Visual/Nonverbal

Tactile/Kinesthetic

Auditory Verbal

Characterizing Students with Special Learning Needs

25
An exceptional child is one that is different in some way form the” normal” ot”average” child. The term
“exceptional child” includes those with special problems related to physical disabilities, sensory
impairments, emotional disturbances, learning disabilities and metal retardation. Most exceptional
children require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if
they are to reach their full potential development.

SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Sociologist offer different theoretical perspective that are anchored on the concept that school is an open
system to explain the relationship between the school and the society. The diverse sociological
explanations enable educators to understand how the school, as a social institution of society, interacts
with social environment as they perform their important role in their unique way either as agents of
cultural and social transmission or as agents of social transformation.

The Nature of Education

Sociology provides educators as special perspective in studying the school and society. Schools, by their
nature are social organizations. Because of the nature of education, the study of school systems becomes
the concern of sociologists. Sociologist study the social issues and concerns in education which impact
on socialization.

The Role of Schools

Dr. Adelaida Bago, in her book Social Dimensions in the Philippine Education, stresses there are two
possible purpose or roles of schools:

1. There are those who believe that one role of the school is to educate citizens to fit into society
2. There are those who believe that the role of the school is to educate citizens to change the society

26
The Specific purposes of the school are the following:

a. Cognitive Purposes- teaching the basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and speaking.
b. Political Purposes- inculcation of patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order.
c. Social Purposes- concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various roles in society.
d. Economic Purposes- involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of work.

School as Open System

School are open systems that draw their inputs and send back their outputs to the environment. An open
system, like a living organism, has a homeostatic nature. Homeostasis is the property of open system to
regulate its internal environment to maintain stable constant condition. This is done through internal
regulation mechanisms of inter-related and interaction parts that counteract any departure from the
normal or usual.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

To provide logical explanations for why things happen the way they do in group situations, sociologists
make use of theoretical perspective. These theories also become the basis for analyzing curriculum,
instruction and structure in the school organization. The functionalist and Conflict Theories focus macro-
level sociological analysis, while the interaction theory focuses on the micro level analysis.

1. The Functionalist Theory- (other known as equilibrium theory). The key terms in of society.
Social equilibrium is achieved through the process of socialization of members into the basic
values norms of particular group so that consensus is reached. The different parts or members
of the society are interdependent grouped and organized to form a system.
a. Talcot Parsons- conceptualized society as a collection of systems within systems
(McLeland, 2000)
b. Emile Durkheim- believed that education plays a significant roles in creating, moral unity,
which is an imperative in social cohesion and harmony, Durkheim defined education and
the concerns of sociology as follows: “ Education is the influence exercised by adult
generations on those that are not yet ready for social life, its object is to arouse and to
develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral states which are
demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and special milieu for which he is
specifically destined..
2. Conflict Theory- assumes a tension in society and its part due to competing interest of
individuals and groups. Adherents of the theory argue that what holds society together is
economic, political, cultural, military power and note shared values alone. The social order is
based on the stability of dominant groups to impose their will on others who are powerless. The
Conflict theory is based on four interlocking concepts: competition, structural inequality,
revolution and war.
a. Karl Marx- the founder of the conflict school of thought believed that because the class
system separates the employers from workers and workers from the benefits of their own
labor, class struggle is inevitable. According to him inevitably the workers would overthrow

27
 the capatalists and establish a new society where the proletariat could freely avail of the
benefits of their labor.
b. Max Weber- the father of bureaucratic thought was convinced that although power relations
between dominant and powerless group shape society, class differences alone could not
fully explain the complex way human beings from hierarchies and belief systems and make
them work. Weber examined status cultures as well as class positions. According to him,
the main activity of schools is to teach particular “status cultures” both in and outside the
classroom
3. Interaction Theories- the focus of the interaction theory is the communication and the
relationship that exists among and between groups in education- peers, teachers, students,
teacher-principal and teacher- parents. The concern is to study the social-psychological
questions that impact on normative attitudes, values, aspirations and self –concepts of particular
groups that in return impact on the teaching- learning process.
a. Labeling Theory- this theory is related to expectations. For instance, in general the
expectations of significant others on the learners, determine to a large extent in the behavior
of students. To this extent, the processes by which students are labeled either as gifted or
learning disabled, fast or slow learner, smart or dumb, affect the quality as well as the extent
and speed of learning.
b. Exchange Theory- is based on the concept of reciprocity or”katugunan”. Reciprocal
interactions bind individuals ( teachers, students, parents, administrators) with obligations.
The consequences of interaction are rewards and benefits.

Interaction in Philippine Setting

Jocano (1998) proposed a social framework that could be used as basis for understanding the
relationships and interaction between and among groups in the Philippine education setting. The
Framework shows the interlocking and interfacing of relationships of kinship and family, socialization
practices and cultural themes that impact on the school system.

28
 SOCIAL
FRAMEWORK
SOCIALIZATION
Kinship
Family Personalized care
Parental
Obligations
Barkada
Personal

CULTURAL THEME

Sensitvity

 Culture- is the complex whole which includes the customs, beliefs, more, folkways of a certain
group of people.
 Education is transferring of culture
 Sub-Culture- specialized from culture practiced by a small group of people which shows
uniqueness compared to other groups.
 Norm- what is considered” normal” is basically based on the number of people practicing a
certain behavior.

Kinds of Groups

 Primary group
 Secondary group
 In group
 Out group
 Reference group
 Peer group
 Circle
 Gang

Types of Groups

 Integrated group- the members have common action in shared meanings and values
 Crowed- members act together on the basis of a shared emotion and feelings, as in religious
revival meetings, revolutionary mob or a panic.

29
  Audience or mass- members act together on the basis of a common attitudes without interaction
among members; like people at film showing.
 Public-this refers a number of people in some form of community come to a common agreement
who have common interest but do not necessarily come to a common agreement.

Social Institutions

Social Institution Defined:

According to Anthony Giddens, Social Institutions are” enduring features of social life”. It is a complex
of positions, norms and social relations performing a social role. Social institutions includes government,
families, and other groups of people with recognizable social interaction and norms of conduct.

Characteristics:

1. Social Purpose-institution satisfy social needs

2. Permanence-institution are relatively permanent
3. Enforcing rules and regulations- institution governs behavior
4. Promotes values- institution exerts social pressure regarding right conduct

Major Social Institutions

1. Family – is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity and co-residence. It is the

smallest social institution. One of the primary function of the family is to produce and reproduce
persons both biologically and socially (in cases of adoption).
a. Conjugal Family-includes the husband, wife, and children who are not of age yet.
b. Consanguinity Family- consist of a parent and his or her children, and other people.
c. Matrilocal Family- consists of a mother and her children
2. Education
Transmission of knowledge is the primary purpose of education. As a social institution school
has the following purpose.
1. Intellectual-schools teach basic knowledge and skills commonly known as the 3 Rs and
eventually developing their HOTS (higher order thinking skills)
2. Political-schools develop allegiance to the country and promotes patriotism
3. Social-schools develop person’s ability to interact with fellow human being
4. Economic-schools prepare the person to achieve suitable occupational endeavors.

3. Religion
According to Stark religion is the “socially defined patterns of beliefs concerning the ultimate
meaning of life; it assumes the existence of the supernatural”
Characteristics:
1. Belief in the higher being (deity)

30
 2. Doctrine of salvation
3. A code of conduct
4. Religious rituals
4. Government
A government is an institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of a society as well
as with regulating relations with other societies. In order to be considered a government, a ruling
body must be recognized as such by the people it purpose to govern.

Types of Government
a. Democracy
b. Monarchy
c. Authoritarianism
d. Totalitarianism

Social Problems- growing groups and countries experience various societal problem brought about by
various factors.

 Juvenile delinquency
 Crime
 Alcoholism
 Suicide
 Drug addiction
 Racial prejudice
 Industrial conflict
 Poverty
 Graft and corruption

Social Control- refers to the ways in which members of a society influence one another so as to maintain
social order.

 Informal Social Control

 Mores and folkways
 Expectations not written down but perceived and made known to him
 Pressure to conform
 Internalizing the values and attitudes of family
 Helping the child to understand and norms of the bigger group
 Desire for acceptance of the bigger group
 Formal Social Control
 Passage of law
 Formal mechanism to maintain control over the behavior of its members
 Tendency to level an individual who is out of line and gossip
 Curbing anti-social attitudes by disallowing privacy or ascribing undesirable status to
deviants.

Social process- sociologist have noted that social change occurs in patterns and these patterns are called
social process, this is also used to interpret social behavior.

31
Classification of Social Process

Competition- an impersonal attempt to gain scare and valued resources of wealth, land etc.

Conflict- involves the use of deliberate power

Accommodation-is the conscious adjustment and compromise among conflicting groups to live without
conflict

Assimilation-is the learning and acceptance by one group of the beliefs and values of another groups so
that they gradually become virtually indistinguishable.

Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is Learned
2. Pakikipagkapwatao
3. Family orientation
4. Joy and humor
5. Flexibility, adaptability, creativity
6. Hardwork and industry
7. Faith and religiosity
8. Ability to survive

Weakness of the Filipino Character

1. Extreme personalism
2. Extreme family centeredness
3. Lack of discipline
4. Passivity and lack of initiative
5. Colonial mentality
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection

PILLARS OF LEARNING

 The Four Pillars of Education all started with the report entitled” Learning the Treasure within”
of the International Commission of Education for the Twenty-first –Century chaired by Jacques
Delors in 1996. It was published by the UNESCO.
 The report itself provides new insights into education for the 21st century. It stresses that each
individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunities throughout life broaden one’s
knowledge, skills and attitudes, and adapt to a changing complex and interdependent world.

LEARNING TO KNOW

 Implies learning how to learn by developing one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to
think; acquiring the instrument of understanding.

32
  To learn to know, students need to develop learn-to-learn-skills. Such skills are learning to read
with comprehension, listening, observing, asking question, data gathering, note taking and
accessing, processing, selecting and using information
 The role of the teacher is as facilitator, catalyst, monitor and evaluator of learning.

LEARNING TO DO

 Represents the skillful, creative and discerning application of knowledge

 One must learn how to think creatively, critically and holistically, and how to deeply understand
the information that is presented.
 To perform a job or work, the learning to do must be fulfilled. This entails the acquisition of
competence that enables people to deal with a variety of situations, and to work in teams.

LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER

 Vital in building a genuine and lasting culture of peace in the world.

 Can be achieved by developing in understanding of others and their history, traditions and
spiritual values, and appreciation of interdependence.
 A wide range of skills is necessary for the pillar of education; self-control, handling emotions,
communication, interpretation of behaviors, critical thinking, relationship building and
cooperation, negotiation, mediation and refusal, problem solving and decision making.
 Teachers should help the students realize the value of being able to live together, in their
gradually enlarging world: home, school, community, city, town, province, country, and the
world as a global village.

LEARNING TO BE

 Dominant theme of Edgar Faure is report” Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and
Tomorrow”, published UNESCO
 If refers to the role of education in developing all the dimensions of the complete person: to
achieve the physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a
complete man. Pertains to the overall development of the human person as individual and a
member of the society

GENDER and DEVELOPMENT

In many countries where women still face discrimination, let us promote gender equality and
development between boys and girls in primary school. It is the 3rd UN Millennium Goal which aims to
eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and all levels of
education no later than 2015. Let us step up to empower women in access to education, work and
involvement in decision making.”

Gender and development or GAD is an approach on socially constructed basis of the difference between
men and women and emphasized the need to challenge the existing gender roles and relations.

Sex vs Gender

SEX GENDER

33
  Categorized as male or female  Masculinity and femininity
 Biological  Socially, culturally and historically
 Fixed at birth determined
 Does not change across time and space  Learned through socialization
 Equally  Varies over time and space
 Unequally valued (masculinity as the
norm

Socialization- is a process by which social norms, roles and expectations are learned and internalize.

Gender Socialization- is a process by which norms, roles and expectation in relation to gender are learned
by men and women.

Gender Stereotype-a form of prejudgment, bias or limitation given to roles and expectations of male and
females.

Channel of Socialization

1. Family
A. Manipulation
B. Canalization
C. Verbal Application
D. Activity Exposure
2. Church
3. Mass media
4. School
A. Instructional Language
B. Classroom Management
C. Instructional Materials

Cultural Dimensions of Learning

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

 A field of study and an emerging discipline whose major aim is to create equal opportunities
from diverse racial, ethnic, social class and cultural groups.
 The primary goal of multicultural education is to transform the school so that male and female
students, exceptional students, and students from diverse cultural social-class, racial, and ethnic
groups experience an equal opportunity to learn.

TEACHING IN MULTI CULTURAL CLASSES

 Multicultural education embodies a perspective rather than a curriculum. Teachers must

consider children’s cultural identities and be aware of their own biases

34
  Teachers and parents need to acknowledge the fact that we are inevitably influenced by the
stereotypes and one-sided view of society that exists in our schools and the media. Hence, we
must we recognized those biases and change the attitude they represent by accepting all children
as we receive them.
 OPPRESSION- (racism or biased attitudes) a problem in multi cultural classes vs OPPENESS-
developing as much effort to changing to learn about other’s culture, nurturing diversity by
making multicultural education a process of action.

LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATION

The educational system in terms of curriculum, instruction, structure and organization at any given
period of history is defined by organic laws, acts, and policies crafted by legal and educational experts
as well as national policy makers. These statutes provide direction and guidance to those involved in the
educational system.

NATIONAL COMMISSIONS

1. Monroe Survey (1925)- The work of the commission because the basis for reforms in
administrative organization and supervision, basic and higher education, teacher education and
training, language instruction, private education, finance and education of non-Christians. (
martin, 1980)
2. Swamson Survey (1959)- Two important recommendations of the Commission were the
restoration of grade 7 and the provision of higher financing for schools. (Martin, 1980)
3. PCSPE(1989)- Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education-recommendations of
the commission include:
1. Mismatch between educational priorities and national development priorities.
2. Lack of systemic planning and evaluation in education became the basis for major reforms.
4. EDCOM (1991) -Congressional Commission on Education-some of the radical changes that
came about as a result of the EDCOM report were: the creation of the independent Commission
on Higher Education (CHED), the professionalization of teachers through the creation of the
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET), the clear definition of career service paths for
teachers and administrators, the creation of the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority( TESDA).
5. PCER (1999)- Presidential Commission on Educational Reform- the recommendations of the
commission became the basis for the formulation of a package of policy and projects known as
the Higher Education Development Project ( HEDP)

SPECIFIC DECREES, ACTS &LAWS (Legalizing Philippine Education)

1. PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION OF BIAK NA BATO

35
 Article XV- The Secretary of Interior was to take charge among other duties, with the
advancement of the public instruction.
a. Elimination of the friar control over all or most aspects of education
b. Secularization of a universal system of primary education
c. Greater supervision and control higher education by the state
d. Implementation of a more modern and progressive educational system patterned ater
western models

2. THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION (1899 Constitution)

Article 23 not only contain instruction regarding the public schools; it also specifies the manner
by which private schools maybe established in order to provide more access to education to a
greater number of Filipinos. All primary education was offered free and compulsory in all
schools in the country as explicitly stated in the constitution.
“Any Filipino may establish and maintain institutions of learning, in accordance with the laws
authorizing them, Public Education shall be free and obligatory in all schools of the nation”

3. THE 1935 CONSTITUTION

Article XIV- provides ”All schools shall aim to develop moral character, personal discipline,
civic conscience, and vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship”
Article XIV, Sec 5; “All educational institution shall be under the supervision of a subject to
regulation by the state. The government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate
system of public education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction and
citizenship training to adult citizens.
The Japanese occupied the City of Manila in 1942. Subsequently, the Japanese dissolved the
National Government and replaced it with Central Administrative Organization of the Japanes
Army. The Japanese created the Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare with Claro
M. Recto as commissioner. The Bureau of Private Education supervised private schools and
colleges. The six basic principles of Japanese education basic principles of Japanese education
in the Philippines include the following as enumerated by Bago.
a. To make people understand the position of the Philippines as member of the EAST-ASIA
Co Prosperity Sphere.
b. To eradicate the old idea of the reliance upon the western nations especially upon the United
States and Great Britain, and to posters a new Filipino culture based on the self-
consciousness of the people as Orientals
c. To endeavor to evaluate the morals of the people, giving up the over emphasis on
materialism
d. To strive for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines and to terminate the
use of English in due course.
e. To put importance to the diffusion of elementary education and to the promotion of
vocational education.
f. To inspire the people with the spirit to love labor.

4. THE 1973 CONSTITUITION

36
 The 1973 constitution provided specific provisions on education in several sections that
demonstrates the important role assigned to education in creating the New Society. Section 8
of Article XV provides that: “All educational institutions shall, be under the supervision of an
subject to regulation by the state. The state shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate,
and integrated system of education relevant to the goals of the national development”.
Other education-related provisions are found in section 9 and 11.

5. THE FREEDOM CONSTITUTION OF 1986

Article XV, Section 8 contained the specific provisions on education. Thus the educational
system during the interim period was basically the same as the one operating under the Martial
Law.

6. THE 1987 CONSTITUTION

Section 17 of the Constitution states:” The state shall give priority to education, science and
technology, arts, culture, and sports to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social
progress, and promote total human liberation and development”
This general principle was defined in sections 1-5 of article IV on Education, Science and
Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports Education.

7. THE ROYAL EDUCATIONAL DECREE OF 1863

In an attempt to correct the existing deficiencies in education, the Royal Educational decree of
1863 was promulgated. The main objective of the decree was to establish a system of elementary
schools for the country and to provide training for teachers in order to “broaden as much as
possible the teaching of the Holy Catholic Faith, of the language of the fatherland, and of the
elementary knowledge of life.”

8. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1901

In 1901, a few years after the establishment of the American Rule in the country, the Philippines
Commission passed the first comprehensive school law for the Philippines.
The main objective of the Educational Act of 1901, which is also known as Philippine
Commission Act no.74 and considered as the “ Organic school law of the Philippines” was to
establish a highly centralized educational system in the country.
9. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1940

The educational act of 1940 during the Commonwealth period ushered a new era in educational
history. The primary aim of the act was”to meet the increasing demand for public elementary
instruction at the same time comply with the constitutional mandate on public education.

10. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1982

The act provides for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system of education
(both formal and non-formal) relevant to the goals of national development. In recognition of
the right of every individual to have equal access to relevant quality education. The act defines
the structure of the forma education consisting of elementary , secondary and tertiary levels as
well as delineates the objectives of each category.

37
11. THE PHILIPPINES BILINGUAL POLICY (BEP)
The policy provided an operational definition of Bilingual Education in the Philippines, which
is the separate use of Filipino and English as the media of instruction in specific subject area. (
as reiterations of DECS order No. 25 of 1974- Implementing Guidelines for the policy on
Bilingual Education

12. FREE PUBLIC SECONDARY ACT OF 1988

The act established and provided for a free public secondary education to all qualified citizens.

13. THE HIGHER EDUCATION ACT OF 1994

The act created the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) which is independent and
separate form DECS.

14. TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ACT OF 1994

This Act (R.A. No. 7796) which is also known as the TESDA Act of 1994, created the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority, providing for its powers, structure and for other
purposes. The general aim of the Act is to provide”relevant, accessible, high quality and efficient
technical education and skills development in support of the development of high quality
Filipino middle-level manpower responsive to and in accordance with Philippine development
goals and priorities”.

15. HIGHER EDUCATION MODERNIZATION ACT OF 1997

Otherwise known as R.A. 8292. This act provides among others for the uniform composition
and powers of the governing boards of state universities and colleges, with the chairman of
CHED as the chair of the governing boards of all SUCs.

16. AN ACT TO LENGHTHEN THE SCHOOL CALENDAR

Under this act, the school year shall start on the first Monday of June but not later than the last
day of August. In the implementation of this act, the Secretary of Education shall determine the
end of the regular school year, taking into consideration the Christmas and summer vacations,
and the particular circumstances of each region.
17. GOVERNANCE OF THE BASIC EDUCATION ACT OF 2001

This act contains provision that are also found in the educational act of 1982 regarding the
organizational structure of the educational bureaucracy. The important provision of this act is
the remaining of the department of education, culture and sports to the department of education

PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

38
 Learning is not a function of the mind alone but of the total person which is the overreaching
principle of holistic education, that is, to provide learning opportunities for the development of
the physical, intellectual, psychomotor, character and social development of human beings.

Definition of Holistic Education

The concept of holistic education, based on a spiritual/philosophical orientation’s encapsulated
in the Primer for 2002 Basic Education Curriculum:
“The Department of Education envisions every learner to be functionally literate, equipped with
life skills, appreciative of the arts and sports, and imbued with the desirable values of a person
who is makabayan (patriotic), makatao (mindful of humanity), makakalikasan ( res-pecful of
nature) and maka-diyos (godly).

Purpose of Holistic Education

The purpose of holistic education is to prepare students to meet the challenges of living as well
as schooling. To ensure holistic education, it is important for young people to learn a variety of
human concerns which include knowing and understanding about the following: (Holistic
Education, 2003)
1. Themselves
2. Healthy relationships with others
3. Social development
4. Resilience
5. Beauty, truth and transcendental experience

Cognitive Development

Cognition represents the manner by which a human being acquires, stores, processes and uses
information about the internal and external environment.

Three famous cognitive psychologists:

1. Jean Piaget- considered the development of the intellect according in four sequential stages that
form a continuum of mental processes which increasingly become more sophisticated as the
individual grows and develops.
2. Jerome Bruner- like Piaget. Bruner considered intellectual development as taking place in
stages, from the simple to the complex. According to Bruner, human beings represent in their
minds the world around them based on the cognitive level they are in at a particular point in
time, however, unlike Piaget, Bruner did not consider cognitive levels as age-bound.
3. Lev Vygotsky- on the other hand, he focused on the important role of language and social
interaction in cognitive development. To Vygotsky, it is necessary to understand the
interrelations between thought and language, in order to understand intellectual development.

Social Emotional Development

39
Social emotional development, like cognitive development is the product of interaction between the
biological and environmental factors. The social dimension refers to the interaction with others, while
the emotional refers to feelings about oneself.

Age
Trust vs Mistrust Stage 0-11 year HOPE
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt 2-3 years WILL POWER
Initiative vs Guilt 4-5 years PURPOSE
Industry vs Inferiority 6 age of puberty COMPETENCY
Industry vs Identity Diffusion 13-20 age of adolescence FIDELITY
Intimacy vs Isolation Over 20, young adult LOVE
Generativity vs Self- Absorption Adulthood CARE
Integrity vs Despair Mature adulthood WISDOM

Eric Erikson is known for “identity crisis”. He formulated a theory of social-emotional development
based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy and dealings with children and adolescents from all
social class levels. He proposed that socialization consists of “the eight stages of man” each stage
involves a “psycho- social crisis”.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg, proposed six stages of moral development. The first three of which share many
features with the stages in the Piagetian model. He believes that moral development tales place through
a series of six under three levels of development:

1. Pre-Conventional Level
a. Stage 1-Obedience and Punishment Orientation
b. Stage 2- Self-interest Orientation ( individualism, instrumentation and exchange)
2. Conventional Level
c. Stage 3- Good boy/Good Girl Orientation (interpersonal accord and conformity)
d. Stage 4- Law and Order Orientation (authority and social-order maintaining)
3. Post-Conventional Level
e. Stage 5- Social Contract Orientations
f. Stage 6- Principled Conscience Orientations

Taxonomy of the Affective Domain

Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia ( 1956) developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain.
Affective phenomena run through from simple behaviors to increasing more complex ones that require
organization and characterization or internalization

40
 CHARACTERIZATION

ORGANIZATION

VALUING

RESPONDING

RECEIVING

(adapted from Krathwohl, D. Bloom, B, and Masia, B. (1964 ) Taxanomy of Educational Objectives)

Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain

Holistic education not only involves the development of the cognitive and affective domains. It also
involves the development of the psychomotor domains which pertain to physical movement, perceptual
abilities and non-verbal communication. Harrow ,A.J. developed a taxonomy of objectives for
psychomotor with six categories:

1. Reflex Movements- this includes segmental reflexes.

2. Fundamental Movements- this include walking, running, jumping..etc.
3. Perceptual Abilities-.this include kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile and coordination.
4. Physical Abilities- involve endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, and dexterity.
5. Skilled Movements- these are the movements necessary in games, sports, dances and the arts.
6. Non-Discursive Communications- these relate to expressive movements through posture,
gestures, facial expressions and creative movement.

HISTORICAL DIMENSION OF EDUCATION

Education is as old as life itself. No one can present an accurate account concerning the origin of
education. There are 2 opposing school of thoughts when it comes to origin of education.

1. Evolutionist – education started form primitive people

2. Creationist- education started from Adam and Eve

Modern day education owes much of it system to the institutions established by the ancient civilizations
of China, India, Israel, Egypt, Greece and Rome

41
Chinese Education

 Chinese are descendants from the rivers banks of Huang Ho and Yangtze River.
 Aimed at selecting and training people for public services.
 Emphasis on modeling a person’s character and moral values.
 Believed that government has responsibility to provide education
 Centered on the mastery of Chinese language and classical literature particularly the work of
Confucius ( the first teacher in China).
 Analects- the most revered Chinese classical literature which contains the sayings of Confucius.

Egyptian Education

 Egyptians were polytheist people (worshippers of many gods)

 Pharaohs were considered their god and king
 Priest and scribes were teachers of noble class
 Parents were teachers of lower class or fellahin
 Education was highly practical and empirical
 They devised a system of picture writing called hieroglyphics.
 Provide the modern world with the basic foundation of education, art, music, literature,
mathematics, engineering, architecture, astronomy, geography, geology, medicine etc.

Greek Education

 Ancient Greece was divided into several Poleis (small city-states)

 Greeks were mixture of Germanic and Aryan stock ( strong race)
 Sparta and Athens were two or more popular poleis
 Constant struggle between Sparta and Athens resulted in Peloponnesian War which lasted for
27 years.

Spartan Education

 Sparta was the largest polis

 Purely military city-state
 Mothers functioned as state nurses
 At age 7 boys were turned over to Paidonomus- a military commander who cared for boys until
age 18
 Boys stayed with the paidonomoud until
 At 18 boys prepare for the military training
 At 20 get assigned for actual war
 At 30 they are compelled to many
 Girl’s education was limited to the instructions given by their mothers
 Because of their system, there was no famous Spartan

Athenian Education

42
  Men sana en coporesano’(sound mind sound body) . This is the ultimate aim of Athenian
education
 Democratic form of living, democracy is the lasting legacy of Athens to the world
 Athens preserved the family
 All schools were private
 Boys were separated from girls
 Form-0-7 yr old, boys stayed at home received training form Paidogogus ( an educated slave)
 Palaestra- a public gymnasium were boys had their physical training under a Paedotribe
 Pentathlon (running, jumping, discus, javelin and wrestling
 Kitharistes- music teacher, teaches poetry like lliad and Odyssey
 Grammarian-Writing teacher
 At 18 if Athenian boy finished his training he will be called an Ephebos ( novice citizen), after
 The Sophist ( New Class of Teachers)
Sophist were well traveled men who were mostly non-citizen of Athens, they offered new
perspective in learning through declamation and oration, grammar, rhetoric, critical and
reflective thinking.

Protagoras- Chief of the Sophist

The 3 Great Educational Theorists

1. Socrates-he postulated” know thyself” and accepted the fundamental principles of Protagoras
that man is the measure of all things
2. Plato –wrote the “Republic”, he advocated a government which he termed Aristorcratic
Socialism (philosophical king, warrior and artisan)
3. Aristotle- father of modern sciences

Greek Universities

1. Rhetorical Schools ( founded by Sophists)

2. Philosophical Schools
a. Academy- founded by Plato
b. Lyceum- founded by Aristotle
c. School of Stoics- by Zeno
d. Epicurean-by Epicurus
3. Combined Rhetorical and Philosophical School
a. University of Athens-most teachers were Sophist supported by Athenian Government bust
disappeared when Constantine declared Christianity as official religion
4. School Outside Greece- University of Alexandra (Egypt) Built in honor of Alexander the Great
Famous Alumni- Euclid (geometry), Erastosthenes ( Geography and Astronomy), Archimedes
( Physics)

Roman Education

43
 Pragmatic education-strived to find practical application of the knowledge they acquired and
activities they pursued.
a. Early Roman Education (home based education)
b. Hellenized Roman education- started when Rome’s contact with Greek civilization then
finally conquering Greece.

Stages of Roman Education:

1. Elementary (7-10)= Literator

2. Secondary (10-16)=Gramaticus
3. Higher Education (16 up)=Rhetorical

Medieval Education

 Medieval education started when the roman empire fell around 400 Ad
 Christianity was declared as the official religion of the state by Constantine the Great, therefore
Catholics grew in number and power
 Hierarchy of Church in Middle ages:
1. Pope-leader of the church and held office in Rome
2. Cardinal
3. Archbishop
4. Bishop
5. Priest/Clergy

Movements During Middle Ages

1. Monasticism-advocated by St. Benedict. They were called ”monks” and stayed in monasteries
which serve as repositories of classical literature.
2. Scholasticism-“Education as an intellectual discipline.
Anseim- Father of Scholasticism
Abelard- One of the famous schoolmen
St. Thomas Aquinas= wrote “Summa Theolagiae” (official doctrine of Catholic Church)

Early School During Middle Ages

 Catechumenal School- “catechumens” are new converts, they held their classes in small
churches
 Catechetical School- for in-depth training in religion
 Episcopal/Cathedral School-organized by bishop to train clergy

The Medieval University

 The most important contribution of the middle ages

 The first universities focused on teaching medicine

44
  University of Napes (the first organized university

Composition of Medieval University

1. Studium Generale ( entire studentry)

2. Nation (students and teachers who came from same place of origin)
3. Councilor (leader of Nation)
4. Facultas (teachers who teaches the same subjects
5. Dean (leader of Facultas)
6. Rector (chosen by councilors and facultas)

Degree Offered by Medieval University

 At 13 to 14, a boy may enter a university and study Liberal Arts

 At 21 teach younger boys
 At 25 write thesis
 If the students pass the thesis defense he will receive Licential Docebdi
 Remaissance Period (the peak of Arts and Sciences)- Renaissance is considered the start of
modern period
 Reformation Period- Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses containing the abuses of the church to
the door pos of his church.
 Counter Reformation= to win back protestants, the pope assigned 3 congregations to head
counter-reformation.
1. Brothers of Christian School (founded by St. La Salle)
2. Society of Jesus ( founded by St. Francis of Loyola)
3. Jansenites ( founded by St. Cyrene)

Notable Names in Education

 Socrates-“know thy self”

 Plato-wrote the “Republic”
 Aristotle-Father of Modern Sciences
 Ciero-Wrote the “Oratore”
 Quintillian-Wrote” Institution Oratoria” he was a famous Grammaticus
 Anselm-father of scholasticism
 Abelard- spearheaded Conceptualism
 St. Thomas Aquinas- “wrote” Summa Theolgiae”
 Erasmus- suggested that education be in accordance with the needs of society, he was a humanist
who advocated the importance of studying the character of the child
 Ascham- wrote the “Schoolmaster” condemning brutal punishment in English schools during
his time.
 John Amos Comenius- father of modern education, he wrote the first picture book”Orbis
Senualium Pictus”
 Mulcaster-said that” Education should be in accordance with nature”

45
  John Locke-“tabula rasa’ ( blank sheet)
 John Jacques Rosseau-wrote”Emile” (Education should be in accordance with the nature of the
child)
 Pestallozzi- defined education as natural ,symmetrical and harmonious development of the
faculties of the child
 Herbart- conceived education as aimed towards the development of morality and virtue. He is
famous for the Herbatian Method in psychology
 Froebel-father of kindergarden
 John Dewey- “Education is not preparation for life, it is life”
 St.John Baptiste de la Salle- patron saint of teachers
 Maria Montessori-advocated the child- centered education and prepared environment

ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY

CONFUCIANISM

 Had its beginning in the teachings of Confucius but the following sages took the lead in building
its formulation. Mencius and Hzun-Tzu.
 Confucius is the Latinized name for Kung-Fu-Tzu-Fu-Tzu. tze which means master, is a polite
suffix added to the names of most of the philosophers during the Chou Dynasty.
 Confucius was the founder of the Ju School which was known in the west as the Confucian
School.
 The Ju or Confucian School emphasized matters concerning human-heartedness and
righteousness and the six liberal arts commonly translated as Liu Yi or the Six Classics namely:
 Yi Ching or the Book of Changes
 Shi-Ching or the Book of Odes
 Shu-Ching or the Book of History
 Li-chi or the Rituals and Rites
 Chu’unCh’iu or the Book of Spring and Autumn Annals
 The primary goal of Confucius was not just to make his” disciples” to ne well versed of the
Classics but to be”rounded men”, useful to the state and the society. Thus, he taught them
various branches of knowledge (ancient cultural history, interpretations baed on his moral
concepts) based on the different Classics.
 Confucius’philosophy is HUMANISTIC. It occupies mainly with HUMAN RELATIONS and
VIRTUE. This, his concept of the Yi (Righteousness) and Jen (human heartedness).
 Counfucianist’s great virtue were: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, sincerity and
harmony.
 Confucious’ Ideas
 His Ethics is based upon the nature of man and society’
 For him MAN is essentially a social being; he is the main component of a society (made
by the individuals who compose it and the interaction they have each other)
 A MORAL man is the cooperating member of the society.
 The measures of the man’s life is not ”how long” but “how good”.

46
  All men desire happiness and in order to achieve it everyone’s goal must be to make
each other happy.
 The secret of his mark in history is based on the great emphasis on the Supremacy of
HUMAN VALUES. WISDOM is to KNW men; VIRTUE is to LOVE men”.
 A government is GOOD when it make its people happy
 The government should bring about welfare and happiness of the whole people.
 A good government must be administered by the most capable men of the country- those
who have the CHARACTER and KNOWLEDGE.
 Character and knowledge were produced by PROPER EDUCATION

CONFUCIANISM: DOCTRONE OF JEN

 Jen or benevolence is the central thesis of his whole system- his ethic, politics and his life ideal-
flowed from this; this is the PERFECT and SUPREME VIRTUE.
 The Jen stresses correct procedure fir human relations-proper way for men to meet each others
leading to positive efforts for the good of others.
 A man of Jen is man of all around virtue
 Jean is the Confucian ideal of:
 Cultivating human relations
 Developing human faculties
 Sublimating one’s personality
 Upholding human rights
 To achieve Jen one must practice the Chung and the Shu (the Principle of Reciprocity).
 Chung- means faithfulness; a state of the mind when one is completely honest with himself
 Shu- means altruisn; it is regard for the others; a state of mind when one has complete
understanding and sympathy with the outside world, the opposite of selfishness.

CONFUCIANMISM DOCTRINCE OF YI

 Literally,Yi means righteousness

 The concept of Yi is the one that upholds man’s conduct
 It is the highest principle embodied in the activities of mankind
 CONFUCIANIS
 Spirit of confucianis
 Confucianism is not a Religion but a Philosophy and a system of Ethics. Confucianism
emphasizes human relationships- how to live in harmony with others. Man’s personality reflects
itself in his actions and behavior in the five relationships:
a. Governmental (King and Subject)
b. Parental (Father and Son)
c. Conjugal ( Husband and Wife)
d. Fraternal ( Elder Brother and Younger Brother)
e. Friendship ( Friend and Friend)

On Ethics

47
  Confucianism upholds (5) constant virtues:
1. Human heartedness (jen)
2. Righteousness (yi)
3. Propriety (li)
4. Wisdom (chin)
5. Sincerity (hsin)
 Chinese Ethical Principles or Doctrine of Social Norms
 This is the most significant contribution of Confucianism in the Chinese civilization.
 It stresses that every man is encouraged to practice filial piety and fraternal love. This action
when extended to a larger social group would mean regulation of the family and also the good
government of the state. This could translate to PEACE in the world.
 Doctrine of the Social Status or the Rectification of Names
 Refers to the idea of the position of man among men;that every man must be in his
proper place and with is proper responsibilities and duties.
 Every name contains certain implications which constitute the essence of that class of
things to which the name applies.

MENCIUS

 Mencius represents the IDEALISTIC Wing of Confucianism.

 He is famous f9e his theory on The Original Goodness of Human Nature
 Human nature is neither good or bad
 Human nature can either be good or bad
 The nature of some men is food while the other is bad
 Human nature is good
 For him, he proof of the original goodness of human nature is COMMISERATION. This feeling
where man cannot bear to see the suffering of others.
 Four (4) Elements that what makes man, MAN
1. The Feeling of Commiseration- the beginning of human heartedness (jen)
2. The Feeling of Shame and Dislike-the beginning of righteousness (yi)
3. The Feeling of Modesty and Yielding- the beginning of propriety (li)

Mencius’ Political Philosophy

 Man is a political animal

 Man can fully developed these relationships only within state and society
 Concerned on having GOOD Government-depends on the good example of the ruler.
 Curriculum emphasizes on social reforms as the aim of education. It focuses on student
experience and taking social actions on real problems.
 Method of teaching incude the problem oriented type (student are encouraged to critically
examine cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry, dialogues, interactions and community-
based learning
 The classroom will serve as a laboratory in experiencing school practices-bringing the world
into the classroom.

48
 TEACHING PROFESSION

THE TEACHER AND SOCIETY

49
Philosophical Background

Teachers are heirs to a rich philosophical heritage. Passed on to us are a number of philosophies of
various thinkers who believed before us. These thinkers reflected on life in this planet. They occupied
themselves by searching for answers to questions about human existence.

Five Philosophies of Education

Essentialism: Main proponent-William Bagley

Progressivism: “Education is nor preparation for life” Main proponent-John Dewey

Perennialism:Main proponent- Robert Hutchins

Existentialism:Existence precede essence” Main proponent- Jean Paul Sarte

Behaviorism: Main proponent-John Watson

Introduction

Man by nature is curious. He wants to know the “whatness, whyness, and howness” of the things around
him. It is in the exploring of things that he finds fulfillment for the numerous complexities that confront
him. The eagerness to look for more answers or find solution to manifolds problems that beset him leads
him to the undending journey of seeking for truth. Truly , this manifests the true desire of man which is
to know. It affirms not only his essence, his rationality. It is also a fulfillment of his purpose to keep the
truth and pass it from one generation to another so as to preserve humanity.

Ideas flow from the human mind eternally. It is in the ideas that the truth lies. Undending as the ideas
are, the more the need for a man to harness and cultivates it to perfection. Ideas that are not nourished
and protected will not just prevent man in possessing the truth but it will also deprive him a taste of his
rationality. Hence , ideas must and should be at all times shine in luster of naturalness, profound by
simplicity and contain true and real meaning.

The truth in the ideas must be preserved in as much as man wants to preserve the gift of knowledge and
wisdom that it brings. And delicate as it is, it should be protected from all forms of deterioration and
artificialities. Presented it maybe in various ways, the real meaning must be conveyed at all times.

It is Philosophizing that the ideas can be best presented and conveyed. This can be best enhanced through
proper education. Since then philosophy and education complement and work hand-in-hand in the
acquisition of knowledge and the preservation of Truth. True enough, one can say then that Philosophy
is knowledge and Education is the most essential tool of philosophy in the search for wisdom and truth.

Man and Philosophy

The ultimate aim of man is to possess for the Truth. The process ends not in the search but in the
possession of the truth. It is in his capacity to think, to rationalize that the responsibility of philosophizing

50
is realized. It is but proper then to have a closer look on the man and a glimpse of what philosophy is,
so that we can fully understand the meaning of our search for the truth and the desire to possess it.

Definition of Man

The quest for the truth is the ultimate goal of man. There is no way but up, the goal is to achieve it. Thus,
man is defined vertically as Rational Animal.

Innate in man is the desire to be with his fellow beings. It is in his relationship with others that fulfillment
of another dimension of his rationality is achieved. Time and time, it has been proven that man cannot
live by himself alone. The need to share himself with others-share his innermost thoughts, feelings,
experiences and unravel the kind of person he is-is a must fully realize the aspect of being political
animal. Hence , the aim to develop a relationship not only with him spreads to other beings. Here he
develops friendship, camaraderie, companionship with other fellow beings. He grows and finds
fulfillment with them. This, man is defined horizontally as a SOCIAL or POLITICAL ANIMAL.

Being rational and social or political animal are not enough to realize the value of man. Another aspect
must also be present, functionality. Man is created for a certain reason or purpose. He has a role to
perform in order to preserve him and all other beings. He is the steward of the world. In this regard, man
should work. Hence man is defines as a Working Animal.

Relationship of Philosophy and Education

While philosophy establishes the fundamental principles (concepts, theories, learning). It is Education
that carries out these principle. Furthermore, it is Philosophy that provides the goal or aims while
Education is the instrument in realizing these goals.

Philosophy and Education complement each other. Both of them spouse theory and practice. The
absence of one of the one will make a man insufficient and aimless.

Philosophy of Education

Naturalism
 Rooted from Ancient Philosopher such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes
 Denies everything that has supernatural significance-dogmas/revelations-for all can
only be found through nature
 Preserves the natural goodness of man
 Truth can only be found nature
 Advocates: J.J. Russeau, John Lock, Montaigne
 On Education
 Naturalism stands for democratic and universal way-everyone must be educated
in the same manner.
 Education is in accordance to human development and growth

51
  Emphasis is given more on the physical development- informal exercise-and
hygiene of the person rather of the 3R’s
 Aims to unfold the child’s potential not to prepare him for a definite vocation
or social position-but to prepare him to adapt to the changing times and needs.
Consequently, ones conduct is governed by impulse, instinct and experience.
 It puts the child at the center of educational process and prepares him to
experience life as it is.

Idealism

 Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths for matter is nothing but just a mere
representation of ideas.
 Emphasis is given on knowledge obtained by speculation and reasoning for its central tenet is
that ideas are the only thing worth knowing for.
 Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in order to attain truth. This includes the activities
pertinent to the human mind such as introspection and intuition and the use of logic.
 Advocates: Socrates, Plato
 On Education.
 Its aim is to discover the full potentials in child and cultivates it in order to prepare him
for a better position in the society and for him to serve the society better.
 Emphasis is given on subjects-philosophy, literature, religion and history that will
develop and enhance the mind of a child
 Methods used in teaching include lecture, discussion and the Socratic dialogue.
 Character development is through emulation of examples and heroes.

Realism

 Concerns with the actualities of life, what is real.

 Ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. Hence, reality is independent of the human
mind.
- Objective existence of the world and beings in it
- Knowability of these objects as they are in themselves
 Advocates: Aristotle, St. Thomas and Jonathan Herbart
 On Education:
- The most effective way to find about reality is to study it through organized, separate and
systematically arranged matter- emphasis is on subject matter concerning Science and
Mathematics
- Methods used in teaching include recitation, experimentation and demonstration
- Character development is through training in the rules of conduct

Existentialism

 Rooted from the dehumanization of man by technology and reaction to the traditional
Philosophy of Kant and Hegel
 Defining feature is “ existence precede essence”

52
 - Man conceives and makes of himself
 Known as the Philosophy of Subjectivity
- Proclaims man’s freedom in the accomplishment of his destiny
 Conceives philosophy as something that is human life and the choice that each person has to
make.
 Advocates: Soren Kierkegaard, Jean Paul Sarte
 On Education:
- Subject matter is a personal choice
- Learning is based on the willingness of the student to choose and give meaning to the subject
- Emphasis is given on the students rather than on curriculum content
- Students should not be treated as objects measured or standardized
- Methods are geared on giving opportunities for the students for self actualization and self
direction.
- Character development is through the personality of every individual in making a decision.

Essentialism

 Rooted in idealism and realism and arose in response to progressive education

 Defining feature is ”essence precedes existence”
 Refers to the traditional or back to basic approach in education
 Concerns with the fundamental of education skill and knowledge without which a person can’t
either be efficient individually or socially
 Advocates: William Bagley, James Koerner, H.G. Rickover, Paul Copperman
 On Education:
-schooling is practical for this will prepare students to become competent and valuable members
of the society.
- Focuses on the “basics”-reading, writing, speaking and the ability to compute (arithmetic)
Subjects that are given emphasis include geography, grammar, reading, history, mathematics,
art and hygiene
-Stresses the values of hard work, perseverance, discipline, and respect to authorities to students.
-Students should be taught to think logically and systematically-grasping not just the parts but
the whole (entirely)
-Methods of teaching centers on giving regular assignments, drills, recitation, frequent testing
and evaluations.

Pragmatism

 What is experienced and observed is true. Hence, what is useful is true.

 Synonymous to functionality and practicality
 Focuses more on praxis’
 Thought must produce actions (realization) rather than continue lying inside the mind and
leading into uncertainty
 Advocates: Charles Sanders Peicer, John Dewey

53
  On Education:
- Involves students to work in groups
- Methods of teaching include experimentation, project making and problem solving
- Stresses on the application of what have learned rather than the transfer of the organized
body of knowledge

Perennialism

 The word itself means” eternal”, ageless, everlasting, unchanged’

 Influenced by the philosophy of realism
 Truth is universal and does not depend on circumstances of place, time and person.
 To learn means to acquire understanding of great works of civilizations
 Advocates: Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler
 On Education:
- Some ideas in the past are still taught because they are significant
- Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationally, morality, aesthetic
and religious principles. This includes history, language, mathematics, logic, literature,
humanities and science.
- Curriculum must be based on recurrent themes of human life for it views education as
recurring process based on eternal truths
- The teacher must have the mastery of the subject matter and authority in exercising it.
- Aims for education of the rational person- to develop man’s power of thought
- The central aim of this philosophy

Humanism

 Rooted in the economic and political changes during the Renaissence period
 Has three main lines of growth:
-intellectual (includes Education
-Aesthetic
-Scientific
 Divisions:
1. Individualistic Humanism
- Making the most out one’s life
- Living life to the fullest
- Stresses on individual freedom, culture and development
2. Social Humanism
- Aims for social rather than individual happiness
- Includes social reforms and improvement of social relationships
 Advocates: Da Feltre, Erasmus, Pestalozzi
 On Education:
- Education is a process and should not be taken abruptly. The unfolding of human character
proceeds with the unfolding f nature
- The learner should be in control of his destiny

54
 - Concern is more on methods which include theme writing rather than of oral discussions,
drills and exercises, playing.
- Asserts the importance of playing in the curriculum
- Emphasizes motivations and the use of praise and rewards
- Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary appreciation, physical education, social
training in manners and development

Progressivism

 Contrasted the traditional view of essentialism and perinnialism

 Emphasizes change and growth
 Stresses that man is a social animal who learns well through active interplay with others
 Learning is based from the questions of one’s experience of the world. Hence, it is the learner
himself if who thinks, solves and gives meaning through his individual experience.
 Proponent: John Dewey
 On Education:
- Focuses on the child as a whole rather than of the content or the teacher
- Curriculum content comes from the questions and interests of the students
- Emphasis is given on the validation of ideas by students through active experimentation
- Methods of teaching include discussions, interaction (teacher with students) and group
dynamics
- Opposes the extreme reliance on bookish method of instruction, learning through
memorization, the use of fear and punishment and the four (4) walled philosophy of
education

Nationalism

 Rapid rise was in the 18th century

 Center of ideology is the concept of national sovereignty
 Aims for the preservation and glorification of the State
 Emphasis is on the development of loyalty, patriotism, national feeling and responsible
citizenship
 Advocates: Jonathan Herbart, Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi
 On Education:
- The most important development was the creation of common language
- Stresses on the teaching of the principles of democracy and duties of citizenship
- Stimulates the development of the state which includes the control and support of public
school system
- Curriculum includes the teaching of grammar, geography and history
- Method of teaching gives emphasis on the content regarding on nature studies, physical
exercises and play activities.

Constructivism

55
  A philosophy of learning which asserts that reality does exist outside of human conceptions. It
is the individual that construct reality by reflecting on his own experience and gives meaning to
it.
 Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new experience

Reconstructivism

 A philosophy that aims to awaken the consciousness of individual about the social issues,
concerns and problems that comfort him. This should involve him to look for solutions and
engage in addressing this social concerns and issues
 Primary goal is to achieve the elusive Social Change.
 Advocates: Theodore Brameld, George Counts, Paulo Friere
 On Education:
- Schools should originate policies and progress that will bring social reforms and others
- Teachers should be an instrument to encourage and lead students in program of social
reforms
- Curriculum emphasis on social reforms as the aim of education. It focuses on student
experience and taking social actions on real problems.
- Method of teachings include the problem oriented type ( students are encouraged to
critically examine cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry, dialogues, interactions and
community-based learning.
- The classroom will serve as a laboratory in experimenting school practices bringing the
world into the classroom.

Behaviorism

 Rooted in the work of Russian experimental psychologist Ivan Pavlov and American
psychologist John Watson in the early 1990’s
 Asserts that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment
 The only reality is the physical world
 Man by nature is neither good nor bad but a product of his environment. Hence, an autonomous
acting man is but an illusion since it negates the faculty of freewill
 Advocates: John Watson, B.F. Skinner

Other’s ISM’s

Utilitarianism

- Actions are geared toward the greatest total amount of happiness that one can achieved

56
Rationalism

- Source of knowledge is the mind, independent of the senses

Empriricism

- Source of knowledge is the sense-based experience

Experimentalism

- Form empiricism and asserts that they only reliable form of knowledge is gained through
scientific experiments

Hedonism

- Pleasure is the only good thing to the person

- Used as a justification in evaluating action by giving emphasis on ’how much’ pleasure can
be achieved and how little pain that the action entails

Epicurianism

- Considers as a form of ancient hedonism, it identifies pleasure with tranquility and reduction
of desire
- Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple and moderate life.

Moral Principles of Teachers

Morality refers to the quality of human acts by which we call them right or wrong, good or evil

 “Do good and avoid evil” ( Fundamental Moral Principle)

 “Do not do unto others what you do not like others do to you” (Kung-fu.tzu)
 Act in such a way that your rule can be the principle of all ( Immanuel Kant)
 Eight Fold Path (Buddists)
 Koran and Five Pillars ( Muslims)
 Ten commandments and Beautitudes ( Christian)

As teachers, we are expected to be a person of good moral character as exempliefied by being human,
loving, virtues; and mature.

Teachers values Formation

Values are taught and caught.

Values have cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions

57
Value formation includes formation in the cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects

Value formation is training of the intellect and will

Max Scheler’s Hierarchy of Values

Pleasure Values

Vital Values

Spiritual Values

Values of the Holy

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL TEACHER

Teaching is a part of life of a committed teacher. To be an effective teacher, you do not only posses
knowledge of educational theories. You also possess a willingness to assume your multifaceted roles.

3 BASIC SKILLS

1. FUNCTIONAL SKILL
This involves the skill of a teacher in planning, organizing, controlling, communicating,
motivating, developing and managing.
2. ADAPTIVE SKILLS
Skills like creativity, dependability, resourcefulness, persuasiveness, discipline, memory,
perceptiveness and other personal skills related to self-management
3. PROFESSIONAL SKILLS
This refers to skills a kin to work content. It includes the teacher’s knowledge of the subject
matter to be taught, as well as his understanding of philosophical, psychological, legal, social,
historical dimensions of education
a. The professional teacher possesses an in-depth understanding of the principles governing
human behavior.
b. The professional teacher exhibits attitudes that poster learning and authentic human
relationship.
b.1 attitude towards him/himself
b.2 attitude towards others
b.3 attitude towards peers, superiors, and parents
b.4 attitude towards the subject matter

c. The professional teacher possesses mastery of the subject matter

d. The professional teacher must possesses the competency to facilitate learning through
appropriate teaching skills

58
 e. The professional teacher must be able to translate knowledge into practical/reality

ROLES, DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER AND A

SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER AS STATED IN THE QUALIFICATION STANDARDS

OVERVIEW:

A novice teacher is confronted with various apprehensions. One worries how to efficiently handle the
routines of classroom. To become an effective and competent teacher entails a tedious works. One must
be aware of the different roles, duties, and responsibilities a teacher must assume. These are:

a. Teaches subjects
b. Enrolls pupils/students
c. Prepares effective lesson plans
d. Prepares visual aids and other devices for instruction
e. Sees to it that pupils/students in his/her advisory class provided with necessary textbooks when
available.
f. Implements rules and regulations
g. Conducts guidance services for his/her advisory class
h. Evaluates pupils/students progress and provides various experiences for their continuous
development
i. Supervises curricular and co-curricular projects and activities of the pupils/ students
j. Checks/records the attendance of the pupils/students
k. Keeps up-to-date anecdotal records of pupils/students
l. Keeps school records and prepares required reports
m. Keeps parents informed on pupils/student’s progress
n. Attends and participates in in-service trainings and faculty meetings
o. Executed the administration of school polices designed for the welfare of the pupils/student’s
p. Maintains membership in professional organizations
q. Works with other school personnel, parents, and the community
r. Participates in the socio-economic development projects in the community
s. Coordinates and cooperates with other teachers in school projects or activities
t. Safeguard school facilities and equipment
u. Does other related works

THE TEACHER AS A PROFESSION

OVERVIEW

59
The teacher as a person cannot be detached from a teacher as a professional. Other than the skills of an
effective teacher, the teacher as an individual person must possesses certain psychologically/personal
characteristics, such as:

A. Personality Characteristics
a.1 achievement/Intelligence
a.2 directness
a.3 flexibility
a.4 emotional stability
a.5 self- motivation and drive
a.6 dominance and self confidence
a.7attractiveness and pleasantness
a.8 refinement

B. Attitude
b.1 Motivation to teach
b.2 empathy toward learners
b.3 commitment
b.4 objectiveness
b.5 buoyancy
b.6 resourcefulness
b.7 cooperativeness
b.8 reliability and dependability

C. Experience
c.1years of teaching
c.2 experience in subjects taught
c.3 experience with particular grade/year level

D. Aptitude/achievement
d.1 scores in ability test
d.2 college grade/point average
d.4 student teaching evaluations

TEACHING COMPETENCIES

NATIONAL COMPETENCY-BASED TEACHER STANDARDS (NCBTS)

 A unified framework for teacher development
 An integrated theoretical framework that defines the different dimensions of effective teaching
 Effective teaching means being able to help all types of students learn the different learning
goals in the curriculum.
 It is based on the core values of Filipino teachers and on effective teaching and learning
 It is based on the seven domains, which one representing the desired features of the teaching
and learning process.

THE TEACHER, SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS

60
OVERVIEW:

Schools and community are linked together to provide support to parents who are charged with the
primordial responsibility to educate their children. Schools will not succeed without the participation of
parents. (NCBTD-Based In-Service Teacher Training Modules. The members of the community, in
addition to the parents and the school, include the local government units, the non-government agencies
civic organizations and all the residents

PARENTAL INVLOVEMENT

The influence of parental involvement on a student’s academic success should not be underestimated.
While brain power, work ethic,and even genetics all play important roles in student achievement, the
determining factor comes down to what kind of support system she has at home.

School and Community Relations

The school and the community are the mainsprings of effective and powerful forces that can creat a
wholesome climate for mutual gains and betterment
 PTCA
 Public safety, beautification and cleanliness
 Instructional centers in the community
Linkages and Networking with Organizations
The school can enjoy linkages and networking activities with international, national and local
organizations in the community for mutual benefits and assistance needed
 International (Pi Lamda Theta, Innotech, World Council for Curriculum Instruction)
 National and local ( cross enrollment, joint researches)
 Net working (consortia, BIOTA, MATHED, MTAP, SUCTEA, NOPTI, FAAP, PACU-COA,
PAASCU, AACUP NOTED etc)

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Organizational Plan
Structured Classroom: The learning activities in a structured classroom are well-planned ahead of time,
and the procedures follow accepted rules and regulations established by the school.

Flexible Classroom: In a flexible classroom, there is allowance for free movement, time allotment and
even in decisions regarding modes of undertaking the learning activities.
-Individualized approach
-Grouping

Scheduling
Good time management is the key to a smooth flow of planned activities
Teachers must be able to plan thoroughly for their daily lessons and for additional activities such as:
 Parent –teacher conference after class
 Working with other teachers during occasional school events
 Preparing new teaching devices
 Advanced request for supplies and materials for the week’s lessons and for learning centers
 Supervising students along the corridors and school grounds or while eating in the canteen
Filler or Emergency Activities

61
If you will be able to finish the lesson ahead of time, be ready with “fillers” or activities which are
connected with the lesson

Tips for maintaining good time management

1. Schedule all activities with corresponding time allotment ahead of time
2. Provide enough time for everything you expected to happen
3. Avoid rushing since you know have carefully allotted required time foe every activity
4. Be flexible with assignment
5. Set the example by showing that you are time-conscious
Record keeping
 Daily attendance
 Students Progress
Physical Environment
 Maintaining cleanliness
 Using proper ventilation
 Avoiding unnecessary noise
 Bulletin boards and displays
 Seating arrangements
Discipline
Causes of discipline problems
 Overcrowded students in class
 Poor lighting facilities
 Inadequate ventilation
 Disorderly cabinets
 Inappropriate seating arrangement
 Near sources of noise
Prevention
 Cooperative learning, team learning, peer tutoring
 Switch form one technique to another as needed arises
 Patience, compassion, caring attitude, respect for others
 Warm, respectable relationship with students
 Unpretentious gestures
 Proper facial expression
 Kind words or praises
 Avoiding unusual closeness/favoritism and biased treatment
Common ways of establishing discipline/classroom control
1. Discipline is students responsibility
2. Discipline is the teacher’s way of establishing a desirable student-oriented environment for
learning
3. Discipline is coupled with effective teaching strategies and techniques
4. Discipline is achieved through the effects of group dynamics on behavior
Tips to make the teacher a good disciplinarian
1. Be prepared to face a class with multi-behavior tendencies
2. Know your students well
3. Show your sincere concern for their welfare
4. Commendable behavior is reciprocal
5. Be calm, poised and tactful
6. Be firm at all times
7. Be enthusiastic
8. Practice good sense of humor
9. Speak with good voice, volume and pitch

62
 10. Be humble

Common ways of dealing with discipline problems

Acceptable:
 Using verbal reinforces that encourage good behavior
 Using nonverbal gestures to dissuade them from mischief
 Dialogues could help discover problems and agree on mutually beneficial solution time out
 Awarding merits for good behavior
 A private, one-on-one brief conference
 Allowing students the freedom to express themselves
Unacceptable
 Scolding
 Harsh words
 Nagging
 Long sermons
 Keeping students in” detention area”
 Denying a student some privilege
 Using ridicule or sarcasm
 Assigning of additional homework
 Subtracting points from grades due to misbehavior
Establishing Routine
Routine is a regular procedure or a normal practice that is to be followed. It is a schedule of activities
that is mostly time-spaced and is attuned to the lesson objectives. It contributes to a smooth flow of
activities this lessening the unnecessary disruptions. These include:
 Keeping tables and chairs in order before leaving
 Returning barrowed tools and materials after use
 Cleaning chalk board to be ready for the next topic
 Transferring from one room to another on time
 Order in waiting for ones turn in borrowing books
 Cleaning stains or drops after the lesson

THE GLOBAL TEACHER

DEFINITION OF GLOBAL EDUCATION

Study of Nations and People, that it is “an effort to help individuals to see the world as a single and
global system and to see themselves as participants of that system.” Similarly, James Becker Says in his
article, Goals of Global Education, that the overall goal of his aspect is to,”incorporate into the
educational curriculum and the educational experience of each student a knowledge and empathy of
cultures of the nation and the world… (and to) draw into existing courses of study the illustrations and
references to political, social and cultural themes. Students will be encourage to take a global
perspective, seeing the world as a whole.” With this in mind, teaching with the adoption of the idealogy
of global education, children learn to perceive themselves as a participant of a large global culture.
Children learn of various cultures and cultural perspective which makes them better able to relate and
function in a one-world environment under teachers who are intellectually, professionally And humanly
prepares.
UNESCO defines global education as “a goal to become aware of the educational conditions or lack of
it, and aim to educate all people to certain world standards. It may also be defined a”curriculum that is
international in scope

Educational Systems of Selected Countries

63
Australia
Similar to Canada and England
Primary (6 years)
High school (junior high 7-10, senior 11-12)
College/university (3 to 6 years)
School year starts on March and ends in November

China
6 years of primary education
3 years of junior middle school, 3 year of senior middle school
Six year of university

Japan
Kindergarten (1 year)
Elementary (6 years)
Lower secondary (3years)
Upper secondary (3 years)
University (around 4 years)
Compulsory education for children 6 to 15 years

United Kingdom
Compulsory education for children 5- 6 years old
Foundation stage (for age 3-5 years old) not mandatory
Key stage one (for age 5-7 years old) grade 1 to 2
Key stage two ( for age 7-11 years old) grade 3 to 6
Key stage three (for 11-14 years old) grade 7 to 9
Key stage four (for age 14-16 years old) grade 10 to 11
Post 16 education (not mandatory) 2-3 years
University usually 3 years (B.A. or B.Sc) 4 years (honours degree)

USA
Pre-primary (kinder, nursery, preschool, day care)
Grades 1-4 (6 to 10 years old)
Grade 5- (11 years old)
Grade 6- (12 years old)
Grade 7- (13 years old)
Grade 8 to 12-(14 to 18 years old)
Compulsory education form 6 years old to 18 years old

Multicultural Education
Multicultural education enables teachers and educators to give value to the difference in prior
knowledge, experiences of learners from diverse background and familiarity with student’s histories of
diverse cultures

Teacher Exchange Program

Visiting International Faculty Program (VIF)
Fullbright Teacher Exchange Program
Inter-African Teacher Exchanges
Canadian Educators Exchange

64
Global Teachers Millennium Awards

21st CENTURY LEARNING GOALS

In order to address the challenges of the paradigm shift in the educational sector, the 21st Century
Learning Goals have been set as bases of various curricular worldwide

1. 21st Century Content

Among the emerging content areas are global awareness on finance, economy, business,
entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy and health awareness
2. Learning and thinking skills
These are critical thinking and problem-solving skills, about communication, creativity, and
innovation, collaboration , contextual learning, information and media literacy.
3. ICT Literacy
This entails the use of technology in the context of learning, so that students know how to learn.
4. Life Skills
These include leaderships, ethics, accountability, personal responsibility, and self direction
5. 21st Century Assessment
These are authentic assessment procedures to measure learning outcomes

21st CENTURY DIGITAL FLUENCY

For developing basic digital skills, there is a need for new literacies to replace the 3 Rs.

1. Solution Fluency
Capacity to define, design, and apply solution and also assess the process and the result
2. Information Fluency
The ability to access and retrieve digital information (text, sounds, or video) while and accuracy
students are aware of context
3. Collaboration Fluency
Teamwork with peers through an exciting experience of partnership in learning
4. Media Fluency
Capacity to analytical evaluation of messages from sources like the internet and other media
such as news papers, magazines, televisions, etc.
5. Creativity Fluency
Proficiency in art design, story-telling, or packaging messages with the use of artistic elements
such as font, color, lay –out, etc.
6. Digital ethics
This refers to the responsibility and accountability of using the digital world, such as citing
sources.

TEACHER AS A PROFESSIONAL

Professionalization of teaching: A Historical Perspective

History of Philippine Educational System

1987 Constitution
 The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and
shall take opportunities steps to make such education accessible to all.
 The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement
 The State shall establish, maintain and support complete adequate and integrated system of
education relevant to the needs of the people

65
RA 7722 (Higher Education Act of 1994)
 The State shall ensure and protect academic freedom
 CHED is tasked by the state to identify ‘ centers of excellence” in program areas needed for the
development of world class scholarship, nation building and development.
RA 9155 ( Government of Basic Education Act of 2001)
 An act instituting a framework of governance for basic education, establishing authority and
accountability, renaming the Department of Education Culture and Sports as the Department of
Education
RA 7796 TESDA Act of 1994

EO 356 ( Renaming the Bureau of Non Formal Education to Bureau of Alternative Learning System)

Learning System)
 One of the functions of the Bureau of Alternative Learning System is to address the learning
needs of the marginalized group of the population including the deprived, depressed and
underserved citizen
Batas Pambasa 232 ( Education Act of 1982)

 Students have the right receive primarily through competent instruction, relevant quality
education in line with national goals and conductive to their full development as person with the
human dignity
 Teachers shall be deemed persons in authority when in the discharge of lawful duties and
responsibilities and shall therefore be accorded with due respect and protection.
The UNESCO ( United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization)
 Learning to know
 Learning to do
 Learning to live together
 Learning to be
EFA (Education For All 2015)
 Institutionalize early childhood care and development
 Provide universal quality primary education
 Eradicate illiteracy
 Launch continuing education programs for adults and out-of-school youth

UN Millennium Development Goals 2015 (MGDs)

 Reducing by half the number of people, who live in extreme poverty

 Reducing death in mothers and children below five
 Making primary education accessible to all
 Reducing gender disparities
 Providing access to reproductive health services
 Pursuing national strategies for sustainable development
 Reserving environment resources losses
 Developing a global partnership for development

Child Friendly School System (CFSS)

 Initiated by the Philippine Government and UNICEF
 Characteristics of CFSS
- Gender sensitive and not discriminating
- Child centered
- Promotes good health

66
 - Has the best interest of children in mind
- Works closely with children’s families
Magna Carta for Public School Teachers (RA 4680)
 Stability of employment
 Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom, particularly with regard to teaching and classroom,
methods.
 Teachers salary at the very least will keep pace with the rise in the cost of living by payment of
cost of living index
 Compulsory medical examination foe free
Presidential Decree 1006 ( Decree Professionalizing Teaching)
 Enacted during the time of President Marcos
 Teachers will undergo professional test jointly given by Civil Service Commission and
Department of Education and Culture
 RA7836 ( Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994)
 RA 9293 ( An Act Amending some sections of and Development Progtam (RA7836)
 Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT GUIDE FOR TEACHERS

TEACHER EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (TEDP)

DepEd has implemented the Teacher Education Development program (TEDM) that seeks to
conceptualize the continuing career path of a teacher, starting upon entry until retirement. The TEDM is
anchored from a set of competencies embodied in the National Competency Based- Teacher Standards
(NCBTS).

Retirement
Preparation
DepED Entry to
Teacher Education

DepEd/CHED/TEIs CHED/TEIs/Schools
National Competency.
In-Service Training Based Teacher Standards Pre- Service Training
and Professional

DepEd/Civil Service PRC Teacher

DepEd
Teacher Human Resource Licensure
Induction
Training Planning, Recruitment, Selection, Deployment and

TEDP
COMPETENCY-BASED PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM FOR TEACHERS (CB-PAST)
Drawing from the Vision and Mission of the Department of Education, CB-PAST is a comprehensice
appraisal system which addresses one of the mandates of the Department as embodied in the RA9155
(CB-PAST Primer , 2009). There a pressing call for teacher’s accountability that has never been as
serious before. In response to relevant and quality education for the 21st Century, the Filipino teachers
today need to have continuous personal and professional development that driven by individual teacher

67
performance, as NCBTS, a professional development. This specifically stated in Domain of the NCBTS,
a professional development that is driven by the individual teacher performance, as evidenced from the
information resulting for various tools of the Competency-Based Performance Appraisal System for
Teachers (CB-PAST).

PRINCIPLES AND STRETEGUES OF TEACHING

“If your plan is for one year… plant rice; if your plan is for ten years…plant a tree; but if you plan is for
eternity… EDUCATE children.”

68
 A. BASIC CONCEPTS
 Strategy of Teaching- Refers to the science of developing a plan to attain goal and to
guard against undesirable results. It means the art of using psychological plan in order
to increase the probabilities and favorable consequences of success and to lessen yhe
chances of failure.
 Method of Teaching- refers to the series of related and progressive acts performed by a
teacher and the students to attain the specific objectives of the lesson. It is a plan
involving sequence of steps to achieve a given goal or objective.
 Technique of teaching-refers to the personalized style of carrying out a particular step
of a given method. It is a skill employed by the teacher in carrying out the procedures
or act of teaching.
 Device-is a teaching aid or tool to facilitate instruction, like pictures, flash cards, etc.

The Teacher As a Corporate Professional

Polished Look
 Dress suited for a professional
 Tasteful accessories (jewelry, bags, shoes, etc)
 Tasteful make –up for female
 Personal hygiene
Polished Demeanor
 Professional walking
 The professional ‘Sit”
 The professional “handshake”
Polished Language
 Voice
 Gesture
Classification of Teaching Methods
 Traditional: old-fashion way of teaching
 Time-tested: methods that stood the test of time and are still being used at present
 Progressive: these are newer and more improved methods of teaching
-It makes use of the principles of learning
-It utilizes the principles of “learning by doing
-It provides for growth and development
-it liberates the learners
-it stimulates thinking and reasoning

Variables That Affect Teaching Method

 Objectives
 Nature of students
 Nature of subject matter
 The teacher
 Technology
 School environment
 Teacher’s knowledge of group dynamics
B. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
Lesson Planning

Learning Objectives: Their importance and Construction

69
 What is a Learning Objective?
A learning objective is a statement of what students will be able to do when they have completed
instruction. A learning objective has three major components:
1. A description of what the student will be able to do;
2. The conditions under which the student will perform the task; and
3. The criteria for evaluating student performance
What is the difference between a goal and a Learning Objective?
A Goal is a statement of the intended general outcome of an instructional unit or program. A goal
statement describes a more global learning outcome. A learning objective is a statement of one of several
specific performances, the achievement of which contributes to the attainment of the goal. A single
GOAL may have specific subordinate learning objectives. For example

GOAL: The goal of Learning Assessment course is to enable the students to make reliable and accurate
assessment of learning.
Learning Objectice#1: Given a learning objective of the student will be able to develop an appropriate
multiple-choice question to measure student achievement of the objective.
Learning Objective#2: Given a printout from an item analysis of multiple choice exam the student will
be able to state the accuracy of the test scores
Learning Objective#3: Given the discrimination and difficulty indices of an item the student will be able
to determine if the item contributes to the reliability of the exam.

Why Are Learning Objectives Important?

1. Selection of the content
2. Development of an instructional strategy
3. Development and selection of instructional materials
4. Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then evaluating student learning
outcomes
How Do You Write A Learning Objective?
1. Focus on student performance, not teacher performance
2. Focus on product, not process
3. Focus on terminal behavior, not subject matter
4. Include only general learning outcome in each objective.
A learning objective is a statement describing a competency of performance capability to be
acquired by the learner. There are three characteristics essential t0o insuring clear statements of
objectives.

Behavior- First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in performance terms.
The choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used terms as know, understand,
grasp, and appreciate do not meet his requirement. If the verb used in stating an objective
identifies an observable student behavior, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In
addition, the type or level of learning must be identified.

Criterion- Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must perform to be judge
adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or
proportion of correct responses or the like.

Conditions- Third, an objective should describe the conditions under which the learner will be
expected tperform in the evaluation situation. The tools , references, or other aids thus will be
provided or denied should be made clear. Sometimes , one or even two of these elements will
be easily implied by a simple statement. In other times, however, it may be necessary to clearly

70
 specify in detail each element of the objective. The following is an example of a completed
learning objective.

OBJECTIVE: “Given a set of data the student will be able to compute the standard deviation”.

Condition- Given an set of data

Behavior- the student will be able to compute the standard deviation
Criterion – ( implied)- the number computed will be correct

Checklist for Writing a Specific Instructional Objective

1. Begin each statement of a specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite ,
observable behavior.
2. Make sure that each statement meets all three of the criteria for a good learning objective?
3. Be sure to include complex objectives ( appreciation, problem-solving, etc) when they are
appropriate

Guides or aids to writing learning objectives:

Educators and psychologist concerned with learning theory have given considerable through the various
types of learning that takes place in schools. Probably the most comprehensive and widely known
analysis of objectives in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom and others.
Taxonomy provides a consistent means of developing the single most powerful tool in instruction and
assessment of students learning outcomes-the learning performance objective. The Taxonomy
distinguishes among three major categories of objectives termed the COGNITIVE DOMAIN, the
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN, and the AFFECTIVE DOMAIN.

It is generally the Cognitive Learning Domain that is of primary concern in higher education. If we
assume that faculty is more concerned with process and problem-solving activities, the categories of
Taxonomy are most valuable in suggesting various kinds of behavior to use as objectives. The following
list of process-oriented behaviors, which are related to the six categories of the Taxonomy, should serve
as a useful guide to the faculty in preparing objectives.

TABLES OF PROCESS ORIENTED LEARNER BEHAVIORS

71
 KNOWLEDGE
Recall, identity, recognize, acquire, distinguish

COMPREHENSION
Translate, extrapolate, convert, interpret, abstract transform

APPLICATION
Apply, sequence, carry out, solve, prepare, operate, generalize, plan, repair, explain

ANALYSIS
Analyze, estimate, compare, observe, detect, classify, discover, discriminate, identify, explore,
distinguish, catalog, determine, outside

SYNTHESIS
Write, plan, integrate, formulate, propose, specify, produce, organize, theorize, design, build,
systematize

EVALUATION
Evaluate, verify, assess, test, judge, rank, measure, appraise, select, check

Domains of Learning

Learning is a psychological process. Thus, the assessment of learning, of necessity, requires the
assessment of various psychological processes. In developing assessment tools (tests), it is important
that we first have an understanding of these psychological processes and how to go about measuring
them. Although there are many psychological models for the process of learning, for this workbook we
have chosen the taxonomy of Behavioral objectives as useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy, there are three
fundamental learning domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective.

Affective learning of beliefs, attitudes, and values

72
Psychomotor learning of physical movements, such as a ballet steps, how to pitch a curve ball, how to
drill out a cavity in a molar, etc.

Cognitive learning of information and the processes of dealing with that information. There are six levels
of Cognitve Learning as specified by Bloom:

1. Basic Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

Generally, it can be said that the first category, Knowledge, is information-oriented as it stresses the
ability to recall existing knowledge. The other five categories can be termed” Process oriented”
because the entall more sophisticated learner behaviors and competencies that require increasing
degrees of understanding. The following are brief definitions of these six levels with a suggestion
as to how to assesses this level of learning:

Basic Knowledge: To recall and memorize- assessed by direct questions. The object is to test
students ability to recall facts, to identify and repeat the information provided.

Comprehension: To translate form one form to another-assessed by having students

1) Restate material in their own words, 2)reorder or extrapolate ideas, predict or estimate.
Assessment must provide evidence that the students have some understanding or comprehension
of what they are saying.

Application: To apply or use information in a new situation- assessed by presenting students with a
unique situation (i.e. one not identical to that used during instruction) and have them apply their
knowledge to solve the problem or execute the proper procedure.

Analysis: To examine a concept and break it down into parts- assessed by presenting student with a
unique situation of the same type but not identical to that used during instruction, and have them
analyze the situation and describe the appropriate procedure or solution to the problem.

Synthesis: To put information together in a unique or novel way to solve a problem- assessed by
presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the same type used during instruction, and have
them solve a problems by selecting and using appropriate information

Levels of Affective Objectives

Krathwohl’s affective domain taxonomy is perhaps the best known of any of the affective
taxonomies, the taxonomy is ordered according to the principle of internalization, which is to process
whereby a person’s affect toward an object passes from a general awareness level to a point where
the affect is “internalized” and consistently guides or controls the person’s behavior

73
 Receiving is being aware or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and
being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to differentiate to accept to listen ( for), to respond
to.

Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by
actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to
spend leisure time in, to acclaim

Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomenas.

Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to
debate.

Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally
consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate to balance, to examine.

Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she
has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to
resist, to manage, to resolve.

Levels of Pyschomotor Objectives

Level Definition Example

1. Observing Active mental attending of a The learner observes more
physical event experienced person in his/her
performance of the skill, asked
to observe sequences and
relationships and to pay
particular attention to the
finished product. Direct
observation may be
supplemented by reading or
watching a video. Thus, the
learner may read about the topic
and then watch a performance
2. Imitating Attempted copying of physical The learner begins to acquire
behavior the rudiments of the skill. The
learner follows directions and
sequences under close
supervision. The total act is not
important, nor is the timing or
coordination emphasized. The
learner is conscious of
deliberate effort to imitate the
model
3. Practicing Trying a specific physical The entire sequence is
activity over and over performed repeatedly. All
aspects of the act are performed
in sequence. Consciousness
effort fades as the performance
becomes more or less habitual.

74
 Timing and coordination are
emphasized. Here, the person
has acquired the skill but is not
as expert

4. Adapting Fine tuning. Making minor Perfection of the skill, Minor

adjustments in the physical adjustments are made that
activity in order to perfect it. influence the total performance.
Coaching often very valuable
here . This is now a good player
becomes a better player

The psychomotor domain refers to the use of basic motor skills, coordination, and physical movement.
Bloom’ s search group did not develop in-depth categories of this domain, claiming lack of experience
in teaching these skills. However, Simpson (1972) developed seven psychomotor categories to support
the original domain. These physical behaviors are learned through repetitive practice. A learner’s ability
to perform these skills is based on precision, speed, distance and technique.

Direct Instruction/ Lecture

Advantages

 Teacher-controlled
 Many objectives can be mastered in s short amount of time
 Lends to valid evaluations

Disadvantages

 Teacher-controlled
 Student involvement is limited to the teacher
 Depends in part to rote learning ( repetition form memory, often without meaning)

When to use?

 When the objectives indicate effectiveness

 When the teacher determines that it is the best to use of time & effort

Six steps in Direct Instruction

1. Review previously learned material

 A short review before/ with the new lesson’s interest approach
 Check & grade previous homework
 Put problems on the board ( can be part of bell-work)
 Re-teach if necessary
2. State objectives for the lesson
 Students should know what is to be taught
-Stated clearly

75
 -Written on the board
-Handed out
 Follow the objective
 Use them to develop evaluations
3. Present new material
 Your teaching depends on your analysis and preparation
 Organize content
 From general to specific
 From lower level objectives to higher
 From previous information to new material
Lectures
 Be aware of attention spans
 Be aware of the number of major points made
 Be repetitious
 Review and summarize
 Demonstrations
-Learning Activity, experiment, demonstration
-WOW em!
-Allow students to practice immediately

4. Guided practice with corrective feedback

 Guided and independent practice

 Teacher controls & monitors guided
 Teacher evaluates & corrects independent
 Questions should be prepared in advance

5.Assign independent practice with corrective feedback

 Homework
 A formative step, not a summative step
 Worksheets

6.Review periodically with corrective feedback if necessary

 Check homework promptly

 Base new instruction on results
 Re-teach if necessary

Other Teaching Techniques

Brainstorming

Situations for use:

 Generate ideas ( quantity is more important that quality)

76
  Students have some level of experience

Planning Required:

 Formulate the question

 Plan for recording ideas

Brainstorming Steps

 Pose question to class

 Generate ides with group
 Accept all ideas ( do not criticize)
 Go back to summarize discard “ unacceptable” or unworkable ideas
 Determine the best solutions

Supervised Study

 Common technique used in problem solving instruction, but certainly not the only technique
appropriate for problem solving instruction
 Also a major technique used in competency-based education programs.
 Often misused technique. A really bad form of this technique is: read the chapter’s the textbook
and answer the questions at the end of the chapter.
 Classified as an individualized instruction technique

Situations Appropriate for Use

 Discovery or inquiry learning is desired

 Access to good reference materials ( textbooks, extension publications, web resources, industry
publications, etc.)
 Students may need to”look up” information
 Alternate answers may be acceptable
 Many structured lab activities are actually a form of supervise study

Strengths:

 Provides skills in learning that are useful throughout student’s lives. For they need to know how
to locate and analyze information
 Recall is enhanced when students have to “look up” information, rather than being lectured to.
 Students have to decide what information is important and related to the question posed
 Opportunity for the students to develop writing and analytical skills.

Weakness:

 Easy for students to get off-task

 Students may interpret questions differently and locate incorrect information ( practicing error)
 Unmotivated students will do the absolute minimum
 Students tend to copy information from sources rather analyze and synthesize information
 Requires more time than lecture

77
  Relies on students being able to read and comprehend information at the appropriate level.

Procedure in Conducting Supervised Study:

 Teacher develops a list of a study questions for students to answer

 Resources and reference materials are located or suggested to students as possible sources of
answers
 Students are given time in class to find answers to questions and to record the answers in their
notes
 Due to time constraints, however, teachers may want to assign different questions to specific
students, so that every student is not looking for the same information.
 Summary consist of discussing the correct answers to the questions with the entire class
 Teachers must be careful to emphasize that incorrect answers must be corrected

Role of the Teacher:

 Develop a list of study questions that focuses on the objectives of the lesson
 Develop the anticipated answers to the questions-it is important that the teacher has a firm idea
of what are correct or incorrect answers
 Establish a time frame for completing the activity. Students need to a feel a sense of urgency,
so don’t give them more time than you think they will need.
 Supervise during this activity. THIS IS NOT A TIME GRADE PAPER, MAKE PHONE
CALLS, PLAN FOR THE NEXT LESSON, OR LOCATE THE ANSWERS TO THE
QUESTIONS IN THIS LESSEON!
 Assist students in locating information, but do not find it foe them
 Keep students on task and eliminate distractions
 Plan foe reporting of answers

Small group Discussion

Also called:

 Buzz groups
 Huddle Groups
 Philips 66
-6 people per group
-6ideas to be generated
-6 minutes

Advantages:
 Increased participation
 Good foe generating ideas
 Cooperative activity ( students learn from each other)

Planning Required

 Clearly from question or topic

78
  Develop a plan for grouping the students
 Plan for reporting
 Summarize the activity (what they should have learned)

Conducting Small group Discussion

 Write question or topic on the board or handout

 Give specific instructions on how the group will operate
 Establish time limits
 Circulate among the groups to help keep them on task (Not as a participant)
 Give warning near end of time allocated
 Reports: Rotate among the groups for answers

Games

Situation for Use:

 Motivates students
 Reviews
 Check for understanding

Strengths:

 Active learning technique

 Appeals to competitive students
 High interest level

Planning Requires

 Game must be develop by teacher

 Rules must be establish. Try to anticipate all potential situations that may occur. You do not
want the effectiveness of the activity to be destroyed by arguments over rules.
 Develop a plan for determining teams
 Develop plan for keeping score
 Determine rewards- make them appropriate (usually very minor in nature)

Types: games may take a variety of forms, but most often are modeled after.

 TV game shows
 Sports
 Home board games

Field Trips and Resource Persons

Situation Use:

 First hand experiences are needed

 Need expertise

79
Planning Needed:

 Objectives
 Trial run/visit
 Special considerations (safety, grouping, etc.)
 Summarize ( don’t give up responsibility!). it is critical to know what the students have learned
from the activity.

Tips:

 Provide advance organizers (e.g. report forms, fact sheets)

 “plant” questions among students
 Assign students to begin the questions

With-it-ness- the teacher knows that what is going on in the classroom at all times. Seemingly, the
teacher has eyes in the back of his/her head. This is not only when the teacher is in a small group setting,
but when he/she is presenting a topic or students are working as individuals. It can be as simples as
looking around the room frequently or making sure your back is never turned to the class. It is not
necessary to know what the teacher know is going on- it is what the students believe she knows.

Other Helpful Tip on Student Control

The Hawthorne Effect is a phenomenon in industrial psychology first observed in the 1920s. It refers to
improvements in productivity or quality resulting from the mere fact that workers were being studied or
observed.

Pygmalion Effect (or Rosenthal effect) refers to situations in which students performed better that other
students simply because they were expected to do so.

Placebo Effect is the phenomenon that a patient’s symptoms can be alleviated by an otherwise ineffective
treatment, apparently because the individual expects or believes that it will work

The John Henry Effect has also been identified: an experiment may spur competition between groups,
precisely because they are conscious of being part of an experiment. The term “halo effect” describe
what happens when a scientific observation is influenced by the observer’s perceptions of the individual
procedure, or service that is under observation. The observers prejudices, recollections of previous
observations, and knowledge about prior observations or finding can all affect objectivity and must be
guarded against.

Jacob Kounin’s Theory all of this came about form an incident that happened while he was teaching a
class in Mental Hygiene. A student in the back of the class was reading newspaper, and the newspaper
being opened fully in front of the student so that he couldn’t see the teacher. Kounin asked the student
to put the paper away and pay attention. Once the student complied, Kounin realized that other students
who were engaging in non appropriate behaviors (whispering, passing notes) stopped and began to pay
attention the lecture. This gave him interest in understanding classroom discipline on not only the student

80
being disciplined, but also the other students in the classroom. This is the effect that became known as
the “Ripple Effect”.

Effective Instructional Technique

The Art of Questioning

Teacher ask questions over a hundred questions in a class session to encourage student thinking. Let’s
examine some aspects of the Art of questioning, including: types of questions wait time,and questioning
and creativity

Categories of Questions

There are many systems that teachers use to classify questions. Upon close observation, in the most
systems, questions are typically classified into two categories. Various terms are used to describe these
two categories ( Figure 1). The binary approach is useful because two categories are more manageable
foe a beginning teacher to learn to implement the typical approach of using systems with six categories

Figure 1 categories of Questions

Category 1 Category 2
Factual Higher cognitive
Closed Open
Convergent Divergent
Lower level Higher level
Low order High over
Low inquiry High inquiry

Low inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned knowledge in order to answer
questions posed by the teacher, who requires the students to perform ONE of the following taks:

1. Elicit the meaning of a term

2. Represent something by a word or a phrase
3. Supply an example of something
4. Make statements of issues, steps in a procedure, rules, conclusions, ideas and beliefs that have
previously been made
5. Supply a summary or a review of what was previously said or provided
6. Provide a specific, predictable answer to a question

High inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned knowledge in order to answer
questions posed by the teacher, who requires the students to perform ONE of the following tasks:

1. Perform an abstract operation, usually of a mathematical nature, such as multiplying,

substituting, or simplifying
2. Rate some entity as to its value, dependability, importance, or sufficiency with a defense of the
rating

81
 3. Find similarities or differences in the qualities of two or more entities utilizing criteria defined
by the student
4. Make a prediction that is the result of some stated condition, state, operation, object or substance
5. Make inferences to account for the occurrence of something (how or why it occurred). Low
inquiry questions tend to reinforce “correct” answers, or focus on specific acceptable answers,
whereas high inquiry questions stimulate a broader range or responses, and tend to stimulate
high levels of thinking. There is evidence to support the use of both types of question

Low inquiry questions will help sharpen students ability to recall experiences and events of science
teaching. Low inquiry questions are useful if you are interests in having students focus on the details
of the content of a chapter in their textbook, or laboratory experiment.

High inquiry questions encourage range of responses from the students and tend to stimulate
divergent thinking. Figure 2 summarizes the differences between low and high inquiry questions.

Figure 2. Difference Between Low and High Inquiry Questions

Type Student responses Response Examples

-Recall, memorize How many..
Define…
-Describe in own In your own words..
words closed state similarities and
differences..
Low inquiry -Summarize What is the evidence..?
(convergent) What is an example.. ?
-Classify on basis of
known criteria

-Give an example of
something

-Create unique or Design an experiment..

original design, report,
inference, prediction Open What do you
predict…?
-Judge scientific
High inquiry credibility What do you think
(divergent) about…?
-Give an opinion or
state an attitude Design a plan that
would solve?

What evidence can you

cite to support..?

Wait Time. Knowledge of the types of questions, and their predicted effect on student thinking is
important to know. However, researchers have found that there are other factors associated with

82
questioning that can enhance critical and creative thinking. One of the purposes of the questioning us to
enhance and increase verbal behavior of students.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. CONCEPTS, NATURE , AND PURPOSES

The term”curriculum” conveys many things to people. To some, it denotes a specific course,
while to others it means the entire educational environment. It is a dynamic as the change that
occurs in the society. Hence , curriculum encompasses more than a simple definition. It is a key
element in the educational process; it’s scope is extremely broad, and it touches virtually
everyone who is involved with teaching and learning. In a broader sense, it refers to the total
learning experience of individuals not only in school, but in society as well.

Educationaewal or l reforms in the Philippines ca be traced form different recommendations of

several educational initiatives, like the Philippine Commission to survey Philiipine Education
(PCSPE-1969), Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education (SOUTELE-1976), the
Philippine Commission of Educational Reform (PCER) that focused on curricular reforms and
National Competency-Based standards for Teachers (NCBTS), which became the anchor of
reforms in education from the basic to higher education

What is Curriculum?

 From the Latin word curriculum (“course”), derived from currere “ run or”move quickly)
 A “course for tracing”

In educational usage, the “course of the race” stands for “course of study”

1. The Traditional Points of View

 In early years of the 20th century, “Curriculum was a”body of subject or subject matter
prepared by the teacher for the student to learn.” It was synonymous to the”course of
study” and “syllabus”
 Robert M. Hutchins- curriculum for basic education should emphasize 3Rs, and college
education should be grounded on liberal education
 Joseph Schwab-“ Discipline” is the sole source of curriculum. Thus, the education
system curriculum is divided into chunkc of knowledge called subject areas in basic
education, such as math science, English etc…, and college, discipline may include
humanities, sciences, languages, etc.
2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum

83
  To a progressivist, “a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of
course or specific discipline do not make a curriculum,”. This can only be called
curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner.
 John Dewey-Curriculum is based in Dewye;s definition of experience and education.
He believes that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements.
 Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the
guidance of teachers”.
 Marsh and Willis view curriculum as “all the experiences in the classroom which are
planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.”

Major Foundations of Curriculum

The commonly accepted foundations of curriculum include the following:

1. Philosophical
2. Historical
3. Pyschological
4. Social

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with a framework for planning,
implementing, and evaluating curricula in schools. It helps in answering what schools are for, what
subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be used. In
decision-making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision –
making process.

Four Educational Philosophies that Relates to Curriculum

1. PERENNIALISM
Aim of Education- to educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect.
Role of Education- Teachers help students think with reason based in the Socratic methods of
oral exposition or recitation and explicit or deliberate teaching of traditional values.
Focus in the curriculum- Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is constant.
Curriculum trends- use of great books and return to liberal arts.
2. ESSENTIALISM
Aim of Education- To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a competent
person
Role of Education- The teacher is the sole authority in his/her subject area or field of
specialization.
Focus in the curriculum- Essential skills of the 3 Rs and essential subjects of English, science,
history, math and foreign language
Curriculum Trends- Excellence in Education, back to basics, and cultural literacy
3. PROGRESSIVISM
Aim of Education- To promote democratic and social living

84
 Role of Education- Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who
actively learn by doing.
Focus in the curriculum-Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative, and interactive. Curriculum
is focused on students interest, human problems and affairs.
Curriculum Trends- School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, and humanistic
education
4. RECONSTRUCTIVISM
Aim of Education- To improve and reconstruct society, since education is for change
Role of Education- Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational projects,
including research.
Focus in the Curriculum- Present and Future trends and issues of national and international
interest.
Curriculum Trends- Equality of educational opportunities in education, and access to global
education.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Philippine educations was greatly influence by the American educational system. The following
curriculum theories laid down their views on what curriculum is.

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956_ presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes the student’s
needs. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives with corresponding
activities should be grouped and sequenced. This can only be done of instructional activities and
tasks are clarified.
2. Werett Characters (1875-1952)- Like Bobbit, to Charters, curriculum is a science, it gives
emphasis on students needs. The listing objectives and matching of these with corresponding
activities ensure that the content or subject matter is related to the objective. The subject matter
and the objectives are planned by the teacher.
3. William Kilpatrict (1871-1965)- Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered.
The purpose of the curriculum is child development. The project method was introduced by
Kilpatrick, whose model allowed the teacher and student to plan the activities. The curriculum
develops social relationships and small group instruction.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)- Rugg, the curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-
centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should
produce outcomes. Rugg emphasized social studies, and that teachers plan the curriculum in
advance
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)- He saw curriculum as organized around social functions or themes,
organized knowledge and learner’s interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is a set of
experiences
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)- as one of the authorities on curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum
is a science and an extension of the school’s philosophy. It is based on student’s needs and
interest. To Tyler , curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in
terms of knowledge, skills and values. The Process emphasizes problem-solving. The
curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists

85
Historical development shows different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the
curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy, psychology and
pedagogical theories. This implies that curriculum is ever-changing, putting in knowledge and content
from many disciplines

Psychological foundations of Education

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning
process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education.
How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimum level of the students’
preparation in learning various contents of the curriculum?

Three groups of learning theories like behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information

processing theories are considered to address the4 above questions.

1. BEHAVIORIST PSYCHOLOGY

Behaviorism dominated 20th-century psychology. It includes, among others, the following:

 Connectionism-Edward Thorndike, which influence both Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba who
considered to be two of the well-know curricularists.
 Classical conditioning-Ivan Pavlov
 Operant Conditioning-B.F. Skinner
 Modeling and Observation Theory- Albert Bandura
 Hierarchical Learning/sets of behavior and five learning outcomes- Robert Gagne
1. Intellectual skills or” knowing how” categorize and use symbols, forming concepts and
problem-solving.
2. Information or”knowing what” knowledge about facts dates and names
3. Cognitive strategies or learning skills
4. Motor skills: and
5. Attitudes, feelings and emotions learned through experiences

The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives, which
are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

To the behaviorist, learning should be organized to students can experience success in the process of
mastering the subject matter. The method introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing
of tasks, which is viewed by other educational psychologist as simplistic and mechanical.

2. COGNITVE PSYCHOLOGY
How do learns store information? How do they retrieve and generate conclusions? These are
some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists.

Advocates of cognitive psychology:

 Cognitive Development Stages- jean Piaget

86
  Social Constructivism- Lev Vygostky
 Multiple intelligences- Howard Garner
 Learning Styles- Felder and Silverman
 Emotional Intelligence- Daniel Goleman

To the Cognitive theorist, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.
Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development theory.
Teachers use a lot of problem-solving and thinking skills in teaching and learning, intuitive thinking,
discovery learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking,
discovery learning and many others.

3. HUMANISTICS PSYCHOLOGY
Humanist psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human potentials.
Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of psychology, .
however, observes view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory after
behaviorism and cognitive development.
 Learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the
environment is changing and the learner is continuously recognizing his or her
perceptions-Gestalt Theory.
 Theory of human needs for self- actualizing persons- Abraham Maslow
 Non-directive lives= Carl Rogers

Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process, not the products;
personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meanings and environmental situations.

In summary, psychology has a great influence on the curriculum. Learners not machines, and mind is
not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their biology and cultures. The psychological
foundations will curriculum makers in nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete
human learning.

4. SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Schools exist within social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula.
The way school buildings are structured and they way classrooms and students are organized reflect
the cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social foundations of the curriculum,
we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions that educate society. However,
schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the world.

Society ever dynamic, is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with and to adjust
to. Thus, schools are made to help understand these changes. However, some observations point out
to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind they are supposed to be agents of
change. Thus order for schools to be relevant, school curricula should address diversity, explosion of
knowledge, school reforms and education for all.

87
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence , to be relevant, the
curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At the same time,
society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools.

What are the Characteristics of Good Curriculum

1. The curriculum is continuously evolving. It must be a product of a long and tedious process of
evaluation and change. It has evolved from one period to another to the present.
2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people. A curricular program must begin with those
that concern the people themselves. It reflects the needs of the individuals and the society as a
whole. The curriculum is a proper shape in order to meet the challenges of times and education
more responsive to the clientele it serves.
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived. A good curriculum is developed through the efforts
of a group of individuals from different sectors in society who are knowledgeable about the
interest, needs and resources of the learner and the society as a whole. The Curriculum is a
product of many minds and energies.
4. The curriculum is the result of a long-term effort. It takes a long period of time to go through the
planning, management, evaluation and development of a good curriculum.
5. The curriculum is a complex of details. A good curriculum provides the proper instructional
equipment and meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the teacher
student-student relationship, guidance and counseling program, health services, schools and
community projects, library and laboratories, and other school related work experiences.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter. It is a fact that learning is
developmental. Thus, classes and activities should be planned to achieve an orderly development
of subject matter and step-by step progress of the learner. There is a smooth transition and
continuing achievement of learners from one subject matter, classroom, grade, or school to
another. A good curriculum provides continuity of experiences.
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the community. The
curriculum is responsive to the needs of the community. The school offers is assistance in the
improvement and realization of on-going programs of the community. There is cooperative effort
between the school and the community towards greater productivity.
8. The curriculum has educational quality. Quality education comes through the situation of the
individual’s intellectual and creative capacities for social welfare and development. The
curriculum helps the learner to be4come the best that can possibly be. The curriculum support
system is secured to augment existing sources for is efficient and effective implementation.
9. The curriculum has effective flexibility. A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes
whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the demands
of globalization and the digital age.
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence , to be relevant,
the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of the society and its aspirations. At the same
time, society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institution called
schools.

Types of Curriculum Operating Schools

88
 Allen Glatthorn , as cited by Bilbao describes seven (7) types of curriculum operating in the
schools.
1. Recommended Curriculum- proposed by scholars and professional organizations
 The curriculum may come from a national agency like the Department of Education
(DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in education for
example like the PAFTE.
2. Written Curriculum-appear in school, district, division, or country documents
 This includes documents, course of study or syllabi handed down to the schools,
districts, divisions, departments, or colleges for implementation. Most of the written
curricula are made by the curriculum experts with the participation of teachers. These
were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population. An example is the
Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). Another example is the written lesson plan,
made up of objectives and planned activities of the teachers.\
3. Taught Curriculum- what teachers implement of deliver in the classrooms or schools
 The different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose
the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented in order to
arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the
learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the
learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers
4. Supported Curriculum- resources like textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials which
support and help in the implementation of the curriculum.
 In order to have a successful teaching, other than the teacher, there must be materials
which should support or help in the implementation of a written curriculum. These
refer to the material resources, such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials.
Laboratory equipment, play ground, zoos, and other facilities. Support curriculum
should enable the learner to achieve real and lifelong learning
5. Assessed Curriculum- that which is tested and evaluated.
 This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the end of the teaching episodes,
series of evaluation is done by the teachers to determine the extent of learning or to
tell if the students are progressing. This refers to the assessed curriculum.
Assessment tool like pencil-and –paper tests; authentic instruments like portfolio are
being utilized.
6. Learned Curriculum- what students actually learn and what is measured.
 Refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are
indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior, which can either be
cognitive, affective, or psychomotor.
7. Hidden Curriculum- the unintended curriculum
 This unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify
behavior or influence learning outcomes. There are lost of hidden curricula that
transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition,
teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors to make up.

Elements /Components of the Curriculum

89
 1. Aims, goals and objectives ( What is to be done?)
2. Subject matter/Content (What subject matter is to be included?)
3. Learning Experiences (What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?)
4. Evaluation Approaches (What methods and instruments will be used to asses the results of the
curriculum?)

Component 1- Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

The Philippine Educational system is divided into three educational levels namely the primary,
secondary, and tertiary (with the trifocalization the educational system was divided into Basic Education
(primary and secondary); Technical-Vocational Education (Post-secondary education) and Higher
Education ( tertiary education)

Based on the 1987 Philippine Constitution, all schools shall aim to:

1. Inculcate patriotism and nationalism

2. Foster love of humanity
3. Promote respect for human rights
4. Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country.
5. Teach the rights and duties of citinzenship;
6. Strengthen ethical and spiritual values
7. Develop moral character and personal discipline
8. Encourage critical and creative thinking; and
9. Broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency

Aims of Elementary Education ( Education Act of 1982)

Through their curricula, elementary education should aim to:

1. Provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values essential to personal development and
necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and changing society;
2. Provide learning experiences which increase the child’s awareness of and responsiveness to the
changes in the society;
3. Promote and intensify knowledge, identification with and love for the nation and the people to
which he belongs; and
4. Promote work experiences which develop orientation to the world of work and prepare the
learner to engage in honest and gainful work.

Aims of Secondary Education

1. Continue to promote the objectives of elementary education; and

2. Discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students in order to equip them
with skills for productive endeavor and or to prepare them for tertiary schooling

90
Aims of Tertiary Education

1. Provide general education programs which will promote national identity, cultural
consciousness, moral integrity and spiritual vigor
2. Train the nation’s manpower in the skills required for national development
3. Develop the professions that will provide leadership for the nation; and
4. Advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of
human life and respond effectively to changing society.

Based on the mandate of the Constitution, each school therefore should be guided by its vision, mission
and goals and its curricula should also revolved around these.

The school’s vision is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the future. It
provides the focal point and unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty and students
perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational efforts, including
curricula, should be directed. The school’s vision can be very ambitious, but that is a characteristic of a
vision

The school’s vision and mission are further translated into goals which are broad statements of intents
to be accomplished. Data for the source of a school goals may include the learners, the society and the
fund of knowledge.

In a curriculum, theses goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learner. These are
called educational objectives, Benjamin Bloom and Robert Mager defined educational objectives in two
ways:

1. Explicit formulation of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educational
process, and
2. Intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners. In other words,
objectives direct the change in behavior, which is the ultimate aim of learning. They provide the
bases for the selection of learning content and learning experiences. They also set the criteria
against which learning outcomes will be evaluated.

Three big domains of objectives ( Benjamin Bloom)

(1) Cognitive; (2) affective; and (3) Psychomotor

1. Knowledge- recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories
and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level.
2. Comprehension-ability to grasp the meaning of material. It indicates the lowest form of
understanding.
3. application-the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation.
4. Analysis-ability to break down material into component parts so that its organizational structure
may be understood.
5. Synthesis-ability to put parts together to form a new whole
6. Evaluation- Ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria.

Affective Domain( Krathwohl,1964)- domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation

91
 1. Receiving- students willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimuli or classroom
activities
2. Responding- active participation on the part of the students
3. Valuing-concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomenon, object
or behavior
4. Organization-concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system
5. Characterization of value or value complex-developing a lifestyle based on a value system

Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972)

1. Perception-use of sense organs to guide motor activities

2. Set-refers to the readiness to take a particular type of action
3. Guided Response- concerned with early stages in learning complex skills imitation and trial and
error are some of the ways of doing.
4. Mechanism-responses become habitual. Performance skills are executed with ease and
confidence
5. Complex over responses-skillful performance and with complex movement patterns
6. Adaptation-well developed skills is now very easy to
7. Origination-refers to creating new movements and patterns to fit the situation, showing
creativity.

Components 2- Curriculum Content or Subject matter

All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models. To the subject centered view, content
or subject matter is another term for knowledge. It is compendium of facts, concepts generalization,
principles and theories. To the learner-centered view, the content relates knowledge to the individuals
personal and social world and how he/she defines reality. According to Jerome Bruner,” knowledge is
a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”

Criteria in the selection of subject matter content or knowledge for the curriculum (Bilbao, 2009)

1. Self-sufficiency- According to Scheffler (1970), the prime guiding principle for content
selection is helping learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning, but in the most
economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less
learner’s effort, but more results and effective learning outcomes.
2. Significance- when content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts principles,
and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, the it is significant. It also
significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitude. Subject matter is
significant if it will develop the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills of the learners. It
can also be significant if the cultural aspect will be considered.
3. Validity- The authenticity of the subject matter selected is it validity . With information
explosion, oftentimes , knowledge selected for school content may becomes obsolete. Thus,
subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals, to determine if the content that
was originally valid continues to be so.

92
 4. Interest- For a learner –centered curriculum, this is the key criterion. A learner will value the
content if it is meaningful to him or her. Students’ interests should be considered and adjusted
taking into consideration maturity, prior experiences, educational and social value of their
interest among others.
5. Utility-Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who is going
to use it. Usefulness may either be for the present or the future questions like “will I use it in my
future job?, :will it add meaning to my life or develop my human potential?” or” will the subject
matter be useful in solving my current problems?” are considered.
6. Learnability-Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of the experiences of
the learners. This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundations of a curriculum . There
are ways of presenting subject matter or content which can easily be learned. Optimal placement
and appropriate organization and sequencing of contests are the two ways by which these can
be done.
7. Feasibility- can the subject matter or content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the learners? Content selection should be
considered within the context of the existing reality in schools, in society and government.

Component 3- Curriculum Experiences

The core or the heart of the curriculum includes the different instructional strategies and methods that
realize the goals and use the content in order to produce an outcome teaching strategies convert the
written curriculum into instruction. Both the teacher and learner take actions to facilitate learning.

Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guide for the
selection and use, such as:

1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objectives into
action.
2. There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning objectives,
the learners , and skill of the teacher.
3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop in the cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, social and spiritual domains.
4. In the choice of the teaching methods, the learning styles of the students should be considered.
5. Every method should lead to the development of the three domains: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor
6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods

Components 4- Curriculum Evaluation

All curricula, to be effective, must have the element of evaluation ( Worthen & sanders, 1987),
Curriculum evaluation refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the
program process, and product of the curriculum. Evaluation is meeting the goals and matching them
with the intended outcomes

The CIPP Models by Stufflebeam

93
CIPP- Context-Input-Process- Product. The Process is continuous and very important to curriculum
managers, like principals, supervisors, department heads, deans and even teachers.

 Context- refers to the environment of the curriculum, the real situation where the
curriculum is operating. Context evaluation refers to situation analysis.
 Input-refers to the elements of the curriculum, which include the goals, instructional
strategies, the learners, the teachers, the contents and all the materials needed
 Process-refers to the ways and means of how the curriculum has been implemented.
This component of the CIPP looks into the entire operation of the curriculum.
 Product-indicates if the curriculum accomplishes its goals. It will determine to what
extent the curriculum objectives have been achieved.

Within the evaluation process, smaller and more specific activities are needed to determine the
effectiveness of the curriculum. It includes assessment and measurement of learning outcomes, the
ultimate product of a curriculum. Methods include diagnostic; placement; formulative or summative
assessments or non-reference or criterion referenced measurement.

The components of a curriculum are distinct but are interrelated to one another as shown in the following
figure.

Aims Objectives

Evaluation Content/Subject Matter

Methods/Strategies

94
 Figure 1. Interrelationship of the components of a curriculum

II.-CRAFTING/DEVELOPING THE CURRICULUM

Points of View on Curriculum Development

Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration,
modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should
be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves,

Some authors define curriculum as the total effort of the school to bring about desired outcomes in the
school and out-of-school situations. It is also defined as a sequence of potential experiences set up in
school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting

Howel and Evans (1995) define curriculum as standard set of learning outcomes or task that educators
usually call goals and objectives, while other writers define curriculum as” the what of teaching”, or
listing of subjects to be taught in school.

Curriculum is a document which describes as structured series of learning objectives and outcomes for
a given subject matter/ area. It includes a specification of what should be learned, how it should be
taught, and the plan for implementing/ assessing the learning.

Curriculum Development , therefore, may be defines as the process of selecting, organizing, executing
and evaluating the learning experiences on the basis of the nature of the society or community. It is a
continuous process for the possibilities of improving the teaching-learning situation. Its goal is a positive
change; process and transformation in the lives of the learners based on the schools mission and goals.

Models of Curriculum Development

Ralph Tyler Model ( also known as Tyler’s Rationale)\he posited forum fundamental questions or
principles in examining any curriculum:

1. What educational purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences can be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler’s Model shows that in the curriculum development the following considerations should be made”

1. Purpose of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purpose

95
 3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experiences/ outcomes

Hilda Taba Model- She improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model. She believes that
teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was
called the “grassroots approach”

Presented seven majors steps her model, where teachers could have a major input.

1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of the learning content
4. Organization of the learning content
5. Selection of the learning experiences
6. Organization of learning activities
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

Thus, looking at the curriculum models , the three interacting process in curriculum development are:
(1) planning; (2) implementing; and (3) evaluating.

The Francis Hunkin’s Decidion-Making Model

What sets this model a part is its recommended first stage of curricular decision-making. The first stage
requires that participants to engage in deliberation regarding the nature curriculum and also its
educational and social political value.

This approach addresses the concerns of reconceptualists, of putting stress on the understanding the
nature and power of curriculum

The Model has seven major stages:

1. Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization

2. Diagnosis
3. Content selection
4. Experience selection
5. Implementation
6. Evaluation
7. Maintenance

Curriculum Design Models

1. Subject-Centered Design model- focuses on the content of the curriculum. Corresponds

mostly to the textbook written for the specific subject. In this design, schools divided the
school hours across different subjects.
 Subject Design- this is the oldest and so far the most familiar for teachers, parents
and other layman. It is easy to deliver, has complementary books, written, and
available support instructional materials. The drawback is that learning is so

96
 compartmentalized. It stresses the content so much that it forgets about student’s
natural tendencies, interests and experiences.
 Discipline Design. Related to the subject design, but focuses on academic
discipline. It is often used in college.
 Correlation Design- This comes from a core, correlated curriculum designs that
links separate subjects designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects related to
one another, but each subject maintains identity.
 Broad Field design/interdisciplinary- it is variation of the subject-centered design.
This design was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects and integrate
the contents that are related to each other. It sometimes called a holistic curriculum
because it draws around themes and integration.
2. Learner-Centered Design- Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is
the center of the educative process. The emphasis is very strong in the elementary level.
However, more concern has been placed on the secondary and even the tertiary level. In
high school, the subject or content has become the focus and in the college level, the
discipline is the center. Both levels, however still recognize the importance of the learner in
the curriculum.
 Child-centered Design- attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau,
Pestallozi, and Froebel. The curriculum is anchored on the needs and interest of the
child. The is not considered as a passive individual, but as on, who engages with
his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create and construct
meaning and understanding as viewed by the constructivists. Learners interact with
the teachers and environment. Thus, there is a collaborative effort on both sides of
the plan lessons, select content, and do activities together. Learning is the product
of the child’s interaction with the environment.
 Experienced-Centered Design- This is similar to child-centered design. Although
the child remains to be the focus, experience-centered design believes that the
interests and needs of the learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of
the learners become the starting point of the curriculum. Thus, the school
environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from various
activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own
learning form different opportunities given by the teacher. The emergence of
multiple intelligence blends well with experience-centered design curriculum.
 Humanistic Design- The key personalities in this curriculum design were Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization explains that a
person who achieves this level is accepting of self, others and nature; is simple ,
spontaneous and natural; is open to different experiences; possesses empathy and
sympathy to wards the less fortunate, among many others, Carl Rogers, on the other
hand, believed that a person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self-
understanding and basic attitudes to guide behavior. In the humanistic curriculum
design, the development of self is the ultimate obje4ctice of learning. It stresses the
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.
3. Problem –Centered Design- Generally, this design draws on social problems, needs,
interests, and abilities of the learners. Various problems are given emphases. In this

97
 curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns
and abilities of the students.
 Life-Situation Design- The contents are organized in ways that allow the students
to clarify view problem areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners
as a means to analyze the basic areas of living.
 Core Design- It centers on general education, and the problems are based on
common human activities. The central focus of the core design includes common
needs, problems, and concerns of the learners.

Principles in organizing or putting together learning content

Dimensions of Principles of Curriculum design

 SCOPE- Tyler and Omstein (2004) define scopes as all the content, topics, learning experiences
and organizing threads comprising the educational plan. It refers to the coverage of the
curriculum. It is the depth and breadth of the curriculum. It includes time, diversity and maturity
of the learners.
 BALANCE- Curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of the
particular learning area of discipline. This will ensure that the level or are will not be
overcrowded or less crowded.
 ARCTICULATION- When each subject matter is smoothly connected to the next, glaring gaps
and wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. Teamwork among the teachers will
enhance articulation of contents in the curriculum.
 SEQUENCE- It is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening and
broadening of the contest as it is taken up in the higher levels.
 INTEGRATION- the horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar, so that
learning will be related to one another. This will help the learner get a holistic or unified view
of reality outlook in life.
 CONTINUITY- The content repetition, review and reinforcement of learning is what is referred
to as continuity. Learning requires a continuing application of new knowledge, skills, and
attitudes or values, so that these will be used in daily living.

Curriculum Approaches

 Behavioral Approach- Anchored on the behaviorist principles, where approach to curriculum is

usually based on a blue print. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are specified, and contents
and activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes
are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning. This approach begins with
educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are the important
ingredients in curriculum implementation for evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of
behavior. The change of behavior indicates the measure of accomplishment.
 Managerial Approach- The principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time instructional
leader, who is supposed to be the general manager. The general manager sets the policies and
priorities and establishes the direction of change and innovation, and plans and organizes
curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less concerned about the content than
about organization and implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter, methods

98
 and materials than improving the curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes
and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the schools
 System Approach- This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school
district or school are determined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational
chart of the school represents s systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of
personal and how decisions are made. The following are equal importance: (1) Administration,
(2)counseling, (3) curriculum, (4) instruction, (5) evaluation.
 Humanistic Approach- This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered
movement. It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the formal or hidden curriculum.
It considers the whole child and believes that in a curriculum, the total development of the
individual is the prime consideration. The learner is at the center of the curriculum.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

The Six (6) Features of a Curriculum

1. Who teachers- The Teacher

2. Who do Teachers Teach- The Learners
3. What do the Teachers Teach- Knowledge Skills and Values
4. How to the Teachers Teach- Strategies and Methods
5. How much of the Teaching was Learned- Performance
6. With whom do we Teach- Community Partners

III. IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM

Teaching- Learning Process and Curriculum Development

In Curriculum development, the teaching and learning are actions necessary to accomplish a goal in
education. What is the role of teaching in curriculum development?

So, what is learning in the curriculum development?

Teaching as process in Curriculum

The process of teaching replicates the process of curriculum development. The implementation phase of
curriculum development is the actual teaching and experiencing of curriculum, as shown in Figure 2

PLAN 99
IMPLEMENT EVALUATE
Feedback and Reflections

Figure 2: The teaching Process

 Planning Phase- includes decisions about: (a) the needs of the learners; (b) the achievable goals
and objectives to meet the needs; (c) the selection of the content to be taught; (d) the motivation
to carry out the goals; (e) the strategies most fit to carry out the goals; and (f) the evaluation
process to measure learning outcomes
 Implementation Phase- requires the teacher to implement what has been planned.
 Evaluation Phase- a match of the objectives with learning outcomes will be determined.
 Process of Feedback and Reflection- to give information as to whether the three phases were
appropriately done and elicited good results.

Roles of Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

Stakeholders are individuals or institution that are interested in the school curriculum. Their interest
varies in degree and complexity. They get involved in many different ways in the implementation
because the curriculum affects them directly or indirectly.

 Learners at the Center of the Curriculum- These learners are the very reason why curriculum is
developed.
 Teachers as Curriculum Developers and Implementers- Planning and writing the curriculum are
the primary roles of the teacher. The teachers writes a curriculum regularly through a lesson
plan, a unit plan or a yearly plan. He prepares the activities for the students to do . the teacher
addresses the goals, needs, and interest of the learners by creating experiences from where the
students can learn. He/She designs, enriches, and modifies the curriculum to suit the learners’
characteristics.” No technology can ever replace a teacher, it will only support the multifaceted
role of the teacher.”
 Curriculum Managers and Administrators- They are people who are responsible in the
formulation of the school’s vision, philosophy, mission and objectives. They provide necessary
leadership in evaluating teaching personnel and school programs. The principle of command
responsibility and institutional leadership rests on the shoulders of the school administrators.
 Parents as Supporters to the curriculum- Parents are the best supporters of the school, especially
because they are the ones paying for their child’s education. Hence, they want to get the best of

100
 his/her investment in education. This has an implication to what kind if curriculum is being
offered in the school.
 Community Members as Curriculum Resources- Community members and materials in the
existing local community can very well substitute for what are needed to implement the
curriculum. Respected community members may be included in school boards; some can
become resource speakers, etc.
 Other Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation-Professional organizations like those of
teachers, lawyers, medical doctors, engineers and many others are asked by curriculum
specialists to contribute in curriculum review because they have a voice in licensure
examinations, curriculum enhancement and many more. Often, they have a better view of the
industry where the graduates of the curriculum go.

The role of Technology in Implementing the Curriculum

Technological changes in education make it’s impact on the delivery of more effective, efficient
and humanizing teaching-and-learning. Increase in the use of information and communication
technology or ICT is an explosive trend that made it influence education, Educational
technology has the following roles in delivering the school curriculum’s instructional program.
 Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools
 Increasing the capability if the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for students
to gain mastery of lessons and courses.
 Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional approaches
to formal and informal learning such as open universities and lifelong learning to adult
learners.
 Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give
importance to student- centered and holistic learning.

Pilot Testing, Monitoring and Evaluating the Implementation of the Curriculum

 Pilot testing- this is a process where empirical data are gathered to support whether the material
or the curriculum is useful, relevant, reliable and valid
 Monitoring- is a periodic assessment and adjustment during the try out period. It determines
how the curriculum is working so that the monitoring report becomes the basis of decision on
what aspects have to be retained, improved or modified.
 Curriculum Evaluation- as part of total educational evaluation refers to a systematic process of
judging the value, effectiveness and adequacy of a curriculum. It is a process, product and setting
which will lead to informed decisions.

There are two ways of curriculum evaluation

(1) School-Based Evaluation (SBE)- an approach to curriculum evaluation which places the
content, design, operation, and maintenance of evaluation procedure in the hands of school
personnel.

101
 (2) Accreditation-this is a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to an external
accrediting body foe review in any level of education: basic, tertiary or graduate school, to
ensure that standards are met. Accreditation studies the statement of the educational intentions
of school and affirms the standard of excellence.

IV. ASSESSING/EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM

Curriculum assessment is the process of collecting information for use in evaluation

Curriculum assessment may achieve the following purposes:

1. Highlight curriculum expectations;

2. Gather information about what students know and can do,
3. Motivate and encourage teachers to meet the identifies needs of students
4. Provide evidence to tell how well the students have learned ; and
5. Obtain feedback that helps teachers, students and parents make good decisions to guide
instruction

Intended Curriculum- refers to a set of objectives identified set at the beginning of any curricular plan.
It establishes the goal, the specific purposes, and the immediate objectives to be accomplished. The
intended curriculum specifies what the curriculum maker wants to do.

Implemented Curriculum- refers to the various learning activities or experiences of the students in order
to achieve the intended curricular outcomes.

Achieved curriculum- refers to the curriculum outcomes based on the first two types of curriculum, the
intended and implemented. The achieved curriculum is considered the product. It can be the learning
outcomes, or a material product itself, like a book, modules or instructional material.

What is evaluation?

Evaluation is the process of determining the value of something or the extent to which goals are being
achieved. It is a process of making decisions or reaching a conclusion. It involves decision making about
student performance based on information obtained from assessment process. Assessment id the process
of collecting information by reviewing the products of student works, interviewing, observing or testing.

Evaluation is the process if using information that is collected through assessment. The ultimate purpose
of any evaluation process that takes place in schools is to improve student learning.

It entails a reasoning process that is based on inference. Inference, which the process of arriving at a
logical conclusion from a body of evidence. Inference usually refers to the process of developing a
conclusion on the basis of some phenomenon that is not experienced or observed directly by the person
drawing inference.

Evaluation is thoughtful process, used to understand things. Evaluation has been defined is a variety of
ways, all of which have at their core the idea of comparison. When we evaluate, we make comparison
between things, not the differences, summarize our findings and draw conclusion about results.

102
Evaluation is the judgment made about the assessments of students learning based on established criteria.
It involves a process of integrating information from various sources and using this information to make
inferences and judgments about how well the students have achieved curriculum expectations.
Evaluation involves placing a value on and determining the worth of students assessment. Evaluation is
usually made so that progress can be communicated to students and parents.

Evaluation provides information

 Directly to the learner for guidance

 Directly to the teacher for orientation of the next instruction activities; and
 Directly to external agencies for their assessment of schools functioning in the light of national
purpose.

What is Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum Evaluation is the process of obtaining information for judging the worth of an educational
program, product, procedure, educational objectives or the potential utility of alternative approaches
designed to attain specified objectives,

Curriculum evaluation focuses on determining whether the curriculum as recorded in the master plan
has been carried out in the classroom. In evaluating a curriculum, the following key questions are usually
asked:

1. Are the objectives being addressed?

2. Are the contents presented in the recommended sequence?
3. Are the students being involved in the suggested instructional experiences?
4. Are the students reaching to the contents?

Suggested Plan of Action for Curriculum Evaluation

1. Focus in one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be the subject area, the grade level,
the course or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation.
2. Collect or gather the information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation
3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, strong and retrieving data
for interpretation
4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized
5. Report information. The result of evaluation should be reported to specific audiences
6. Reporting can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or informal through
roundtable discussion and conversation.
7. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustments to be made.

V. CURRICULUM INNOVATION

Innovations are inevitable as man continues to seek for development. With the demand brought about
by the fast-changing society. It is most likely that innovations will occur. In curriculum, changes and
modifications are being introduced to keep pace with the changing world. With emerging theories of

103
learning, instructional delivery and management, learning and teaching styles, modes of living and other
societal changes in science and technology led educator to introduce innovations.

Local and National Curricular Innovations

1. The 2002 Basic Education Curriculum

The Vision, Mission, and Rationale of the Curriculum

The Department of Education envisions every learner to be functionally literate equipped with
life skills, appreciative of arts and sports and imbued with the desirable values of a person who
is makabayan, makatao, makakalikasan at maka- Diyos.

This vision is in line with DepEds’ mission to provide quality basic education that is equitably
accessible to all and lays the foundation for lifelong learning and service for the common good.
The BEC was developed through a dynamic process. It started with the review of the existing
basic education curriculum in 1997, which look into consideration world wide trends and
Philippine realties.

Integrative Teaching as Mode of Instructional Deliver

Integrative teaching works best in the BEC because the curriculum is treated in a holistic
manner. The process is interactive, collaborative and innovative.
 Thematic Teaching- requires organization of themes around ideas. The theme provide
focus and helps learners to see the meaningful connections across subject areas. It links
ideas to actions and learning to life.
 Content- Based Instruction (CBI)- it is the integration of content learning with language
teaching. The language curriculum centered on the academic needs and interests of the
learners. Thus, it crosses the barriers between language and subject matter content. This
approach aims at developing the learner’s language skills.
 Focusing inquiry-it is an interdisciplinary approach that uses questions to organize
learning. Learners become creators rather than recipients of knowledge. Contents and
concepts are given less importance than the process of conducting an investigation and
communicating what was learned to others. Instructional process is built around inquiry,
where teachers guide the students to discover answers to questions. Using what learners
already know as a starting point, they generate questions about things they do not know
yet. The design a method of investigation and gather information on their own.
 Generic Competency Model- the learners are enrolled in three to four linked or related
courses or subject areas. In Makabayan, for instance, competencies subject and can be
clustered into personal development, social competencies and work and special skills,
the subject specialist teaches his/her subject and activities will draw on processes and
skills important to each discipline.
2. Third Elementary Education Program
Begun in 1996 and concluded in 2005 it was funded by the WB and JBIC, in response to the
Social Reform Agenda of the government. It is focused only on the elementary level with the

104
 goal to improve learning achievement; improve completion rates and access to quality
elementary education.

Advocacies:
In- service Training for Teachers (INSET); school improvement and innovation Facility;(SIIF)
Student Assessment;(SA), Educational Management Information System (E-MS); Procurement
and Monitoring Evaluation ; Principal Empowerment

3. Secondary Education Development and Improvement Program (SEDIP)

It is a curriculum innovation that dovetailed the TEEP. It started in 2000 and ended in 2006. Its
purpose is to improve equitable access to secondary education in poverty affected areas.

Curriculum Reforms revolved around;

(a)Improving Teaching and Learning; (b) Improving Access to Secondary Education; (c)
Facilitating Decentralized Secondary Education Management.

4. The New Teacher Education Curriculum for BEED and BSED

Implemented by CMO 30,s 2004

 There are two streams in Basic Education; BEED- structured to meet the need of professional
teachers for elementary and special education program; and the BSED-need of professional
teachers in the high school in the Philippines
 The Curriculum is aligned to the National Competency-Based Teachers Standards (NCBTS)
 It is made up of three components- (1) General Education (2) Professional Education (3)
Specialization or content courses.

5.The Ladderized Curriculum for Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE)

 The BTTE prepares teachers in technical-vocational education and training (TVET) and
higher education institutions that are equipped not only with strong theoretical
understanding of teaching and technology but also with exposure to industry
 The course is composed of four components;
1. General education- consistent with CMO 59
2. Professional Studies component
3. Specialization component, and
4. Instructional Technology component

6.Understanding the Design (ubD)-Based Curriculum

 UbD is a framework for improving student achievement and was designed by internally
recognized educators Grant Wiggins and Jay Mctighe, published bu ASCD
 The emphasis on” Backward Design”.
 It is a tool utilized for educational planning focused on teaching for understaning

105
  It works within the” standard-driven curriculum” to help teachers clarify learning goals, device
revealing assessment of students understanding and craft effective and engaging learning
activities.

Understanding by Design (UbD)-Based Curriculum

Begun as early as 2007 and was formally implemented in the Philippines thru the 2010 Secondary
Education Curriculum.

3 Stages of ‘Backward Design”

Stage 1- indentifying Results/Desired Outcomes ( Content/Performance Standards, Essential

Understanding, Objectives- KSA, Essential Questions)

Stage 2- Defining Acceptable Evidence/Assessment ( Product/ Performance, Assessment Criteria/Tools)

Six Facets of Understanding ( Explain, Interpret. Apply Perspective, Empathy, Self-knowledge

Stage 3- Learning Plan/Instruction (WHERTO

W-where us the unit going? What is expected? Where are the students coming from?

H- Hooks all students and holds their interest

E- Equipped students, help them experience the key idea an explore the issue

R- Rethink

E- Evaluate

T- Tailors

O- Organize

7.K-12 Basic Education Curriculum

Republic Act 1053 (may 15, 2013)

The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013’

 The overall Goal of the K to 12 Curriculum

Kindergarten +(6) six years primary education +(4) four years of junior highschool +(2) two
years senior high school

Salient Features of the K-12 Curriculum

 Strengthening Early Childhood Education ( Universal Kindegarten)
 Making the Curriculum Relevant to the Learners ( Contextualization and Enhancement)
 Ensuring integrated and Seamless Learning ( spiral Progression)
 Building Proficiency Through Language ( Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education)

106
  Gearing Up for the Future ( Senior High School)
 Nurturing the Historically Developed ( College and Livelihood Readiness, 21st Century Skils)

The 21st Century Trends in Philippine Education

Relevance and Responsiveness

Benefit from Industry-University Collaboration

 For Students- ensure workplace orientation and opportunity to apply their skills, knowledge and
proper work attitudes; opportunities for enhance employability
 For Industry- prospective workers are developed according to the companies specifications
 For the University- reduced need for sophisticated equipment and facilities; responsiveness to
industry needs and better employment for graduates.

Efficiency and Effectiveness

Pres. Aquino’s 10 Ways to Fix Philippine Education

1. 12-Year Basic Education Cycle- expand the basic education cycle from a short of 10 year cycle
to a globally comparable 12 years before 2016.
2. Universal Pre-Schooling for All- All public school children ( and all public schools) will have
pre-schooling as their introduction to formal schooling by 2016.
3. Madaris Education as a Sub-system within the Education System- Madaris education with
subjects in Arabic Language and Islamic Values education will be integrated in the public school
curriculum as additional subject with the view to keeping the Muslim Filipino children in school.
4. Technical Vocational Education as an Alternative Stream in Senior High School-Provide
education alternative to better prepare students for the world of work. Re –introducing technical
vocational education in the public high schools to better link and match schooling ti local
industry needs and employment.
5. “every Child a Reader” by Grade 1- by the end of SY 2015-2016, every child passing pre-school
must be a reader by Grade 1.Library infrastructures with appropriate reading materials will be
built in schools, and elementary teachers shall be trained how to teach reading.
6. Science and Math Proficiency- Rebuild the science and math infrastructure in schools to produce
more scientists, engineers, technicians, technologist and teachers in the universities so that this
country can be more globally competitive in industry and manufacturing.
7. Assistance to private schools as essential Partners in Basic Education- Expand the Government
Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education to a target of 1 million HS students
through education service contra ting and do away with wasteful education voucher system
8. Medium of Instruction Rationalized- Support UNESCO’s tried and tested formula on mother
tongue instruction. Use mother tongue as medium of instruction from pre- school to Grade III
9. Quality Textbooks-Produce books according to these criteria; quality, better quality and more
quality
10. Covenant with Local Government to build more schools- the support of the LGU’s is necessary
to build more classrooms with smaller population, so that teachers and students, and parents can
form a real learning community.

107
Access and Equity in Education

Legal Bases on the Access Equity of Education in the Philippines

 The 1987 Philippine Constittuition ( Section 1, Article IV). The state protect and promote the
right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make
such education accessible to all’.
 RA 9155 9Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001)- Remaining DECS to DepEd and
reiterating the constitutional mandate. Establish free compulsory public education at the
elementary and high school level of education
 RA 6655 ( The Free Secondary Education Act)- providing free four years of secondary
schooling for those ages 12 to 15 in the public schools

Alternative Modes of Learning/Acquiring Qualification

 Ladderized Education Program (LEP)

 Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency and Accreditation Program ( ETEEAP)
 Ladderized Model Curricula
 Distance Education Learning
 Distance Education Learning

Accreditation : Enhancing the Quality of Education

Accreditation – is a concept of self-regulation which focuses on self-study and evaluation and on the
continuing improvement of educational quality. It is both a process ( form of peer review) and a result (
a form of certification granted by recognized and authorized accrediting agency)

 Program accreditation- accreditation of academic course

 Institutional accreditation- accreditation of the school, college, university or institution as a
whole

The 21st Century Teaching Skills

 Learning and Innovation Skills- recognized as the skills that separate students who are prepared
for increasingly complex life and work environments in the 21st century have; focus on
creativity, critical thinking, communication and collaboration
 Creativity and Innovation- Think creativity, Work Creatively with others, implement
innovations
 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving-reason Effectively, Use Systems, Thinking, Make
Judgment and Decisions, Solve Problems
 Communication and Collaboration- Communicate Clearly, Collaborate with others.

108
 B. Information, Media and Technology Skills- 1) access to an abundance of information; 2) rapid
changes in technology tools; and 3) the ability to collaborate and make individual contributions
on an unprecendented scale. To be effective in the 21st century, citizens and workers must be
able to exhibit a range of functional and critical thinking skills related to information, media and
technology.
 Information Literacy-Access and Evaluate information, use and Manage information\
 Media Literacy- analyze Media, Create media Products,
 ICT Literacy- Apply Technology Effectively
C. Life and Career Skills- Today’s life and work environments require far more than thinking skills
and content knowledge. The ability to navigate the complex life and work environments in the
globally competitive information age requires students to pay rigorous attention to developing
adequate life and career skills.
 Flexibility and Adaptability-Adapt to Change , Be Flexible
 Initiative and Self- Direction- Manage Goals and Time, Work Independently, Be self
directed Learners.
 Social and Cross Cultural Skills- Interact Effectively with others, Work Effectively in
Diverse Teams
 Productivity and Accountability- Manage Projects, Products Results
 Leadership and Responsibility- Guide and Lead Others, Be Responsible to Others

Brain- Based Learning (BBL)

 It is an approach to teaching based on research in neuroscience

 It suggests that the brain learns naturally
 This techniques allows teachers to connect learning to students real life experiences
 This kind of learning encompasses education concepts like
 Mastery learning
 Problem-based learning
 Cooperative education
 Multiple intelligence
 Learning styles
 Experimental learning

Emerging Interactive Teaching Elements from BBL

 Orchestrated Immersion- Learning environment are created to provide authentic learning

experiences. Ex. In the elementary level, teachers can use the school’s miniforest to identify
trees, animals and other plants and find out how they live together.
 Relaxed Alertness- in BBL, efforts are made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly
challenging environment. Ex. Teachers may play classical music when appropriate to set a
relaxed tone in the classroom. Bright lights are dimmed. Scented candles are lit to calm the
senses. All learners are accepted regardless of their various learning styles, capabilities and

109
 liabilities. This will provide a relaxed and accepting environment. Children are motivated to
bring the best of them and bring out their potential

Outcome-Based Education (OBE)

OBE is an approach to education in which decisions about the curriculum are driven by the exit learning
outcomes that the students should display at the end of the course.

In OBE, Product defines Process. It can be summed up as”results-oriented thinking”

Learning Outcome-Oriented Teaching and Learning?

The Bologna Process

 Quality assurance in the higher education

 A unifies educational system (mobility, transparency, and mutual recognition of qualifications)
 Revise curricula; integrate student-centeredness and learning outcomes orientation
 Pedagogical issue became central, along with the alignment of teaching and assessment methods
in accordance with learning outcomes

Experiential Learning Courses (ELC)

 This is anchored on the NCBTS in CMO, 30, 2004

 This feature of the new teacher education curriculum provides students with rich practical
learning experiences which are drawn out from the actual environment.
 Field study courses enable the students to observe, verify and reflect on various events which
relate to the concepts, methods and strategies previously learned
 These courses provide opportunities to capture other experiences which can be further verified,
confirmed and reflected on in relation to their becoming a teacher

Field Study Course Experiential Learning

 (FS1) Learner’s Development an Environment

 (FS 2) Experiencing the Teaching-Learning Process
 (FS3) Technology in the Learning Environment
 (FS4) Understanding Curriculum Development
 (FS5) Learning Assessment Strategies
 (FS6) On Becoming a Teacher

Practice Teaching (Student Teaching)- this is the apex of all the ELCs. It is the total immersion of the
prospective teacher in the real-life of becoming a teacher

 It is an integrated theoretical framework that defines the different dimensions of effective

teaching.

NCBTS define good teaching through the following:

110
  Domains-distinctive spheres of the learning process, and also a well defined arena for
demonstrating positive teacher practices
 Strands- specific dimensions of positive teacher practices under the broad conceptual domain
 Indicators- concrete, observable, and measurable teacher behaviors, actions, habits, routines,
and practices know to create, facilitate and support enhanced student learning.

The & domains of the NCBTS Framework

 Social Regard for Learning

 The Learning Environment
 Diversity of Learners
 Curriculum
 Planning , Assessing and Reporting
 Personal Growth & Professional Development

This Framework will allow teachers to self-assess their own performance against the Competency
Standards in order to identify area of strength, as well as areas that need to be developed further in order
for them more effectively as facilitators of learning.

Domain 1. Social Regard for Learning (SRFL)

This domain focuses on the ideal that teachers serve as positive and powerful role models of the value
in the pursuit of different types of social interactions with students exemplify this ideal.

Domain 2. Learning Environment (LE)

This domain focuses on importance of providing a social, psychological and physical environment
within which all students, regardless of their individual differences in learning, can engage in the
different learning activities and work towards attaining high standards of learning.

Domain 3. Diversity of Learners (DOL)

The DOL domain emphasizes the ideal that teachers can facilitate the learning process even with diverse
learners, by recognizing and respecting individual differences and by using knowledge about their
differences to design diverse sets of learning activities, to ensure that all learners can attain the desired
learning goals

Domain 4. Curriculum (Curr)

The curriculum domain refers to all elements of the teaching-learning process that work in the
convergence to help students achieve their curricular goals and objectives, and to attain high standards
of learning defines in the curriculum. These elements include teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter
and the learning process.

Domain 5. Planning, Assessing & Reporting (PAR)

111
This domain refers to the alignment of assessment and planning activities. In particular, the PAR focuses
on the (1) use of assessment data to plan and revise teaching-learning plans; (2) integration of assessment
procedures in the plan and implementation of teaching-learning activities; and (3) reporting of the
learners actual achievement and behavior

Domain 6. Community Linkages (CL)

The CL domain refers to the ideal that classroom activities are meaningfully linked to the experiences
and aspirations of the learners in their homes and communities. This, this domain focuses on teachers’
efforts directed at strengthening the links between schools and communities to help in the attainment of
the curricular goals.

Domain 7 Personal Growth & Professional Development (PGD)

The PGD domain emphasizes that ideal that teachers value having a high personal regards for the
teaching profession, concern for professional development, and continuous improvement as teachers.

DepEd order No. 40 s. 2012

(DepEd Child Protection Policy)

 “Policy Guidelines on Protecting Children in School from Abuse, Violence, Exploitation,

Discrimination, Bullying and other Forms of Abuse”
 Purpose of the Policy- DepEd shall promulgate a zero-tolerance policy for any act of child abuse,
exploitation, violence, discrimination, bullying and other forms of abuse”

Some Legal Bases of the CPP

Philippine Constitution: Article XV Sec. 3(b)-…the state shall defend the right of children to assistance,
including proper care and nutrition, and special protection all forms of neglect, abuse, cruelty
exploitation and other conditions prejudicial to their development

PD No. 63 Art 59 (1974)- Child and Youth Welfare Code- Prohibiting any mental and physical violence
against children

RA7610- Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

 Basic Concepts of Educational Technology

Definitions:

112
 Technology

 Technology came from Greek word” techne”, which means craft or art. The term
Educational Technology refers to the art of craft of responding to our educational needs.
Another word “technique”, with the same origin, also may be used when considering the
field educational technology, So, Educational Technology may be extended to include the
techniques of the educator.
 Technology is not just machines. It is a planned systematic method of working to achieve
planned outcomes-a process, not a product,
 Technology refers to “all the ways people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy
their needs and desires” ( The world Book encyclopedia). Hence, Educational Technology
refers to how people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their educational needs
and desires. i.e. learning.

Educational Technology

 Educational Technology is a “ complex, integrated process involving people, procedures,

ideas, devices, and organizations to those problems involved in all aspects of huma learning,
“(AECT, 1977, as cited in Corpus & Lucido, 2008)
 Educational Technology “consist of the designs and environments that engage learners…
and reliable technique or method for engaging learning such as cognitive learning such as
cognitive learning strategies and critical thinking skills”
 Educational Technology is “a field study which is concerned with the practice of using
educational methods and resources for the ultimate goal for facilitating the learning process.
 Educational Technology, sometimes termed ad “Ed Tech”, is the study and ethical practice
of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing
appropriate technological processes and resources.
 Educational Technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as
internet applications, such as wikis and blogs, and activities.
 The term Educational Technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional
theory and learning theory.
 Educational Technology implies the use of all educational resources… men and materials,
methods and techniques, means and media in an integrated and systematic manner for
optimizing learning.
 According to modern educationists, learning not teaching is the crucial task of the entire
educational processes and emphasis of teachers is regarded as a system which facilitates
learning and makes learning effective as well as efficient. It is efficient in the sense that the
learning with the use of Educational Technology becomes easy and interesting, durable and
comprehensive.

Educational Technology in a Broader Perception:

Educational Technology

 In it global sense, it includes the entire process of setting of goals, the continuous
reforms of curriculum, the tryout of new methods and materials, the evaluation of

113
 the system as an integrated whole and resetting of goals in the basis of the findings
if evaluation and innovation.
 It is the component of curriculum reform concerned with the method where
curriculum reform is concerned with the content.
 It is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and the conditions of
learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training.

From the foregoing definitions of educational technology, it can be said that it is a very broad term. It is
the application of scientific findings in the method, process or procedure of working in the field of
education in order to effect learning. It embraces curriculum and instructional design, learning
environment, and theories of teaching-learning. It is the use of all human inventions for teachers their
mission to teach in order that students learn.

Technology in Education versus Technology of Education

Technology in Education

 Technology in Education is concerned with the equipment, preparation of ad hoc messages and
integration with traditional teacher-centered activities.
 Technology Education is the most simply and comfortably defines as an array of tools that may
prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why individuals
behave.
 Technology in Education is the” application of technology to any of the processes involved in
operating the institutions which house the educational enterprise. It includes the application of
technology to food, health, finance, scheduling, grade, reporting and other processes which
support education within institutions

Technology of Education

 Technology of Education deals with the active use of mass media and computer science for the
individual pupils learning process under the teacher’s supervision. This is more scientific, more
psychological and more pedagogical than technology in education.

Technology in Education will be useful if it is properly planned and organized on psychological

principles. Henri Dieuzeide (1970) has rightly observed,” The Transition from technology in education
to the technology of education involves a thorough appraisal of existing educational system, of its
objectives and of the means used to attain them, before any decision is reached to employ these new
techniques for specific teaching purposes. The Teacher-turned technologist can then gradually assume
the functions of an educational engineer, whose job is to increase the output of the entire scholastic
machine.

Other Terms Associated with Educational Technology:

Instructional Technology- is a part of educational technology. It refers to those aspects of educational

technology that are concerned with instruction as contrasted to designs and operations of educational
institutions. Instructional technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the
total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives.

114
Instructional Technology is “ the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, ,management
and evaluation of processes and resources for learning” according to AECT Definition and Terminology
Committee.

Technology Integration- means using learning technologies to introduce, reinforce, supplement and
extend skills

Educational Media- are channels or avenues or instruments of communication like books,

magazines,newspapers, radio, television, internet, and other hardware.

IN SUMMARY, Corpuz and Lucido (2008) clarify that Educational Technology is a broad term which
is oftentimes given a narrow meaning , to mean just hardware. However according to him:

 It refers to the use of all human inventions and discoveries to satisfy educational needs and
desired, like LEARNING.
 Inventions and discoveries can be devices, tools, equipment, activities, procedures and
processes.
 Included among human inventions are the various educational media.
 Educational technology is more than instructional technology in the same way that education is
more than instruction.
 Technology integration is a part of instructional technology which, in turn is part of education
technology, and
 Technology education is different for Technology in Education. The latter refers to the
application of technology in the operational education while the former refers to the application
of technology in the educative process that takes place in such education institutions.

Evolution of Educational Technology

Educational Technology can be back to the emergence of very early tools, like paintings on cave walls.
Usually, however, its history starts with the introduction of educational films (1900s) or Sidney
Pressey’s mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s.

 Use of the new technology during US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other
mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology, based on the idea that people can
learn through aural and visual perception, exist in many forms, such as streaming audio and
video, or Power Point presentation with voice over.

The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs:

 Programmed Instruction ( by Skinner): focusing on the formulation of behavioral objective,

breaking instructional content into small units, and rewarding correct responses early and often.
 Bloom advocated a mastery approach to learning based in his taxonomy of intellectual
behaviors. He endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according
to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-
based training (CBT), computer-aided instruction or computer assisted instruction (CAI) in the
1970s through the 1990s. in a more simplified form, the correspond to today’s “e-contents” that
often form the core of “e-learning”set ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training

115
 (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of
text augmented with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent multiple-choice questions
with immediate feedback are added foe self assessment and guidance.

The 1980s and 1990s

 Computer- based learning (CBL). Frequently on constructivist learning theories, these

environment focus on both abstract and domain specific problem solving. Preferred technologies
include macro-worlds ( computer environments where learner could explore and build),
simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic
systems), and hypertext.
 In the mid-1980s, digitalized communication and networking in education started and became
popular by the mid-90s, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), e-mail and
forums.
 There is a difference between two major forms of line learning. The earlier type, based on either
Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer Based Learning (CBL)m focused in the
interaction between the student or and computer drills, plus tutorial on the one hand or micro-
worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW.
 Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-Mediated
Communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and
instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study)
learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires scenarization of flexible
learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining
communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for students
and curriculum management.
 In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time
distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on papers videos and occasional CBT/CBL
materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging, video-
conferencing, etc.
 Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid deigns that mix presence
courses ( usually) in the beginning and at the end of a modules) with distance activities and use
various pedagogical styles (e.g. drill and practice, exercise, projects, etc)

The 2000s

 The emergence of multiple mobile and global technologies gave a new principle to situated
learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of
integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school and
authentic settings.

Perspective that Defines Educational Technology

1. Educational Technology as media and audiovisual communications

 The perspective grew out of the audiovisual (AV) movement in the 1930s, when higher
education instructors proposed that media such as slides and films delivered information in
more concrete, and therefore more effective, ways than lectures and boos did.

116
  This movement produced audiovisual communications or the “branch of educational theory
and practice concerned primarily with the design and use of messages that control the
learning process
 The view of education technology ad media to deliver information continues to dominate
areas of education and the communications industry, as late as 1986, the National Task
Force in Educational Technology equated educational technology with media, treating
computers simply as another medium
2. Educational Technology as Instructional Systems and Instructional Designs
 This view originated form post0 World War II military and industrial trainers who were
faced with the problem of preparing a large number of personnel quickly, Based on
efficiency studies and learning theories from educational psychology, they advocated
using more planned systematic approaches to developing uniform effective materials
and training procedures.
 Their view was based on the belief that both human (teacher) and non human (media)
resources can be part of an efficient system for addressing any instructional need.
Therefore, they equated “educational technology” with education problem solutions”
 As these training personnel began to work with both university research and development
projects and K-12 school, they also influenced practices in both of these areas.
Behaviorist theories initially dominated and cognitive theories later gained performance
 In the 1990s, popular learning theories criticized systems approaches as being too rigid
to foster some kinds of learning- particularly high-order ones. Thus, the current view of
educational technology as instructional system is continually evolving.
3. Educational Technology as vocational training
 Also known as Technology Education, this perspective originated form industry trainers
and vocational educators in the 1980s.
 The believed (1) that an important function if school learning us to prepare students for
the world of work in which they will use technology and (2) that vocational training can
be a practical means of teaching all content areas, such as math, science and language.
 This view brought about a major paradigm shift in vocational training in K-12nschools
away from industrial arts curricula centered on woodworking/metals and graphics/
printing shops toward technology education courses taught in labs equipped with high-
technology stations, such as desktop publishing, computer-assisted designs (CAD)m
and robotic systems.
4. Educational Technology as computer systems (a.k.a educational computing instructional
computing)
 This view began in the 1950s with the advent of computers, and gained momentum when
they began to used instructionally in the 1960s
 As computers began to transform business and industry practices, both trainers and
teachers began to see that computers also had the potentials to aid instruction. From the
time computers came into classrooms in the 1960s until about 1990, this perspective
was known as educational computing and encompassed both instructional and
administrative support applications.

117
  At first, programmers and systems analysis created all applications. Nut by the 1970s,
many of the same educators involved with media, AV communications, and
instructional systems were also researching and developing computer applications
 By the 1990s, educators began computing became known as educational technology

Benefits Derived from Educational Technology

Educational Technology is intended to improve, education foe the 21st-century learner. Situations today
are considered” Digital Natives” who were born and raised in a digital environment and inherently think
differently because of this exposure to technology. Here are some of the claimed benefits of
incorporating technology into classroom

1. Easy –to-access course materials

 Instructors can post their course material or important information on a course website,
which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the
study material very quickly.
2. Student Motivation
 According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for
instruction, “students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based
instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward
computers in computer-based classes”
 Teachers must be aware of their students’ motivation in order to successfully implement
technology into the classroom. Students are more motivated to learn when are interested
in the subject matter, which can be enhanced by using technologies in the classroom
and targeting the needs for screens and digital materials that they have been stimulated
by outside of the classroom.
3. More opportunities for extended learning
 According to student completed in 2010, 70.3% of American family households have
access to the internet. According to the Canadian Radio Television and Tele
communications Commission. 79% of homes have access to Internet. This allows the
students to access course material at home and engage with numerous online resources
available to them.
 Student can use their computers and Internet to conduct research, participate in social
media, e-mail, and play educational games and stream videos
4. Wide participation
 Learning materials can be used for long-distance learning and are accessible to a writer
audience.
5. Improved student writing
 It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors. Which can, in
turn , improve the quality of their writing.
 According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work
that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know.
6. Differential Instruction
 Educational technology provides the means to focus on active student’s participation and
to present differentiated questioning strategies

118
  It broadens individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized
learning plans in some computer programs available to teachers.
 Students are encouraged to use multimedia components and incorporate the knowledge
they gained in creative ways. This allows some students to individually progress form
using low-ordered skills gained from drill and practice activities, to higher level thinking
through applying concepts creatively and creating simulations.
 The ability to make educational technology individualized may aid in targeting and
accommodating different learning styles and levels.

Overall, the use of internet in education has had a positive impact on students, educators, as well as the
educational system as a whole. Effective technologies use many evidence-based strateghies. (e.g.
adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc), as do effective teachers. It is important for
teachers to embrace technology in order to gain these benefits so they can address the needs of their
digital natives.

The internet itself has unlocked a world of opportunity for students. Information and ideas that were
previously out of reach are not click away. Students of all ages can connect, share, and learn on a global
scale.

Using technology in the classroom can allow teachers to effectively organize and present lessons.
Multimedia presentations can make the material more meaningful and engaging.

“Technology’s impact on schools has been significant, advancing how students learn how teachers teach
and how efficiently and effectively educational services can be delivered,”said Carolyn April, director,
industry analysis, Comp TIA,” With emerging technologies such as tablets and notebooks, interactive
whiteboards and wireless solutions gaining ground in the classroom, the reliance on IT by education
market will only grow in the years ahead.

 Learning Theories that Shaped Educational Technology

Theoretical/Philosophical Framework of Educational Technology

There are three (3) main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks of educational technology
literature. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism.

Behavrioism- this framework was developed in the early 20th Century with the animal learning
experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark Hull, B.F Skinner, etc.

Cognitivism-learning theory has undergone a great deal of change since 1960’s and 1970s. Cognitive
theories look beyond behavior to explain Brain-based Learning. Cognitivists consider how human
memory works to promote learning

Constructivism- this is a learning theory of educational philosophy whose primary belief is that “learners
construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different
perspectives.”

119
Constructivist learning environments require to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate
new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. The role of the teachers in this framework is to
become facilitator providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge

Dales Cone of Experience and the Three-Tiered Model of Learning by Bruner

Dale’s cone of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories related to instructional design
and learning process. During the 1960s, Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more information by
what they ‘do” as opposed to what is “heard,” read”, or” observed.”his research led to the development
of the Cone of Experience. Today, this”learning-by-doing” has become known as “ experiential
learning” or action learning.

The implications of the Core of Experience in the teaching-learning process

1. Do not use only one medium of communication in isolation. Rather, use many instructional
materials to help the students conceptualize their experience
2. Avoid teaching directly at the symbolic level of thought without adequate foundation of the
concrete. Student’s concepts will lack deep roots in direct experience. According to Dale (1969),
these rootless experiences will not have generative power to produce additional concepts and
will not enable the learner to deal with the new situations that he faces.
3. When teaching, don’t get stuck in concrete. Strive to bring your students to the symbolic or
abstract level to develop their higher-order thinking skills

The Three- Tiered Model of Learning by Bruner

Harvard psychologist, Jerome S. Bruner presents a three –tiered model of learning. Where he points out
that every area of knowledge can be presented and learned in three distinct steps.

Through a
series of
Third SYMBOLS Symbolic

Second Through a series of Iconic

ILLUSTRATIONS

First Though a sequence of ACTIONS Enactive

120
 ABSTRACTION
INCREASING
Hence Increasing Difficulty

SYMBOLIC

ICONIC

ENACTIVE

It is highly recommended that a learner process from the ENACTIVE to the ICONIC, AND ONLY after
to the SYMBOLIC, The mind is often shocked into immediate abstraction at the highest level without
the benefit of gradual unfolding.

Source: Philip T. Torres, LEARNING EXECELLENCE, a Master Course in Learning How to Learn,
2009.

Roles of Educational Technology in Learning

Educational Technology plays various roles

 From the traditional point of view, it serves as presenter of knowledge just like teachers. It also
serves as productivity tool. With the internet, technology has facilitated communication among
people.
 From the constructivist perspective, educational technology is a meaningful learning tool by
serving a learning partner. It engages learners in” active, constructive, intentional, authentic, and
cooperative learning’

The following are the roles of technology in learning according to the constructivist perspective.

 Technology as tool to support knowledge construction

 For representing learners ideas, understandings and beliefs
 For producing organized, multimedia knowledge bases by learners
 Technology as information vehicles for exploring knowledge to support learning by-
constructing.
 For accessing needed information
 For comparing perspectives, belief and world views
 Technology as context support learning-by-doing:
 For preparing and simulating meaningful real-world problems, situations and contexts
 For representing beliefs, perspectives, arguments, and stories of others
 For defining a safe, controllable problem space for student thinking
 Technology as social medium to support learning by conversing:
 For collaborating with others

121
  For discussing, arguing, and building consensus among members of the community
 For supporting discourse among knowledge-building communities
 Technology as intellectual partner to support learning by reflecting:
 For helping learners to articulate and represent what the know
 For reflecting on what they have learned and how they came to know it
 For supporting learners internal negotiations and meaning making
 For constructing personal representations of meaning
 For supporting mindful thinking

Challenges of Technology in Education

The developments in the internet, the world-wide web in particular, and developments in multimedia
technology, are resulting in new approaches to designing and developing teaching and learning in higher
education. Here are some characteristics of such development as described by Bates

 Increase flexibility and access to learning, resulting in new markets being reached, and in
particular, the lifelong learner market.
 The use of multimedia to develop psycho-motor and intellectual skills development, including
problem solving and decision making.
 The use of internet technologies to develop knowledge management and collaborative learning
skills; and
 The use of internet to develop global, multi-cultural courses and problems.

Why use technology?

Almost all people from different sectors of society offer a number of different reasons to justify the use
of technology for teaching and learning. Following are four (4) of the most frequent reasons given for
using technology;

 To improve access to education and training

 To improve the quality of learning
 To reduce the cost of education; and
 To improve the cost-effectiveness of education

New technologies are fundamentally changing the nature of knowledge. However, we still need to
maintain the balance between teaching and learning done through face –to-face contact, and technology
base learning.

Many skills cannot or should not be taught solely through technology, although the range of knowledge
and skills that can be taught effectively in this way is probably is much greater than most teachers will
credit.

There is a need to be selective and sophisticated in our decisions as to how we want to use technologies
to learn and teach.

 Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning

122
Integrating technology with teaching means the use of learning technologies to introduce, reinforce,
supplement and extend skills. There is no integrative process if for example the teacher makes students
play computer games to give them a rest period during classes. Neither is there integration, if the teacher
merely teaches students computer skills. Following are external manifestations of technology integration
into instruction;

 There’s a change in the way classes are traditional conducted

 The quality of instruction is improved in such as a way that it could not have been achieved
without educational technology.
 There is planning by the teacher on the process of determining how and when technology fits
into teaching-learning process.
 The teacher sets instructional strategies to address specific instructional issues/problems
 The use of technology provides the opening of opportunities to respond to these instructional
issues/problems
 In sum, technology occupies a position ( is a simple or complex way) in the instructional process.

Levels of Integration

 Simple/Basic Integration- there is no substantial change in the teaching-learning process form

previous method. While technology helps, it does not play a pivotal role.
Example: A teacher wants to show photos in her social studies class, but the pictures are small.
She decides to use the computer, scan the photos for computer projection to the class. ( A
presentation software package)
Result: Good class presentation followed by discussion
 Middle Level Integration- there is purposeful use of technology to support key learning areas.
Example1: A teacher uses computer-based Trigonometry software, projected in the class using
a projector to supplement his teacher-centered class presentation
Result: an interactive class using software

Example2: A teacher ask her students to find information on H-fever in the internet. Students
are to create an information leaflet giving a family health tips on H-Fever.
Result: Creative skills are employed by students
 High-level Integration- in these examples, technology is the central instructional tool.
Example 1: to provide information on the ASEAN Region, the teacher assigned a newsletter
computer production by the group
Result: increased social skills through group work; planning, creatively, computer skills

Example2: The Rizal School has a partner school in the U.S.A a joint science project allows,
the Philippine and U.S, schools to exchange information on indigenous herbal plants in both
countries. Video conferencing is held involving students of both schools.
Result: A more sophisticated technology-supported project demonstrating global
communication and socially relevant research.

A New Learning Environment through Application of Educational Technology

123
 “..effective teacher best interact with students in innovative learning activities, while integrating
technology to the teaching-learning process

 Conceptual Models of Learning

Constructivism

Generative Learning

gen

Discovery Learning

Meaningful Learning

Meaningful Learning- gives focus to new experiences that are related to what the learner already knows.
Students already have some knowledge that is relevant to the new learning. Students are willing to
perform class work to find connections between what they already know and what they can learn.

Discovery Learning- Students perform tasks to uncover what is to be learned. New ideas and new
decisions are generated in the learning process, regardless of the need to move on and depart from
organized set of activities.

Generative Learning-learners are active, attend to learning events, generate meaning form those
experiences and draw inferences, thereby creating a personal model or explanation to the new
experiences in the context of existing knowledge.

Constructivism-the learner builds a personal understanding through appropriate learning activities and
a good learning environment. Learning consists of what a person can actively assemble for himself and
not what he can receive passively. The role of learning is to help the individual live/ adapt to his personal
world.

124
Through the integration of educational technology in the teaching-learning process, learners have this
four learning domains:

Learners:

 Are active ,purposeful learners

 Set personal goals and strategies to achieve these goals
 Make their learning experiences meaningful and relevant to their lives
 Seek to build an understanding of their personal words so they can work/live productively
 Build on what they already know in order to interpret and respond to new experiences.

Computers as Information and Communication Technology in Education

Communication media THE PC Audiovisual media

(MULTIMEDIA)
Text, sound, graphics.
(INTERNET) Chart, photos
E-mail (text and video) Power point
Chat rooms presentations
Blog site CD,DVD Players
News services (print, Educational Software
video clip)
Music/movie/television (INTERNET)
room Educational websites
The Computer as Tutor Softwares, Course
wares
The computer is a tutor in this new age of learning. It does not replace the teacher, although it assumes
School
certain roles previously assigned to teachers, who now has to take the new roles ofregistration/records
facilitator and guide.
Computers will become a integral component of the future classroom and not a mere machine that can
deliver routine drills and exercises.

Examples of Computer-assisted instructions (CAI)

 Simulation programs
 Instructional games
 Problem solving software
 Multimedia encyclopedia and electronic books

Understanding Multimedia and Hypermedia

Multimedia- an audiovisual package that includes more than one instructional media (means knowing),
such as text, graphics, audio animation, and video clip. According to Moore. It simple means “multiple
media or combination of media combined in a product whose purpose is to communicate information.

125
Hypermedia- is multimedia packaged as an educational computer software, where information is
presented and student activities are integrated in a virtual learning environment.

Characteristics of Hypermedia applications

 Learner controlled-this means the learner makes his/her own decisions on the, flow or events of
instruction. The learner has control on such aspects as sequence, pace, content, media, feedback,
etc. that he/she may encounter in the hypermedia learning program.
 Learner was a wide range of navigations routes- for the most part, the learner controls the
sequence and pace of his path depending on his ability and motivation. He has the option to
repeat and change speed, it desired. Of course, at the start, the learner may choose the learning
activities he prefers. Meanwhile, the teacher has the prerogative to determine suitable learning
objectives.

Technology in the Classroom

There are various types of technologies that can be or currently used in traditional classrooms. Among
these are:

 Computer in the classroom

Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom,
teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate how to use new
programs, and show ne websites.
 Class website
An easy way to display a student’s work to create a web page designed for the class. Once a
web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes,
trivia, games, and so much more. In today’s society, children should know how to use the
computer to navigate their way through a website, so why not gave them one where they can be
published author.

 Class blogs and wikis

These are variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented the classroom . Blogs
allow for students to maintain a running dialogue. They work as tool for maintaining a journal
of thoughts, ideas, and assignments as well as encourage student comment and reflection. Wikis
are more group-focused to allow multiple members of the group to edit a single document and
create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product.

 Wireless classroom microphones

Noisy classrooms are daily occurrences. With the help of microphones students are able to hear
their teachers more clearly. Children learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit
for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day

 Mobile devices
Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphones can be used to enhance the experience in the
classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback

126
 Interactive whiteboards
An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer application enhances the
experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on a computer screen. This is not
only aids in visual learning, but it is interactive, so the student can draw, write or manipulate
images on the interactive whiteboard.
 Digital video-on-demand
Replacement of hard copy videos (DVD,VHS, etc) with digital video accessed from central
server (e.g. SAFARI Montage). Digital video eliminates the need for in-classroom hardware
(player) and allows teachers and students to access video clips immediately but not utilizing the
public internet.
 Online media
Streamed video websites can be used to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United streaming,
teacher tube, etc)
 Online study tools
These are tools that motivate studying by making studying more fun and individualized for the
student
 Digital games
The field of educational games and serious games has been growing significantly over the last
few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the classroom and have a lot positive
effects, including higher motivation for the students.
There are many other tools being used. These may include: digital cameras, video cameras,
interactive whiteboard tools, documents cameras, or LCD projectors
 Podcasts
Podcasting is relatively new invention that allows anybody to publish files to the internet where
individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by subscription. The primary benefit
to pod casting for educators is quite simple. It enables teachers to reach a student in a way that
is both “cool” and a part of their lives. For technology that only requires a computer, microphone
and internet connection, pod casting has the capacity of advancing a students education beyond
the classroom. When students listen to the pod cast of the students as well as their won, they
can quickly demonstrate their capacities to identify and define”quality”. This can be a great tool
for learning and developing literacy inside and outside the classroom. Pod casting can help
sharpen students vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking, and presentation skills. Students
also learn skills that will be valuable in the working world, such as communication, time
management, and problem-solving.

The most traditional but very effective technology in the classroom

According to Horace Mann, a noted American Educator,”indeed, in ni country have I ever seen
a good school without a blackboard , or a successful teacher who did not use it frequently”
Reality will tell us that the technology divide is evident in current educational situations.
Introduction of the terms like multimedia, hypermedia, etc. may not apply to many schools,
especially in the remote areas where electricity has not even been provided for one reason or
another, coupled with teachers who have no enough knowledge and or training in utilizing or
operating even a computer.

127
 A chalkboard is available classroom equipment and the overhead projector (OHP) which has
become quite popular in schools. Like other state –of-the art instructional tools, the teacher has
to learn from proper techniques using chalkboards and OHPs to maximize it use and make it an
effective and efficient instructional equipment.

Teaching and Learning with Visual Symbols

As implied in Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience a teacher should not use only one medium of
communication in isolation, but rather use many instructional materials to help the students
conceptualize his experience. Thus, the use of visual symbols in teaching and learning is
important. It may be laborious on the part of the teacher, but the use of technology in preparing
such materials may help. These visual symbols include drawings, cartoons, strip drawings,
diagrams, charts, graphs, maps, etc,

Drawing – A drawing may not be the real thing, but it’s better to have a concrete visual aid than
nothing. To avoid confusion, it is good that the drawing correctly represents the real thing.

Cartoons – A first cartoon tells it story metaphorically. The perfect cartoon need no caption. The
less the artist depends on words, the more effective the symbolism, for the symbolism conveys
the message.

Strip drawings- these are commonly called comics or comic strips. According to dale the more
accurate term is “strip drawings.” Make use of strips that are educational and at same time
entertaining.

Diagrams- it is any line drawing that shows arrangements and relations as a part of the whole,
relative values, origins and development, chronological functions, distribution, etc.

Types of diagrams:
 Affinity Diagrams- use to cluster complex, apparently unrelated data into natural and
meaningful groups.
 Tree Diagram- use to chart out, in increasing detail, the various tasks that must be accomplished
to complete a project or achieve a specific objective.
 Fishbone Diagram- it is called “cause-and-effect diagram. It is a structured form of
brainstorming that graphically shows the relationship of possible causes and sub-causes directly
related to and identifies effect/ problem. It is commonly used to analyze work-related problems.

Charts

It is a diagrammatic representation of relationships among individuals with organization it includes the

following:

 Time chart-is a tabular time chart that represents data in ordinal sequence.

128
  Tree or stream chart- depicts development, growth and change by beginning with a single course
(the trunk) which spreads out into many branches; or by beginning with the many tributaries
which then converge into a single channel.
 Flow chart-is a visual way of charting or showing a process from beginning to end. It is a means
of analyzing a process. By outlining every step in a process, you can begin to find inefficiencies
or problems.
 Organizational chart- shows how one part of the organization relates to the other parts
 Comparison and contrast chart-used to show similarities and differences between tow thins,
(people, places, events, ideas, etc)
 Pareto chart- is a type of bar chat, prioritized in descending order of magnitude or importance
from left to right. It shows at a glance which factors are occurring most.
 Gantt chart- it is an activity time chart

Graphs- there are several types of graphs

 Circle or Pie graph- recommended for a showing a part of a whole.

 Bar graph- used in comparing the magnitude of similar items at a different entities ot seeing
relative sizes of the parts of a whole
 Pictorial graph- makes use of picture symbols
 Graphic organizer

Maps- it is a representation of the surface of the earth or some apart of it

Kinds of Maps

 Physical map-combines in a single projection data like altitude, temperature, rainfall,

precipitation, vegetation and soil.
 Relief map- has three dimensional representations and shows contours of the physical data of
the earth or part of the earth.
 Commercial or economic map- also called product or industrial map since it shows land areas
in relation to the economy.
 Political map- give detailed information about country, provinces, cities and towns, roads and
highways. Oceans , rivers and lakes are the main features of most political maps.

Project-based Learning Multi-media

Corpuz and Lucido (2008) explain that project-based multimedia learning does not only involve use of
multimedia for learning. According to them, students end up with a multimedia product to show what
they learned.

 They are not only learners of academic content, but they are at the same time authors of
multimedia product at the end of the learning process.
 The goals and objectives of a project are based in the core curriculum a laid down in the
curricular standards and are made crystal clear to students at the beginning of the project
 The students work collaboratively over an extended time frame.

129
  As they work, the employ like skills, including decision-making
 Their learning task ends up with a multimedia presentation through their multimedia product

IV. Basic Terms in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Terms Meanings
Avatar  Graphic representation if a person in
cyberspace
 A 3-D image that a person can choose to
represent himself in virtual reality
Bmp-(bitmap) The BMP format is commonly used raster graphic
format for saving image files
Bookmark To mark an internet location so one can remember
it
BPS (bits per second) The speed at which data are transmitted across
communication lines between computers
Bug An error in a computer program
Browser A software package that allows one to look at
information on the internet in graphic rather than
just text format
CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) Software designed to help teach information
CAT ( Computer Assisted Testing) Using a computer to administer and score
assessment measures
Chat Room A location on the internet set up to allow people to
converse in a real-time by typing the message or by
allowing their avatars to meet and talk to each other

Chip A piece of silicon inside a computer on which

electronic circuits have been placed
Debug Review a computer program and remove the errors
bug
E-mail Address Senses of symbols or letters that an act as an address
for a site on the internet
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) A way of transferring (on the internet) from one
computer to another
GPS (Global Positioning System An instrument that uses a satellite to pinpoint exact
location
GUI ( Graphic User Interface) Software that displays option to user in graphic
format consisting of menus and icons
HTML ( Hypertext Markup Language) The primary programming language used to
develop web pages
Internet Explorer Popular browser software used to access the
internet
IP( Internet Protocol) Agreed-upon way of doing and sending date across
the internet
ISP ( Internet Service Provider) An institution, company that provides access to the
internet
JPEG ( Joint Photographic Experts Group) A file format for storing and sending graphic
images on a network

130
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display or Diode) Devices consisting of light sensitive material
encased between two clear pieces of glass or plastic
designed to be place on overhead projector
MPEG( Motion Picture Experts Group) A file format for storing and sending video
sequences on a network
PDA( Personal Digital Assistant) Handled computer that can function as cellphone,
fax machine and personal organizer
PDF( Portable Document Format A file format invented by Adobe systems to save
documents in smaller file size and retains the
original look of the original layout, fonts and other
graphic elements
RAM( Random Access Memory) Type of internal computer that is erased when the
power is turned off
Videoconferencing An online meeting between two or more
participants at different sites
Search Engine Internet software that helps people locate internet
sites and information related to a given topic
Server Software A server is a system that responds to request across
a computer network to provide, or help to provide,
a network service
Skype A face-to-face communication that is made possible
through a computer
Snail mail Regular postal Service nail as opposed to email
Spam Unsolicited email or other messages

131
 ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING

Assessment –refers to the process of gathering, describing or quantifying information about the student
performance. It includes paper and pencil test, extended responses (example essays) and performance
assessment are usually referred to as”authentic assessment” task (example presentation of research
work)

Measurement-is a process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an individual

possesses a particular characteristic. Measurements answers the questions”how much?

Evaluation- it refers to the process of examining the performance of student. It also determines whether
or not the student has met the lesson instructional objectives.

Test –is an instrument or systematic procedures designed to measure the quality, ability, skill or
knowledge of students by giving a set of question in a uniform manner. Since test is a form of assessment,
tests also answer the question”how does individual student perform?

Testing-is a method used to measure the level of achievement or performance of the learners. It also
refers to the administration, scoring and interpretation of an instrument (procedure) designed to elicit
information about performance in a simple of a particular area of behavior.

Types of Measurement

There are two ways of interpreting the student performance in relation to classroom instruction. These
are the Norm-reference tests and Criterion-referenced tests.

132
Norm-reference test is a test designed to measure the performance of a student compared with other
students. Each individual is compared with other examinees and assigned a score-usually expressed as
percentile, a grade equivalent score or a stanine. The achievement of student is reported for broad skill
areas, although some norm referenced tests do report student achievement for individual.

The purpose is to rank each student with respect to the achievement of others in broad areas of knowledge
and to discriminate high and low achievers.

Criterion- referenced test is a test designed to measure the performance of students with respect to some
particular criterion or standard. Each individual is compared with a pre determined set of standard for
acceptable achievement. The performance of the other examinees are irrelevant. A student’s score is
usually expressed as a percentage and student achievement is reported for individual skills,

The purpose is to determine whether each student has achieved specific skills or concepts. And to find
out how mush students know before instruction begins and after it has finished.

Other terms less often used for criterion-referenced are objective referenced, domain referenced, content
referenced and universe referenced.

According to Robert L. Linn and Norma E. gronlund (1995) pointed out the common characteristics and
differences of Norm-Referenced Tests and Criterion-Referenced Tests

Common Characteristics of Norm-Referenced Test and Criterion-Referenced Tests

1. Both require specification of the achievement domain to be measured

2. Both require a relevant and representative sample of test items
3. Both use the same types of test items
4. Both used the same rules for item writing (except for item difficulty)
5. Both are judge with the same qualities of goodness (validity and reliability)
6. Both are useful in educational assessment

Differences between Norm-Referenced Tests and Criterion Referenced Tests

Norm –Referenced Tests Criterion-Referenced Tests

1. Typically covers a large domain of 1.Typically focuses on a delimited domain of
learning tasks, with just few items learning tasks, with a relative large number
measuring each specific task. of items measuring each specific task.
2. Emphasizes discrimination among 2.Emphasizes among individuals can and
individuals in terms of relative of level of cannot perform.
learning.
3. Favors items of large difficulty and 3.Matches item difficulty to learning tasks,
typically omits very easy and very hard without altering item difficulty or omitting
items easy or hard times
4. Interpretation requires clearly defined 4.Interpretation requires a clearly defined and
group delimited achievement domain

133
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

There are four type of assessment in terms of their functional role in relation to classroom instruction.
These are the placement assessment, diagnostic assessment, formative assessment and summative
assessment.

A. Placement Assessment is concerned with the entry performance of student, the purpose of
placement evaluation is to determine the prerequisite skills, degree of mastery of the course
objectives and the best mode of learning.
B. Diagnostic Assessment is a type of assessment given before instruction. It aims to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the students regarding the topics to be discussed. The purpose of
diagnostic assessment:
1. To determine the level of competence of the students
2. To identify the students who have already knowledge about the lesson;
3. To determine the causes of learning problems and formulate a plane for remedial action.
C. Formative Assessment is a type of assessment used to monitor the learning progress of the
students during or after instruction. Purpose of formative assessment:
1. To provide feed back immediately to both student and teacher regarding the success and
failure of learning.
2. To identify the learning errors that is need of correction
3. To provide information to the teacher for modifying instruction and used for improving
learning and instruction
D. Summative Assessment is a type of assessment usually given at the end of a course or unit.
Purpose of summative assessment:
1. To determine the extent to which the instructional objectives have been met;
2. To certify student mastery of the intended outcome and used for assigning grades;
3. To provide information for judging appropriateness of the instructional objectives
4. To determine the effectiveness of instruction

MODE OF ASSESSMENT

A. Traditional Assessment
1. Assessment in which students typically select an answer or recall information to complete
the assessment. Test may be standardized or teacher made test, these tests may be multiple-
choice, fill-in-the-blanks, true-false, matching type.
2. Indirect measures of assessment since the test items are designed to represent competence
by extracting knowledge and skills from their real life context.
3. Items on standardized instrument tends to test only the domain of knowledge and skill to
avoid ambiguity to the test takers.
4. One-time measures to rely on a single correct answer to each item. There is a limited
potential for traditional test to measure higher order thinking skills.
B. Performance assessment
1. Assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate
meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills

134
 2. Direct measures of students performance because task are design to incorporate contexts,
problems, and solutions strategies that students would use in real life.
3. Designed ill-structured challenges since the goal is to help students prepare for the complex
ambiguities in life.
4. Focus on processes and rationales. There is no single correct answer, instead students are
led to craft polished, thorough and justifiable responses, performances and products.
5. Involve long-range projects, exhibits, and performances are linked to the curriculum
6. Teacher is an important collaborator in creating tasks, as well as in developing guidelines
for scoring and interpretation
C. Portfolio Assessment
1. Portfolio is a collection of student’s work specifically to tell a particular story about the
student.
2. A portfolio is not a pie of student work that accumulates over a semester or year
3. A portfolio contains a purposefully selected subset of student work
4. It measures the growth and development of students.

The Key to Effective Testing

Objectives; The specific statements of the aim of the instruction; it should express what the students
should be able to do or know as a result of taking the course; the objectives should indicate the cognitive
level, affective level and psychomotor level of expected performance.

Instruction: It consist all the elements of the curriculum designed to teach the subject, including the
lesson plans, study guide, and reading and homework assignment; the instruction should corresponds
directly to the objectives

Assessment: The process of gathering , describing or quantifying information about the performance of
the learner; testing components of the subject; the weight given to different subject matter areas on the
test should match with objectives as well as the emphasis given to each subject area during instruction.

Evaluation: Examining the performance of students and comparing and judging its quality. Determining
whether or not the learner has met the objectives of the lesson and the extent of understanding.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instructional objectives play a very important role in the instructional process and the evaluation process.
It serves as guides for teaching and learning, communicate the intent of the instruction to others and it
provide a guidelines for assessing the learning of the students. Instructional objectives also known as
behavioral objectives or learning objectives are statement which clearly describe an anticipated learning
outcome.

Characteristics of well-written and useful instructional objectives

1. Describe a learning outcome

2. Be student oriented-focus on the learner not on the teacher

135
 3. Be observable or describe an observable product
4. Be sequentially appropriate
5. Be attainable within a reasonable amount of time
6. Be developmental appropriate

Factors to Consider when Constructing Good Test Items

A. VALIDITY is the degree to which the test measures what is intended to measure. It is the
usefulness of the test for a given purpose. A valid test us always reliable.

B. RELIABILITY refers to the consistency of score obtained by the same person when retested
using the same instrument or one that is parallel to it.

C. ADMINISTRABILITY the test should be administered uniformly to all students so that the
scores obtained will not vary due to factors other than differences of the students knowledge and
skills. There should be a clear provision for instruction for the students, proctors and even the
who will check the test or the scorer

D. SCORABILITY the test should be easy to score, directions for scoring is clear, provide the
answer sheet and the answer key

E. APPROPRIATENESS the test item that the teacher construct must assess the exact
performances called for in the learning objectives. The test item should require the same
performance of the student as specified in the learning objectives.

F. ADEQUACY the test should contain a wide sampling if items to determine the educational
outcomes or abilities so that resulting scores are representatives of the total performance in the
areas measured.

G. FAIRNESS the test should bit be biased to the examinees, it should not be offensive to any
examinees subgroups. A test can only be good if it is also fair to all test takers.

H. OBJECTIVITY represents the agreement of two or more raters or a test administrators

concerning the score of a student. If the two raters who assess the same student on the same test
cannot agree in score, the test lacks objectivity and the score of neither judge is valid, thus, lack
of objectivity reduces test validity in the same way that lack reliability influence validity.

TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS

136
Table of specification is a device for describing test items in terms of the content and the process
dimensions. That is, what a student is expected to know and what he or she is expected to do with that
knowledge. It is described by combination of content and process in the table of specification.

Sample of One way table of specification in Linear Function

Content Number of Class Number of Items Test Item

Sessions Distribution
1. Definition of linear function 2 4 1-4
2. Slope of a line 2 4 5-8
3. Graph of linear function 2 4 9-12
4. Equation of linear function 2 4 13-16
5. Standard Forms of a line 3 6 17-22
6. Parallel and perpendicular lines 4 8 23-30
7. Application of linear functions 5 10 31-40
TOTAL 20 40 40

Number of items= Number of class sessions x desired total number of itens

Total number of class sessions

Example :

Number of items for the topic” definition of linear function”

Number of class session= 2

Desired number of items= 40

Total number of class sessions=20

Number of items= Number of class sessions x desired total number of itens

Total number of class sessions

=2x40
20

Number of items= 4

Sample of two way table of specification in Linear Function

137
content Class Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
hours
1.Definition of linear function 2 1 1 1 1 4
2.Slope of a line 2 1 1 1 1
3.Graph of linear function 2 1 1 1 1 4
4.Equation of linear function 2 1 1 1 1 4
5.Standard Forms of a line 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
6.Parallel and perpendicular 4 1 2 1 2 8
line
7.Application of linear 5 1 1 3 1 3 10
functions
TOTAL 20 4 6 8 8 7 7 40

ITEM ANALYSIS

Item analysis refers to the process of examining the student’s responses to each item in the test.
According to Abubakar S. Asaad and William M. Hailaya (Measurement and Evaluation Concepts &
Principles) Rexr Bookstore (2004 Edition), there are two characteristics of an item. These are desirable
and undesirable characteristics. An item that has desirable characteristics can be retained for subsequent
use and that with undesirable characteristics is either be revised or rejected.

These criteria in determining the desirability and undesirability of an item.

a. Difficulty if an item
b. Discriminating power of an item
c. Measures of attractiveness

Difficulty index refers to the proportion of the number of students in the upper and lower groups who
answered an item correctly. In a classroom achievement test, the desired indices of difficulty not lower
than 0.20 nor higher than 0.80. the average index difficulty form 0.30 or 0.40 to maximum of 0.60.

DF = PUG + PLG
2

PUG = proportion of the upper group who got an item right

PLG = proportion of the lower group who get an item right

Level of Difficulty of an Item

Index Range Difficulty Level

0.00-0.20 Very difficult
0.21-0.40 Difficult
0.41-0.60 Moderately Difficult
0.61-0.80 Easy
0.81-1.00 Very Easy

138
Index of Discrimination

Discrimination Index is the differences between the proportion of high performing students who got the
item and the proportion of low performing students who got an item right. The high and low performing
students usually defined as the upper 27% of the students based on the total examination score and the
lower 27% of the students based on total examination score. Discrimination are classified into positive
Discrimination if the proportion of students who got an item right in the upper performing group is
greater than the students in the upper performing group. And Zero Discrimination if the proportion of
the students who got an item right in the upper performing group and low performing group are equal.

Discrimination Index Item Evaluation

0.40 and up Very good item
0.30-0.39 Reasonably good item but possibly subject to improvement
0.20-0.29 Marginal, usually needing and being subject to improvement
Below 0.19 Poor Item, to be rejected or improved by version

Maximum Discrimination is the sum of the proportion of the upper and lower groups who answered the
item correctly. Possible maximum discrimination will occur if the half or less of the sum of the upper
and lower groups answered an item correctly.

Discriminating Efficiency is the index of discrimination divided by the maximum discrimination.

PUG = proportion of the upper group who got an item right

PLG= proportion of the lower group who got an item right

Di = discrimination index

DM – Maximum discrimination

DE = Discriminating Efficiency

Formula:

Di = PUG – PLG

DE = Di
DM

DM= PUG + PLG

139
Example: Eighty students took an examination in Algebra, 6 students in the upper group got the correct
answer and 4 students in the lower group got the correct answer for item number 6. Find the
Discriminating efficiency

Given:

Number of students took the exam = 80

27% of 80 = 21.6 or 22, which means that there are 22 students in the upper performing group and 22
students in the lower performing group.

PUG = 6/22 = 27%

PLG = 4/22 = 18%

Di = PUG- PLG

= 27%- 18%

Di= 9%

DM = PUG +PLG

= 27% + 18%

DM= 45%

DE = Di/DM

= .09/.45

DE = 0.20 or 20%

This can be interpreted as on the average, the item is discriminating at 20% of the potential of an item
of its difficulty.

Measures of Attractiveness

To measure the attractiveness of the incorrect option ( distracters) in multiple-choice tests, we count the
number if students who selected the incorrect option in both upperand lower groups. The incorrect option

140
is said to be effective distracter if there are more students in the lower group chose that incorrect option
than those students in the upper group.

Steps of Item Analysis

1. Rank the scores of the students from highest score to lowest score.
2. Select 27% of the papers within the upper performing group and 27% of the papers within the
lower performing group.
3. Set aside the 46% of papers because they will not be used for item analysis.
4. Tabulate the number of students in the upper group and lower group who selected each
alternative.
5. Compute the difficulty of each item
6. Compute the discriminating powers of each item
7. Evaluate the effectiveness of the distracters

VALIDITY OF A TEST

Validity refers to the appropriateness of score-based inferences; or decisions made based on the students
test results. The extent to which a test measures what is supposed to measure.

Important Things to Remember About Validity

1. Validity refers to the decisions we make, and not to the test itself or to the measurement
2. Like reliability, validity is not all or nothing concept; it is never totally absent or absolutely
perfect.
3. A validity estimate, called a validity coefficient, refers to specific type of validity. It ranges
between 0 to 1.
4. Validity can never be finally determined; it is specific to each administration of the test

TYPES OF VALIDITY

1. Content Validity- a type of validation that refers to the relationship between a test and the
instructional objectives, establishes content so that the test measures what it is supposed to
measure. Things to remember about validity:
a. The evidence of the content validity of your test is found in the Table of Specification.
b. This is the most important type of validity to you, as a classroom teacher.
c. There is no coefficient for content validity. It is determined judgmentally, not empirically.
2. Criterion-related Validity- a type of validation that refers to the extent to which scores form a
test relate to theoretically similar measures. It is a measure of how accurately a student’s current
test score can be used to estimate a score on criterion measure, like performance in courses,
classes or another measurement instrument. Example, classroom reading grades should indicate
similar levels of performance as Standardized Reading Test scores.
a. Construct Validity- a type of validation that refers to a measure of the extent to which a test
measures a hypothetical and unobservable variable or quality such as intelligence, math

141
 achievement, performance anxiety, etc. it established through intensive study of the test or
measurement instrument.
b. Predictive Validity- a type of validation that refers to a measure of the extent to which a
person’s current test results can used to estimate accurately what that persons performance
or other criterion, such as test scores will be at the later time.
3. Concurrent Validity- a type of validation that require the correlation of the predictor or
concurrent measure with the criterion measure. Using this, we can determine whether a test is
useful to us as predictor or as substitute ( concurrent) measure. The higher the validity
coefficient, the better the validity evidence of the test. In establishing the concurrent validity
evidence no time interval is involved between the administration of the new test and the criterion
or established test.

Factors Affecting the Validity of a Test Item

1. The test itself

2. The administration and scoring of a test
3. Personal factors influencing how students response to the test
4. Validity is always specific to a particular group

Ways to Reduce the Validity of the Test Item

1. Poorly constructed test items

2. Unclear directions
3. Ambiguous items
4. Reading vocabulary too difficult
5. Complicated syntax
6. Inadequate time limit
7. Inappropriate level of difficulty
8. Unintended clues
9. Improper arrangement of items

Test Design to Improve validity

1. What is the purpose of the test?

2. How well do the instructional objectives selected for the test represent the instructional goals.
3. Which test item format will best measure achievement of each objective?
4. How many test item will be required to measure the performance adequately on each objective?
5. When and how will the test be administered?
6. How many test items will required to measure the performance adequately on each objective?
7. When and how will the test be administered?

Reliability of a Test

Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement; that is, how consistent test results of other
assessment results from one measurement to another. We can say that at test is reliable when it can be
used to predict practically the same scores when test administered twice to the same group of students

142
and with a reliability index of 0.50 or above. The reliability of a test can be determined by means of
Pearson Product Correlation Coeffficient, Spearman-Brown Formula and Kuder-Richardon Formula.

Factors Affecting the Reliability of a Test

1. Length of the test

2. Moderate item difficulty
3. Objective scorung
4. Heterogeneity of the student group
5. Limited time

Four Methods of Establishing Reliability

1. Test-retest Method. A type of reliability determined by administering the same test twice to the
same group of students with any time interval between tests. The result of the test scores are
correlated using the Pearson Product Correlation Coefficient and this correlation coefficient
provides a measure of stability. This indicates how stable the test result over a period of time.
2. Equivalent –Form Method. A type of reliability determined by administering two different but
equivalent forms of the test ( also called parallel or alternate forms) to the same group of
students in close succession. The equivalent forms are constructed to the same set of
specifications that is similar in content, type of item and difficulty. The result of the test score
are correlated using the Pearson Product Correlation Coefficient and this correlation coefficient
provides a measure of the degree to which generalization about the performance of students
from one assessment to another assessment is justified. It measures the equivalence of the tests.
3. Split –Half method- administer test once. Score two equivalent halves of the test. To split the
test into halves that are equivalent, the usual procedure is to score the even-numbered and the
odd-numbered separately. This provides a measure of internal consistency. It indicates the
degree to which consistent results are obtained from two halves of the test
4. Kuder- Richardon Formula. Administer the test score one. Score total teal and apply the Kuder-
Richardon Formula. The Kuder-Richardon formula is applicable only in situation where
students responses are scored dichotomously and therefore is most useful with traditional test
items that are scored as right or wrong. KR-20 estimates of reliability that provide information
about the degree to which the items are of equal difficulty. ( A statistical procedure used to
estimate coefficient alpha, or a correlation coefficient is given)

Descriptive Statistics of Test Scores

Statistics play a very important role in describing the test scores of students. Teachers should have a
background on the statistical techniques in order for them to analyze and describe the result of
measurement obtained in their own classroom; understand the statistics uses in the test and research
reports; interpret the types of scores used in testing.

Descriptive Statistics- is concerned with collecting, describing, and analyzing a set of data without
drawing conclusions or inferences about a large group of data in terms of tables, graphs, or single
number (example average score of the class in a particular test)

143
Inferential Statistics- is concerned with the analysis of a subset of data leading to prediction or inferences
about the entire set if data or population

We shall discussed different statistical technique used in describing and analyzing test results.

1. Measures of Central Tendency (Averages)

2. Measures of Variability ( Spread of Scores
3. Measures of Relationship (Correlation)
4. Skewness

Measures of Central Tendency it is a single value that is used to identify the center of the data, it is
taught as the typical value in a set of scores. It tends to lie within the center if it is arranged form lowest
to highest or vice versa. There are three measures of central tendency commonly used; the mean, median
and mode.

The Mean

The Mean is the common measures of center and it also know as the arithmetic average.

Sample Mean = ∑x
n

∑= sum of the scores

X= individual scores

n = number of scores

Steps in solving the mean value using raw scores

1. Get the sum of all the scores in the distribution

2. Identify the number of scores (n)
3. Substitute to the given formula and solve the mean value

Example: Find the mean of the scores of students in algebra quiz

(x) scores in algebra

45
35
48
60
44
39
47
55
58
54
∑x = 485
n= 10

144
Mean = ∑x
n
= 485÷ 10
Mean = 48.5

Properties of Mean
1. Easy to compute
2. It may be an actual observation in the data set
3. It can be subjected to numerous mathematical computation
4. Most widely used
5. Each data affected by the extremes values
6. It is easily affected by the extremes values
7. Applied to interval level data

The Median
The median is a point that divides the scores in a distribution into two equal parts when the scores are
arranged according to magnitude, that is from lowest score to highest score or highest score to lowest
score. If the number of score is an odd number, the value of the median is the middle score. When the
number of scores is even number, the median values is the average of the two middle scores.

Example: 1. Find the median of the scores of 10 students in algebra quiz.

(x) scores of students in algebra

45
35
38
60
44
39
47
55
58
54

First , arrange the scores from lowest to highest and find the average of two middle most scores since
the number of cases in an even.
35
39
44
45
47
48
54

145
55
58
60

Mean = 47 + 48
2
= 47.5 is the median score

50% of the scores in the distribution fall below 47.5

Example 2. Find the median of the scores of 9 students in algebra quiz

(x) scores of students in algebra

35
39
44
45
47
48
54
55
58

The median value is the 5th score which is 47. Which means that 50% of the scores fall below 47.

Properties of Median

1. It is not affected by extremes values

2. It is applied to ordinal level of data
3. The middle most score in the distribution
4. Most appropriate when there are extremes scores

The Mode

The mode refers to the score or scores that occurred most in the distribution. There are classification of
mode: a) unimodal is a distribution that consist of only one mode. B) bimodal is a distribution of scores
that consist of two modes, c) multimodal is a score distribution that consist of more than two modes.

Properties of Mode

146
 1. It is the score/s occurred most frequently
2. Nominal average
3. It can be used for qualitative and quantitative data
4. Not affected by extreme values
5. It may not exist

Example 1. Find the mode of the scores of students in algebra quiz: 34,36,45,65,34,45,55,61,34,46

Mode= 34 , because it appeared three times. The distribution is called unimodal.

Example 2. Find the mode of the scores of students in algebra quiz: 34,36,45,61,34,45,55,61,34,45

Mode = 34 and 45, because both appeared three times. The distribution is called bimodal

Measures of Variability

Measures of Variability is a single value that is used to describe the spread out of the scores in
distribution, that is above or below the measures of central tendency. There are three commonly used
measures variability, the range, quartile deviation and standard deviation

The Range

Range is the difference between highest and lowest score in the data set.

R=HS-LS

Properties of Range

1. Simplest and crudest measure

2. A rough measure of variation
3. The smaller the value, the closer the score to each other or the higher the value, the more
scattered the scores are.
4. The value easily fluctuate, meaning if there is a changes in either the highest score or lowest
score the value of range easily changes.

Example: scores of 10 students in Mathematics and Science. Find the range and what subject has a
greater variability?

Mathematics Science
35 35
33 40
45 25
55 47

147
 62 55
34 35
54 45
36 57
47 39
40 52

Mathematics Science
HS = 62 HS =57
LS= 33 LS= 25
R = HS-LS R= HS-LS
R= 62-33 R= 57-25
R= 29 R= 32

Based form the computed value of the range, the scores in Science has greater variability. Meaning,
scores in Science are more scattered than in the scores in Mathematics

The Quartile Deviation

Quartile Deviation is the half of the differences the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q1). It is
based on the middle 50% of the range, instead the range of the entire set

Of distribution. In symbol QD = Q3-Q1

2

QD= quartile deviation

Q3= third quartile value

Q1= first quartile value

Example : In a score of 50 students, the Q3 = 50.25 and Q1 = 25.45, Find the QD

QD = Q3-Q1
2

=50.25 – 25.4
2

QD= 12.4

The value of QD =12.4 which indicates the distance we need to go above or below the median to include
approximately the middle 50% of the scores.

The standard deviation

148
The standard deviation is the most important and useful measures of variation, it is the square root of
the variance. It is an average of the degree to which each set of scores in the distribution deviates from
the mean value. It is more stable measures of variation because it involves all the scores in a distribution
rather than range and quartile deviation.

SD = √∑( x-mean)2
n-1

where ,x = individual score

n= number of score in a distribution

Example: 1. Find the standard deviation of scores of 10 students in algebra quiz. Using the given data
below.

x (x-mean)2
45 12.25
35 182.25
48 0.25
60 132.25
44 20.5
39 90.25
47 2.25
55 42.25
58 90.25
54 30.25
∑x= 485 ∑(x-mean)2 = 602.25
N= 10

Mean = ∑x
N
= 485
10
Mean= 48.5

SD= √∑(x-mean)2
n-1

SD= √ 602.5
10-1
SD= √ 66.944444

149
 SD= 8.18, this means that on the average the
amount that deviates from the mean value= 48.5
is 8.18

Example 2: Find the standard deviation of the score of 10 students below. In what subject has greater
variability

Mathematics Science
35 35
33 40
45 25
55 47
62 55
34 35
54 45
36 57
47 39
40 52

Solve for the standard deviation of the scores in mathematics

Mathematics (x) (x-mean)2

35 82.81
33 123.21
45 0.81
55 118.81
62 320.41
34 102.01
54 98.01
36 65.61
47 8.41
40 16.81
∑x = 441 ∑(x-mean)2 = 936.9
Mean = 44.1 ∑(x-mean)2= 918

SD= √∑(x-mean)2
n-1

= √ 936.9
10-1

150
 √
= 104.1

SD = 10.20 for the mathematics subject

Solve for the standard deviation of the score in science

Science (x) (x-mean)2

36 64
40 9
25 324
47 16
55 144
35 64
45 4
57 196
39 16
52 81
∑x= 430 ∑(x-mean)2= 918

Mean =430
10
Mean= 43

SD= √∑(x-mean)2
n-1

= √ 918
10-1
=√ 102
SD= 10.10 for science subject

The standard deviation for mathematics subject is 10.20 and the standard deviation foe science subject
is 10.10, which means that mathematics scores has a greater variability than science scores. In other
words, the scores in mathematics are more scattered than in science.

Interpretation of Standard Deviation

When the value of standard deviation is large, on the average, the scores will be far form the mean. On
the other hand. If the value of standard deviation is small, on the average, the score will be close form
the mean.

151
Coefficient of Variation

Coefficient of variation is a measure of relative variation expressed as percentage of the arithmetic mean.
It is used to compare the variability of two or more sets of data even when the observations are expressed
in different units of measurement. Coefficient of variation can be solve using the formula.

( )
CV = SD x 100%
Mean

The lower the value of coefficient of variation, the more the overall data approximate to the mean or
more the homogeneous the performance of the group

Group Mean Standard deviation

A 87 8.5
B 90 10.25

CV Group A= standard deviation x 100%

Mean

= 8.5 x 100%
87
CV Group A=9.77%

CV GroupB= standard deviation x 100%

Mean

= 10.25 x 100%
90
CV Group B=11.39%

The CV of Group A is 9.77% and CB of Group B is 11/39%, which means that group A has homogenous
performance.

Percentile Rank
The Percentile rank of a score is the percentage of the scores in the frequency distribution which are
lower. This means that the percentage of the examinees in the norm group who scored below the score
of interest. Percentile rank are commonly used to clarify the interpretation of scores on standardized
tests.

Z- SCORE

152
 Z- score (also known as standard score) measures how many standard deviations an observations is
above or below the mean. A positive z-score measures the number of standard deviation a score is above
the mean, and a negative z-negative z-score gives the number of standard deviation a score is below the
mean.

The z-score can be computed using the formula

Z= x-µ for population

o

Z= x-mean for sample

SD
Where

X= is a raw score

0= is the standard deviation of the population

µ= is the mean of the population

SD= is the standard deviation of the sample

EXAMPLE:

James Mark’s examination results in the three subjects are as follows:

Subject Mean Standard deviation James Mark’s Grade

Math Analysis 88 10 95
Natural Science 85 5 80
Labor Management 92 7.5 94

EXAMPLE:A study showed the performance of two Groups A and B in a certain test given by a
researcher. Group A obtained a mean score of 87 points with standard deviation of 8.5 points, Group B
obtained a mean score of 90 points with standard deviation of 10.25 points. Which of the two group has
a more homogeneous performance?

In what subject did James Mark performed best? Very Poor?

Z math analysis = 95-88

10

Z math analysis = 0.70

Z natural science= 80-85

153
Z natural Science= -1

Z labor management = 94-92

7.5

Z labor management = 0.27

James Mark had a grade in Math Analysis that was 0.70 standard deviation above the mean of the Math
Analysis grade, while in Natural Science he was -1.0 standard deviation below the mean of Natural
Science grade. He also had a grade in Labor Management that was 0.27 standard deviation above the
mean of the Labor Management grades. Comparing the z scores, James Mark performed best in
Mathematics Analysis while he performed very poor in Natural Science in relation to the group
performance.

T-score

T-score can be obtained by multiplying the z-score by 10 and adding the product to 50. In symbol, T-
score = 10z +50

Using the same exercise, compute the T-score of James Mark in Math Analysis, Natural Science and
Labor Management

T- score (math analysis) = 10 (.7) +50

= 57

T- score (natural science) = 10(-1)+50

= 40

T-score (labor management) = 10(0.27) +50

=52.7

Since the highest T-score us in math analysis = 57, we can conclude that James Mark performed best in
Math analysis than in natural science and labor management.

Stanine

Stanine also known as standard nine, is a simple type of normalized standard score that illustrate the
process of normalization. Stanines are single digit scores ranging form 1 to 9.

154
The distribution of new scores is divided into nine parts

Percent 4% 7% 12% 17% 20% 17% 12% 7% 4%

in
Stanines
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Stanines 1

Skewness

Describes the degree of departures of the distribution of the data from symmetry.

The degree of skewness is measured by the coefficient of lsewness, denoted as SK and computed as,

SK= 3(mean-media)
SD
Normal curve is a symmetrical bell shaped curve, the end tails are continuous and asymptotic. The mean,
median and mode are equal. The scores are normally distributed if the computed value of SK=0

Areas Under the Normal Curve

Positively skewed when the curve is skewed to the right, it has a long tail extending off to the right but
a short tail to the left. It increases the presence of a small proportion of relatively large extreme value
SK˃0

When the computed value of SK is positive most of the scores of students are very low, meaning to say
that they performed poor in the said examination

Negatively skewed when a distribution is skewed to the left. It has a long tail extending off to the left
but a short tail to the right. It indicates the presence of a high proportion of relatively large extreme
values SK˂0.

When the computed value of SK is negative most of the students got a very high score, meaning to say
that they performed very well in the said examination

Rubrics

Rubrics is a scoring scale and instructional tool to assess the performance of student using a task-specific
set of criteria. It contains two essential parts: the criteria for the task and levels of performance for each
criterion. It provides teachers an effective means of students-centered feedback and evaluation of the
work of students. It also enables teachers to provide a detailed and informative evaluations of their
performance.
Rubrics is very important most especially if you are measuring the performance of students against a set
of standard or pre-determined set of criteria. Through the use of scoring rubrics or rubrics the teachers

155
can determine the strengthens and weaknesses of the students, hence it enables the students to develop
their skills.

Steps in developing a Rubrics

1. Identify your standards, objectives and goals for your students. Standard is a statement of what
the students should be able to know or be able to perform. It should indicate that your students
should be able to know or be able to perform. It should indicate that your students should met
these standards. Know also the goals for instruction, what are the learning outcomes.
2. Identify the characteristics of a good performance on the task, the criteria, when the students
perform or present their work, it should indicate that they performed well in the task given to
them; hence they met that particular standards.
3. Identify the levels of performance for each criterion. There is no guidelines with regards to the
number of levels of performance, it vary according to the task and needs. It can have as few as
two levels of performance or as many as the teacher can develop. In this case, the rater can
sufficiently discriminate the performance of the students in each criteria. Through this levels of
performance, the teacher or the rater can provide more detailed feedback about the performance
of the students. It is easier also for the teacher and students to identify the areas needed for
improvement.

Types of Rubrics
1. Holistic Rubrics
In holistic rubrics does not list a separate levels of performance for each criterion. Rather ,
holistic, rubrics assigns a level of performance along with a multiple criteria as a whole, in other
words you put all the component together.
Advantage: quick scoring, provide overview of students achievement.
Disadvantage: does not provide detailed information about the student performance in specific
areas of the content and skills. May be difficult to provide one overall score.

2. Analytic Rubrics
In analytic rubrics the teacher or the rater identify and assess components of a finished product.
Breaks down the final product into component parts and each part is scored independently. The
total score is the sum of all the rating for all the parts that are to be assessed or evaluated. In
analytic scoring, it is very important for the rater to treat each part as separate to avoid bias
toward the whole product.
Advantage: more detailed feedback, scoring more consistent across students and graders.
Disadvantage: time consuming to score.

Example of Holistic Rubric

3-Excellent Researcher
 Included 10-12 sources
 No apparent historical inaccuracies
 Can easily tell which sources information was drawn from
 All relevant information is included
2- Good Researcher

156
  Included 5-9 sources
 Few historical inaccuracies
 Can tell with difficulty where information came from
 Bibliography contains most relevant information
1-Poor Researcher
 Included 1-4 sources
 Lots of historical inaccuracies
 Cannot tell from which source information came from
 Bibliography contains very little information

Example of Analytic Rubric

Criteria Limited Acceptable Proficient

1 2 1
Made good observations Observations are Most observations All observations are
absent or vague are clear and detailed clear and detailed
Made good predictions Predictions are Most predictions are All predictions are
absent or irrelevant reasonable reasonable
Appropriate conclusion Conclusion is Conclusion is Conclusion is
absent or consistent with most consistent with
inconsistent with observations observations
observation

Advantages of Using Rubrics

When assessing the performance of the students using performance based assessment it is very important
to use scoring rubrics. The advantages of using rubrics in assessing student’s performance are:

1. Rubrics allow assessment to become more objective and consistent

2. Rubrics clarify the criteria in specific terms
3. Rubrics clearly show the student how work will be evaluated and what is expected
4. Rubrics promote student awareness of the criteria to use in assessing peer performance
5. Rubrics provide useful feedbacks regarding the effectiveness of the instruction: and
6. Rubrics provide benchmarks against which to measure and document progress

PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT

157
Performance based assessment is a direct and systematic observation of actual performances of the
students based from a pre-determined performance criteria as cited by (Gabuyo, 2011). It is an alternative
form of assessing the performance of the students that represent a set of strategies for the application of
knowledge, skills and work habits through the performance of tasks that are meaningful and engaging
to students”

Framework of Assessment Approaches

Selection Type Supply Type Product Performance

True-false Completion Essay, story or poem Oral presentation of
report
Multiple-choice Label a diagram Writing portfolio Musical, dance or
dramatic performance
Matching type Short answer Research report Typing test
Concept man Portfolio exhibit, Art Diving
exhibit
Writing journal Laboratory
demonstration
Cooperation in group
works
Forms of Performance Based Assessment

1. Extended response task

a. Activities for single assessment may be multiple and varied
b. Activities may be extended over a period of time
c. Products from different students may be different in focus
2. Restricted-response tasks
a. Intended performances more narrowly defined than extended-response tasks.
b. Questions may begin like a multiple-choice or short answer stem, but then ask for
explanation, or justification.
c. May have introductory material like an interpretative exercise, but then asks for an
explanation of the answer, not just the answer itself
3. Portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress
and achievements in one or more areas.

Uses of Performance Based Assessment

1. Assessing the cognitive complex outcomes such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation
2. Assessing non-writing performances and products
3. Must carefully specify the learning outcomes and construct activity or task that actually called
forth.

Focus of Performance Bases Assessment

Performance based assessment can assess the process, or product or both (process and product)
depending on the learning outcomes. It also involves doing rather that just knowing about the activity or
task. The teacher will assess the effectiveness of the process or procedures and the product used in
carrying out the instruction. The question is when to use the process and the product?

158
Use the process when:

1. There is no product
2. The process is orderly and directly observable;
3. Correct procedures/steps in crucial to later success;
4. Analysis of procedural steps can help in improving the product,
5. Learning is at the early age.

Use the product when:

1. Different procedures result in an equally good product;

2. Procedures not available for observation;
3. The procedures have been mastered already;
4. Products have qualities that can be identified and judge

The final step in performance assessment is to assess and score the student’s performance. To assess the
performance of the students the evaluator can used checklist approach , narrative or anecdotal approach,
rating scale approach, and memory approach. The evaluator can give feedback on a student’s
performance in the form of narrative report or grade. There are different was to record the results of
performance-based assessments.

1. Checklist Approach are observation instruments that divide performance whether it is certain or
not certain. The teacher has to indicate only whether or not certain elements are present in the
performances
2. Narrative/Anecdotal Approach is continuous description of student behavior as it occurs,
recorded without judgment or interpretation. The teacher will write narrative reports of what
was done during each of the performances. Form these reports teachers can determine how well
their students met their standards.
3. Rating Scale Approach is a checklist that allows the evaluator to record information on a scale,
noting the finer distinction that just presence or absence of a behavior. The teacher they indicate
to what degree the standards were met. Usually, teachers will use a numerical scale. For instance,
one teacher may arte each criterion on a scale of one to five with one meaning “ skills barely
present” and five meaning “skill extremely well executed.”
4. Memory Approach the teacher observes the students when performing the tasks without taking
any notes. They use the information from memory to determine whether or not the students were
successful. This approach is not recommended to use for assessing the performance of the
students.

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

Portfolio assessment is the systematic, longitudinal collection of student work created in response to
specific, know instructional objectives and evaluated in relation to the same criteria. Student Portfolio
is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the students efforts, progress and achievements
in one or more areas. The collection must include student participation in selecting contents, the criteria
for selection, the criteria for judging merit and evidence of student self-reflection.

159
Comparison of Portfolio and Traditional Forms of Assessment

Traditional Assessment Portfolio Assessment

Measures student’s ability at one time Measures student’s ability over time
Done by the teacher alone, students are not aware
Done by the teacher and the students, the students
of the criteria are aware of the criteria
Conducted outside instruction Embedded in instruction
Assigns student a grade Involves student in own assessment
Does not capture the students language ability
Capture many facets if language learning
performance
Does not include the teacher’s knowledge of Allows for expression of teacher’s knowledge of
student as a learner student as learner
Does not gives student responsibility Student learns how to take responsibility

Three Types of Portfolio

There are three basic types of portfolio to consider for classroom use. These are working portfolio,
showcase portfolio and progress portfolio

1. Working Portfolio
The first type of portfolio is working portfolio also known as “teacher-student portfolio”. As the
name implies that it is a project “in work” it contains the work in progress as well as the finished
samples of work use to reflect in process by the students and teachers. It documents the stages
of learning and provides a progressive record of student growth. This is interactive teacher-
student portfolio that aids in communication between teacher and student.

The working portfolio may be used to diagnose student needs. In both student and teacher have
evidence of student strengths and weakness in achieving learning objectives, information
extremely useful in designing future instruction.

2. Showcase Portfolio
Showcase portfolio is the second type of portfolio and also know as best works portfolio or
display portfolio. In this kind of portfolio, it focuses on the student’s best and most
representative work. It exhibit the best performance of the student. Best works portfolio may
document student activities beyond school for example a story written at home. It is just like an
artist’s portfolio where a variety of work is selected to reflect breadth of talent, painters can
exhibits the best paintings. Hence, in this portfolio the student selects what he or she thinks is
representative work. This folder is most often seen at open houses and parent visitations.

The most rewarding use of student portfolios is the display of student’s best work, the work that
makes them proud. In this case, it encourages self-assessment and build self-esteem to students.
The pride and sense of accomplishment that students feel make the effort well worthwhile and
contribute to a culture for learning in the classroom

160
 3. Progress Portfolio
This third type of portfolio is progress portfolio and it is also known as Teacher Alternative
Assessment Portfolio. It contains examples of student’s work with the same types done over a
period of time and they are utilized to assess their progress

All the works of the students in this type of portfolio are scored, rated, ranked, or evaluated.

Teachers can keep individual student portfolios that are solely for the teacher’s use as an
assessment tool. This a focused type of portfolio and is a model approach to assessment.

Assessment portfolios used to document student learning on specific curriculum outcomes and
used to demonstrate the extent of mastery in any curricular area,

Uses of Portfolios

1. It can provide both formative and summative opportunities for monitoring progress toward
reaching identified outcomes
2. Portfolios can communicate concrete information about what us expected of students in
terms of the content and quality of performance in specific curriculum areas.
3. A portfolio is that they allow students to document aspects of their learning that do not show
up well in traditional assessments
4. Portfolios are useful to showcase periodic or end of the year accomplishment of students
such as in poetry, reflections on growth, samples of best works, etc.
5. Portfolios may also be used to facilitate communication between teachers and parents
regarding their child’s achievement and progress in a certain period of time.
6. The administrator may use portfolios for national competency testing to grant high school
credit, to evaluate education programs.
7. Portfolios may be assembled for combination of purposes such as instructional
enhancement and progress documentation. A teacher reviews students portfolios
periodically and make notes for revising instruction for next year used.

According to Mueller (2010) there are seven steps in developing portfolios of students.

Below are the discussions of each step.

1. Purpose: What is the purposes of the portfolio?

2. Audience: For what audience will the portfolio be created?
3. Content: What samples of student work will be included?
4. Process: What processes (e.g. selection of work to be included, reflection in work, conferencing)
will be engaged in during the development of the portfolio?
5. Management: How will time and materials be managed in the development of the portfolio?
6. Communication: How and when will the portfolio be shared with pertinent audiences?
7. Evaluation: If the portfolio is to be used for evaluation, when and how should it be evaluated?

161
Guidelines for Assessing Portfolios

1. Include enough documents (items) on which to base judgment

2. Structure the contents to provide scorable information
3. Develop judging criteria and a scoring scheme fir raters to use in assessing the portfolios
4. Use observation instruments such as checklists and rating when possible to facilitate scoring.
5. Use trained evaluators or assessors

Guidance and Counseling

Guidance and Counseling are both process to solve problems of life, they differ only on the approach
used. In guidance the client’s problems are listened carefully and readymade solutions are provided by
the experts. While in counseling the client’s problem are discussed and relevant information are provided
in-between. Through these information, the client will gain an insight to the problem and become
empowered to take his own decision.

Guidance Counselor assist each student to benefit from the school experience through attention to their
personal, social and academic needs.

Guidance (Downing) as pointed out by Lao (2006) is an organized set of specialized services established
as an integral part of the school environment designed to promote the development of students and assist
them toward a realization of sound, wholesome adjustment and maximum accomplishment
commensurate with their potentialities.

Guidance (Good) is a process id dynamic interpersonal relationship designed to influence the attitude
and subsequent behavior of the person.

Counseling is both process and relationship. It is a process by which concentrated attention is given by
both counselor and counselee to the problems and concerns of the students in a setting of privacy,
warmth, mutual acceptance and confidentiality. As a process it utilizes appropriate tools and procedure
which contribute to experience. Counseling is also a relationship characterized by trust, confidence and
intimacy in which the students gains intellectual and emotional stability from which he can resolve
difficulties, make plans and realize greatest self-fulfillment.

Villar (2207) pointed out the different guidance services based from Rules and Regulations of Republic
Act 9258, Rule 1, Section 3 Manila standard, 2007) and other services not mentioned in Rules and
Regulations

1. Individual inventory/ analysis

2. Information
3. Counseling
4. Research
5. Placement
6. Referral
7. Follow-up
8. Evaluation
9. Consultation

162
 10. Program development
11. Public relations

Roles of the Guidance Counselor

There are 5 roles of the guidance counselor are discussed by Dr. Imelda V.G. Villar in her book
“implementing a comprehensive Guidance and Counseling Programs in the Philippines (2007)

1. As Counselor
2. As Coordinator
3. As Consultant\
4. As Conductor of Activities
5. As Change Agent

Essential Elements of Counseling Process

1. Anticipating the interview

2. Developing a positive working relationship
3. Exploring feelings and attitudes
4. Reviewing and determining present status
5. Exploring alternatives
6. Reading decision
7. Post counseling contact

Techniques and Methodologies used in the Guidance Process

1. Autobiography
2. Anecdotal record
3. Case study
4. Cumulative record
5. Interview
6. Observation
7. Projective techniques
8. Rating scale
9. Sociometry

Ethical Consideration of the Counselor

1. Counselor’s responsibility to the client and to his family

2. Recognize the boundaries of their competence and their own personal and professional
limitations
3. Confidentiality
4. Imposition of one’s values and philosophy of life on the client is considered unethical.

Four Important Functions of Guidance Services

163
 1. Counseling
 Individual counseling
 Small group counseling
 Crisis counseling
 Career counseling
 Referrals
 Peer helping programs
2. Prevention
 Primary, secondary, tertiary plans and programs
 Individual assessments coordinated student support team activities
 Students activities
 Transitional planning

PART 2
PRACTICE TEST

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

1. The process by which certain potentials are inherited from the parents for his development
a. Life c. Heredity
b. Birth d. Character
2. This theory states that there are 8 basic development stages that the individual has to pass through
his life
a. Learning Theory
b. Psychoanalytic Theory
c. Psychosocial Theory
d. Cognitive Development
3. Transition age from childhood to adulthood where rapid physical changes and sex maturity occur
resulting in changes in ways of feelings, thinking and acting.
a. Puberty c. Early adulthood
b. Adolescence d. Stage V
4. Modifying an existing scheme after an individual’s interaction with the environment, resulting in
the creation of a new scheme.
a. Assimilation c. Recognition
b. Interaction d. Accommodation
5. Theory stating that a person’s behavior can be motivated by urges towards self satisfaction.
a. Psychoanalytic Theory
b. Cognitive development theory
c. Psychosocial Theory
d. Moral development theory
6. The ability of a child to conceptualize the retention and preservation of the same quantity under
various changes.
a. Recognition c. Assimilation

164
 b. Reversibility d. Conservation
7. Refers to the idea that no individual are exactly the same or alike.
a. Cognitive theory c. Individual differences
b. Exclusivity theory d. Emotional quotient
8. He is known as the Father of Modern I.Q. Test
a. Lewis Terman c. Laurence Kohlberg
b. Erick Erickson d. Martin Lesley
9. “Intellectual appreciative Experience” is …
a. base on the premise that all learning has emotional correlates
b. obtained in the field of music, art and literature
c. the acquisition and retention o acts and information
d. assumes that human activities are based on stimulus and response
10. These statements imply that children at the early learning stage consider parents and teachers as
authorities and models.
a. Parents and teachers should always coordinate children’s activities
b. Parents should enforce strict discipline at home and teachers in school
c. Parents and teachers should be the role models at all times
d. Parents and teachers should always consult each other with regards the child’s intellectual
development
11. Any change in the behavior of an individual
a. Learning c. Change
b. Response d. Development
12. Which of the following principles IS NOT considered under Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov?
a. Excitation
b. Adhesive Principle
c. Stimulus Generalization
d. None of the above
13. The reinforcement of a person’s responses by presentation or removal of rewards and punishment.
a. Operant conditioning c. Feedback Principle
b. Transfer of learning d. Discipline
14. This stimulation of action best explains the behavior of an individual to take what he perceives to
be the shortest route to his goals.
a. Recognition c. Response
b. Assimilation d. Motivation
15. The process by which an individual acquires the social and cultural heritage o the society where he
belongs.
a. Socialization c. Integration
b. Internalization d. Acquisition
16. Philosophy of education’s main function.
a. Aid the leaner to build his own personal philosophy
b. Definition o goals and setting of directions from which education
c. Educations carries on a lifetime cycle
d. Provision of academic background prerequisite to learning
17. According to Froebel, kindergarten is also known as “____________?
a. children have fun and enjoyment
b. Garden where children could grow
c. He learning Center for Life
d. Where new beginnings begin
18. Which of the following statements is given emphasis by “humanistic education?”
a. The great works of man such as the classics should be enjoyed.
b. Man should learn the different philosophies of education

165
 c. “Build a man who is distinctly civilized, educations and refined”
d. Develop man into a thinking individual
19. A teacher who advocates the pragmatic philosophy of education believes that experience should
follow learning, thus, she has to?
a. require her student mastery of the lessons
b. encourage her students to memorize facts
c. equip her students with basic skills and abilities
d. provide her student with opportunities to apply their skills and abilities
20. How are institutions of learning encouraged to set higher standards over and above the minimum
requirement for state recognition?
a. Scholastic achievement
b. Faculty development
c. Academic freedom
d. Voluntary accreditation
21. The period of physical, especially sexual, and mental maturation which is characterized by rapid
somatic growth is known as
a. infancy c. puberty
b. early childhood d. adulthood
22. Claustrophobia is an irrational fear of
a. Darkness c. closed space
b. strangers d. height
23. An eye defect characterized by clear vision in one dimension but unfocused vision on the other is
called
a. myopia c. hyperopia
b. astigmatism d. presbyopia
24. Which of the following statements does not apply to adolescents?
a. they desire the approval of their peers
b. they seek dependence on their parents
c. they have a marked sex development
d. none of the above
25. As young people mature, society expects them to develop competencies and assume social roles in
a conventional manner.
a. expectation of parents
b. influence of peers groups
c. influence of formal education
d. cultural demands
26. The founder of the theory of psychology called psychoanalysis was
a. Lock c. Freud
b. Hume d. leibnitz
27. When the learner reaches a point where no further improvement can be expected, he is in a so-called
a. development crisis c. regression
b. learning plateau d. depression
28. Regarding the sexual maturation o boys and girls, teachers should bear in mind that:
a. girls mature at a late stage than boys
b. girls mature at an earlier stage than boys
c. boys and girls mature at the same time
d. there are no marked differences in heir time of maturity
29. Rationalization is used by student who
a. always give explanation or reason for their failures rather than own their faults
b. like to take the blame for their faults
c. bribe their elders with promises

166
 d. substitute words for deeds
30. Which of the following is true of Abnormal Psychology?
a. it studies the cause of personality defects
b. it measures the accomplishments of the individual
c. it concentrates on the scholastic performance of the individual
d. it investigates the educational background of the individual
31. Which of the following is a continuous variable?
a. weight c. nationality
b. sex d. race
32. Which of the following is true about one’s IQ?
a. it remains fairly constant
b. it is highly changeable
c. it is affected by attitude
d. it is never constant

33. Transfer of training easily takes place if the activities involved

a. Are different
b. Have identical element
c. Occur in the same place
d. Vary in difficulty
34. When the learner is well-motivated, he performs his task
a. with indifference c. with arrogance
b. with disinterest d. with enthusiasm
35. A six-year-old child who has a mental age of eight years has an IQ of
a. 120 b. 130 c. 132 d. 133
36. The ratio obtained by dividing mental age by chronological age times 100 is called
a. derived quotient
b. deviation
c. intelligence quotient or IQ
d. intelligence ratio
37. Which of the following was written by Plato?
a. Sic et Non c. The Republic
b. The School and Society d. Emile
38. Who among those below asserted that “Education is for complete living”
a. Dewey c. Kant
b. Spencer d. Froebel
39. The right of an educational institution and its faculty to prescribe the methods/strategies of teaching
refers to:
a. building style
b. choice of curriculum
c. academic freedom
d. co and extra curricular program
40. The 1987 Constitution provides that religious institution can be given
a. with the students’ consent
b. with the parent/guardian approval
c. with mayor’s permit
d. with the school’s support
41. Public schools in the Philippines are the contribution of which colonizer?
a. American c. Japanese
b. British d. Spanish
42. Hardship allowance is given to a teacher when

167
 a. he’s assigned in a depressed area
b. he’s given additional teaching load
c. he’s in lahar area
d. he’s assigned in a hazardous area
43. The ability for quantitative learning of the relations of facts taken from newspaper readings, letter
writing and the like is called:
a. functional literacy c. Knowledge outcome
b. adjustment learning d. Social competence
44. A teacher who gives a uniform assignment to be worked out by all learners in Arithmetic is not
observing a characteristic of a good assignment. Which characteristic is overlooked?
a. It should be definite
b. It should be stimulating
c. It should emphasize the essential
d. It should provide for individual differences

45. If a student ask a question which the teacher does not have a ready answer, the latter should:
a. dismiss the question as irrelevant
b. offer a bluff
c. admit the fact that he doesn’t know the answer
d. ask volunteers to answer the question and do research on it later.
46. The heredity traits acquired by a person in his lifetime;
a. are transmissible to his offspring
b. reappear in his future grandparent
c. Have no influence on the offspring
d. Become recessive traits
47. When student are given a chance to settle differences of opinion by discussion, they develop:
a. fair play c. irritants
b. tolerance d. sociability
48. The school’s responsibility towards teenagers “gang age” is:
a. provide the gang all the freedom it needs
b. gives classroom activities to give direction to out-of-school youth activities
c. supervise gang activities
d. set up norms of conduct or the member of the gang
49. In an intelligence test, a 13-year old girl got a score equivalent to that of a 15-year old. This means:
a. that the girl must be accelerated
b. that the girl is 2-years older mentally
c. that the girl has a chronological age of 15
d. that she has a mental age of 13
50. Which statement is not necessary to achieve the learner’s interest in a learning activity?
a. the activity must lead to a practical end
b. the activity must be within the ability of the learner
c. the activity must fill a need recognized by the learner
d. the learner must have the experience that will furnish the background for the activity
51. He is responsible for the theory which recognizes the importance of developing multiple intelligence
a. Jean Piaget c. Frederick Freobel
b. Howard Gardner d. Sigmund Freud
52. The need to recognize and develop special sensitivity to language, thus helping the learners to use
the right word, phrase and/ or graph to grasp new meaning refers to
a. visual intelligence c. feelings sensitivity
b. linguistic intelligence d. jargon

168
53. The sensitivity to tone and pitch, allowing one to produce musical scoring is intelligence in?
a. musical c. quantitative exercises
b. verbal ability d. qualitative analysis
54. One’s ability to do abstract reasoning and manipulate symbols refers to what type of intelligence?
a. musical
b. personality identification
c. mental ability
d. mathematical-logical
55. The ability to perceive how objects are related in order to mentally perceive what is seen, thus
creating concrete visual images from memory refers to?
a. visual-spatial intelligence
b. musical
c. language
d. logical reasoning
56. The capacity to analyze one’s feelings and thus be able to understand and be able to know the
motives of other people’s actions.
a. spatial c. logical
b. personal d. diametric
57. The type of intelligence which enables a person to understand other person’s feelings, behavior and
motivation.
a. emotional c. social intelligence
b. spatial d. quantitative and qualitative
58. The type of intelligence which characterizes actress, actors, mimes, dancers and people of the Arts?
a. bodily-kinesthetic c. research
b. scientific d. emotions
59. An emerging thrust in determining one’s personality, whether pleasant or unwholesome, this type
of personality measurement is the wholesomeness of one’s virtues, i.e., values, relationships with
other, adjustments to varying situations, behavior an motivations
a. emotional quotient (E.Q.)
b. intelligence quotient (I.Q.)
c. maladjustment personality
d. anticipated behavior
60. It is a measurement of personality which is the result by dividing the mental age by the chronological
age.
a. emotional quotient (E.Q.)
b. intelligence quotient (I.Q.)
c. multiple Intelligence
d. forecasted behavior quotient
61. The teacher must be aware that both heredity and environment represent complex factors, exerting
many specific influences on an individual’s growth. Which of the following statements best
represents the influence of heredity and environment?
a. Heredity counts; environment is less important.
b. If the environment is changed, heredity becomes less important.
c. The relative influences of heredity and environment can vary widely in an individual’s growth.
d. In the long run, both tend to cancel each other’s influences
e. None of the above

62. The best possible way to measure the influence of heredity is by:
a. keeping the environment constant.
b. Ignoring the environment
c. Studying only fraternal o normal capability

169
 d. Studying only identical twins of normal capability
e. Doing none of the above
63. Educators who contributed to the “open education” movement includes:
a. Neill and piaget c. Bruner and Silberman
b. Kohl and kozol d. All of the above
64. A child’s social skills can be measured by:
a. direct observation and parent-teacher conferences
b. psychological test
c. adaptive behavior scales
d. A and C above

65. A teacher uses behavioral modification techniques in his classes. Which of the following student
behaviors would he find most difficult to change?
a. Aggressive tendencies toward classmates
b. Poor habits in organizing work materials
c. Interrupting a speaker
d. Abandoning a project before it is finished
66. Learning-disabled children most characteristically have:
a. low IQ
b. poor socio-economic backgrounds
c. an average level of intelligence
d. minimal brain damage
67. Which of the following is true about educable mentally retarded children?
a. Their IQ range between 50 and 70
b. They have short attention spans and experience difficulty in generalizing
c. Their reading, writing, and arithmetic skills cannot be improved
d. A and B above
68. Which of the following is characteristics of a dyslexic child
a. Mirror writing
b. listlessness
c. Below-average intelligence
d. Hyperactivity
69. Primary reading retardation is presumed to be neurologically based, related to parietal lobe
dysfunction?
a. Inability to relate sound to letter symbols
b. Inadequate auditory information processing
c. Left-right directional confusion
d. Speech aphasia
70. Students with secondary reading problems have capacity to read, but are non-readers because of:
a. auditory problems
b. congenital defects
c. visual-acuity impairment
d. environmental or emotional actors
71. If a teacher accepts Maslow’s theory on the hierarchy of needs, he or she will probably structure
objectives to:
a. meet both the physiological and intellectual needs of students
b. eliminate testing
c. eliminate extrinsic motivations
d. maintain a certain anxiety level for increased competition
72. The knowledge explosion has led to crowding more and more information into curriculum courses.
A likely result is that:

170
 a. the textbook will no longer be the main instructional medium in many classes
b. the child may spend more time in school
c. the teacher may have to rely more on the se of multimedia materials
d. all of the above
73. During the learning process the teacher has most control over:
a. the learners
b. the learning environment
c. the learning process
d. the behavior of the learners

74. Which of the following conditions does NOT contribute to a climate psychologically suited to
learning?
a. The teacher acts like a “real person.”
b. The teacher makes all of the decisions about students’ learning activities.
c. The teacher accepts students as they are
d. The teacher shows trust in students’ decisions
75. William Glasser advocates the frequent use of classroom meetings, with teacher and students sitting
in a small circle. Which one of the following types of discussion would NOT be appropriate in such
a setting?
a. An educational-diagnostic conference on the learning weaknesses of individual students.
b. An open-ended meeting for the purpose of exploring and discussing student’s ideas about the
curriculum
c. A social-problem-solving meeting to resolve teacher or student problems elating to the school,
the class, or any individual member.
d. A sensitivity-training meeting for the purpose of helping students ace their school-related
problems and learn how their actions can affect others
76. Which of the following does NOT represent a teacher’s contribution to the emotional environment
of the classroom?
a. A strident, compelling voice.
b. A sustained sense of expectation where student achievement is concerned
c. A well-written lesson plan
d. A sense of humor in a tense situation
77. According to Jones, student commitment to accomplishing a learning goal depends on all of the
following EXCEPT:
a. how interesting the goal is
b. how likely it seems that the goal can be accomplished
c. what degree of challenge the goal presents
d. whether the learner will be able to tell if the goal has been accomplished
e. whether materials are ready assembled for undertaking the goal
78. The teacher who understands the adolescent’s need to conform will:
a. use sarcasm as a disciplinary device
b. disregard unique responses in discussion and on examinations
c. establish a learning climate that fosters feelings of security
d. lecture students on their weakness o character
79. The best public relations agents for a school are the:
a. pupils c. PTA members
b. Teachers and pupils d. principals
80. The structured curriculum is in decided contrast to the child-centered curriculum, which:
a. emphasizes fundamental education
b. is changeable and is built around student interest and needs
c. is oriented to the needs of a democratic society.

171
 d. Utilizes the theory of mental discipline
81. According to Bruner, teacher working with young children should
a. Push the children to maximum cognitive development as rapidly as possible
b. Present all information verbally so the children will listen well
c. Present new material from the concrete to the abstract
d. Present new information from the abstract to the concrete
82. from the educational viewpoint, intelligence is:
a. an abstract concept
b. a trait that can be manipulated
c. good judgment
d. a form of behavior
83. Every taxonomy of educational objectives:
a. describes increasingly difficult learning activities
b. describes levels of goals for learner development
c. suggest evaluation measure for teacher use
d. Classifies learning outcomes
84. A mathematics teacher following Gagne’s theory of learning believes that:
a. learning can take place under all conditions
b. learning is mainly a mater of accurate discrimination
c. learning takes place only when the student is in a receptive state
d. learning is reinforced chiefly by classical conditioning
85. Under which of the following conditions is a child’s IQ more likely to increase?
a. If the emotional climate in the classroom improves
b. If the child is given a large “research” project.
c. If the child enjoys problem solving and is given ample opportunity for it
d. If A and C are true
86. Intelligence is the basis of education. Education is the effective means for national development,
hence, a country spends a large portion of its budget for the systematic training of the learner to
attain full development Why is education one major concern of every c country? Because
a. intelligence has many facets
b. intelligence is useful in testing
c. intelligence is a safe gauge for budgetary allocation
d. intelligence test when carefully conducted, can help in determining need for future facilities for
national building
87. There are no two individuals who are the same. Individual differences, when early recognize and
provided for, enable the teacher to provide different motivations and approaches in guiding the
learning process. Each pupil differs physically, mentally, socially and emotionally from other
children. Unless the teacher provides for this nature of the learner, no amount of modern approaches
in teaching can elicit favorable results.
a. The paragraph highlights the need or motivating learning
b. Individual differences is an important consideration in guiding the learner
c. The above paragraph focuses on teacher-pupil relationship
d. It takes about the nature of the learning process
88. Robert Craig, et al, wrote of the phase of steps in every learning process. These include: 1.) the
focusing of attention to the stimulation at hand, 2.) the interplay of the learner and the social factors
that surround him, 3.) the acquisition of a new response or behavior he gives to the new learning and
4.) Retention which presupposes that the new learning is acquired.The above paragraph emphasizes
a. the learning process
b. the steps/phase of how individuals learn
c. the manifestations of learning
d. why learning is a difficult process

172
89. Approaches in teaching change from time to time depending on the traditional of sophistication
attached to the course being taught. Some mentors believe that the tie tested ways to teaching is
effective. Other are easily carried away to use modern approaches in imparting new subject matter.
It maybe safe to conclude that once results are realized in teaching, no specific method can be
considered the one-and-only method to use. When teaching a subject area, it is safe to
a. stick to the traditional way
b. be modern and most recent
c. get results in teaching
d. to try any method as they are all theories after all
90. In the early 1980’s programmed teaching became popular in helping teachers to provide for
individual differences in learners. The chunks of the subject matter which are divided into units are
supposed to help the learner master the lesson, since it is simply to understand the frame of the
lessons. No test o mastery of the units are done because the purpose is to provide information on
certain subject matter Would you as a teacher use programmed instruction if you handle a subject
on Values Education?
a. yes, definitely
b. no, not important for the subject matter
c. I don’t know
d. Why not if the subject matter calls for it
91. The data/subject matter to teach are gathered in different ways, These include historical sources like
surveys, systematic observations, experimentation, interviews, etc. to be reliable and valid, the data
collected must be organized, properly analyzed and interpreted. From these processes, some
conclusion or generalization are done to reveal certain relationships like cause & effect. Data
gathering involves:
a. tedious and serious study
b. easy does it
c. data gathered are tested and filed, then verified before being used
d. no follow-up needed
92. Heredity and environment play important roles in the function of human beings. DNA or
Deoxyribonucleic Acid is the biological (heredity) band of our genes. Our environment includes the
house, school and the community where we live. Whether we become successful or a failure will
depend on the interplay of both nature and nurture.If heredity and environment affect the individual,
thus, we can conclude that
a. both actors play equal roes in one’s life
b. one factor, either heredity or environment exerts more influence than the other
c. neither factor is important
d. nurture and nature are the same
93. The first systematic philosopher to work in the field of education was
a. Socrates c. Plato
b. Aristotle d. Rousseau
94. The first state in the world’s history where all human capabilities were allowed to develop freely
a. Rome c. Sparta
b. Athens d. Germany
95. They are the most practical, pragmatic people who absorbed themselves in the management of their
state affairs
a. Spartans c. Romans
b. Athens d. Chinese
96. Invented the first system of writing in the orient
a. Phoenicians c. Greeks
b. Chinese d. Romans
97. first to introduce the use of printing press in the Philippines

173
 a. Romans c. Greeks
b. Chinese d. Japanese
98. conducted the world’s first civil service test
a. Greeks c. Chinese
b. Romans d. English
99. To develop the capacity of man only for war was the educational aim of the ancient
a. Romans c. Athenians
b. Spartans d. Chinese
100. To produce a young man who would be charming in person and graceful in manner, e.g. a
beautiful soul in a beautiful body is the educational aim of education of the
a. Romans c. Spartans
b. Athens d. Italians

174
 SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

1. Principal B tells her teachers that training in the humanities is most important. To which educational
philosophy does he adhere?
A. Existentialism
B. Perennialism
C. Progressivism
D. Essentialism
2. Principal C shares this thought with his teachers: "Subject matter should help students understand
and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts,
feelings, and actions." From which philosophy is this thought based?
A. Perennialism
B. Essentialism
C. Existentialism
D. Progressivism
3. To come closer to the truth we need to "go back to the things themselves." This is the advice of the
A. behaviorists
B. phenomenologists
C. idealists
D. pragmatists
4. Student B claims: "I cannot see perfection but I long for it. So it must be real." Under which group
can he be classified?
A. Idealist
B. Empiridst
C. Realist
D. Pragmatist.
5. Which of the following prepositions is attributed to Plato?
A. Truth is relative to a particular time and place.
B. Human beings create their own truths.
C. Learning is the discovery of truth as latent ideas are brought to consciousness.
D. Sense perception is the most accurate guide to knowledge.
6. On whose philosophy was A. S. Neil's Summerhill, one of the most experimental schools, based?
A. Rousseau
B. Pestalozzi
C. Montessori
D. John Locke
7. As a teacher, you are a rationalist. Which among these will be your guiding principle?
A. I must teach the child that we can never have real knowledge of anything.
B. I must teach the child to develop his mental powers to the full.
C. I must teach the child so he is assured of heaven.
D. I must teach the child every knowledge, skill, and value that he needs for a better future.
8. Teacher U teaches to his pupils that pleasure are not the highest good. Teacher's teaching is against

175
what philosophy?
A. Realism
B. Hedonism
C. Epicureanism
D. Empiricism
9. Who among the following puts more emphasis on core requirements, longer school day, longer
academic year and more challenging textbooks?
A. Perennialist
B. Essentialist
C. Progressivist
D. Existentialist
10. Which group of philosophers maintains that "truth exists in an objective order that is independent
of the knower"?
A. Idealists
B. Pragmatists
C. Existentialists
D. Realists
11. You arrive at knowledge by re-thinking of latent ideas. From whom does this thought come?
A. Experimentalist
B. Realist
C. Idealist
D. Existentialist
12. As a teacher, you are a reconstructionist. Which among these will be your guiding principle?
A. I must teach the child every knowledge, skill, and value that he needs for a better future.
B. I must teach the child to develop his mental powers to the full.
C. I must teach the child so he is assured of heaven.
D. I must teach the child that we can never have real knowledge of anything.
13. Teacher B engages her students with information for thorough understanding for meaning and for
competent application. Which principle governs Teacher B's practice?
A. Contructivist
B. Gestalt
C. Behaviorist
D. Cognitivist
14. Which is/are the sources of man's intellectual drives, according to Freud?
A. Id
B. Superego
C. Id and ego
D. Ego
15. Soc exhibits fear response to freely roaming dogs but does not show fear when a dog is on a leash
or confined to a pen. Which conditioning process is illustrated
A. Generalization
B. Extinction
C. Acquisition
D. Discrimination
16. The concepts of trust vs. maturity, autonomy vs. self-doubt, and initiative vs. guilt are most closely
related with the works of __________.
A. Erikson
B. Piaget
C. Freud
D. Jung
17. Teacher F is convinced that whenever a student performs a desired behavior, provided reinforcement

176
and soon the student will learn to perform the behavior on his own. On which principle is Teacher F's
conviction based?
A. Cognitivism
B. Environmentalism
C. Behaviorism
D. Constructivism
18. In a social studies class, Teacher I presents a morally ambiguous situation and asks his students
what they would do. On whose theory is Teacher I's technique based?
A. Kohlberg
B. Bandura
C. Piaget
D. Bruner
19. Based on Freud's psychoanalytic theory which component(s) of personality is (are) concerned with
a sense of right and wrong?
A. Super-ego
B. Super-ego and Ego
C. ld
D. Ego
20. Which does Naom Chomsky, assert about language learning for children?
I. Young children learn and apply grammatical rules and vocabulary as they are exposed to
them.
II. Begin formal teaching of grammatical rules to children as early as possible.
III. Do not require initial formal language teaching for children.
A. I and III
B. II only
C. I only
D. I and II
21. Which teaching activity is founded on Bandura's Social Learning Theory?
A. Lecturing
B. Modeling
C. Questioning
D. lnductive Reasoning
22. Behavior followed by pleasant consequences will be be strengthened and will be more likely to
occur in the future. Behavior followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened and will be less
likely to be repeated in the future. Which one is explained?
A. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
B. Thorndike's Law of Effect
C. B. F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory
D. Bandura's Social Learning Theory
23. Bruner's theory on intellectual development moves from enactive to iconic and symbolic stages. In
which stage(s) are diagrams helpful to accompany verbal information?
A. Enactive and iconic
B. Symbolic
C. Symbolic and enactive
D. Iconic
24. In a treatment for alcoholism, Ramil was made to drink an alcoholic beverage and then made to
ingest a drug that produces nausea. Eventually, he was nauseated at the sight and smell of alcohol and
stopped drinking alcohoL Which theory explains this?
A. Operant conditioning
B. Social Learning Theory
C. Associative Learning

177
 D. Attribution Theory
25. A mother gives his boy his favorite snack everytime the boy cleans up his room. Afterwards, the
boy cleaned his room everyday in anticipation of the snack. Which theory is illustrated?
A. Associative Learning
B. Classical Conditioning
C. Operant Conditioning
D. Pavlonian Conditioning

26. Researchers conducted show that teacher's expectations of students become. Do not require initial
formal language teaching for children self-fulfilling prophecies. What is this phenomenon called?
A. Halo effect
B. Pygmalion effect
C. Ripple effect
D. Hawthorne effect
27. What does extreme authoritarianism in the home reinforce in learners?
A. Doing things on their own initiative
B. Ability to direct themselves.
C. Dependence on others for direction.
D. Creativity in work.
28. Theft of school equipment like tv, computer, etc. by teenagers in the community itself is becoming
a common phenomenon. What does this incident signify?
A. Prevalence of poverty in the community.
B. Inability of school to hire security guards.
C. Deprivation of Filipino schools.
D. Community's lack of sense of co-ownership.
29. A student passes a research report poorly written but ornately presented in a folder to make up for
the poor quality of the book report content. Which Filipino trait does this practice prove? Emphasis on
__________.
A. art over academics
B. substance over "porma"
C. art over science
D. "porma" over substance
30. Student Z does not study at all but when the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) comes,
before he takes the LET, he spends one hour or more praying for a miracle, i.e. to pass the exam. Which
attitude towards religion or God is displayed?
A. Religion as fake
B. Religion as magic
C. Religion as authentic
D. Religion as real
31. During the Spanish period, what was/were the medium/media of instruction in schools?
A. The Vernacular
B. English
C. Spanish
D. Spanish and the Vernacular
32. All subjects in Philippine elementary and secondary schools are expected to be taught using the
integrated approach. This came about as a result of the implementation of _________.
A. Program for Decentralized Education
B. School-Based Management
C. Basic Education Curriculum
D. Schools First Initiative
33. Under which program were students who were not accommodated in public elementary and

178
secondary schools because of lack of classroom, teachers, and instructional materials, were enrolled in
private schools in their respective communities at the government's expense?
A. Government Assistance Program
B. Study Now-Pay Later
C. Educational Service Contract System
D. National Scholarship Program
34. What was the most prominent educational issue of the mid 1980s?
A. Bilingual Education
B. Values Education
C. Accountability
D. Mainstreaming

35. Availment of the Philippine Education Placement Test (PEPT) for adults and out-of-school youths
is in support of the goverriment'S educational program towards __________.
A. equitable access
B. quality
C. quality and relevance
D. relevance
36. The main purpose of compulsory study of the Constitution is to __________
A. develop students into responsible, thinking citizens
B. acquaint students with the historical development of the Philippine Constitution
C. make constitutional experts of the students
D. prepare students for law-making
37. Which one may support equitable access but may sacrifice quality?
A. Open admission
B. School accreditation
C. Deregulated tuition fee hike
D. Selective retention
38. With which goals of educational institutions as provided for by the Constitution is the development
of work skills aligned?
A. To develop moral character
B. To teach the duties of citizenship
C. To inculcate love of country
D. To develop vocational efficiency
39. Studies in the areas of neurosciences disclosed that the human brain has limitless capacity. What
does this imply?
A. Some pupils are admittedly not capable of learning.
B. Every pupil has his own native ability and his learning is limited to this nativeabilty.
C. Every child is a potential genius.
D. Pupils can possibly reach a point where they have learned everything.
40. Based on Piaget's theory, what should a teacher provide for children in the concrete operational
stage?
A. Activities for hypothesis formulation.
B. Learning activities that involve problems of classification and ordering.
C. Games and other physical activities to develop motor skills.
D. Stimulating environment with ample objects to play with.
41. Based on Piaget's theory, what should a teacher provide for children in the sensimotor stage?
A. Games and other physical activities to develop motor skill.
B. Learning activities that involve problems of classification and ordering.
C. Activities for hypothesis formulation.

179
 D. Stimulating environment with ample objects to play with.
42. Which behavior is exhibited by a student who is strong in interpersonal intelligence?
A. Works on his/her own.
B. Keeps interest to himself/herself.
C. Seeks out a classmate for help when problem occurs.
D. Spends time meditating.
43. A sixth grade twelve-year old boy comes from a dysfunctional family and has been abused and
neglected. He has been to two orphanages and three different elementary schools. The student can
decode on the second grade level, but he can comprehend orally material at the fourth or fifth grade
level. The most probable cause/s of this student's reading problem is/are __________.
A. emotional factors
B. poor teaching
C. neurological factors
D. immaturity

44. A child who gets punished for stealing candy may not steal again immediately. But this does not
mean that the child may not steal again. Based on Thorndike's theory on punishment and learning, this
shows that __________
A. punishment strengthens a response
B. punishment removes a response
C. punishment does not remove a response
D. punishment weakens a response
45. It is not wise to laugh at a two-year old child when he utters bad word because in his stage he is
learning to __________.
A. consider other's views
B. distinguish sex differences
C. socialize
D. distinguish right from wrong
46. John Watson said: "Men are built not born." What does this statement point to?
A. The ineffectiveness of training on a person's development.
B. The effect of environmental stimulation on a person's development.
C. The absence of genetic influence on a person's development.
D. The effect of heredity.
47. Which types of play is most characteristic of a four to six-year old child?
A. Solitary and onlooker plays
B. Associative and cooperative plays
C. Associative and onlooker plays
D. Cooperative and solitary plays
48. All of the following describe the development of children aged eleven to thirteen EXCEPT
__________.
A. they shift from impulsivity to adaptive ability
B. sex differences in IQ becomes more evident
C. they exhibit increase objectivity in thinking
D. they show abstract thinking and judgement
49. Rodel is very aloof and cold in his relationships with his classmates. Which basic goal must haye
not been attained by Rodel during his developmental years, according to Erikson's theory on
psychological development?
A. Autonomy
B. Trust
C. Initiative
D. Generativity

180
50. Ruben is very attached to his mother and Ruth to her father. In what developmental stage are they
according to Freudian psychological theory?
A. Oedipal stage
B. Latent stage
C. Anal stage
D. Pre-genital stage
51. Which assumption underlies the teacher's use of performance objectives?
A. Not every form of learning is observable.
B. Performance objectives assure the learrier of learning.
C. Learning is defined as a change in the learner's observable performance.
D. The success of learner is based on teacher performance.
52. The principle of individual differences requires teachers to __________.
A. give greater attention to gifted learners
B. provide for a variety of learning activities
C. treat all learners alike while in the classroom
D. prepare modules for slow learners in class
53. In instructional planning it is necessary that the parts of the plan from the first to the last have
__________.
A. clarity
B. symmetry
C. coherence
D. conciseness
54. A goal-oriented instruction culminates in __________.
A. planning of activities
B. evaluation
C. identification of topics
D. formulation of objectives
55. A teacher's summary of a lesson serves the following functions, EXCEPT
A. it links the parts of the lesson
B. lt brings together the information that has been discussed
C. it makes provisions for full participation of students.
D. it clinches the basic ideas or concepts of the lesson.
56. In Krathwohl's affective domain of objectives, which of the following is the lowest level of affective
behavior?
A. Valuing
B. Characterization
C. Responding
D. Organization
57. The following are used in writing performance objectives, EXCEPT
A. delineate
B. diagram
C. integrate
D. comprehend
58. If a teacher plans a constructivist lesson, what will he most likely do? Plan how he can
A. do evaluate his students' work
B. do reciprocal teaching
C. lecture to his students
D. engage his students in convergent thinking
59. In mastery learning, the definition of an acceptable standard of performance is called a
A. SMART
B. criterion measure

181
 C. behavior
D. condition
60. The primary objective of my lesson is: "To add similar fractions correctly." Before I can do this I
must first aim at this specific objective: "To distinguish a numerator from a nominator." What kind of
objective is the latter?
A. Major
B. Terminal
C. Enabling
D. Primary
61. Which behavioral term describes a lesson outcome in the highest level of Bloom's cognitive domain?
A. Create
B. Evaluate
C. Analyze
D. Design
62. As a teacher, what do you do when you engage yourself in major task analysis?
A. Test if learning reached higher level thinking skills.
B. Breakdown a complex task into sub-skills.
C. Determine the level of thinking involved.
D. Revise lesson objectives.
63. Teacher G's lesson objective has something to do with the skill of synthesizing? Which behavioral
term is most appropriate?
A. Test
B. Assess
C. Appraise
D. Theorize
64. In Krathwohl's taxonomy of objectives in the affective, which is most authentic?
A. Characterization
B. Orgarlization
C. Responding
D. Valuing
65. "A stitch on time saves nine", so goes the adage.. Applied to classroom management, this means that
we __________
A. may not occupy ourselves with disruptions which are worth ignoring because they are minor
B. must be reactive in our approach to discipline
C. have to Jesolve minor disruptions before they are out of control
D. may apply 9 rules out of 10 consistently
66. How can you exhibit referent power on the first day of school?
A. By making them feel you know what you are talking about.
B. By telling them the importance of good grades.
C. By reminding your students your authority over them again and again.
D. By giving your students a sense of belonging and acceptance.
67. Teacher B clears his throat to communicate disapproval of a student's behavior. Which specific
influence technique is this?
A. Signal interference
B. Direct appeal
C. Interest boosting
D. Proximity control
68. How can you exhibit expert power on the first day of school?
A. By making them feel you know what you are talking about.
B. By making them realize the importance of good grades.
C. By reminding them your students your authority over them again and again.

182
 D. By giving your students a sense of belonging and acceptance.
69. Teacher H strives to draw participation of every student into her classroom discussion. Which
student's need is she trying to address? The need __________
A. to show their oral abilities to the rest of the class
B. to be creative
C. to feel significant and be part of a group
D. to get everything out in the open
70. Which is a sound classroom management practice?
A. Avoid establishing routines; routines make your student robots.
B. Establish routines for all daily needs and tasks.
C. Apply rules and policies on a case to case basis.
D. Apply reactive approach to discipline.
71. An effective classroom manager uses low-profile classroom control. Which is a low-profile
classroom technique?
A. Note to parents
B. After-school detention
C. Withdrawal of privileges
D. Raising the pitch of the voice
72. Which is one characteristic of an effective classroom management?
A. It quickly and unobtrusively redirects misbehavior once it occurs.
B. It teaches dependence on others for self-control.
C. It respects cultural norms of a limited group students.
D. Strategies aresimple enough to be used consistently.
73. How can you exhibit legitimate power on the first day of school?
A. By making your students feel they are accepted for who they are.
B. By informing them you are allowed to act in loco parentis.
C. By making them realize the importance of good grades.
D. By making them feel you have mastery of subject matter.
74. With-it-ness, according to Kounin, is one of the characteristics of an effective classroom manager.
Which phrase goes with it?
A. Have hands that write fast.
B. Have eyes on the back of your heads.
C. Have a mouth ready to speak.
D. Have minds packed with knowledge.
75. Which is an appropriate way to manage off-task behavior?
A. Make eye contact.
B. Stop your class activity to correct a child who is no longer on task.
C. Move closer to the child.
D. Redirect a child's attention to task and check his progress to make sure he is continuing to
work.
76. Referring to Teacher S, Nicolle describes her teacher as "fair, caring and someone you can talk to."
Which power or leadership does Teacher S have?
A. Referent power
B. Legitimate power
C. Reward power
D. Expert power
77. Research tells that teachers ask mostly content questions. Which of the following terms does NOT
refer to content question?
A. Closed
B. Direct
C. Concept

183
 D. Convergent
78. Read the following then answer the question:
TEACHER: IN WHAT WAYS OTHER THAN THE PERIODIC TABLE MIGHT WE PREDICT THE
UNDISCOVERED ELEMENTS?

BOBBY: WE COULD GO TOTHE MOON AND SEE IF THERE ARE SOME ELEMENTS THERE WE
DON'T HAVE.

BETTY: WE COULD DIG DOWN TO THE CENTER OF THE EARTH AND SEE IF WE FIND ANY OF
THE MISSING ELEMENTS.

RICKY: WE COULD STUDY DEBRIS FROM THE METEORITES IF WE CAN FIND ANY.

TEACHER: THOSE ARE ALL GOOD ANSWERS BUT WHAT IF THOSE, EXCURSIONS TO THE
MOON, TO THE CENTER OF THE EARTH, OR TO FIND METEORITES WERE TOO COSTLY AND
TIME CONSUMING? HOW MIGHT WE USE THE ELEMENTS WE ALREADY HAVE HERE ON
EARTH TO FIND SOME NEW ONES?

Question: Which questioning strategy/ies does/do the exchange of thoughts above illustrate?
A. Funneling
B. Sowing and reaping
C. Nose-dive
D. Extending and lifting
79. Which questioning practice promotes more class interaction?
A. Asking the question before calling on a student.
B. Focusing on divergent questions.
C. Focusing on convergent questions.
D. Asking rhetorical questions.
80. Which technique should a teacher use to encourage response if his students do not respond to his
question?
A. Ask a specific student to respond, state the question, and wait a response.
B. Tell the class that it will have detention unless answer are forthcoming.
C. Ask another question, an easier one.
D. Wait for a response.
81. Teacher P wants to develop the skill of synthesizing in her pupils. Which one will she do?
A. Ask her students to formulate a generalization from the data shown in graphs.
B. Ask her students to answer questions beginning with "What if ... "
C. Tell her pupils to state data presented in graphs.
D. Directs her students to ask questions on the parts of the lesson not understood.
82. The following are sound specific purposes of questions EXCEPT
A. to call the attention of an inattentive student
B. to teach via student answers
C. to stimulate leamers to ask questions
D. to arouse interestand curiosity
83. For maximum interaction, a teacher ought to avoid __________ questions.
A. informational
B. rhetorical
C. leading
D. divergent
84. If teacher has to ask more higher-order questions, he has to ask more __________ questions.
A. closed

184
 B. fact
C. concept
D. convergent
85. Which is NOT a sound purpose for asking questions?
A. To probe deeper after an answer is given.
B. To discipline a bully in class.
C. To remind students of a procedure.
D. To encourage self-reflection.
86. After giving an input on a good paragraph, Teacher W asks her students to rate a given paragraph
along the elements of a good paragraph. The students' task is in level of __________
A. application
B. analysis
C. evaluation
D. synthesis
87. Read the following then answer the question

TEACHER: IN WHAT WAYS OTHER THAN THE PERIODIC TABLE MIGHT WE PREDICT THE
UNDISCOVERED ELEMENTS?

BOBBY: WE COULD GOTO THE MOON AND SEE IF THERE ARE SOME ELEMENTS THERE WE
DON'T HAVE.

BETTY: WE COULD DIG DOWN INTO THE CENTER OF THE EARTH AND SEE IF WE FIND ANY
OF THE MISSING ELEMENTS

RICKY: WE COULD STUDY DEBRIS FROM THE METEORITES IF WE CAN FIND ANY

TEACHER: THOSE ARE ALL GOOD ANSWERS. BUT WHAT IF THOSE EXCURSIONS TO THE
MOON, TO THE CENTER OF THE EARTH, OR TO FIND METEORITES WERE TOO COSTLY AND
TIME CONSUMING? HOW MIGHT WE USE THE ELEMENTS WE ALREADY HAVE HERE ON
EARTH TO FIND SOME NEW ONES?

Question: The Teacher's questions in the above exchange are examples of __________ questions.
A. fact
B. concept
C. direct
D. closed
88. Read this question: "How will you present the layers of the earth to your class?" This is a question
that
A. directs
B. leads the student to evaluate
C. assesses cognition
D. probes creative thinking
89. The teacher's first task in the selection of media in teaching is to determine the ______.
A. choice of the students
B. availability of the media
C. objectives of the lesson
D. technique to be used
90. Based on Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience, which activity is closest to the real thing?
A. View images
B. Attend exhibit

185
 C. Watch a demo
D. Heart
91. Based on Edgar Dale's Cone of Experience, which activity is farthest from the real thing?
A. Read
B. Hear
C. View images
D. Attend exhibit
92. Which criterion should guide a teacher in the choice of instructional devices?
A. Attractiveness
B. Cost
C. Novelty
D. Appropriateness
93. To elicit more student's response, Teacher G made use of covert responses. Which one did she NOT
do?
A. She had the students write their response privately.
B. She showed the correct answers on the overhead after the students have written their
responses.
C. She had the students write their responses privately then called each of them.
D. She refrained from judging on the student's responses.
94. Teacher W wants to review and check on the lesson of the previous day? Which one will be most
reliable?
A. Having students identify difficult homework problems.
B. Having students correct each other's work.
C. Sampling the understanding of a few students.
D. Explicitly reviewing the task-relevant information necessary for the day's lesson.
95. Teacher M's pupils are quite weak academically and his lesson is already far behind his time table.
How should Teacher M proceed with his lesson?
A. Experientially
B. lnductively
C. Logically
D. Deductively
96. Which activity should a teacher have more for his students if he wants them to develop logical-
mathematical thinking?
A. Problem solving
B. Choral reading
C. Drama
D. Storytelling
97. Which guideline must be observed in the use of prompting to shape the correct performance of your
students?
A. Use the least intrusive prompt first.
B. Use all prompts available.
C. Use the most intrusive prompt first.
D. Refrain from using prompts.
98. To promote effective practice, which guideline should you bear in mind? Practice should be
A. done in an evaluative atmosphere
B. difficult for students to learn a lesson
C. arranged to allow students to receive feedback
D. take place over a long period of time
99. Which is one role of play in the pre-school and early childhood years?
A. Develops competitive spirit.
B. Separates reality from fantasy.

186
 C. Increases imagination due to expanding knowledge and emotional range.
D. Develops the upper and lower limbs.
100. Teacher T taught a lesson denoting ownership by means of possessives. He first introduced the
rule, and then gave examples, followed by class exercises, then back to the rule before he moved into
the second rule. Which presenting technique did he use?
A. Combinatorial
B. Comparative
C. Part-whole
D. Sequential
101. The burnout malady gets worse if a teacher doesn't intervene to change whatever areas he or she
can control. Which one can renew a teacher's enthusiasm?
A. Stick to job
B. Initiate changes in jobs
C. Judge someone else as wrong
D. Engage in self-pity
102. Which Filipino trait works against the shift in teacher's role from teacher as a fountain of
information to teacher as facilitator?
A. Authoritativeness
B. Authoritarianism
C. Hiya
D. Pakikisama
103. Which method has been proven to be effective in courses that stress acquisition of knowledge?
A. Socratic method
B. Cooperative learning
C. Mastery learning
D. Indirect instruction
104. Direct instruction is for facts, rules, and actions as indirect instruction is for __________,
__________, __________.
A. hypotheses, verified data and conclusions
B. concepts, patterns and abstractions
C. concepts, processes and generalizations
D. guesses, data and conclusions
105. For which may you use the direct instruction method?
A. Become aware of the pollutants around us.
B. Appreciate Milton's Paradise Lost.
C. Use a microscope properly.
D. Distinguish war from aggression.
106. I want to teach concepts, patterns and abstractions. Which method is most appropriate?
A. Indirect instruction
B. Discovery
D. Direct instruction
E. Problem solving
107. What should a teacher do for students in his class who are not on grade level?
A. Give them materials on their level and let them work at a pace that is reasonable forthem,
trying to bring them up to a grade level.
B. Give them the same work as the other students, because they will absorb as much as they are
capable of.
C. Give them the same work as the other students, not much, so that they won't feel embarrassed.
D. Give them work on the level of the other students and work a little above the classmates level
to challenge them.
108. By what name is indirect instruction the Socratic method also known?

187
 A. Mastery learning
B. Indirect Method
C. Morrison method
D. Questioning method
109. Teacher B is a teacher of English as a Second Language. She uses vocabulary cards, fill-in-the-
blank sentences, dictation and writing exercises in teaching a lesson about grocery shopping. Based on
this information, which of the following is a valid conclusion?
A. The teacher is reinforcing learning by giving the same information in, a variety of methods.
B. The teacher is applying Bloom's hierachy of cognitive learning.
C. The teacher wants to do less talk.
D. The teacher is emphasizing listening and speaking skills.
110. Which is a form of direct instruction?
A. Discovery process
B. Problem solving
C. Programmed instruction
D. Inductive reasoning
111. Which does NOT belong to the group of alternative learning systems?
A. Multi-grade grouping
B. Multi-age grouping
C. Graded education
D. Non-graded grouping
112. Teacher H gave her first-grade class a page with a story in which pictures take the place of some
words. Which method did she use?
A. The whole language approach
B. The Spaulding method
C. The rebus method
D. The language experience approach
113. Teacher B uses the direct instruction strategy. Which sequence of steps will she follow?
I. Independent practice
II. Feedback and correctiveness
III. Guided student practice
IV. Presenting and structuring
V. Reviewing the previous day's work
A. V-II-IV-III-I
B. III-II-IV-I-V
C. V-lV-III-II-I
D. I-V-II-III-IV
114. Why should a teacher NOT use direct instruction all the time?
A. It requires much time.
B. It requires use of many supplementary materials.
C. It is generally effective only in the teaching of concepts and abstractions.
D. It reduces students engagement in learning.
115. Teacher A is a teacher of English as a Second Language. She uses vocabulary cards, fill-in-the-
blank sentences, dialogues, dictation and writing excercises in teaching a lesson about grocery shopping.
Based on this information, which of the following is a valid conclusion.
A. The teacher is applying Bloom's hierachy of cognitive learning.
B. The teacher is teaching in a variety of ways because not all students learn in the same manner.
C. The teacher wants to make her teacher easier by having less talk.
D. The teacher is emphasizing reading and writing skills.
116. I combined several subject areas in order to focus on a single concept for inter-disciplinary
teaching. Which strategy/method did I use?

188
 A. Problem-entered learning
B. Thematic instruction
C. Reading-writing activity
D. Unit method
117. Teacher E discussed how electricity flows through wires and what generates the electric charge.
Then she gave the students wires, bulbs, switches, and dry cells and told the class to create a circuit that
will increase the brightness of each bulb. Which one best describes the approach used?
A. It used a taxonomy of basic thinking skills
B. It was contructivist
C. It helped students understand scientific methodolgy
D. It used cooperative learning
118. With indirect instruction in mind, which does NOT belong to the group?
A. Problem solving
B. Lecture-recitation
C. Inductive reasoning
D. Discovery
119. I drew learners into several content areas and encouraged them to solve a complex question for
inter-disciplinary teaching. Which strategy did I use?
A. Problem-centered learning
B. Unit method
C. Reading-writing activity
D. Thematic instruction
120. In self-directed learning, to what extent should a teacher's "scaffolding" be?
A. To a degree the student needs it.
B. None, to force the student to learn by himself.
C. To the minimum,tospeed up development of student's sense of independence.
D. To the maximum, in order to extend to the student all the help he needs.
121. Which is a major advantage of a curriculum-based assessment?
A. It is informal in nature.
B. It connects testing with teaching.
C. It tends to focus on anecdotal information on student progress.
D. It is based on a norm-referenced measurement model.
122. Which are direct measures of competence?
A. Personality tests
B. Performance tests
C. Paper-and-pencil tests
D. Standardized test
123. "What is most likely to happen to our economy when export continuously surpasses import" is a
thought question on __________.
A. creating
B. relating cause-and-effect
C. synthesizing
D. predicting
124. The test item "Group the following items according to shape" is a thought test item on __________.
A. creating
B. classifying
C. generalizing
D. comparing
125. In the context on the theory on multiple intelligences, what is one weakness of the paper-pencil
test?
A. It is not easy to administer.

189
 B. It puts the non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage
C. It utilizes so much time.
D. It lacks reability.
126. With synthesizing skills in mind, which has the highest diagnostic value?
A. Essay test
B. Performance test
C. Completion test
D. Multiple choice test
127. Which one can best evaluate students' attitudinal development?
A. Essay test
B. Portfolio
C. Observation
D. Short answer test
128. With specific details in mind, which one has (have) a stronger diagnostic value?
A. Multiple choice test
B. Non-restricted essay test
C. Restricted essay test
D. Restricted and non-restricted essay tests
129. Teacher A discovered that his pupils are very good in dramatizing. Which tool must have helped
him discover his pupils' strength?
A. Portfolio assessment
B. Performance test
C. Journal entry
D. Paper-and-pencil test
130. Which can effectively measure students' awareness of values?
A. Projective techniques
B. Moral dilemma
C. Likert scales
D. Anecdotal record
131. Teacher F wanted to teach the pupils the skill to do cross stitching. Her check up quiz was a written
test on the steps of cross stitching. Which characteristic of a good test does it lack?
A. Scorability
B. Reliability
C. Objectivity
D. Validity
132. If your Licensure Examination Test (LET) items sample adequately the competencies listed in the
syllabi, it can be said that the LET possesses __________ validity.
A. concurrent
B. construct
C. content
D. predictive
133. "In the light of the facts presented, what is most likely to happen when ... ?" is a sample thought
question on
A. inferring
B. generalizing
C. synthesizing
D. justifying
134. In a criterion-referenced testing, what must you do to ensure that your test is fair?
A. Make all of the questions true or false.
B. Ask each student to contribute one question.
C. Make twenty questions but ask the students to answer only ten of their choice.

190
 D. Use the objectives for the units as guide in your test construction.
135. Which test has broad sampling of topics as strength?
A. Objective test
B. Short answer test
C. Essay test
D. Problem type
136. Which is the first step in planning an achievement test?
A. Define the instructional objective.
B. Decide on the length of the test.
C. Select the type of test items to use.
D. Build a table of specification.
137. The first thing to do in constructing a periodic test is for a teacher to __________
A. decide on the number of items for the test
B. go back to her instructional objectives
C. study the content
D. decide on the type of test to construct
138. In the parlance of test construction what does "TOS" mean?
A. Table of Specifics
B. Table of Specifications
C. Table of Specific Test Items
D. Team of Specifications
139. Shown a picture of children in sweaters inside the classroom, the students were asked this question:
"In what kind of climate do these children live?" This is a thought question on __________
A. inferring
B. applying
C. creating
D. predicting
140. Which guideline in test construction is NOT observed in this test item Jose Rizal wrote
__________.
A. The central problem should be packed in the stem.
B. There must be only one correct answer.
C. Alternatives must have grammatical parallelism.
D. The alternates must be plausible.
141. Quiz is to formative test while periodic is to __________
A. criterion-reference test
B. summative test
C. norm-reference test
D. diagnostic test
142. If teacher wants to test students' ability to organize ideas, which type of test should she formulated
A. Multiple-choice type
B. Short answer
C. Essay
D. Technical problem
143. Out of 3 distracters in a multiple choice test item, namely B, C, and D, no pupil chose D as answer.
This implies that D is __________
A. an ineffective distracter
B. a vague distracter
C. an effective distracter
D. a plausible distracter
144. Study this group of tests which was administered with the following results, then answer the
question

191
Subject Mean SD Ronnels's Score
Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109

In which subject(s) did Ronnel perform best in relation to the group's performance?
A. Physics and Math
B. English
C. Physics
D. Math
145. Study this group of tests which was administered with the following results, then answer the
question.

Subject Mean SO Ronnel's Score

Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109

In which subject(s) did Ronnel perform most poorly in relation to the group's performance?
A. English
B. English and Math
C. Math
D. Physics
146. What can be said of Peter who obtained a score of 75 in a Grammar objective test?
A. He answered 75 items in the test correctly.
B. He answered 75% of the test items correctly.
C. His rating is 75.
D. He performed better than 5% of his classmates.
147. In his second item analysis, Teacher H found out that more from the lower group got the test item
# 6 correctly. This means that the test item __________.
A. has a negative discriminating power
B. has a lower validity
C. has a positive discriminating power
D. has a high reability

148. NSAT and NEAT results are interpreted against set mastery level. This means that NSAT and
NEAT fall under __________.
A. intelligence test
B. aptitude test
C. criterion-referenced test
D. norm-referenced test
149. Teacher Y does norm-referenced interpretation of scores. Which of the following does she do?
A. She describes group performance in relation to a level of mastery set.
B. She uses a specified content as its frame of reference.
C. She compares every individual students' scores with others' scores.
D. She describes what should be their performance.
150. Test norms are established in order to have a basis for __________.
A. establishing learning goals
B. interpreting test results
C. computing grades

192
 D. identifying pupils' difficulties
151. Which is most implied by a negatively skewed score distribution?
A. The scores are evenly distributed from left to the right
B. Most pupils are achievers
C. Most of the scores are low
D. Most of the scores are high
152. Which holds true to standardized tests?
A. They are used for comparative purposes
B. They are administered differently
C. They are scored according to different standards
D. They are used for assigning grades
153. Students' scores on a test were: 72, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 81, 83, 85. The score 76 is the __________.
A. mode
B. average
C. mean
D. median
154. Are percentile ranks the same as percentage correct?
A. It cannot be determined unless scores are given.
B. It cannot be determined unless the number of examinees is given.
C. No
D. Yes
155. In which competency do my students find the greatest difficulty? In the item with a difficulty index
of __________.
A. 0.1
B. 0.9
C. 0.5
D. 1.0
156. Study this group tests which was administered wit the following results, then answer the question

Subject Mean SD Ronnel's Score

Math 56 10 43
Physics 41 9 31
English 80 16 109

In which subject(s) were the scores most homogenous?

A. Math
B. English
C. Physics
D. Physics and Math
157. Which measure(s) of central tendency separate(s) the top half of the group from the bottom half?
A. Median
B. Mean
C. Median and Mean
D. Mode
158. Which applies when skewness is zero?
A. Mean is greater than the median
B. Median is greater than mean
C. Scores have three modes
D. Scores are normally distributed
159. Standard deviation is to variability as mode to __________.
A. level of difficulty

193
 B. discrimination
C. correlation
D. central tendency
160. What is the mean of this score distribution: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10?
A. 7
B. 6
C. 8.5
D. 7.5
161. Standard deviation is to variability as mean is to __________.
A. coefficient of correlation
B. central tendency
C. discrimination index
D. level of difficulty
162. What measure of central tendency does the number 16 represent in the following data: 14, 15, 17,
16, 19, 20, 16, 14, 16?
A. Mode
B. Median
C. Mode and median
D. Mean
163. Which one can enhance the comparability of grades?
A. Using common conversion table for translating test scores in to ratings
B. Formulating tests that vary from one teacher to another
C. Allowing individual teachers to determine factors for rating
D. Individual teachers giving weights to factors considered for rating
164. Which describes norm-referenced grading?
A. The performance of the group
B. What constitutes a perfect score
C. The students' past performance
D. An absolute standard
165. The search for related literature by accessing several databases by the use of a telephone line to
connect a computer library with other computers that have database is termed __________.
A. compact disc search
B. manual search
C. on-line search
D. computer search
166. Two students are given the WISE II. One has a full scale IQ of 91, while the other has an IQ of
109. Which conclusion can be drawn?
A. The second student has significantly higher intellectual ability
B. The first student is probably below average, while the second has above average potential
C. Both students are functioning in the average range of intellectual ability
D. Another IQ test should be given to truly assess their intellectual potential
167. Which type of report refers to "on-the-spot" description of some incident, episode
or occurrence that is being observed and recorded as being of possible significance?
A. Autobiographical report
B. Biographical report
C. Value and interest report
D. Anecdotal report
168. The best way for a guidance counselor to begin to develop study skills and habits in underachieving
student would be to __________.
A. have these underachieving students observe the study habits of excelling students
B. encourage students to talk about study habits from their own experiences

194
 C. have them view film strips about various study approaches
D. give out a list of effective study approaches
169. Which illustrates a developmental approach in guidance and counseling?
A. Spotting on students in need of guidance
B. Teaching students how to interact in a positive manner
C. Acting as a mediator
D. Making the decision for the confused student
170. Who among the following needs less verbal counseling but needs more concrete and operational
forms of assistance? The child who __________.
A. has mental retardation
B. has attention-deficit disorder
C. has learning disability
D. has conduct disorder
171. The cultivation of reflective and meditative skills in teaching is an influence of __________.
A. Shintoism
B. Zen Buddhism
C. Confucianism
D. Taoism
172. Helping in the development of graduates who are "maka-Diyos" is an influence of
A. naturalistic morality
B. classical Christian morality
C. situational morality
D. dialectical morality
173. The attention to the development of a deep respect and affection for our rich cultural past is an
influence of __________.
A. Confucius
B. Hegel
C. Teilhard de Chardin
D. Dewey
174. Whose teaching is in support of "Education for All" (EFA), he asserted that in teaching there should
be no distinction of social classes.

A. Sun Yat Sen

B. Confucius
C. Mencius
D. Lao tsu
175. We encounter people whose prayer goes like this: "O God, if there is a God; save my soul, if I have
a soul" From whom is this prayer?
A. Stoic
B. Empiricist
C. Agnostic
D. Skeptic
176. How would you select the most fit in government positions? Applying Confucius teachings, which
would be the answer?
A. By course accreditation of an accrediting body
B. By merit system and course accreditation
C. By merit system
D. By government examinations
177. Whose influence is the education program that puts emphasis on self-development. through the
classics, music, and rituals?

195
 A. Buddha
B. Mohammed
C. Confucius
D. Lao tsu
178. Your teacher is of the opinion that the world and everything in it are ever changing and so teaches
you the skill to cope with change. What is his governing philosophy?
A. Idealism
B. Existentalism
C. Experimentalism
D. Realism
179. Value clarification as a strategy in Values Education classes is anchored on which philosophy?
A. Existentialism
B. Christian philosophy
C. Idealism
D. Hedonism
180. A guest speaker in one graduation rites told his audience: "Reminder, you are what you choose to
be." The guest speaker is more of a/an __________.
A. realistic
B. pragmatist
C. idealist
D. existentialist
181. "All men are pretty much alike. It is only by custom that they are set apart", said one Oriental
philosopher. Where can this thought be most inspiring?
A. In a multi-cultural group of learners
B. In multi-cultural and heterogeneous groups of learners and indigenous peoples' group
C. In a class composed of indigenous peoples
D. In heterogeneous class of learners
182. From whom do we owe the theory of deductive interference as illustrated in syllogisms
A. Plato
B. Scorates
C. Aristotle
D. Pythagoras
183. Teacher A knows of the illegal activities of a neighbor but keeps quiet in order not to be involved
in any investigation. Which foundational principle of morality does Teacher A fail to apply?
A. The end does not justify the means.
B. The principle of double-effect
C. Always do what is right.
D. Between two evils, do the lesser evil.
184. Teacher A is directed to pass an undeserving student with a death threat. Which advice will a
hedonist give?
A. Pass the student. Why suffer the threat?
B. Don't pass him. You surely will not like someone to give you a death threat in order to pass.
C. Don't pass him. Live by your principle of justice. You will get reward, if not in this life, in
the next!
D. Pass the student. That will be of use to the student, his parents and you.
185. History books used in schools are replete with events portraying defeats and weaknesses of the
Filipino as a people. How should you tackle them in the classroom?
A. Present them and express your feelings of shame.
B. Present facts and use them as means in inspiring your class to learn from them.
C. Present them and blame those people responsible or those who have contributed.
D. Present them as they are presented, and tell the class to accept reality.

196
186. If you agree with Rizal on how you can contribute to our nation's redemption, which should you
work for?
A. Opening our doors to foreign influence
B. Upgrading the quality of the Filipino through education
C. Stabilizing the political situation
D. Gaining economic recovery
187. Rights and duties are correlative. This means that __________.
A. rights and duties regulate the relationship of men in society
B. rights and duties arise from natural law
C. each right carries with it one or several corresponding duties
D. rights and duties ultimately come from God
188. A teacher who equates authority with power does NOT __________.
A. shame
B. develop self-respect in every pupil
C. retaliate
D. intimidate
189. Which is a true foundation of the social order?
A. Obedient citizenry
B. The reciprocation of rights and duties
C. Strong political leadership
D. Equitable distribution of wealth
190. In what way can teachers uphold the highest possible standards of quality education?
A. By continually improving themselves personally and professionally
B. By wearing expensive clothes to change people's poor perception of teachers
C. By working out undeserved promotions
D. By putting down other professions to lift the status of teaching
191. A teacher/student is held responsible for his actions because s/he __________.
A. has instincts
B. is mature
C. has a choice
D. has reason
192. The typical autocratic teacher consistently does the following EXCEPT
A. encouraging students.
B. shaming students.
C. ridiculing students.
D. intimidating students.
193. What should you do if a parent who is concerned about a grade his child received compared to
another student's grade, demands to see both students' grades?
A. Refuse to show either record.
B. Show both records to him.
C. Refuse to show any record without expressing permission from principal.
D. Show only his child's records.
194. Teacher Q does not want Teacher B to be promoted and so writes an anonymous letter against
Teacher B accusing her of fabricated lies Teacher Q mails this anonymous letter to the Schools Division
Superintendent. What should Teacher Q do if she has to act professionally?
A. Submit a signed justifiable criticism against Teacher B, if there is any.
B. Go straight to the Schools Division Superintendent and gives criticism verbally.
C. Hire a group to distribute poison letters against Teacher B for information dissemination.
D. Instigate student activists to read poison letters over the microphone.
195. Teachers often complain of numerous non-teaching assignments that adversely, affect their
teaching. Does this mean that teachers must be preoccupied only with teaching?

197
 A. Yes, if they are given other assignments, justice demands that they be properly compensated.
B. Yes, because other community leaders, not teachers, are tasked to leading community
activities
C. NO, because every teacher is expected to provide leadership and initiative in activities for
betterment of communities.
D. Yes, because teaching is enough full time job.
196. In a study conducted, the pupils were asked which nationality they preferred, if given a choice.
Majority of the pupils wanted to be Americans. In this case, in which obligation relative to the state, do
schools seem to be failing? In their obligation to __________.
A. respect for all duly constituted authorities
B. promote national pride
C. promote obedience to the laws of the state
D. instill allegiance to the Constitution
197. In the Preamble of the Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers, which is NOT said of teachers?
A. LET passers
B. Duly licensed professionals
C. Possess dignity and reputation
D. With high-moral values as well as technical and professional competence
198. Teacher H and Teacher I are rivals for promotion. To gain the favor of the promotional staff,
Teacher I offers her beach resort for free for members of the promotional staff before the ranking. As
one of the contenders for promotion, is this becoming of her to do?
A. Yes. This will be professional growth for the promotional staff.
B. No. This may exert undue influence or the members of the promotional staff and so may fail
to promote someone on the basis of merit.
C. Yes. The rare invitation will certainly be welcomed by an overworked promotional staff.
D. Yes. There's nothing wrong with sharing one's blessings.
199. Each teacher is said to be a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is,
under obligation to transmit to learners such heritage. Which practice makes him fulfill such obligation?
A. Use the latest instructional technology.
B. Observe continuing professional education.
C. Use interactive teaching strategies.
D. Study the life of Filipino heroes.
200. Teacher F is newly converted to a religion. Deeply convinced of his new found religion, he starts
Monday classes by attacking one religion and convinces his pupils to attend their religious services on
Sundays. Is this in accordance with the Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers?
A. Yes. What he does is values education.
B. No. A teacher should not use his position to proselyte others.
C. Yes. In the name of academic freedom, a teacher can decide what to teach.
D. Yes. What he does strengthens values education.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

198
1. In the bottom-up perspective, a reader could read a text when he/she
a. uses his prior knowledge to make sense of the text.
b. selects only the meaningful segments in the text.
c. can translate the visual symbols to their aural equivalent.
d. relates the text to other texts previously read.
2. Which of the following reading skills or strategies is the closest to outside-in processing or reading?
a. inferencing
b. outlining
c. predicting outcomes
d. structural analysis
3. Before a reader could read the WORD, he must learn to read the WORLD first. This statement
implies that
a. students or readers must know the names of the letter first before they will know what the word
means.
b. readers must know the sounds of the letters first before they will know what the word means.
c. words are only representations of the concepts that the child or reader knows before
encountering the print.
d. the text supplies the readers with the necessary knowledge they need to make sense of the print.
4. Teacher A explicitly teaches his/her students the rhetorical patterns of an informational text taken
from a science textbook. Which of the following does the teacher want to develop in the reader?
a. print skill
b. content schemata
c. formal schemata
d. vocabulary knowledge
5. Teacher B uses the timeline as a graphic organizer to teach the readers to understand a given
expository text. Which of the following organizational structures might be the one used in the
exposition of the text’s information?
a. cause and effect
b. comparison and contrast
c. enumeration-description
d. sequence or procedural
6. Teacher C has presented a reading lesson to her students. The lesson went on for a span of a week.
After a day or two, when the teacher introduced a new lesson that requires them the knowledge of
the previous lesson, the students no longer remember it. What could be the cause of this problem?
a. There was a lack of constant drill and practice given by the teacher.
b. The text used and the instruction given in the previous lesson is within the students’ independent
level.
c. There was a lack of activities that integrate the students’ background experiences to the text
presented.
d. The text used and the instruction given in the previous lesson is within the students’ instructional
level.
7. A reader was asked to fill in words to the sentences that are found inside the box below. Which of
the following cueing systems did the reader fail to consider?
The candy is in the sweet. It’s in the inside bowl.
a. graphophonic cues
b. syntactic cues
c. semantic cues
d. pragmatic cues

199
8. A reader read the word “plan” with a pronunciation like “plane” in the sentence, “It’s my plan to
sail across the ocean.” The deviation of the reader in reading the text can be explained by the
reader’s use of
a. syntactic cues
b. semantic cues
c. graphophonic cues
d. pragmatic cues
9. An office secretary encoded her boss’s memorandum for the company’s employees. The boss
returned the memo to the secretary along with the note, “Please justify this!” The secretary felt bad
and wanted to resign immediately because she thinks that it’s not her job to explain the contents of
the memo. What cueing system did the secretary fail to consider?
a. graphophonic
b. syntactic
c. semantic
d. pragmatic
10. A reader was asked to read the sentence found inside the box below. Instead of reading the word
“moved”, he substituted it with the word “ran”. Which of the cueing systems could have interfered
his reading so that he manifests such a deviation from the text?
The car moved fast.
a. graphophonic cues
b. syntactic cues
c. semantic cues
d. pragmatic cues
11. Which of the following refers to the movement of the eyes across a line of text?
a. saccades
b. fixation
c. clustering
d. regression
12. A reader was asked to read a short story. When the reader started reading the text, he encountered
several words that are unfamiliar. He tried to pause for a moment and tried to convert the word from
visual to aural. Which of the following physiological correlates of effective reading does the reader
evidently practice in this situation?
a. saccadic movements
b. return sweeps
c. fixations
d. clustering
13. The following are the reasons why fixation is not encouraged at times EXCEPT for
a. Fixation allows readers to think of the meaning of a word encountered.
b. Fixation slows down fluency.
c. Readers are given the chance to do subvocalization when they fixate.
d. Too much fixation results to poor comprehension.
14. It refers to the learned ability to see words in groups rather than as individual words.
a. subvocalization
b. regression
c. fixation
d. clustering
15. You asked a group of students to read a passage silently. After a minute of observation, you noticed
that they are moving their lips as they do saccadic movements along the page. Which of the
following terms refers to the practice that you have observed from your students?
a. subvocalization

200
 b. regression
c. fixation
d. clustering
16. You asked your students to silently read the passage you have prepared for them. The passage is all
about arthropods. As a student go over his passage, you noticed that he sweeps his hands along the
page. After a while, his eyebrows met, as if he doubts what the passage is all about. You noticed
that he made return sweeps to the text in a backward manner, as if trying to search for a previously
read word. This situation implies that the reader is doing
a. regression.
b. saccades.
c. fixation.
d. subvocalization.
17. Regression is BEST when the reader uses it as a means to
a. search for keywords in a text.
b. monitor comprehension when the text seems not to make sense.
c. read a passage all over again.
d. highlight important lines in the text for retrieval purposes.
18. Teacher D entered the classroom and posted images that she has taken from the story she is about
to tell the students. Before she started telling the story to the class, she grouped the students and
asked them to make a story out of the pictures posted on the board. Which of the following
approaches reflects the practice of the teacher?
a. Explicit Phonics
b. Basal Approach
c. Embedded Phonics
d. Language Experience Approach
19. Teacher E entered the classroom and showed a list of word families like cat, mat, fat, rat, pat, and
bat. This practice clearly shows that the teacher employs
a. Whole-language approach.
b. Language experience approach.
c. Literature-based approach.
d. Phonics approach.
20. A student asked the teacher to tell him the meaning of the word “disestablishmentarianism”, which
is found in the text that the student read. Instead of explicitly stating the meaning of the word, the
teacher asked the student to segment the word and look for its base word, prefix, and suffixes so that
they may construct the meaning of the word through these word parts. Which of the following
vocabulary strategy did the teacher use to help the students arrive at the meaning of the unfamiliar
word?
a. semantic feature analysis
b. semantic mapping
c. structural analysis
d. context clues
21. You were given a long passage to read in a short period of time. Along with the passage, you were
also asked to answer questions regarding the text you have read. Which of the following reading
strategies should you use to successfully meet your aim?
a. skimming
b. scanning
c. close reading
d. summarizing
22. You want your students to give you a detailed account of what they have understood from the story
you have all read in the classroom. Which of the following assessment measures, tools, or
procedures should you use to meet your goal?

201
 a. think-aloud
b. cloze procedure
c. miscue analysis
d. standardized tests
23. A teacher wants to know the current functional reading level of a student in her reading class in
terms of word recognition. Which of the following assessment measures, tools, or procedures should
the teacher use to meet her aim?
a. think-aloud
b. miscue analysis
c. standardized tests
d. informal reading inventory
24. You want to know the quality of responses the students make as they process a text while they are
in the act of audibly reading it. You recorded their reading and found out that they stop at times and
give personal reactions to the text. Some of the students’ reactions are even stated in their mother
tongue. Which of the following assessment tools or procedures refers to this practice?
a. think-aloud
b. miscue analysis
c. standardized tests
d. cloze procedure
25. You want to know the range of your students’ vocabulary, graphophonic knowledge, syntactic
knowledge, semantic knowledge, and pragmatic knowledge by filling in gaps within an information.
Which of the following should you use to achieve your goal?
a. think-aloud
b. miscue analysis
c. standardized tests
d. cloze procedure
26. Teacher A has found out that the results of the curriculum that was implemented call for an alteration
in the set of objectives and competencies. Which of the following curriculum development stages
does teacher A want to happen?
a. curriculum planning
b. curriculum evaluation
c. curriculum change
d. curriculum improvement
27. Ms. Natividad, a classroom teacher, wants to try-out to her class another strategy she has learned
from a seminar-workshop she has attended. Which level of curriculum is shown in this situation?
a. societal
b. experiential
c. instructional
d. institutional
28. Mr. Reyes, the principal of Bagumbato National High School, opted to use the curriculum that
employs the integration of Music, Arts, P.E., and Social Studies on a longer time block. This
situation clearly shows that the principal prefers to use
a. core curriculum design.
b. correlated subjects design.
c. broad-fields curriculum design.
d. single-subject curriculum design.
29. The sub-processes of curriculum planning, organization and designing, implementation and
evaluation sum up the process of
a. curriculum and instruction.
b. curriculum management.
c. curriculum development.

202
 d. curriculum assessment.
30. When the aim of the curriculum is to provide the learners with the needed skills in this ever-changing
world, the curriculum reflects the belief that it should
a. provide learner’s with the knowledge needed for social relevance.
b. perpetuate cumulative tradition of organized knowledge.
c. provide avenues for the students to do self-expression.
d. allow learner’s self-actualization.
31. The following statements are characteristics of the subject-centered curriculum EXCEPT for
a. The main task is mastery learning.
b. The teacher has full control of the lesson.
c. There is a high level of cooperative interaction.
d. It covers much of the content in a short span of time.
32. The phase of curriculum development which involves a survey of the current needs of the learners
and the demands of society is curriculum
a. planning.
b. evaluation.
c. organization.
d. implementation
33. Ms. Oliveros, a language teacher, has noticed that Bryan, a diagnosed dyslexic child, has already
improved in his reading, writing, gross, and fine motor abilities. She recommended to her principal
that Bryan should be learning in a regular classroom. Which of the following does the teacher want
to happen?
a. promotion
b. intervention
c. inclusion
d. exclusion
34. When developers try to obtain relevant information to be able to judge the worth of an educational
program, its product, procedures, and objectives, the developers are in the process of curriculum
a. planning.
b. designing.
c. evaluation.
d. alignment.
35. Johnny, a junior high school student, connected his lesson on fractions with his Social Studies lesson
on land ownership during the time of Feudalism. Which curriculum design element is reflected in
Johnny’s practice?
a. articulation
b. integration
c. continuity
d. balance
36. Teacher B wants to give his student the freedom to choose what to learn and believe, and allow the
student to set his own identity and standards. Teacher B clearly shows that he believes in
a. Realism.
b. Idealism.
c. Perennialism.
d. Existentialism
37. A curriculum developer wants to combine geography, civics and culture, and history to complete
the subject area of Social Studies. The curriculum developer clearly manifests favor for the
a. correlated subjects curriculum design.
b. broad fields curriculum design.
c. fused curriculum design.
d. core curriculum design.

203
38. Teacher C has found out that there was a mismatch between the content she was teaching in the class
and the competencies tested in the standards-based assessment (SBA) given after a year of
instruction. This situation calls for curriculum
a. planning.
b. designing.
c. alignment.
d. implementation.
39. The following are characteristics of the experience-centered curriculum EXCEPT for
a. The classroom activities are cooperatively controlled by the learner and the teacher.
b. The emphasis is on the holistic development of the individual learner.
c. Education aims to develop a socially creative individual.
d. Facts and knowledge are to be mastered for future use.
40. The students’ first languages are to be the medium of instruction during the first three years of
formal schooling both in the public and private schools. Which of the following stakeholders in
curriculum development asks for this requirement?
a. parents
b. teachers
c. publishers
d. legislators

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1. Which of the following statements is correct about the domains of educational technology?
A. Design is the production stage while development is the planning stage.
B. Both the design and development are the planning stage,

204
 C. Evaluation is synonymous with implementation.
D. Utilization is the action phase.
2. Ms. Cruz was hired in a well-equipped school but she has to start preparing her instructional
materials before classes begin. Which of the following is a systematic process in preparing her
materials?
A. design – utilization – evaluation - development
B. design – development – utilization – evaluation
C. development – design – utilization – evaluation
D. development – utilization – evaluation – design
3. Ms. Briones is planning to integrate technology in her Mathematics class. Which of the following
would be her second step?
A. set the objectives
B. analyze the learners
C. utilize the materials with showmanship
D. evaluate the performance of the students
4. Which of the following should Ms. Gomez primarily consider in determining her teachinglearning
objectives and use of instructional media?
A. the learner C. the instructional activity
B. the teacher D. the instructional strategy
5. Which is the best reason why teachers state the objectives before using instructional media?
A. To be able to practice how to operate the equipment.
B. To determine which media to use best.
C. To prepare the materials beforehand.
D. To secure available materials.
6. Ms. Villegas is thinking of an educational technology that can relay information clearly to her class.
Which principle will guide her in the selection of the material?
A. interest C. cost effectiveness
B. meaningfulness D. communication effectiveness
7. Mrs. Zinampan presented real samples of rocks when she discussed the different forms of rocks.
What principle in the selection of instructional material did she apply?
A. interest C. cost effective
B. B authenticity D. responsiveness
8. Which of the following is a limitation of conventional technologies in teaching and learning?
A. They pose problems on storage..
B. They are less abstract and more concrete.
C. They are readily available in the environment, around school, and in the home.
D. They provide hands-on learning experiences and emphasize real-world
E. applications
9. which of the following is not a contribution of technology to the learning process? .
A. The quality of learning can be improved
B. The delivery of instructions can be more interesting
C. The role of the teacher can be changed into a demonstrator.
D. The method of teaching and learning becomes more interactive
10. In what way can instructional aids foster learning?
A. Reinforce learning
B. Entertain students
C. Take the place of the teacher
D. Holds students in the classroom
11. With the pervasiveness of technologies nowadays, a learner-centered instruction can be promoted.
Which of the following statements support this approach to teaching?
I. It focuses on transformation of facts.

205
 II. It supports the use of lecture and drill methods.
III. It gives emphasis on collaboration and authentic assessment.
IV. Students work on tasks determined and controlled by the teacher.
A. I and II only C. II and IV only
B. I and III only D. III and IV only
12. Prof. Villamin’s students use cooperative learning, inquiry based and project-based learning
approaches in creating their digital unit plans. What can be developed among the learners through
these approaches?
A. repetition and active learning
B. repetition & information delivery
C. information processing and active learning
D. construction of knowledge and information exchange
13. Which of these technologies are arranged from the most symbolic to multisensory?
A. real objects, print, audio-visual materials, and visual materials
B. visual materials, audio visual materials, print and computers
C. visual materials, print, audio-visual materials and realia
D. print, audio, visual materials, and computers
14. Which group of technologies has the highest degree of abstraction?
A. book, imaginative literature, programmed instruction
B. digital video, film, versatile compact disc
C. video, pictures and television
D. realia and computer
15. Mrs. Soriano, a Grade V teacher prefers to use textbooks than other instructional materials. What
could be her reason for using it?
A. Textbooks can be easily duplicated.
B. Textbooks quickly become updated.
C. Textbooks address the needs of diverse students.
D. Textbooks contain most of the materials they need to learn in the course.
16. It is impractical to bring real objects to the classroom so Ms. Simangan constructed a
threedimensional visual instead. Which of the following did she construct?
A. cartoon C. graphic
B. chart D. model
17. If a teacher wants to teach her pupils the skill to organize and integrate related concepts, which of
the following is the most appropriate graphic organizer to use?
A. timeline C. venn diagram
B. fishbone D. semantic webbing
18. Which graphic organizer is used to show how a series of events interact to produce a set of results
again and again?
A. Series of events chart C. cycle
B. Web D. timeline
19. Which instructional aid requires pupils to verbalize?
A. graphic C. . model
B. diorama D. . video
20. Which of the following is inappropriate in using printed visuals such as charts, graphs, and
drawings?
A. Provide written or verbal cues to highlight important aspects of visuals.
B. Allow the students to pass the materials from one person to another.
C. Use materials that everyone can see.
D. Present the material one at time.
21. Under what category will a globe as an instructional material fall?
A. Realia C. solid model

206
 B. mock up D. cutaway model
22. Prof. Agustin would like to provide hands-on experience on the expansion and contraction of matter.
Which of the following materials would be the best to use?
A. models C. realias
B. pictures D. slides
23. Ms. Sarah finds the chalkboard an effective instructional material up to present. However, just like
any other materials, it also has its limitations. Which one is it?
A. It allows spontaneity, speed and change.
B. Absent students cannot keep up with their assignments.
C. It is valuable for emphasizing the major points of the lesson.
D. It can be used for displaying pictures and important clippings.
24. With which learning style group are manipulatives MOST effective?
A. Master style group
B. Interpersonal style group
C. Understanding style group
D. Self- expressive style group
25. Which does a pupil use when s/he sings a concept to a familiar tune in order to help himself commit
the concept to memory?
A. rap C. pop
B. jingle D. lullaby
26. Prof. Arcilla would like to use audiocassette tape in teaching a lesson in English. In which activity
is audiocassette tape very effective in the teaching-learning process?
A. in developing listening skills
B. in teaching creative writing
C. in composing poems
D. in building concepts
27. Romalyn is going to discuss about The ADDIE Model to a big class. She is planning to use a
technology by which parts of her presentation could be partly hidden to make it more exciting and
interesting. What do you think shall she use?
A. model C. transparency
B. realia D. video
28. Marife wants to make a presentation material wherein more additional transparent sheets with
information can be placed over a base transparency. Which one should she make?
A. cut-out C. silhouette
B. puppet D. overlay
29. Which one is used with 2D and 3D materials?
A. Opaque projector C. digital projector
B. overhead projector D. slide projector
30. After watching the film, “Muro Ami’, the students of Mrs. Tamaray are expected to show a
demonstrative proof of what they have learned. How is the technology used in thissituation?
A. entertainment C. instructional
B. informational D. entertainment and informational
31. Self made charts and illustrations serve as universal aid for bringing fascinating and exciting
experiences in the classroom. To tap the optimum potentials of these materials, which of the
following should be avoided?
A. Giving due consideration to lettering.
B. Presenting materials with accurate facts.
C. Giving more importance to austerity over legibility.
D. Focusing on the main idea of the lesson presented.

207
32. Kamyl used overhead transparencies when she presented her assigned topic to class. What type of
educational technology are transparencies?
A. printed material C. projected material
B. graphic material D. non-projected material
33. Which instructional material/s is/are MOST fit in contextualized learning?
A. TV C. pictures
B. Slides D. field trip
34. Ms. Villanueva wants to teach the students the performance of a certain skill such as dancing. Which
technology would be the most appropriate and convenient to use?
A. film C. television
B. video D. printed material
35. Slides are miniature transparencies. They can be created with simple cameras and simple equipment.
They display color in a realistic manner. However, they also have some limitations. Which one is
it?
A. They can be easily updated and revised.
B. They can be adapted to group or to individual use.
C. They can get out of sequence if handled individually.
D. They can be combined with taped narration for greater effectiveness.
36. Mrs. Santos used a film clip in teaching science concepts to her Grade Six class. However, she found
out that it was inefficiently used in the classroom. When is a technology considered inefficient?
A. When it makes viewing more interesting.
B. When it increases the time to master the lesson.
C. When it helps attain the objectives of the lesson.
D. When it enhances understanding of new lesson.
37. Prof. Manantan’s lesson in EPP is about “Pagtatanim ng halaman” to her students. How can she
make her lesson more interesting and meaningful?
A. Have a viewing activity about the lesson.
B. Have them read their EPP book.
C. Give them a collaborative work.
D. Let them listen to a gardener.
38. Prof. Delos Santos would like her students to give more accurate observations about plants in the
environment. Which technique would help her attain her objective?
A. Bring them to the garden.
B. Bring actual plants to class.
C. Show colorful pictures to the class.
D. Let the class read books about the topic.
39. Which of the following should be avoided in presenting visuals?
A. Show visuals with an element of suspense.
B. Shut off the overhead projector when explaining lengthily.
C. Present all the materials simultaneously to hold the learners’ interest.
D. Erase any writing on the chalkboard or whiteboard when you no longer need it.
40. After listing down the advantages and disadvantages of computers, Mrs. Muñoz decided to purchase
a computer for her class. Which do you think is the last consideration in purchasing the equipment?
A. Computers can make her more efficient.
B. Computers can be a form of entertainment.
C. Computers can enhance teaching and learning.
D. Computers can be used for interactive presentations.
41. Marnel prepares his school research works using computer to submit his requirements on time. Does
the computer make him productive and efficient? Why?
I. Yes, because it can generate its own data.
II. Yes, because it can make one’s work easier.

208
 III. Yes, because it can perform tasks fast and accurately.
A. I and II C. II and III
B. I and III D. I, II and III
42. Prof. Aguinaldo would like to integrate technology in writing a friendly letter. How can he do it
effectively?
A. Let the pupils surf a friendly letter from the Internet.
B. Have the pupils write a friendly letter and send it through an email.
C. Have the pupils forward a downloaded friendly letter to others via email.
D. Let the pupils write a friendly letter using word processing and have it critiqued by
E. their peers.
43. Which of the following is known for its strength of giving immediate feedback?
A. video C. digital encyclopedia
B. story book D. computer-assisted instruction
44. Which of the following computer-based instructional material can be used to learn new concepts?
A. games C. simulation
B. tutorial D. drill and practice
45. 45. Prof. Natividad would like to create a presentation material for his lesson on the types of
computer-assisted Instruction. Which tool should he use?
A. communicative tool C. productivity tool
B. Informative tool D. situating tool
46. Prof. De Guzman uses an online learning approach by which content provides links to information
at other locations and serves as a focal point for a distance education experience. Which of the
following does he use?
A. computer-aided instruction
B. web-based instruction
C. self-paced program
D. teleconferencing
47. Mr. Villena searches for related literature by accessing several databases in the library computer that
is connected with other computers that have databases. How is this termed?
A. CD ROM search C. mechanical search
B. computer search D. online search
48. Which pair of tools provide synchronous communication?
A. chatroom and email
B. email and bulletin board
C. video conferencing and blogs
D. instant messaging and chatroom
49. Should Mrs. Reyes allow her pupils to surf the Internet in creating a group newsletter during her
English class? Why?
A. No, because pupils may just be exchanging messages via email.
B. No, because the pupils might open undesirable websites.
C. Yes, to allow the pupils to chat with their friends.
D. Yes, as long as it is used effectively.

50. Which of the following should you ask yourself in evaluating the content of an instructional
material?
A. Do the materials reinforce learning effectively?
B. Are the materials of high technical quality?
C. Does the content match the curriculum?
D. Is it appropriate for the students?
51. Which of the following statements does NOT describe educational technology?

209
 i. It includes hardware and software.
ii. It refers to the efficiency of teachers in using computers
iii. It is the development, application, and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids to improve
human learning.
A. i only C. Both ii and iii
B. ii only D. Both i and iii
52. What should Mr. Asuncion determine first in the selection of media in teaching?
A. needs of the students C. technique to be used
B. availability of the media D. objectives of the lesson
53. Which is the most important reason why teachers preview materials to be used in class?
A. To gain confidence in using them.
B. To encourage viewers to be more focused.
C. To avoid potential problems that might occur while materials are in use.
D. To ensure appropriateness of the materials with the objectives and target audience.
54. After Ms. Raca planned her lesson in English, she found out that the materials at hand do not match
her objectives. Which is the best thing that she can do?
A. Modify the available materials.
B. Teach the lesson the following day.
C. Change the objectives to match with the available materials.
D. Carry out the lesson as planned and use the materials at hand.
55. Prof. Balagtas used worksheets, manipulatives and models in teaching math to help her students
understand the lesson and love the subject. What did she bear in mind when she used these materials?
A. appropriateness C. breadth
B. balance D. variety
56. Ms. Torres always makes sure that text, animation and color do not confuse students in her
presentation materials. Which principle is applied?
A. simplicity C. responsiveness
B. variety D. cost effectiveness
57. Mrs. Reyes, a librarian, informed the students as well as the teachers that several software are
available for classroom instruction and individual learning. Which material is she referring to?
A. Computers C. Television set
B. CD-ROM D. VCD and DVD players
58. Susan’s mother tongue is a vernacular. Which of the following materials would be the most efficient
and effective material to learn a second language?
A. interactive multimedia
B. pictures and print materials
C. audio compact discs and radio
D. printed materials and real objects

59. Computer can be a good tool for individualized instruction. Which of the following aspects can be
a deterrent for its full utilization in the classrooms?
A. economic C. social
B. physical D. technical
60. With the increasing use of educational technology inside the classroom, what roles are expected of
the teacher?
A. facilitator C. knowledge giver
B. demonstrator D. source of information
61. Which of the following technologies are properly classified?
A. computers, compact discs, film, television
B. imaginative literature, book, programmed instruction
C. versatile compact disc, printed material, diagram, sketches

210
 D. digital video, phonograph, compact discs, radio, audio tape
62. Which of the following technologies are arranged from the most concrete to the most abstract?
A. motion pictures, verbal symbols, visual symbols, radio, realias
B. realias, visual symbols, television, motion pictures, still pictures
C. realias, motion pictures, still pictures, visual symbols, verbal symbols
D. verbal symbols, still pictures, visual symbols, models, motion pictures
63. Which is the best way to present instructional materials?
A. concrete ->semi-concrete-> abstract->semi-abstract
B. semi-concrete-> concrete -> abstract-> semi-abstract
C. abstract->semi-abstract-> semi-concrete-> concrete
D. concrete ->semi-concrete-> semi-abstract -> abstract
64. Which of the following technologies provide iconic experiences?
A. videos and computer
B. books and periodicals
C. audio and audio materials
D. printed and verbal symbols
65. How can Prof. Ubiña best promote the use of multimedia in teaching Science to her coteachers?
A. Sell multimedia at low cost.
B. Demonstrate its use to them.
C. Explain the literature supporting its use.
D. Convince the principal to require the use of technology.
66. There are countless things in the environment that you and your students can use to learn from such
as trees, globes, pebbles, blocks etc. These real objects and models are really effective if they are
utilized properly. Which of the following is incorrect about the use of real objects and models?
A. Familiarize yourself with the object or model.
B. Allow passing of a single object around the class.
C. Make sure that objects/models are large enough to be seen by the whole class.
D. Encourage students’ participation through questioning and having students
E. decide the next step.
67. Aaron constructed a three dimensional material to simulate the circulation of blood. Which of the
following did he construct?
A. A solid model C. mock-up model
B. cutaway model D. cross-sectional model
68. Which is a two-dimensional representation of the earth’s geographic and/or political features?
A. globe C. mock-up
B. map D. model
69. You asked your students to illustrate what they have understood from what they have read. Which
of the following non-projected visuals are you referring to?
A. printed visuals C. models
B. graphics D. realias
70. Which software should Dr. Balagtas to manipulate numerical data in the computer?
A. Spreadsheet C. word processing
B. desktop publishing D. multimedia
71. Prof. Silva uses projected visuals such as OHP in presenting her lesson. What could be her main
reason in using such an educational technology?
A. The materials are readily available.
B. Most visuals can be obtained at no cost.
C. It is more abstract than any other visuals.
D. She can easily prepare her own transparencies in advance.
72. Ms. Pacheco showed a segment of matter in “sine skwela” to her pupils without a follow-up activity.
Thus, the pupils got low in the test. What does this imply?

211
 A. TV makes viewing enjoyable.
B. TV promotes mastery of the lesson.
C. TV induces alienation on the part of the learners.
D. TV is effective when learners attain the lesson objectives.
73. Which activity is closest to the real thing?
A. hear C. watch a demonstration
B. view images D. perform in a presentation
74. Your department would like to purchase a computer set as your project. Which of the following
advantages of computer will be your last consideration in purchasing it?
A. It can enhance the teaching and learning process.
B. It can be used for interactive presentation.
C. It can be used for research activity
D. It can be used for entertainment.
75. Prof. Orencia will have a digitized presentation to pre-service teachers. Which of the following will
make her presentation appealing and effective?
A. Observe maximum use of animations and graphics together.
B. Apply as many computer effects per slide as possible.
C. Reinforce textual information with graphic organizers.
D. Use as many color as possible.
76. Why are computers increasingly becoming pervasive in schools nowadays?
A. Schools advocate the use of computers.
B. They increase efficiency and productivity.
C. Anybody can operate computers without formal training.
D. Students have access to computers in school and at home.
77. There are several reasons why teachers are reluctant in using electronic media in the teaching-
learning process. Which is the most common reason?
A. The difficulty in integrating them in the curriculum.
B. The limited exposure of teachers to new equipment.
C. Their incompatibility to diverse needs of the learners.
D. The excessive availability of local technology in the community.
78. With the number of senses to be stimulated as criterion, which one should be first in thelist?
A. multi sensory aid C. visual aid
B. audio-visual aid D. audio aid
79. Which of the following is considered in terms of technical quality of a material?
A. stereotyping C. color and size of text
B. vocabulary level D. students’ achievement
80. Which statement is true about the opaque projector and overhead projector?
A. An opaque projector allows more flexibility than an overhead projector.
B. An overhead projector allows more flexibility than an opaque projector.
C. Opaque and overhead projectors can instantaneously project 3D visuals well.
D. The series of still visuals in an opaque projector are arranged in a fixed pattern but not in an
overhead projector.
81. A grade II teacher wanted to show the parts of a seed by using a large, wooden seed visual aid with
detachable cotyledons and tiny seed. Under what classification does wooden structure fall?
A. assembly model C. realia
B. cutaway model D. solid model
82. Which term refers to a model which is constructed so as to emphasize a particular part or function?
A. audio recording C. mock-up
B. simulation D. realia
83. Which is the best use of computers to students like you?
A. They are used for chatting and surfing the net.

212
 B. They are used for research and collaboration.
C. They are used for playing online games.
D. They are used for watching movies.
84. Which statement makes technology ineffective in student learning?
A. It develops higher thinking skills.
B. It prepares students for the workforce.
C. It enhances students’ collaborative skills.
D. It decreases achievement in content learning.
85. You plan to use instructional materials to a big class-size. Which of these will you not use?
A. pictures C. 27-inch television
B. projection device D. computer with LCD projector
86. Computers can be classified according to the roles they play namely communicative tool,
informative tool, and constructive tool. What is the other role of computes in the options below?
A. instructional tool C. utility tool
B. situating tool D, application tool
87. Which of the following categories of CAI will you use in your class if your objective is to increase
proficiency in a newly learned skill or refresh an existing one?
A. tutorial C. simulation
B. drill and practice . D. Instructional game
88. Which of the following is an ineffective use of presentation software?
A. Darken the room
B. Use appropriate pacing
C. Read directly from the slides.
D. Allow interaction with the learner.
89. Which of the following is NOT an example of communicative tool?
A. multimedia encyclopedia
B. teleconferencing
C. electronic mail
D. chat
90. Which is a characteristic of the teaching machines of B. F. Skinner?
A. It does not need any feedback.
B. It requires teacher’s assistance.
C. It is meant for a collaborative work.
D. It allows a student to learn at his/her own pace.
91. Why is one-way delivery of information a misuse of communication tools?
A. because the teacher expects the student to study more
B. because it requires activities that focus on thinking than responding
C. because it enables the users to focus more on higher level cognitive activities
D. because this kind of practice lessens interaction capabilities of communication tools
92. Internet consists of thousands of connected computer networks around the world. Which term does
NOT refer to Internet?
A. A. NET C. “Cyberspace”
B. B. Online D. “Information Superhighway”
93. Your class adviser is planning to have an asynchronous communication with your classmates. Which
technology tools can she use?
A. chat and blog
B. chat and instant messaging
C. blog and video conferencing
D. electronic bulletin board and email
94. In your computer subject, you allow your class to chat as a part of your motivation before discussing
them the roles of computer. How is chat used in this context?

213
 A. Communicative tool C. Application tool
B. Informative tool D. Situating tool
95. Your mother wanted to finish her long dreamed course but she wanted to do it at home during her
free time. How could you help your mother in pursuing her dream?
A. Encourage her to hire a helper so that she can attend regularly to her class.
B. Give up your study so that your mother can attend her classes.
C. Enroll her to the school where you enrolled.
D. Enroll her in distance education
96. The following statements are true about computer conferencing. Which is an exception?
A. It refers to live student interaction with an expert.
B. It is also known as discussion forum or bulletin board.
C. It also refers to online class discussions, forums or debates
D. It permits two or more individuals to engage in asynchronous text-based dialogue.
97. Which instructional tool application will you introduce to your class if your objective is to help them
find and use information resources available in the internet?
A. Webquests C. Scavenger Hunt
B. Hybrid course D. Distance education
98. Maryjane is looking for an organized instructional program in which the teacher and learners can be
physically separated. Which of the following will she choose?
A. Distance Education
B. Uniform Resource Locator
C. Web Quests
D. Computer-Based Instruction
99. Prof. Ruscoe would like to show Rizal’s museum to the students but due to financial constraint, she
couldn’t bring them there. What should she do to make the teachinglearning process more realistic?
A. Conduct a virtual tour.
B. Use DVD with less resolution.
C. Show pictures of the museum to the whole class.
D. Go to the museum and relate all observations made.
100. Which of the following should you avoid if you were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of an
instructional game after using it in teaching a lesson in high school science?
A. Present problems which are relevant to learning objectives.
B. Allow learners to select different content materials.
C. Provide a cooperative learning atmosphere.
D. Provide a scoring system.

PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

1. It has reference to what teachers do in planning, implementing and evaluating instruction.

a. Teaching c. Teaching strategies
b. Curriculum d. Instruction
2. The orderly process directing learners to develop their skills and habits so that they will be assisted
in acquiring knowledge and attitudes.
a. Instructional Media

214
 b. Instructional Method
c. Teaching Techniques
d. Instructional System
3. Facial Expression, writing on the board, and oral expression of the teacher is an example of
a. Teaching Behavior
b. Technical Skills of teachers
c. Instruction
d. Instructional System
4. Learning to draw, drive a car, play tennis, cook and type a poem often taught in is an example of
a. Cognitive Learning c. Verbal Learning
b. Motor Skill Learning d. Social Learning
5. Responding to telephone calls, writing one’s name, reading a book orally is an example
a. Cognitive Learning c. Verbal Learning
b. Motor skill learning d. Serial Learning
6. A process wherein the pupil’s attention and interest are aroused and directed to a definite purpose.
a. Learning c. Method
b. Motivation d. Principle
7. Contains a statement of results to be accomplished and specific means by which these results are to
be attained under direction and guidance.
a. Method c. Technique
b. Lesson Plan d. Principle
8. Could be the means of developing good study habits and independence in work as well as preparing
the pupils for the job to be done
a. Review c. Assignment
b. Drill d. Recitation
9. The act of repeating from memory the reciting of a lesson and often described as a session lesson
hearing
a. Review c. Assignment
b. Recitation d. Drill
10. A teaching procedure dealing with first-hand experiences pertaining to material obtained from
experimentation
a. Demonstration Method
b. Laboratory Method
c. Discovery Method
d. Deductive Method
11. Starts with generalization and principles or from general to particular
a. Inductive Method c. Classical Method
b. Deductive Method d. Problem Method
12. Students enact situations that arise in daily living, where values may be clarified, insights are
developed and decision-making is practiced
a. Simulation Game c. Demonstration
b. Role Playing d. Inquiry Process
13. Encouraging students to search for and see relationships that are not obvious; also it stretches the
intellect of students
a. Open-ended Questions
b. Recall Questions
c. Explanatory Questions
d. Descriptive Question
14. It is “control by enforcing obedience or orderly conduct or training that corrects and strengthens?
a. Management c. Techniques
b. Discipline d. Strategies

215
15. When students are asked to respond to incomplete statements or questions that are presented in oral/
written form
a. Open-ended Statement
b. Close-procedure
c. PAC Strategy
d. Structured Activity
16. These are all the experience which children have under the direction of a school
a. Curriculum c. Learning
b. Instruction d. Socialization
17. The subjects mater, not the child is important in this type of curriculum
a. Correlated curriculum
b. Subject-centered curriculum
c. Experience curriculum
d. Fused curriculum
18. The child-instead of the subject-matter is important in this kind of curriculum
a. Correlated curriculum
b. Core curriculum
c. Experience curriculum
d. Fused curriculum
19. It is a unified curriculum where subject matters from different subject field are treated unitary of
the same curriculum
a. Core curriculum
b. Integrated Curriculum
c. Broad field curriculum
d. Fused curriculum
20. Teacher’s initiative, imagination, puppet shows, play, reading and animated cartoons can be
examples of enriching the curriculum under these resources
a. Specializing Resources
b. Creative Resources
c. Human Resources
d. Reading Resources
21. A curriculum considered basics for all students, that all must get them
a. Broad field curriculum
b. Core curriculum
c. Integrated Curriculum
d. Experience Curriculum
22. The whole body of experience utilized by the school to attain the aims of education
a. Psychology c. Socialization
b. Curriculum d. Methods
23. Formal education starts when the child
a. begins to talk
b. reaches the age of six years old
c. first enters school
d. begins to be inquisitive
24. That aspect of curriculum that has to do with the preservation of the best in our culture, customs
and traditions has been borrowed from
a. Sociology c. Psychology
b. Sociometry d. Ethics
25. The curriculum must take into consideration the
a. aim of education
b. learning process

216
 c. motives and incentives
d. instincts
26. The curriculum is
a. all-embracing c. all power
b. encompassing d. selective
27. In the traditional school, the focus of attention was on the
a. child c. method
b. subject matter d. book
28. Curriculum objects are formulated in the light of our
a. past history
b. educational policy and philosophy
c. experience as a nation
d. needs in school
29. Which of the following questions encourages reflective thinking?
a. What are the parts of a complete flower?
b. What do we use to observe matter?
c. In what ways can help his community
d. Why are machine-made goods cheaper than those made by hands?
30. The success of the pupils in formulating generalization greatly depends on:
a. the interest of the pupils
b. the devices used
c. the subjects matter
d. the teacher’s skillful questioning
31. In the inquiry method, the initiation phase calls for the teacher to set the stage for:
a. finding solutions to problem
b. raising of problems
c. gathering data
d. formulating generalization
32. Method is dependent upon:
a. classroom techniques
b. teacher’s expectation
c. theoretical assumptions
d. available textbooks
33. To lead the students to the desired behavior, method must be implemented through:
a. selected technique
b. the curriculum
c. the discussion of the teacher
d. careful observation
34. Which is not true regarding the project method?
a. Many worthwhile projects are impossible because of the materials needed
b. The project method should be used occasionally but not regularly
c. The pupil or the class should carry the chief responsibility of planning the project
d. The project method is adaptable to all units in the curriculum
35. The laboratory method is also called:
a. the research methods
b. the deductive method
c. the development method
d. the problem method
36. In the unit method, actual learning takes place in:
a. orienting the pupils
b. collecting, discovering and recording data

217
 c. summarizing the unit
d. organizing the unit or study
37. A statement of objectives, learning experience and the means of attaining results of teaching is
called
a. procedure c. outcomes
b. lesson plan d. strategy
38. Teaching aids which the teacher uses to make learning meaningful, productive and interesting is
known as:
a. device
b. technique
c. method
d. learning continuum
39. Teaching method which proceeds from the details of a lesson towards the generalization is called:
a. Inductive c. problem-solving
b. deductive d. debate
40. A teaching method which proceeds from a generalization, principle or rule is:
a. inductive c. project
b. deductive d. process
41. The recent approach in teaching Social Studies is called
a. discovery c. process
b. conceptual d. formal-education
42. A method of teaching which aptly applies to lessons needing experiments is called:
a. problem-solving c. observation
b. laboratory d. demonstration
43. What type of lesson is presented wherein the learner meets the learning experience through
understanding, analysis, and generalizations of facts presented?
a. review c. developmental
b. drill d. deductive
44. What lesson is presented when the teacher takes up the previous learning experiences of the learners
in a recognized pattern of presentation?
a. Drill
b. developmental
c. review
d. discussion procedure
45. A lesson which aims to focalize skills to make them fixed to the point of mastery is
a. problem-type c. review
b. drill d. experimental
46. The law of exercise is aptly applied in a
a. review lesson c. drill lesson
b. assignment d. check-up
47. A type of review which presents the sum-total of all activities previously presented
a. integrated c. daily
b. cumulative d. drill
48. What recent technique o teaching calls for acting out of a situation where the participants aim to
uncover a problem of great importance to the class?
a. panel c. role-playing
b. debate-form d. lecture-form
49. What technique of in-service training for teachers involves the identification and solution of
common problems by them, thru live-in sessions, conferences, and speeches of consultants?
a. buzz session c. seminar
b. workshop d. professional meeting

218
50. The non-verbal symbols used to maximize learning are referred to as
a. Instructional devices
b. Classrooms techniques
c. Field trips
d. Educational media
51. Graphic material which are eye-catching and which use slogans and topics presented in bold
letterings and strong colors to serve as reminders of standards and / or important events are called
a. poster c. projector
b. film strips d. objects
52. What contemporary aid to teaching utilizes carefully-planned materials where each step of learning
requires repetition and practice until such step is thoroughly learned?
a. programmed instruction
b. Keypunching
c. Educational Television
d. Educational hardware
53. The Stimulus-Response theory of learning which involves the association between a conditioned
stimulus and a response thru the repeated presentation of the stimulus was advocated by whom?
a. Edward Thorndike c. Burrhus Skinner
b. Ivan Pavlov d. Wolfgang Kohler
54. What plan of promoting pupils is committed to encouraging the learners to progress from grade to
grade without needless repetition
a. non-graded scheme
b. individualized
c. heterogeneous grouping
d. acceleration
55. Differentiated assignments, tutorial and remedial work to would-be-failures are not considered in
the individualized Instruction Scheme
a. Yes c. Maybe
b. No d. Sometimes
56. A part of a daily lesson which serves as a carry-over for the next day of what has been presented
is the
a. review
b. drill
c. assignment or agreement
d. lesson proper
57. A good learning environment is one
a. free from distraction c. disturbing noise
b. aver decorated d. dilapidated
58. The proper handling of the physical condition ad instructional materials in the classroom to effect
learning refers to
a. teaching method
b. Classroom management
c. Discipline grouping
d. Guidance-oriented
59. What refers to the process o directing immediate personal desires, interests or wishes for the
purpose of achieving an effective action?
a. discipline c. supervision
b. teaching d. management
60. What characteristics an effective type of discipline?
a. vital, sympathetic, humane
b. formal and strict

219
 c. inhibited
d. imposed
61. Which of these is not a quality of a good teacher?
a. mastery o the subject matter
b. broad background of liberal education
c. aims to enrich himself thru teaching
d. understand the nature of the learners
62. Which of these is a good personal qualification of a teacher?
a. resourceful, creative and intelligent
b. rich, capricious and luxurious
c. complaining, demanding and scornful
d. materialistic
63. Which of these is included among the professional ethics o school teachers?
a. professional jealousy
b. integrity
c. engaging in business pre-judicial to his teaching duties
d. gossip mongering
64. What teaching method helps the learners draw generalization from a discipline with the end in view
of applying the same similar situations in the future?
a. discovery approach
b. process approach
c. conceptual approach
d. problem-solving approach
65. Which subjects is in the elementary and secondary school levels mostly concerned with the study
of societal problems and issues which are significant to the learners as member of society?
a. Modern Mathematics
b. Social Studies
c. Filipino
d. Character Education
66. Which of these are considered with two essential dimension of science teaching?
a. observing and inferring
b. seeing and observing
c. reading and researching
d. knowledge and performance
67. Which of these is not a process in science teaching?
a. Measurement
b. Communication skill
c. Controlling variables
d. None of these
68. Of the process involve in the modern approach to science instruction, which one utilizes the most
number of scientific processes.
a. prediction c. inference
b. experimentation d. hypothesis
69. Give the main difference of these two objectives:
 “ to teach the importance of proper nutrition for good health “
 “ to give the importance of proper nutrition for good health”
a. The first objective is general while the second is specific.
b. The first objective is hard to do while the second is easy
c. The first objective needs a longer time while the second doesn’t
d. The first objective is teacher behavior while the second pupil behavior.
70. Which of the objectives below show overt behavior?

220
 a. To appreciate the value of democracy.
b. To understand the importance of a constitution
c. To recite he preamble of the constitution
d. To show love to one’s country
71. The basis by which content is outlined and institutional procedures are developed is the:
a. lesson plan c. objectives
b. basic text d. instructional materials
72. An objective MUST specify:
a. What the learner must do or say.
b. What the teacher must do or say
c. What projects are to be accomplished
d. What the learner must understand
73. “Given ten photographs of biological cells, the pupils will be able to identify six of them as plant
or animal cells.” The underlined phrase is a :
a. terminal behavior
b. standard or acceptable performance
c. condition for learning
d. an accomplishment to be realized.
74. “ To make statement” as an objective in an English Lesson that is:
a. specific c. correct
b. vague d. none of the above
75. What is the most fitting condition of learning for this behavior: “to conclude that plants need
sunlight in order to live”?
a. with the must of materials
b. given a set of pictures
c. after reading the book
d. realistic
76. Which of the following is not a criterion of a well-formulated objective?
a. attainable c. interesting
b. observable d. realistic
77. Which task below is not in the psychomotor domain?
a. imitation c. manipulation
b. evaluation d. articulation
78. The growth of attitudes or values is in the:
a. cognitive domain
b. psychomotor domain
c. affective domain
d. behavioral domain
79. The domains of behavior do not come in isolation. This statements is :
a. True c. False
b. Acceptable d. Partly true
80. “Will a person do it freely without any type of coercion?” This is:
a. a cognitive question
b. an affective question
c. a psychomotor question
d. a behavioral question
81. “ To develop appreciation of poetry” is a :
a. general aim c. nature aim
b. specific aim d. serious aim
82. Which aim below does not belong to the group?
a. To enumerate the uses of common garden tools

221
 b. To express opinion politely
c. To explain the significance of the story
d. To identify the parts of a flower.
83. Which objective below is not realistic?
a. To respect places of worship
b. To sing the national anthem correctly
c. To give the importance of cleanliness
d. To cite ways to show love one’s country
84. Which objective below is not specific?
a. To describe some of farming procedures
b. To define terms comprehensively
c. To pay tax promptly
d. To know the life cycle of a moth.
85. What phrase below is a standard of performance?
a. Solve the problem correctly within 10 minutes
b. Identify and sketch the curve
c. With the use of a ruler
d. After several examples
86. A visible activity shows :
a. overt behavior
b. covert behavior
c. confident behavior
d. artificial behavior
87. Which infinite below is not behavioral?
a. to describe c. to compare
b. to select d. To believe
88. Which objective below needs improvement
a. To prepare a seed box
b. To develop skill in embroidery
c. To plan a noon meal
d. To make an apron
89. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. Method is probably more important in college than in the elementary
b. Method is more important in the elementary than in high school or college
c. Method is more important in college than in high school
d. Method is less important than a lesson plan
90. What encourages the child to think, rationalize and make proper decisions?
a. drill
b. Appreciation lesson
c. Memorization
d. Problem- oriented strategies
91. The following except one are the factors that determine the choice of a method. Which is the
exception?
a. nature o the learners
b. school equipment and facilities
c. educational background of the teacher
d. Subject matter
92. How well a teacher tells a story depends on:
a. Techniques c. the method used
b. the plot d. classroom
93. Which of the following statements is correct?

222
 a. Method is synonymous with technique
b. A device is a teaching method
c. Method can be standardized
d. There is no single best method
94. When a teacher reviews a lesson, she is utilizing the law of:
a. Readiness c. effect
b. exercise d. multiple response

95. In which situation is the law of readiness best applied?

a. The teacher gives the aims of the lessons to be taken up
b. The teacher announces he subject matter at the start of the period
c. The teacher waits or the children to be ready before teaching her lesson
d. The teacher presents a song, related to the lesson
96. Which of the glowing is not an am in the inductive method
a. To delay judgments until truth is given
b. To enable pupils discover important truths for themselves.
c. To help student/pupil to carry out an investigation by themselves independent of the teacher
d. To make relationship of ideas clear to pupils
97. In the inductive method, what does the child do during the comparison and “abstraction” step?
a. Recalls information and directs himself to the activities to be accomplished
b. Perceives the common element present in the cases given
c. Applies the principles learned to other problems or exercises
d. Draw conclusion in his own words
98. The deductive method uses the following steps:
a. statement of the problem, generalization, inference, verification
b. statement of the problem, inference , generalization, verification
c. inference, statement of the problem, generalization, verification
d. inference, statement of the problem, verification, generalization
99. In reality, the type of study method is:
a. an inductive procedure
b. a deductive procedure
c. a traditional method
d. a question and answer method
100. The Herbartian formal steps corresponds to the steps of:
a. the inductive method
b. teaching an appropriate lesson
c. the deductive method
d. the project method

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING AND EVALUATION

1. The test results revealed that a great majority of the student failed. What is the best action that an
effective teacher should take to insure that learning will take place?
a. reteach the items that are heavily missed
b. analyze the difficulty, them test again
c. give more difficult test
d. scold the pupils

223
2. When the aim is to determine where the strengths and weaknesses of the students lie before
teaching of a new lesson is done, what test is given?
a. unit c. diagnostic
b. achievement d. summative
3. In any kind of education endeavor, these three interdependent processes are involved
a. evaluation, application, learning
b. teaching, learning, evaluation of results
c. testing, recording, reteaching
d. application, valuation, recall
4. It is a chart prepared to determine the goals, the content and the number of items to be included
in the test
a. test chart
b. test book
c. table of specifications
d. skewed chart
5. The entire processes involved in conducting any scientific study include these sequential steps,
a. know the problem, gather and analyze needed data, then make conclusion
b. analyze, gather and collect data
c. gather data, analyze the problem, then conclude
d. give description, make a calculated guess, then conclude
6. Mr. Pascual, being a conscientious teacher initially, feels that many of his student dislike him,
hence, they failed his course. To verify his hunch, he will conduct what study?
a. descriptive study of student behavior
b. historical study
c. achievement test
d. Self-analysis
7. Desiring to find out which among the schools she supervises achieve or underachieve the yearly
target goals, Dr. Mendez will use what measure
a. Measure of Dispersion
b. Measure of Central tendency
c. Measure of Popularity
d. Measure of Locality
8. A test of intelligence based on the actual measurement of what the individual can actually do of
a certain task under time pressure.
a. Performance test c. Skill test
b. Aptitude Test d. None of these
9. A test given to determine specific aspect of achievement made on certain skills to provide the
needed remedial help to the learner.
a. daily test c. diagnostic test
b. achievement test d. none of the above
10. A test given to get a representative sampling of the general area of accomplishment made on
certain field of learning taught and learned.
a. survey test c. aptitude test
b. diagnostic d. none of the above
11. A child’s emotional behavior and problems can be measured by:
a. direct observations c. behavior checklist
b. psychological test d. behavior scales
e. all of the above

12. Intelligence tests that can used with children who have language difficulties include:
a. the Draw-A-Man test

224
 b. the Letter International Performance Scale
c. raven’s progressive Matrices Test
d. All of the above
13. The law requires school personnel to make a child’s school records available to his or her parents.
Parents have the right to:
a. help plan their child’s instructional program
b. see their child’s school records
c. receive an interpretation of any data recorded about their child
d. all of the above
14. Ken obtained a percentile rank of 30 on a mathematics test. Ken’s parents will learn that :
a. Ken is a top student in the above class
b. Ken got 30% of the test items correct
c. Ken obtained a score higher than 30% of the students in the class
d. Ken got 70% of the items correct
15. Which o the following is a characteristic of criterion-referenced teaching strategies?
a. Desire behaviors are specified- for example,” Given 10 sentences containing errors in noun-
verb agreement, the student will be able t correct them with 100% accuracy.”
b. Adequate instruction is given to enable students to perform the behaviors that are specified.
c. Using measures such as tests or specified performance, the teacher makes an analysis of
whether objects are being met
d. Al of the above
16. Research shows that students who follow the cognitive learning approach manifest all of the
following characteristics EXCEPT:
a. a global orientation toward the discovery of new question and solutions
b. an analytic mind-set toward new problems
c. an impulsive habit in drawing conclusions
d. a reflective manner when examining data
17. Blood content that at least 90% of students could reach “mastery level” if appropriate teaching
techniques were used. Which of the following would NOT be appropriate advice or a teacher who
wants to help underachievers to succeed?
a. Provide more time or slower students to complete a task
b. Break the curriculum into small steps, teaching incrementally
c. Determine grades through competitive examinations, giving constant feedback to
comparative performance.
d. Pursue a comprehensive list of performance objectives

18. Critics of behavior-referenced instruction find that it limit students in all of the following areas
EXCEPT in :
a. the range of behavioral objectives associated with such instruction.
b. The expectations for performance held out to gifted students
c. Opportunities for student decision-making
d. The accuracy of evaluations possible with such instruction
19. When a teacher reports the outcome of norm-referenced objective tests, he or she includes:
a. the performance of all students in the class
b. the objectives that were to be measured
c. the items missed by each student
d. the mode for the group.
e. all of the above
20. A teacher planning to use a criterion-reference measurement presumably would begin with:
a. a set of specific objectives for pupils achievement
b. varying norms of students of different abilities

225
 c. modular scheduling
d. a variety of leaning experiences to determine student abilities
21. Standardized test for measuring pupil achievement have many advantages over teacher-made test.
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of standard tests?
a. Students are tested under matching conditions
b. Such test have high reliability
c. Such test have high variability
d. The norms are based on nationwide testing
e. Such tests are most costly than teacher-made test.
22. A non-participating classroom observer can provide valuable information to a teacher because:
a. the observer is probably less subjective than the teacher
b. the observer can spend full time recording observations
c. the observer can focus on certain behaviors and systematically code them for a report
d. all of the above are true
23. Research on individual learning differences indicates the need for:
a. the traditional “lockstep” approach to classroom instruction
b. maximizing off-task behaviors
c. plenty of free time for each pupil
d. the use of the aptitude-treatment-interaction model
24. Students with low achievement levels prefer a classroom learning environment that is:
a. innovation-oriented c. well-structured
b. task-oriented d. competition-oriented
25. For a grade placement, which of the following tests would be best to administer to a 10-year-old
Puerto Rican boy who does not speak English?
a. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
b. The test of General Ability
c. The Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test
d. The Arthur Point Scale of Performance Test
26. A teacher gave two forms of a standardized test to a class of third graders. She found that the
amount of fluctuation between class scores on both forms was as slight as reported in the test
publisher’s:
a. item analysis c. standard error
b. standard deviation d. history reliability
27. Which one of the following factor is NOT a significant advantage of a standardized test over day-
to-day teacher made test?
a. The standardized test is cost-effective.
b. The standardized test is more valid.
c. The standardized test is more reliable.
d. The standardized test is based on national norms.
28. Interest inventories are valuable for counseling secondary school student because the are given;
a. In percentiles.
b. In the form of a career advice.
c. In the form of a psychological profile.
d. In staines scores.
29. The ratio of “exceptional” children in general population is about.
a. 1:8 b.1:20 c.1:4 d. 1:10
30. Which of the following is useful for a teacher involved in a “majesty learning” program?
a. Summative testing over several units.
b. Formative testing during instruction.
c. Diagnostic testing.
d. Smaller classes and individualized instruction.

226
 e. All of the above.
31. when constructing a teacher-made test, it is most important for the teacher to:
a. develop one-fourth of the question at the level of challenge appropriate for the testee.
b. ask question based on both factual and conceptual learnings
c. ask students to express their point of view
d. stress the objectives used during the lesson.
32. When teaching concepts at the elementary grade level, it is most helpful to provide pupils with
a. examples and non-examples of the concept
b. a cluster of concepts at one time
c. a definition of the concepts
d. disjunctive concepts
33. A junior high school principal wants to evaluate the science program. What is the first he should
take?
a. Analyze pupil achievement scores
b. Look at national norms for achievement in the sciences
c. Confer with parents
d. Review and, if necessary, revise objectives for the program
34. A personal feeling, either positive or negative towards an object, a person or an institution.
a. attitude c. opinion
b. aptitude d. none of these
35. Known as one’s preparedness for learn in a certain task brought about by the influences of heredity
and environment.
a. Characteristics c. Interest
b. Aptitude d. None of these
36. The process of identifying educational goals and the extent to which these objectives have been
realized or met.
a. Examination c. Planning
b. Evaluation d. None of these
37. The degree to which the test scores in a class spread.
a. Discrimination c. Dispersion
b. Interval d. None of these
38. The item in a multiple-choice type of test which serves as a “joker”
a. Obstractor c. Error
b. Distractor d. none of these
39. A type of scores arrangement in a class which includes all possible score values from highest to
lowest with the list of learners “names include.
a. Frequency table c. Grade norms
b. Frequency distribution d. None of these
40. A special liking or inclination for a particular type of undertaking.
a. interest c. attitude
b. goal d. none of these
41. In psychological measurement, a score of 50 is generally considered as
a. 49.9 – 50.9 c. 49.25 – 50.75
b. 49 – 51 d. 49.5 – 50.5
42. What is the best measure of typical performance to use when there are extreme measures?
a. mean c. mode
b. median d. standard deviation
43. What measure of central tendency is affected by extreme measures?
a. mean c. mode
b. median d. standard deviation
44. If the mean is larger than the median, the mode is :

227
 a. below the mean c. below the median
b. above the mean d. above the median
45. When plotting the frequency polygon, which part of the score class do we use?
a. lower limit c. midpoint
b. higher limit d. entire class interval
46. A distribution with the greatest frequency at and around the middle and a few high and low scores
is:
a. platykurtic c. leptokurtic
b. mesokurtic d. skewed
47. A distribution in which the scores are cluster at either end and shows a curve which is:
a. normal c. skewed
b. bimodal d. mesokurtic
48. One should interpret the percentile rank of a given score in the terms of percentage of:
a. number of correct responses
b. number of items in the test
c. number of cases in the distribution
d. number of wrong response
49. A distribution that is step with a narrow range is called:
a. kurtosis c. mesokurtic
b. leptokurtic d. platykutic
50. The least reliable measure o dispersion is the:
a. range b. Q c. Mode d. SD
51. What test includes items which measure variety of mental operations combined into a single
sequence from which only a single score is taken?
a. objective test c. percentile
b. omnibus d. none of the above
52. What is measure of an individual’s intelligence which considers both his scores in an intelligence
test and his chronological age?
a. Intelligence quotient
b. Inventory
c. Individual test of intelligence
d. Mental age
53. What diagram is used to determine the social interactions among individuals in a group?
a. scatter diagram c. norm
b. sociogram d. parallelogram
54. What test is made after certain norms have been established?
a. standardized test c. norm
b. speed test d. none of these
55. What type of scores is obtained when a highly reliable measuring instrument is used?
a. T-score c. Z-score
b. True score d. N-score
56. The kind of statistics that is used to describe a big number o data on hand. These data usually
include numerals, decimals, fraction and percentages.
a. descriptive statistics
b. inferential statistics
c. survey statistuics
d. simple statistuics
57. A test where the results are obtained from a large group. The evaluation is based on certain norm
or standard set, hence, the norm becomes the basis of the test evaluation.
a. criterion-reference test c. summative test
b. norm-reference test d. formative test

228
58. The test results in this type o test are compared with an absolute standard. They indicate whether
or not a student needs more or less help on certain skills.
a. criterion-reference test
b. norm-reference test
c. formative test
d. summative test
59. This evaluation device includes an analysis of all the scores in a given distribution. It is commonly
used to estimate the test validity.
a. statistics c. standard deviation
b. variables d. quartile deviation
60. The information shows by these data, includes the highest, middle, and lowest scores, even the
missing scores in a tabulated data presentation.
a. frequency data c. concluded data
b. gathered data d. surveyed data
61. The measure of variability not influenced by extreme scores is the:
a. Q b. Range c. MD d. Sd
62. The semi-quartile range is a measurement of:
a. probability c. central tendency
b. reliability d. correlation
63. The measure of scores density around the median is the
a. range c. quartile deviation
b. mean deviation d. standard deviation

64. The greatest weakness of the range as a measure of variability it its

a. intricate computation c. extreme in stability
b. ease of computation d. difficulty of interpretation
65. The largest measure o variability from the central tendency distribution is:
a. average deviation c. range
b. quartile deviation d. standard deviation
66. Which of the following cannot illustrate two distribution is:
a. Cumulative frequency curve
b. Cumulative percentage curve
c. Histogram
d. Scattergram
67. A distribution characterized by many high scores and a few very low scores is:
a. Leptokurtic
b. Negatively skewed
c. Platykurtic skewed
d. Positively skewed
68. The range is an expression of:
a. central tendency c. concentration
b. correlation d. variability
69. The root-mean-square deviation is generally known as:
a. Average deviation c. Quartile deviation
b. Range d. Standard deviation
70. In this series of scores; 5,7,10,4,5 ; the mean is:
a. 5.2 b. 6.1 c. 6.2 d. 6.4
71. Synonymous to median, this term refers to the common average of a set of sores.
a. arithmetic c. class interval
b. score d. none of these

229
72. A system of grouping closely-related score values into a single category which is often used in
tallying scores for a class.
a. Criterion c. Converted scores
b. Class interval d. None of these
73. A statistical index which represents the relationship between two varying measures which occurs
within a class.
a. cross-validation c. ceiling
b. correlation coefficient d. none of these
74. The difference between the highest and lowest score in a given set of scores.
a. Quartile c. Profile
b. Range d. None of these
75. Scores tendency to group at one end and spread out at the opposite end of a given distribution of
scores.
a. Skewness c. unreability
b. Unevenness d. none of these
76. When a test succeeds in determining accurately the particular attribute of a person who is tested,
it is said to be
a. reliable c. variable
b. valid d. none of these
77. The standard used to interpret test scores
a. norm c. mode
b. percentile d. none of these
78. An index of a person’s intelligence in relation to other of his own age group
a. intelligence quotient c. personality
b. grade norm d. none of these
79. Test on reading readiness examples of a group of tests.
a. prognostic test c. vocabulary test
b. cognitive test d. none of these
80. A rational treatment of raw scores arranged in numerical order or grouped in intervals to get
information about how an individual o a group compares with the total population.
a. norm c. equalization of scores
b. frequency distribution d. none of these
81. Test norms are based on:
a. the actual performance of a representative group of students
b. the predetermined levels o standards of performance
c. he performance of a selected group of students
d. the anticipator performance of a group of students
82. A test with a difficulty index of 0.85 is considered:
a. high, therefore difficult
b. low, therefore easy
c. high, therefore easy
d. low, therefore difficult
83. A clear example of a future-oriented test is the :
a. Philippine Achievement Test
b. Otislemon Mental Ability
c. Personality Test
d. National College Entrance
84. Which of the types of ability is not generally measured by intelligence tests?
a. Quantitative c. Verbal
b. Reasoning d. Social
85. The Rorschach Test and Thematic Association Test are oath referred to as ______ tests.

230
 a. projective c. sociometric
b. psychometric d. analytic
86. Which of the following is considered as a serious with personality tests?
a. reliability c. usability
b. scorability d. validity
87. Attitudes towards communism or socialism are best measured with:
a. sociometry
b. questionnaires & interviews
c. checklist & multiple choice
d. forced triads
88. Two classes are given the same arithmetic test and the mean for both classes is 57. The standard
deviation for class A is 5.1, while that of Class is 10.3. On the basis of the above data, we may
conclude that with respect to arithmetic achievement:
a. Class A is more heterogeneous than Class B
b. The teaching of arithmetic is more effective in Class A.
c. Class B is more heterogeneous than Class A
d. There is no sufficient data for making a comparison.

89. In the following distribution: 1,3,3,3,5; we can say that:

a. the mean is greater than the median
b. the median is greater than the mode
c. the mode is greater than the mode
d. the median, median and the mode have the same value
90. The distribution given in no.39 is:
a. skewed to the left c. skewed to the right
b. normal d. leptokurtic
91. Which of the following is an important duty of a teacher?
a. evaluating pupil’s progress
b. soliciting contributions
c. safekeeping of the properties of the school
d. going on a vacation
92. Which of the following is not to be considered in preparing items for objectives tests?
a. make each test items comprehensible
b. group items belonging to the same type together
c. provide specific directions on how the test is to be taken
d. very difficult test items
93. To promote better student learning, which of these should be practical in testing?
a. check the papers long after the test has been given
b. check and return corrected papers to the student as soon as possible to appraise them of their
performances
c. pile test papers in the stockroom
d. use to get even with the students
94. In scoring essay test, which of the following is not a good practice?
a. decide what qualities are to be considered in scoring the answer
b. write comments and correct errors on the answers
c. rearrange the papers after checking one questions before starting to check the next
d. accept all answers written by the tester
95. Which type of objective test is best or evaluating mastery of facts and information?
a. multiple-choice c. completing type
b. true-false d. essay
96. In making test items of objective type, which o the following should be observed?

231
 a. no clues to the correct response should be given intentionally
b. each test item should be related to the item
c. the vocabulary level of the test should present some form of difficulty
d. test items should include also the irrelevant part of the lesson
97. Which of the following is not a good characteristic of an evaluative technique?
a. has clear goals
b. utilizes various forms of testing
c. consider the nature of the learners
d. has ambiguous presentation
98. Which o the following is not an objective type of teacher-made test?
a. matching type c. completion type
b. multiple-response d. essay test
99. Which of the following is not criterion in determining the effectiveness of a test?
a. validity c. reliability
b. cost of test d. items based on factor analysis
100. Which of the following is not a purpose of evaluation?
a. provide educational guidance
b. appraise the total school program
c. provide for the individual differences
d. none of these

PART 3 ANWER KEY

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

232
ANSWER KEY

1 c 51 c

2 c 52 b

3 b 53 a

4 d 54 d

5 a 55 a

6 d 56 b

7 c 57 c

8 a 58 a

9 a 59 a

10 c 60 b

11 a 61 c

12 d 62 d

13 c 63 d

14 d 64 d

15 a 65 a

16 b 66 c

17 a 67 d

18 c 68 a

19 d 69 d

20 d 70 d

21 c 71 a

22 c 72 d

23 b 73 b

24 b 74 b

233
25 d 75 a

26 c 76 c

27 b 77 e

28 b 78 c

29 a 79 b

30 a 80 b

31 a 81 c

32 a 82 a

33 b 83 b

34 d 84 c

35 d 85 d

36 c 86 d

37 c 87 b

38 b 88 b

39 c 89 c

40 b 90 b

41 a 91 a

42 c 92 a

43 d 93 c

44 d 94 b

45 a 95 c

46 a 96 b

47 b 97 b

48 b 98 c

49 b 99 b

234
 50 a 100 b

SOCIALDIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

1.A 21.D 41.A 61.C 81.A 101.B 121.D 141.B 161.B 181.B
2.C 22.C 42.C 62.B 82.A 102.C 122.D 142.C 162.A 182.A
3.A 23.B 43.C 63.D 83.C 103.C 123.B 143.A 163.A 183.C
4.D 24.C 44.C 64.D 84.D 104.C 124.B 144.A 164.C 184.B
5.C 25.D 45.A 65.C 85.B 105.C 125.D 145.A 165.A 185.B
6.A 26.B 46.A 66.B 86.B 106.C 126.B 146.D 166.C 186.B
7.B 27.B 47.B 67.A 87.C 107.A 127.B 147.B 167.B 187.C
8.B 28.D 48.B 68.A 88.D 108.D 128.D 148.C 168.C 188.B
9.B 29.D 49.A 69.C 89.C 109.A 129.B 149.C 169.A 189B
10.D 30.B 50.B 70.B 90.B 110.C 130.D 150.B 170.B 190.A
11.A 31.D 51.A 71.D 91.A 111.C 131.A 151.C 171.B 191.C
12.A 32.C 52.C 72.A 92.D 112.B 132.C 152.C 172.B 192.A
13.D 33.D 53.B 73.A 93.B 113.C 133A 153.D 173.A 193.B
14.C 34.A 54.B 74.D 94.CA 114.C 134.D 154.C 174.D 194.A
15.D 35.A 55.B 75.D 95.A 115.B 135.C 155.A 175.C 195.C
16.B 36.A 56.D 76.B 96.A 116.D 136.D 156.D 176.C 196.B
17.C 37.A 57.A 77.A 97.A 117.C 137.B 157.C 177.A 197.A
18.B 38.D 58.D 78.D 98.A 118.D 138.B 158.D 178.B 198.B
19.B 39.C 59.B 79.B 99.C 119.A 139.A 159.A 179.C 199.D
20.D 40.B 60.C 80.A 100.C 120.C 140.B 160.A 180.D 200.B

CURICULUM DEVELOMENT

ANSWER KEY

1 c 21 b

2 d 22 retelling

3 c 23 d

4 c 24 a

5 d 25 d

6 c 26 c

7 b 27 c

235
 8 c 28 c

9 d 29 c

10 c 30 a

11 a 31 c

12 c 32 a

13 a 33 c

14 d 34 c

15 a 35 b

16 a 36 d

17 b 37 c

18 d 38 c

19 d 39 d

20 c 40 d

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1. D 51. B

2. B 52 A

3 A 53 D

4 A 54 A

5 B 55 D

6 D 56 A

7 B 57 B

8 A 58 A

9 C 59 A

10 A 60 A

236
11 B 61 B

12 D 62 C

13 D 63 D

14 A 64 A

15 D 65 B

16 D 66 B

17 D 67 C

18 C 68 B

19 A 69 B

20 B 70 A

21 C 71 D

22 C 72 D

23 B 73 D

24 C 74 D

25 B 75 C

26 A 76 B

27 C 77 B

28 D 78 A

29 A 79 C

30 C 80 A

31 C 81 A

32 C 82 C

33 D 83 B

34 B 84 D

35 C 85 A

36 B 86 B

37 C 87 B

237
38 A 88 C

39 C 89 A

40 B 90 D

41 C 91 D

42 D 92 B

43 D 93 D

44 B 94 A

45 C 95 D

46 B 96 A

47 D 97 C

48 D 98 A

49 D 99 A

50 B 100 B

PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

1 c 51 a

2 b 52 a

3 a 53 b

4 b 54 a

5 c 55 c

6 b 56 a

7 b 57 a

8 c 58 b

9 b 59 c

10 b 60 c

238
11 b 61 a

12 b 62 a

13 a 63 b

14 b 64 b

15 a 65 b

16 a 66 a

17 b 67 d

18 c 68 b

19 b 69 d

20 b 70 c

21 b 71 c

22 b 72 a

23 c 73 c

24 a 74 b

25 b 75 d

26 a 76 d

27 b 77 b

28 b 78 c

29 d 79 a

30 d 80 b

31 b 81 a

32 c 82 b

33 a 83 a

34 d 84 d

35 a 85 a

239
36 b 86 a

37 b 87 d

38 a 88 b

39 a 89 b

40 b 90 d

41 a 91 c

42 b 92 a

43 c 93 d

44 c 94 b

45 c 95 d

46 b 96 a

47 b 97 b

48 c 98 a

49 a 99 a

50 b 100 a

ASSESSMENTOF LEARNING

1 A 51 B

2 C 52 A

3 B 53 B

4 C 54 A

5 A 55 C

6 A 56 A

7 B 57 B

240
8 A 58 A

9 C 59 A

10 A 60 A

11 E 61 A

12 D 62 B

13 D 63 C

14 B 64 C

15 D 65 C

16 C 66 D

17 D 67 B

18 D 68 D

19 E 69 D

20 A 70 C

21 E 71 D

22 D 72 B

23 D 73 A

24 D 74 B

25 B 75 A

26 C 76 B

27 A 77 A

28 A 78 B

29 B 79 A

30 E 80 B

31 D 81 A

32 A 82 C

33 A 83 D

241
34 A 84 D

35 B 85 B

36 B 86 A

37 C 87 A

38 B 88 A

39 D 89 D

40 A 90 D

41 D 91 A

42 B 92 D

43 A 93 B

44 B 94 D

45 C 95 C

46 C 96 A

47 C 97 D

48 A 98 D

49 B 99 D

50 A 100 D

242
TEACHING PROFESSION

1. Which of the following emphasizes the right of citizens to quality education?

a. The basic education level
b. Tertiary level
c. The graduate level
d. All levels
Answer: D

2. Which educational level/s provide/s for free and compulsory education as stipulated in Article IV,
Section 2 of the Philippine Constitution?
a. Elementary level
b. Secondary level
c. Elementary and secondary levels
d. Tertiary level
Answer: C

3. Who among the following is in the category of non-academic personnel as provided for under
Education Act of 1982?
a. Guidance counselors
b. School principal
c. School nurse
d. School librarian
Answer: C

4. How is gradual progression of teacher's salary from minimum to maximum done?

a. Regular increment every year
b. Increment after ten years of service
c. Regular increment every 3 years
d. Increment after five years
Answer: C

5. Which of the following is NOT recognized by the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers?
a. Quality education depends primarily on the quality of socio-economic status of teachers.
b. Advancement in education depends on the teachers' qualifications and ability.
c. Education is an essential factor in the economic growth of the nation.
d. Education is development and vice-versa.
Answer: D

6. What appointment can be given to Teacher A who possesses the minimum qualifications but lacks
the appropriate but lacks the appropriate civil service eligibility?
a. Contractual basis

243
b. Permanent
c. Provisional
d. Substitute
Answer: C

7. Which of the following rights is intended for parents under Education Act of 1982?
a. The right to academic freedom
b. The right to privacy of communication
c. The right to seek redress of grievance
d. The right to full access to the evidence of the case
Answer: C

8. What can help achieve relevant quality education?

a. Strong curriculum
b. Competent instruction
c. School-community relations
d. Competent administrator
Answer: B

9. Which of the following provisions under the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers will most
likely promote teachers' welfare and defend their interests?
a. Be promoted in rank and salary
b. Regulate their social involvement
c. Undergo and participate in professional development
d. Establish, join and maintain professional and self-regulation organizations
Answer: D

10. What does "teachers are persons in authority" imply?

a. Teachers cannot be charged.
b. No person can assault a teacher.
c. Teachers have immunity from arrest.
d. Decisions made by teachers are deemed right.
Answer: B

11. Who among the following characterizes a professional teacher?

a. An education graduate who received honors
b. A teacher who has taught for at least six years
c. A teacher who has attended national seminars on teaching
d. A teacher who qualifies for a permanent position under RA 4670

244
Answer: D

12. Who are covered by RA 4670?

a. Teachers in all levels
b. Teachers in all public elementary schools
c. Teachers in both public and private schools
d. Teachers in public elementary and secondary schools
Answer: D

13. Teacher B has been in active service for 10 years when he decided to pursue higher studies.
Under RA 4670, what kind of leave of absence can s/he avail of?
a. Indefinite leave
b. Scholarship leave
c. Study leave
d. Vacation leave
Answer: C

14. When can teachers be required to work on assignment not related to their duties?
a. When on probation
b. When found inefficient
c. When lacking in educational qualifications
d. When compensated under existing laws
Answer: D

15. Teacher C has been teaching 7 straight years and therefore qualities for a study leave with pay for
one year. Should she pursue it, how much pay is she entitled to receive?
a. 50% of monthly salary
b. 60% of monthly salary
c. 70% of monthly salary
d. 100% monthly salary
Answer: B

16. Which of the following laws strengthens teacher education in the Philippines through the
establishment of centers of excellence?
a. RA 7722
b. RA 7784
c. RA 7796
d. RA 7834
Answer: B

17. What does free public secondary educational under the law mean?
a. Right of every student to enter public secondary schools

245
b. Free from being screened to enter pubic secondary schools
c. Free from payment of school fees identifies and authorized by law
d. Free from payment of tuition and other fees for students enrolled in public secondary schools
Answer: D

18. Teacher D is assigned in a rural area; Teacher E in a depressed community; Teacher F in a

hazardous area; and Teacher G in a place where standard of living is high. Who is entitled to a
hardship allowance?
a. Teacher D
b. Teacher E
c. Teacher F
d. Teacher G
Answer: C

19. Teacher H contracted an illness that required rest for more than one year. Which leave should
she apply for?
a. Sick leave
b. Personal leave
c. Vacation leave
d. Indefinite leave
Answer: D

20. A school personnel can avail of free legal service under certain circumstances. Principal I was
accused of maligning her neighbor. Is Principal I entitled to the said service?
a. Yes, she should defend herself.
b. No, if funds are not available.
c. No, it might bring some disagreements in school
d. No, the case is not related to her professional duties.
Answer: D

21. Teacher J discusses conflicts between warring groups in Mindanao. Which pillar should he stress
more?
a. Learning to be
b. Learning to live together
c. Learning to do
d. Learning to know
Answer: B

22. Teacher K teaches in a public school in her locality. Due to teacher shortage, her classroom
teaching starts from 6 am and ends at 3 pm. Is the assignment given her just?
a. Yes, the situation demands that she render longer teaching hours.
b. Yes, as long as she signs a conforme letter to that effect.

246
c. No, rendering longer teaching hours would make the teacher tired and exhausted.
d. No, Magna Carta for Public School Teachers states that in the exigencies of service, any teacher
may be required to render more than six hours and n ot more than eight hours of actual classroom
teaching a day.
Answer: D

23. Teacher L, a graduate of BSEd with majorship in Mathematics teaches in a national high school in
her province. Since she has been rated outstanding in her performance, can she be exempted from
taking the LET?
a. Yes, that is a privilege that must be given to teachers whose performance is outstanding.
b. Yes, if approved by PRC.
c. No, RA 7836 states that no person shall practice or offer to practice the teaching profession in the
Philippines or be appointed as teacher to any position calling for a teaching position without having
previously obtained a valid certificate and a valid license from the Commission.
d. No, professional license is required of all teachers regardless of age and teaching performance.
Answer: C

24. Which of the following statements is NOT true about the Code of Ethics for Professional
Teachers?
a. The teacher must select which information to keep confidential
b. The teacher must demonstrate full commitment and devotion to duty
c. The teacher must manifest pride in the nobility of the teaching profession
d. The teacher must make no prejudice or discrimination against any learner
Answer: A

25. Which of the following could be the reason for the teacher's suspension from the practice of the
teaching profession?
a. Immoral, unprofessional or dishonorable conduct
b. Observing proper procedures in obtaining a certificate of registration
c. Faithfulness to the code of ethical and professional standards for professional teachers
d. Willingness to attend seminars, workshops, conferences and the like or the continuing education
program prescribed by the Board and the Commission.
Answer: A

1. Ms. Sanchez, a BSE graduate, has not passed the LET yet. On what capacity can she be hired?
a. Permanent status
b. Emergency status
c. Provisional for not less six months
d. Provisional for not less than one year
Answer: D

2. Teacher M suffers from hypertension and experiences difficulty in speech. Which would be

247
affected if he continues teaching?
a. Personality
b. Punctuality
c. Effectiveness
d. Devotion to duty
Answer: C

3. Teacher N wants to continue with her study leave for another six months after completing a school
year. Could she be allowed?
a. Yes, if her grades are excellent.
b. Yes, but without compensation.
c. No, other teachers should have the chance.
d. No, study leave should not exceed one year.
Answer: B

4. Teacher O tutors her students, who have difficulty coping with Math, after class hours. Is her act
ethical?
a. Yes, provided she receives jut compensation.
b. Yes, provided she does not require a fee from the parent.
c. No, that is unfair to other students.
d. No, she should be free after her official time.
Answer: B

5. Teacher P, the English coordinator, was assisted by Teacher Q throughout the celebration of
English Week. What could Teacher P do to acknowledge Teacher Q's assistance?
a. Buy her a gift
b. Keep quiet about the assistance received.
c. Mention formally to the principal the assistance received.
d. Make an announcement giving due recognition of the assistance received.
Answer: D

6. Is holding a rally to protest the delay of benefits due a person ethically acceptable?
a. Yes, when hold while on official time.
b. Yes, when hold outside the official time.
c. Yes, when hold with approval of the principal.
d. Yes, when hold together with parents and students.
Answer: B

7. What should a teacher do when he/she falls in love with his/her student?
a. Court the student at home.
b. Propose and marry the student.
c. Wait till the student is no longer under his/her tutelage.

248
d. Act normally as if nothing happens and the student does not exist.
Answer: C

8. When a Principal starts to exercise his/her powers over making and promoting students, is his/her
action acceptable?
a. Yes, when the teacher cannot make decision on time.
b. Yes, when there is abuse of judgment on the part of the teacher.
c. No, teachers are more knowledgeable of their student's performance.
d. No, grading and promoting students are exclusive functions of teachers.
Answer: B

9. Teacher R was asked by her principal to teach pre-school class in addition to her regular grade one
class. What will be the basis for her additional compensation?
a. Her basic salary
b. Performance rating
c. Providing public information of their policies and procedures
d. Encouraging appreciation of government agencies
Answer: D

10. Which of the following shows responsiveness of public officials and employees?
a. Avoiding wastage in public funds
b. Formulating rules and policies regarding work
c. Providing public information of their policies and procedures
d. Encouraging appreciation of government services
Answer: C

11. Teacher S, a Science teacher has been accused of sexual harassment by one of her students.
What should the school principal do?
a. Ask the teacher to surrender to the police.
b. Tell the teacher to stop reporting to school.
c. Advice the teacher to transfer to other school.
d. Create a committee to investigate the accusation.
Answer: D

12. Teacher T receives a love letter from one of her third year high school students in Eenglish. What
should Mr. Martin do?
a. Read her letter to the class.
b. Let the student express her feelings through letters.
c. Return the letter to the student and tell her not to do it again.

249
d. Surrender the letter to the parent of the student.
Answer: C

13. Mr. Nico, a Social Science teacher is advocating reforms which the principal failed to recognize.
What should the principal do?
a. Subject Mr. Nico to a disciplinary measure.
b. Just keep quiet about the behavior of Mr. Nico
c. Call Mr. Nico to the office and clarify things out with him.
d. Send Mr. Nico a memo requiring him to explain his behavior.
Answer: C

14. Which of the following manifests "Commitment to democracy" as explained in RA 6713?

a. Maintaining the principle of accountability.
b. Committing to democratic values and ways of life.
c. Manifesting by deeds the supremacy of civilian authority over the military.
d. All of the above
Answer: D

15. Teacher U was ordered by her principal to come to school on four consecutive Saturdays for the
training of students' editorial staff of their school paper. Is this allowed under RA 4670?
a. Yes, provided the teacher is compensated.
b. No, because it's not within the regular functions of the classroom teacher.
c. Yes, because it's part of the teacher's other duties
d. No, because it's not clearly indicated in the law
Answer: C

16. Dr. Velasco, a schools' division superintendent acted on the complaint filed by a group of parents
against the alleged misconduct of a particular teacher. She issued a memorandum requiring her to
take a leave of absence for a week while the complaint is being heard yet. Was the action of the
superintendent legal?
a. Yes, because she is the superintendent.
b. No, because the complaint has not been heard yet.
c. Yes, the superintendent has disciplinary authority over teachers.
d. No, the superintendent has no disciplinary authority over teachers.
Answer: C

17. A school's academic coordinator has been found to have engaged in gambling which has caused
him to be absent most of the time. Can his certificate of registration as a teacher be revoked?
a. No, unless he's proven guilty.
b. No, because he's protected by his rights as a teacher.
c. Yes, because he's incompetent.
d. Yes, because habitual gambling is a dishonorable conduct and is against the practice of teaching.

250
Answer: D

18. Mr. Santos is a holder of a valid certificate of eligibility as a teacher issued by the Civil Service
Commissioner and the then DECS, while Mr. Cruz is a registered professional. Who is allowed to
practice the teaching profession in the Philippines?
a. Mr. Santos, because of his CSC eligibility certificate.
b. Mr. Cruz, because their credentials are both recognized by law.
c. Both of them, because their credentials are both recognized by law.
d. Neither of the two because they did not take and pass the LET.
Answer: C

19. What is RA 6713 also called?

a. Ethical Standards for public Employees
b. Code of Ethical Standards for Government Officials and Employees
c. Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees
d. Code of Ethical Standards and Conduct of Government Officials and Employees
Answer: C

20. Teacher V, a BEED graduate is preparing for the LET. Which of the following should she focus her
attention more?
a. General Education
b. Specialization
c. Professional Education
d. General Education and Professional Education
Answer: D

21. What norm of conduct is manifested by being loyal to the republic and to the Filipino people?
a. Professionalism
b. Nationalism and Patriotism
c. Responsiveness to the public
d. Honesty
Answer: B

22. Mr. Salazar, a school superintendent, filed his statement of assets and liabilities upon assuming to
office. Under what ethical standard does this practice fall?
a. Divestment
b. Prohibited Acts and Transactions
c. Statement of Assets and Liabilities
d. System of Incentives
Answer: C

23. Principal B acted on the letter of complaint received by his office 30 days after saying he was

251
preoccupied by more important things the past days. Is his reason acceptable?
a. Yes, because he has to prioritize things.
b. No, RA 6713 states that public officials and employees must act promptly on letters and requests
within 15 working days from receipt thereof.
c. Yes, because the letter of complaint can wait and is of no urgency.
d. No, the reason is simple unacceptable.
Answer: B

24. Which of the following is NOT in the norms of conduct under RA 6713?
a. Professionalism
b. Justness and sincerity
c. Commitment to public interest
d. Responsiveness to the private
Answer: D

25. Which of the following is true about the teacher as a person under the Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers?
a. Live with dignity at all times wherever he/she is
b. Serve as a model worthy of emulation
c. Place premium upon self-respect and self-discipline
d. All of the above.
Answer: D

SOCIAL DIMENSION

1. Which of the following conditions manifests trend of globalization?

a. Establishment of stronger boundaries between and among nations.
b. Increased awareness on the importance of national cultures and traditions.
c. Less and less impact of human activity on the planet earth.
d. The incorporation of local and national economies into a worldwide global economy.
Answer: D

2. According to the Delors report, there are a number of main tensions central to the problems of the
twenty first century that we need to overcome. One of them is the challenge to an individual how he
or she can adapt to the changing world without forgetting or turning his/her back from the past.
What kind of tension or conflict is manifested in this situation?
a. Tension between tradition and modernity
b. Tension between the global and the local
c. Tension between the universal and the individual
d. Tension between long term and short term considerations
Answer: B

252
3. Which of the following features represents the new paradigm shift in education?
a. Traditional pedagogies
b. Lifelong education for all
c. Rigid subject matter boundaries
d. Knowledge as the only learning outcome
Answer: B

4. What is the measure of relevance in education?

a. Democratization of access
b. Functionality and meaningfulness
c. Ability to sustain education through the future
d. Excellence and effectiveness
Answer: B

5. What is the concern of Multicultural Education?

a. Anticipating the future and imagining possible and probable futures.
b. Gender equality and harnessing of the role of women in development.
c. Promoting care for the environment and building a global culture of ecological responsibility.
d. The exploration of concepts of cultural diversity, similarities and prejudices to promote cultural
understanding.
Answer: D

6. Which of the following may be considered an economic impact of globalization on education?

a. Increasing commercialization of education and the corporate takeover of education
b. Weakening of the notion of the "citizen" as a unified and unifying concept.
c. New technologies of information and communication creates new approaches to learning
d. Reduction of state and government support and subsidy for education
Answer: A

7. Which of the following aptly describes Marshall Mcluhans' concept of global village?
a. The idea that because of rapid globalization and development in technology, the world has
become one global village where increased diversity and difference among people has become more
pronounced than ever.
b. Rapid integration of the planet through media and technology where events in one part of the
world could be experienced from other parts in real-time, similar to what human experience was like
when we lived in small villages.
c. Global Village is the kind of global world we are experiencing, characterized by fundamentalism,
apathy and conflict brought about by clashes of cultures.
d. People's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War
world as evidenced by the conflict between fundamentalist Muslims and the western world.
Answer: A

253
8. When planning her lessons and units, Mrs. Jones is careful to include books and resources from a
variety of cultures and ethnic groups. What kind of education is this?
a. Multilingual education
b. Transformative education
c. Multicultural education
d. Gender free education
Answer: C

9. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of globalization?

a. Stretching a social, political and economic activities across political frontiers, regions and
continents.
b. The growing magnitude of interconnectedness and flows of trade, investment and migration.
c. A speeding up of global interactions and processes through worldwide systems of transportation
and communication.
d. The expansion of economic protectionism and isolation of poor countries.
Answer: D

10. Which of the following illustrates the major paradigm shift in education in the 21st century?
a. Shift from rigid subject matter to a more interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary pedagogical
approach.
b. Shift from values education and emotional learning to knowledge dominated curriculum
c. From contextualized themes generated from global and local realities to pre-organized subject
matter
d. From more flexible learning styles to a prescribed pedagogy
Answer: A

11. What educational approach/perspective recognizes the knowledge and experience of women,
racial groups and ethnic groups as being just, as valid and relevant as the knowledge of dominant
groups in mainstream academic discourse?
a. Transformative education
b. Multicultural education
c. Inclusive education
d. Global education
Answer: C

12. How does the notion of cultural relativity and variability affect the teaching-learning processes in
school?
a. The students' varied cultural background will in now way affect the way they will learn the lessons
in school.

254
b. The students can readily adjust to the way the teacher initiates learning in school because children
are adaptable beings no matter what culture they come from.
c. The child's cultural background influences the children's way of interpreting and viewing the world;
hence, teachers must consider the children's world view when teaching.
d. The teacher should be wary of differing cultural points of view and must make sure that students
will see things the same way.
Answer: D

13. Which among the following is the focus of Civic Education?

a. Promote understanding of human rights, concepts and values to enable learners to comprehend
and transform conditions which give rise to human rights violations.
b. Learning for effective participation in democratic and development processes at both local and
national levels.
c. Foster a vision of education for sustainable development and care for the environment.
d. Empower people with the skills, attitudes and knowledge to build a peaceful world based on
justice and human rights.
Answer: B

14. Which of the following initiatives would NOT help a school address diversity?
a. Using ability grouping
b. Using cooperative learning
c. Working with neighborhood groups
d. Using culturally-relevant teaching methods
Answer: A

15. If the teacher is emphasizing the development of the learner's competency to transform
knowledge into innovations and job-creation, what pillar of education does s/he
is actually promoting?
a. Learning to Know
b. Learning to Do
c. Learning to Live Together
d. Learning to Be
Answer: B

16.What pillar of education which emphasizes learning to be human, through acquisition of

knowledge, skills and values conducive to personality development?
a. Learning to Know
b. Learning to Do
c. Learning to Live Together
d. Learning to Be
Answer: D

255
17. A class is composed of students coming from several ethnic communities including Muslims and
lumads. They seem to have difficulty understanding each others' behavior and points of view. What
should the teacher do?
a. Introduce multicuturalism in the class and provide activities for practice.
b. Threaten the students that if there are students who do not behave and tolerant of their
classmates, s/he will be dropped from class.
c. Inform students that they will all be learning new ways of thinking and behaving in this class, so
they might as well leave their cultural idiosyncrasies at home.
d. Assign bright students to monitor and control behavior of poor students.
Answer: A

18. Which of the following qualities should be developed by the pillar, Learning to Live Together?
a. Strong appreciation of the diversity of the human race
b. Readiness to take risks and resolve or manage conflicts
c. Scientific spirit and an inquiring mind
d. Complete fulfillment of humans, in all the richness of his/her personality
Answer: A

19. Which of the following statements about Gender is correct?

a. Gender is biologically determined.
b. Gender is socially and culturally-constructed.
c. Gender roles are the same in all societies.
d. Gender is an ascribed status in society.
Answer: B

20. UNICEF and UNESCO are two key UN agencies which are particularly active advocates of
education for peace. Which of the following is not supported by UNESCO in promoting peace in the
schools?
a. Uphold children's basic rights as outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
b. Develop a climate that models peaceful and respectful behavior among all members of the
learning community
c. Demonstrate the principles of equality and non-discrimination in administrative policies
d. Enable the teachers to stress peace-making in social studies classroom only when necessary
Answer: D

21. One way to advance peace education is through partnerships of various non-governmental
organizations, education institutions, United Nations specialized bodies which link ideals of peace
with research and practice. One such significant examples is the Hague Agenda for Peace and Justice
for the 21st Century. What is the aim of the Agenda's Global Campaign for Peace Education?
a. Helps coordinate local initiatives and unite educators in the common practice of educating for a
culture of peace.
b. Supports the UN Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World and

256
to introduce peace and human rights education into all educational institutions.
c. Brings together multiple traditions of pedagogy, theories of education, and international initiatives
for the advancement of total human development and care for the environment through learning.
d. Serves to enhance learning across subjects like conflict resolution initiatives.
Answer: B

22. The impact of conflict on children whether as victims of war or child soldiers has been brought to
world attention through media, international organizations and eye witness accounts. What is the
best thing to do to help children affected by conflict?
a. Employ education to regain parts of a lost children and to facilitate the experiences that support
healthy social, emotional and intellectual growth and development
b. Provide employment opportunity for them as well as their parents to attain financial
independence
c. Offer them to migrate in neighboring country as foreign refugees
d. Secure their safety by imposing strict curfew hours
Answer: A

23. The United Nations is committed to address climate through mitigation and adaptation. Which of
the following is the best way of addressing the issue?
a. Deepen strategic and operational collaboration with international and regional organizations,
including international financial institutions and regional development banks, and other stakeholders.
b. Developing a policy framework that identifies basic elements needed to prevent human rights
violations.
c. Facilitate and execute agreements on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation to protect forests and sustain the livelihoods of the people who depend on them.
d. Enhancing collaboration among humanitarian organizations, particularly from the global South, at
the local, national and regional levels, to strengthen community resilience and emergency response,
and establishing a monitoring system to assess progress on the implementation of preparedness
measures.
Answer: C

24. Why are educational environments very crucial to peace education?

a. The social, cultural, economic and political contexts in which educators work shape the specific
content and methods they choose for peace education.
b. The variety of different educational settings from rural to urban, school-based to community and
within the formal curricula or non-formal popular education projects are relevant to peace
education.
c. Many teachers infuse peace education into traditional academic subjects such as literature, math,
science, history, language, civics and the arts.
d. All of the above
Answer: D

257
25. What is celebrated every December 10?
a. Mother Language day
b. Human Rights Day
c. Earth's Day
d. International Day of Tolerance
Answer: B

1. What kind of tension is referred to when people prefer to have quick answers and ready solution
to many problems even if its calls for a patient, concerted, negotiated strategy of reform?
a. Tension between modernity and tradition
b. Tension between long term and short term considerations
c. Tension between spiritual and material
d. Tension between individual and universal
Answer: B

2. In what strands of the four pillars of education implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of
higher-order skills specific to each individual?
a. Learning to Know
b. Learning to Do
c. Learning to Live Together
c. Learning to Be
Answer: B

3. Which of the following is NOT true about the Four Pilalrs of Learning?
a. The pillars of learning stress the goal of contributing to social cohesion, intercultural and
international understanding, peaceful interchange, and harmony.
b. The Pillars of Learning imply a shift from schooling to learning throughout life by "learning how to
learn"
c. The pillars of learning stress the importance of closer linkage between education and the world of
work.
d. The Pillars of Learning adheres to the instrumental and purely academic view of education that
focuses on the achievement of specific aims of education such as economic productivity.
Answer: D

4. What pillar of education of J. Delors (UNESCO) focuses on voc-tech relevant to people-centered

human development?
a. Learning to Know
b. Learning to Do
c. Learning to Live Together
d. Learning to Be
Answer: B

258
5. The rapid traversing of ideas, attitudes and values across national borders that generally leads to
an interconnectedness and interaction between peoples of diverse cultures and ways of life. What is
being referred to?
a. Cultural Globalization
b. Fundamentalism
c. Multiculturalism
d. Clash of civilization
Answer: A

6. Which is considered a political impact of globalization?

a. Changing role of education in terms of preparing students for the world of work
b. The threat to the autonomy of national educational systems by globalization.
c. Reforms in education as lifelong education
d. Branding, globalization and learning to be consumers
Answer: B

7. What United Nation Decade are we celebrating for 2005-2014?

a. Educating for Culture of Peace
b. Educating for International Understanding
c. Educating for Sustainable Development
d. Promoting the Rights of the Elderly
Answer: C

8. With the growing competition brought about by globalization, what is preferred by most
employers in hiring their employees?
a. Flexible
b. Selective
c. Quick
d. None of the above
Answer: A

9. Which of the following characteristics does NOT describe contextualized learning as a major
paradigm shift in education?
a. From limited access to time-bound and space limited education, to borderless education, lifelong
learning for all in a learning society.
b. From traditional pedagogies to more modern strategies of teaching and learning.
c. From knowledge limited to the local scene to the globalized knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills
interfaced with local wisdom.
d. Pre-organized subject matter to localized themes generated from the global realities and the

259
cultural relevant, meaningful and useful to learner.
Answer: A

10. What current current trend in education focuses on the study of the basic concepts, beliefs and
values underlying our democratic political community and constitutional order?
a. Civic education
b. Development education
c. Peace education
c. Multicultural education
Answer: A

11. Which of the following is the first target of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG's)
formulated by member states of the UN in September 2000?
a. Reduce child mortality
b. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
c. Reduce death due to HIV/AIDS and malaria
d. Achieve universal access to primary education
Answer: B

12. Which among the following statements about Human Rights Education (HRE) is correct?
a. HRE is more of the responsibilities of the state to implement human rights law rather than the
protection of the rights holders
b. HRE should focus more on rights based on "law in books", rather than "law in real-life".
c. HRE needs to focus on the values, principles, and standards and human rights and how they can be
translated into day-to-day actions
d. Human Rights Standards vary from society to society and HRE therefore should also vary in terms
of approaches and methods
Answer: C

13. What is the implication and globalization to the practice and experience of education?
a. Increase of state and government support and subsidy for education
b. Commodification and the corporate takeover of education
c. Greater autonomy of national educational systems
d. Delocalization of technologies and orientations in education
Answer: B

14. Which of the following skills corresponds to the Fourth Pillar of Learning, "Learning to live
together"?
a. Empathy and cooperative social behavior
b. Personal commitment and sense of responsibility
c. Adaptability to change in the world of work
d. Reasoning and problem solving skills

260
Answer: A

15. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Multicultural education?

a. Personality empowering
b. Socially transformative
c. Pedagogically humanistic
d. Culturally discriminating
Answer: D

16. What is the character of education that manifests democratization of access and inclusivity?
a. Relevance
b. Sustainability
c. Quality
d. Equity
Answer: D

17. What is the kind of education that emphasizes human-earth relationships and fosters a vision of
education for sustainable development to build a global culture of ecological responsibility?
a. Human Rights Education
b. Development Education
c. Environmental Education
d. Global Education
Answer: C

18. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of multicultural education?

a. Multicultural education increases positive relationships through achievement of common goals,
respect, appreciation and commitment to equality among the teachers and students.
b. Multicultural education decreases stereotyping and prejudice through direct contact and
interaction among diverse individuals.
c. Multicultural education promotes independence of various ethnic groups in development and
supports fragmented view of the world.
d. Multicultural education renews vitality of society through the richness of the different cultures of
its members and fosters development.
Answer: C

19. Which of the following is NOT one of the benefits of social media?
a. Mass media decreases prejudice and discrimination.
b. Mass media enriches the educational programs.
c. Mass media increases student's exposure to diversity.
d. Mass media helps provoke discussion of current issues.
Answer: A

261
20. Which among the following rights manifests rule of law and good governance?
a. Right to education
b. Right to environment protection
c. Right of participation
d. Right to work
Answer: C

21. Which among the following is NOT a core principle of human rights?
a. Human dignity
b. Non-discrimination
c. Universality
d. Independency
Answer: D

22. How are human rights principles reflected in the activities of national and local governments?
a. Legislating laws to include rights education in all levels of schooling
b. Organizing local exhibit or event to highlight the children's talents and local products
c. Asking the community leaders to volunteer in the construction of a barangay hall
d. Lobbying to the UN High Commission for Human Rights to allocate higher budget for Philippines'
Commission on Human Rights.
Answer: A

23. Which of the following could be a reason to justify peace education as a series of "teaching
encounters" or teaching-learning process?
a. Desire for peace
b. Nonviolent alternatives for managing conflict
c. Skills for critical analysis of structural arrangements that produce and legitimize injustice and
inequality
d. All of the above
Answer: D

24. Which of the following is accurate in regard to working with parents in diverse classrooms?
a. The parent's culture is important, but should not influence their children's education.
b. Teachers should demonstrate their "expertise" to parents to show they know best.
c. Teachers should strive to use a variety of ways to keep parents informed, including parents who
cannot speak English or Filipino.l
d. The importance of the family's influence on children's education has diminished over the past few
years.
Answer: C

25. Which of the following is NOT a guiding statement of peace education?

a. Peace education teaches students what to think rather than how to think.

262
b. Peace education employs holistic and participatory approach.
c. Peace education aims not to reproduce but transform.
d. Peace builds bridges of support among key participants.
Answer: A

PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES

1. To ensure the lesson will go smoothly, Teacher A listed down the steps she will undertake together
with those of her students. This practice relates to?
a. Teaching style
b. Teaching method
c. Teaching strategy
d. Teaching technique
Answer: B

2. The class of Grade 6 - Einstein is scheduled to perform an experiment on that day. However, the
chemicals are insufficient. What method may then be used?
a. Project
b. Laboratory
c. Lecture
d. Demonstration
Answer: D

3. Teacher C gives the class specific topic as assignment which they have to research and pass the
following day. However, the students could not find any information about it. What method should
Teacher C use to teach the assignment?
a. Project method
b. Discovery approach
c. Lecture method
d. Demonstration method
Answer: C

4. Pictures, models and the like arouse students interest on the day's topic, in what part of the lesson
should the given materials be presented?
a. Initiating activities
b. Culminating activities
c. Evaluation activities
d. Developmental activities
Answer: A

5. In Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives, the domains are stated from lowest to highest

263
level. Which of the following objectives belongs to the lowest level?
a. To identify the characters of the story.
b. To differentiate active from passive voice.
c. To give the available resources that could be recycled to useful things.
d. To explain the procedure in changing improper fraction to mixed number
Answer: A

6. The class of IV - Kalikasan is tasked to analyze the present population of the different cities and
municipalities of the National Capital Region for the last five years. How can they best present their
analysis?
a. By means of a table
b. By looking for a pattern
c. By means of a graph
d. By guessing and checking
Answer: C

7. There are several reasons why problem-solving is taught in Math. Which is the LEAST important?
a. It is the main goal for the study of Math
b. It provides the content in which concepts and skills are learned and applied
c. It provides an opportunity to develop critical and analytical thinking
d. It provides pupils an opportunity to relate Math in the real world
Answer: A

8. Teacher D teaches in a remote high school where newspapers are delivered irregularly. Knowing
the importance of keeping the students aware of current affairs, what is probably the best way to
keep the students updated?

a. Gather back issues of newspapers and let pupils compile them. b. Urge the pupils to listen to
stories circulating in the community. c. Encourage the pupils to listen to daily broadcast from a
transistor radio.

d. The teacher should try all available means to get the newspaper delivered to the school

Answer: C

9. Devices can make a lecture more understandable and meaningful. What is the most important
thing a teacher should consider in the selection and utilization of instructional materials? a.
Objectives of the lesson

b. Availability of instructional materials

c. Attractiveness of instructional materials

d. Degree of interest on the part of the students

264
Answer: A

10. Teacher E asks student A to identify and analyze events, ideas or objects in order to state their
similarities and differences. In which part of the lesson does said activity take place?

a. Preparation b. Generalization c. Application d. Comparison and Abstraction

Answer: D

11. Which part of the lesson is involved in the giving of situation or activities based on the concepts
learned?

a. Preparation b. Generalization c. Application d. Comparison and Abstraction

Answer: C

12. Teacher F wants the class to find out the effect of heat on matter. Which method will help him
accomplish his objective?

a. Project Method b. Laboratory Method c. Problem Method d. Expository Method

Answer: B

13. In Math, Teacher G presents various examples of plane figures to her class. Afterwards, she asks
the students to give definition of each. What method did she use?

a. Inductive b. Laboratory c. Deductive d. Expository

Answer: A

14. Teaching Tinikling to I-Maliksi becomes possible through the use of?

a. Inductive Method b. Expository Method c. Demonstration Method d. Laboratory Method Answer:

C

15. What is the implication of using a method that focuses on the why rather than the how?

a. There is best method b. Typical one will be good for any subject c. These methods should be
standardized for different subjects.

d. Teaching methods should favor inquiry and problem solving. Answer: D

16. When using problem solving method, the teacher can

a. Set up the problem b. Test the conclusion c. Propose ways of obtaining the needed data

d. Help the learners define what is it to be solved

265
Answer: D

17. Which of the following characterizes a well-motivated lesson? a. The class is quiet. b. The children
have something to do.

c. The teacher can leave the pupils

d. There are varied procedures and activities undertaken by the pupils.

Answer: D

18. Learners must be developed not only in the cognitive, psychomotor but also in the affective
aspect. Why is development of the latter also important?

a. It helps them develop a sound value system.

b. Their actions are dominated by their feelings.

c. It helps them develop an adequate knowledge of good actions. d. Awareness of the consequences
of their action is sharpened. Answer: A

19. Which of the following attributes characterizes a learner who is yet to develop the concept?

a. The learner can identify the attributes of the concept.

b. The learner can summarize the ideas shared about the concept.

c. The learner can distinguish examples from non-examples.

d. The learner gets a failing grade in the tests given after the concept has been discussed. Answer: A

20. The strategy which makes use of the old concept of "each-one-teach-one" of the sixty's is similar
to?

a. Peer learning b. Independent learning c. Partner learning d. Cooperative learning

Answer: D

21. Which part of the lesson does the learner give a synthesis of the things learned?

a. Motivation b. Application c. Evaluation d. Generalization Answer: C

22. Educational objectives are arranged from simple to complex. Why is this?

a. Each level is built upon and assumes acquisition of skills from the previous level.

b. Objectives are broad and value-laden statements that lead to the philosophy of education.

c. Be idealistic and ambitious to begin with grandiose scheme for using taxonomy in all levels.

266
d. These are guidelines to be taught and learned where teachers and students evaluate learning.

Answer: A

23. Which of the following is NOT true?

a. Lesson plan should be in constant state of revision.

b. A good daily lesson plan ensures a better discussion.

c. Students should never see a teacher using a lesson plan.

d. All teachers regardless of their experience should have daily lesson plan.

Answer: C

24. In Music, Teacher 1 wants to teach the class how to play the piano in the Key of C. Which of the
following should be his objective?

a. To play the piano in the key of C chords

b. To improve playing the piano in the key of C

c. To interpret property of chords of Key of C in the piano

d. To exhibit excellent playing of piano in the key of C

Answer: A

25. When using instructional material, what should the teacher primarily consider?

a. The material must be new and skillfully made.

b. It must be suited to the lesson objective.

c. The material must stimulate and maintain students' interest

d. It must be updated and relevant to Filipino setting.

Answer: B -

PRINCIPLES AND MOTIVATION

1. Which theory operates on the "stimulus-response principle", which means all behaviors are caused
by external stimuli?
a. Contextual theory
b. Behaviorist theory
c. Cognitive theory
d. Constructivist theory

267
Answer: B

2. Ms. Erika in her Biology class accompanies her discussion with interesting visual aids. She strongly
believes that students learn better when lessons are presented with images, real or imagined aside from
mere lecture method. Which learning theory does she upholds?
a. Dual-Coding Theory
b. Information Processing Theory
c. Meaningful Reception Learning Theory
d. Social Cognitive Theory
Answer: A

3. Miss Rita is an excellent Physical Education teacher. She started teaching volleyball to her Grade 2
class. Despite all her efforts, her class does not seem to learn how to play the game. What law of
learning was disregarded?
a. Law of Disuse
b. Law of Effect
c. Law of Exercise
d. Law of Readiness
Answer: D

4. Teacher jay, a physical education teacher, demonstrates the new skill to be learned so that his
students can watch him and later reproduce the skill. What learning theory is associated with the
situation?
a. Dual-Coding Learning Theory
b. Information Processing
c. Schema Learning Theory
d. Social Learning
Answer: D

5. Patrice is always fearful of freely roaming dogs but does not mind dogs in a pen or on a leash. What
feature of classical conditioning is exhibited?
a. Discrimination
b. Extinction
c. Generalization
d. Practice
Answer: A

6. A music teacher is careful in planning activities for each lesson. He praises liberally and rewards
correct answers. What view of learning is exhibited?
a. Classical conditioning
b. Meaningful learning
c. Operant conditioning
d. Social learning
Answer: C

268
7. Which of the theories of learning presents or states that learning skills are hierarchically arranged?
a. Cumulative Learning
b. Meaningful Learning
c. Social Cognitive Learning
d. Theory of Instruction
Answer: A

8. Which of the following best describes what meaningful learning is?

a. When what is to be learned is new and easy for the students
b. Materials presented are difficult and challenging to the students
c. When the materials to be learned is related to what students already know
d. Students find the lessons easy and relevant to what was assigned to them
Answer: C

9. Rita easily remember dates and events in history. What component of LTM does Rita have?
a. Creative thinking
b. Critical thinking
c. Reflective thinking
d. Logical thinking
Answer: C

10. An Earth Science has just completed a unit on the sun. As she recognizes her next unit on other
stars, she uses the sun as a frame of reference. What view of learning was used?
a. Discovery learning
b. Informative learning
c. Meaningful learning
d. Transfer learning
Answer: C

11. Which is an application of cognitive approach to motivation?

a. Explain the reasons for studying the topic
b. Create a supportive classroom climate for students
c. Provide clear and prompt feedback on assignments
d. Begin lessons with challenging questions and conflicting events
Answer: A

12. The first people power was held in February 25, 1986. What kind of knowledge is presented?
a. Conditional Knowledge
b. Cognitive Knowledge
c. Domain-Specific Knowledge
d. Procedural Knowledge

269
Answer: B

13. The students of Mrs. Reyes were not able to learn the concepts that she presented yesterday so she
taught the same concepts again but this time using a different teaching method. What principle of
learning was applied?
a. Concepts should be presented in varied and different ways
b. Effort was put forth when tasks are challenging
c. Learning by doing is more effective than just by sitting and listening
d. Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions
Answer: A

14. Alvin is a transferee and feels uneasy with his new school. His teacher is very accommodating,
warm and caring. Alvin felt comfortable with the teacher display of genuine warmth. The teacher is
consistent in his manner and Alvin began to associate school with the teacher's warmth. Which theory
is being illustrated?
a. Meaningful learning
b. Operant conditioning
c. Classical conditioning
d. Observational learning
Answer: B

15. After just being introduced to another guest in the party, Tom cannot remember the name of the
guest he was introduced to. In what memory stage was the information stored in?
a. Episodic memory
b. Semantic memory
c. Sensory memory
d. Working memory
Answer: C

16. Vygotsky claimed that social interaction is important for learning. What does this imply?
a. Children are independent problem solvers
b. Children learn from adults and other children
c. Children learn by passive presentation of information
d. Children in the crib has no learning yet, since they are not capable of interaction
Answer: B

17. How would you help a student who is intelligent but is underachieving in class?
a. Provide challenging activities which he/she can accomplish
b. Recognize his talents by asking him/her to help other students with their work
c. Identify the immediate causes of difficulties that cause his/her being an underachiever
d. Allow him/her to work with the slow learner group to cope with the academic needs of the lesson.
Answer: C

18. Mrs. Corpuz always makes sure that her pre-school classroom is well organized and clean. She

270
puts up interesting and colorful visuals on the bulletin boards. What principle of motivation was
applied?
a. Incentives motivate learning
b. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external motivation
c. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which instructional material is organized.
d. The environment can be used to focus the student's attention on what needs to be learned.
Answer: D

19. For every correct answer, the teacher would give a star to her students. What schedule of
reinforcement was used?
a. Fixed interval
b. Fixed ratio
c. Variable interval
d. Variable ratio
Answer: B

20. Marga, a six year old, always asked her playmates to sit in front of her small black board and she
plays teacher. Her mother is a teacher. What theory explains Marga's behavior?
a. Classical Conditioning
b. Operant Conditioning
c. Social Learning
d. Information Processing
Answer: C

21. What should the teacher do to help students learn psychomotor skills?
a. Teacher uses verbal explanation and description of the movements in addition to live demonstration
of the movements
b. Teacher provides feedback to the learner about his/her progress
c. Teacher encourages the learner to practice, in order to maintain his/her sharpness of the movements
d. All of the above
Answer: D

22. The teacher presented a new lesson where in the students were asked to work on a new project
which was somewhat complicated. The students showed interest while working on the project. What
principle applies to the situation?
a. Effort was put forth when tasks are challenging
b. Lessons should be presented in varied and different ways
c. Meaningful materials are readily learned than nonsense materials
d. Teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate practice
Answer: A

23. Maturation should precede certain types of learning. How is this applied in the classroom?
a. Concepts should be taught from simple to complex
b. Consider the age level of students in assigning tasks

271
c. Follow the interest of students in assigning tasks
d. Give the same task to all students in a particular grade level
Answer: A

24. Luz easily learns a lesson when she is working with laboratory equipment but hardly remembers a
lesson the teacher lectured on. What type of learner is Luz?
a. Auditory Learner
b. Kinesthetic Learner
c. Tactile Learner
d. Visual Learner
Answer: D

25. Which of the following statements about motivation is false?

a. External motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than internal motivation
b. Internal motivation is fueled by one's goals or ambitions
c. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized
d. Motivation to perform is affected by expectancy and value
Answer: A

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

1. Dr. Escoto, the school physician conducted a physical examination in Ms. Manuel's class. What
concept best describes the quantitative increase observed by Dr. Escoto among learners in terms of
height and weight?
a. Development
b. Growth
c. Learning
d. Maturation
Answer: B

2. Which situation best illustrates the concept of growth?

a. A kinder pupil gains 2 pounds within two months.
b. A high school student gets a score of 85 in mental ability test.
c. An education student has gained knowledge on approaches and strategies in teaching different
subjects
d. An elementary grader has learned to play piano.
Answer: A

3. Which statements below best describes development?

a. A high school student's height increased by 5'2" to 5'4"

272
b. A high school student's change in weight from 110 lbs. to 125 lbs.
c. A student had learned to operate the computer
d. A student's enlargement of hips

4. What concept can best describes Francisco's ability to walk without a support at age of 12 months
because of the "internal ripening" that occured in his muscles, bones and nervous system
development?
a. Development
b. Growth
c. Learning
d. Maturation
Answer: D

5. Teacher Jesus in now 69 years old has been observing changes in himself such as the aging process.
Which term refers to the development change in the individual?
a. Development
b. Growth
c. Learning
d. Maturation
Answer: D

6. Manuel, a five-year old boy can hold his pen and write his name with his right hand. Which term
describes Manuel's action/ behavior?
a. Development
b. Growth
c. Learning
d. Maturation
Answer: A

7. Which of the following theory can help Miss Samson determine the readiness of her learners by
administering a readiness test?
a. Conditioning Theories
b. Cognitive Development Theory
c. Maturation Theory
d. Ethological Theory
Answer: C -

273
8. Mr. Francisco was very much worried about the thumb sucking of his son. A friend of him says that
certain behavior among infants. Who presented that notion that certain behavior like thumb-sucking
is normal behavior?

A. Sigmund Freud

b. Erick Ericson

c. John Bowlly

d. Urie Bronfrenbenner

Answer: A

9. A newborn infant move his whole body at one time, instead of moving a part of it. Which of the
following principles is illustrated by his behavior? a. Development proceeds from specific to general.
b. Development

proceeds from general to specific. c. Development follows an orderly pattern. d. Development

follows a general pattern.

Answer: B

10. Train up a child in the way he should be; when he grows up, he will not depart from it. Which
principle supports this?

a. Development is determined by his heredity

b. Development is determined by the environment

c. Early development is more critical than the late development

d. Early development is less critical than late development. Answer: B

11. Which state of the psycho-sexual theory does young boys experience rivalry with their father for
their mother's attention and affection?

a. Oral b. Anal c. Phallic d. Latency

Answer: C

12. Angela focuses her attention on the school work and vigorous play that consume most of her
physical energy. Which stage of psychosexual theory illustrates her behavior?

a. Oral b. Anal c. Phallic d. Latency Answer: D

13. Which of the following is likely to be developed if infants are shown genuine affection?

a. Trust b. Autonomy c. Initiative d. Industry Answer: A

274
14. Christian develops an integral and coherent sense of self. He seeks answers to the question.
"Who am I"? Which of the following is Christian likely to develop?

a. Initiative b. Identity and Role Confusion c. Intimacy d. Autonomy Answer: B

15. Ms. Reyes uses images and language to represent and understand her various lessons to
preschool learners. What stage in the cognitive theory of development explains this?

a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operation d. Formal operation

Answer: B

16. Connie develops concepts necessary for everyday living, builds healthy attitudes towards oneself,
and achieve personal independence. These are among the attributes of an individual in what
particular stage?

a. Infancy and early childhood b. Middle childhood c. Adolescence d. Early adulthood

Answer: B

17. Some children are more active than others, as everyone knows-extremely highlevels of activity or
hyperactivity are considered problematic. How may a teacher help a child who is hyperactive?

a. Make him the leader of the class

b. Transfer him to another class

c. Give him challenging activities that are appropriate to his ability level and interests.

d. Allow him to spend longer at the playground until he gets tired.

Answer: C

18. Tessa gets jealous whenever she sees her father showing love and affection to her mother. Which
of the following is she showing according to Freud?

a. Complex b. Phallic c. Electra Complex d. Oedipus Complex

Answer: C

275
19. In Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, which of the following statements would illustrate
Edward who is 11 years old? a. Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.

b. Unable to breakdown a whole into separate parts.

c. Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.

d. Experiments with methods to reach goals.

Answer: A

20. Trisha goes with her mother in school. She enjoys the workplace of her mother. Which of the
following ecological theories is illustrated by the situation?

a. Microsystem b. Mesosystem c. Exosystem d. Macrosystem Answer: C

21. Lito, a student in secondary level tends to spend more time with his friends and his family, thus,
his behavior is greatly affected by them. In which stage in the Psychosocial Stages of Development
does Lito belong?

a. Autonomous vs Shame and Doubt b. Identity vs. Role Confusion c. Intimacy vs. Isolation d.
Initiative vs. Guilt

Answer: D

22. Anna believes that authority is respected. She is now in what particular level in moral
development theory of Lawrence Kholberg?

a. Social contract b. Law and order orientation c. Interpersonal concordance d. Universal ethics
orientation

Answer: A

23. What level has a four year old learner like Maryann reached when she acquired new skills such as
putting the same shapes and the same colors together?

a. Development b. Maturation c. Zone of Proximal Development d. Learning

Answer: C

24. Which of the following principles can be the basis of the growing realization of the significance of
the early childhood education?

276
a. The young children are capable of doing many things at an early stage.

b. The child should be seen and should learn.

c. The first five years of life are the formative years of the child.

d. Early childhood experiences can be interesting and challenging.

Answer: B

25. Which of the following learner's characteristics will affect most of the learners learning in the
academic class?

a. His affective characteristics

b. His cognitive characteristics

c. His psychomotor characteristics

d. His socio-emotional characteristics

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. Which is NOT a provision for the development of each learner in a good curriculum?
a. Extensive arrangements are made for the educational diagnosis of individual learners.
b. Self-directed, independent study is encouraged wherever possible and advisable.
c. Self-motivation and self-evaluation are stimulated and emphasized throughout the learning opportunities of
the school.
d. The program provides a wide range of opportunities for individuals with same abilities, needs and interests.
Answer: D

2. Teacher Lily would like to take part in developing a subject-centered curriculum because she believes that all
subjects in this type of curriculum are geared towards the hollistic development of the learner. Is her belief
about the subject-centered curriculum true?
a. Yes, because the subject-centered curriculum focuses on the learners needs, interests and abilities.
b. No, because it is the experience-centered curriculum that emphasizes the teaching of facts and knowledge
for future use.
c. Yes, because the subject-centered curriculum involves cooperative control.
d. No, because it is the experience centered and not the subject-centered curriculum that emphasizes
integration of habits and skills in learning the knowledge component of subject areas.
Answer: D

3. In the elementary level, English literature and Social studies relate well. While history is being studied,
different literary pieces during the historical period is being studied as well. What curriculum design
is shown here?
a. Separate subject design

277
b. Correlation design
c. Discipline design
d. Broad field design
Answer: C

4. This phase of curriculum development involves decisions, among other things, on grade placement and
sequencing of content. Which phase is this?
a. Curriculum planning
b. Curriculum evaluation
c. Curriculum organization
d. Curriculum implementation
Answer: C

5. One example of this design of subject-centered curriculum is that which shows social studies being combined
with geography, civics, culture and history to comprises subject area. Which design is this?
a. Correlated
b. Broadfields
c. Separate Subject
d. Core
Answer: B

6. Ms. Ortiz, as Science teacher tries to enrich the content of her lesson by identifying related concepts in Math.
What pattern of organizing subjects did Ms. Ortiz consider?
a. Broadfield
b. Correlated
c. Core
d. Separate Subject
Answer: B

7. Which design is easy to deliver because complementary books and materials are commercially available?
a. Experience centered design
b. Problem design
c. Process design
d. Subject centered design
Answer: D

8. What refers to the matching between curriculum and test to be used to assess the learners?
a. Alignment
b. Auditing
c. Articulation
d. Delivery
Answer: A

278
9. Ms. Mateo, a History teacher considers the element of time in arranging content of her lessons in World
History. What way of establishing sequence is given emphasis by Ms. Mateo?
a. Simple to complex
b. Part to whole
c. Concrete to abstract
d. Chronological
Answer: D

10. Mr. Rivera, a new teacher believes that education is a process of development and is life itself; therefore,
experience related to the child's need and interest should be given primary consideration. What educational
philosophy is being exhibited by Mr. Rivera?
a. Idealism
b. Reconstructionism
c. Progressivism
d. Realism
Answer: C

11. A stakeholder in curriculum development, Mr. Cruz, a district supervisor and a member of the school board
has one of the following primary roles.
a. Support and participate in parent-school organization activities.
b. Authorize school expenditures for curriculum development, implementation and evaluation
c. Enact legislation to effect curriculum improvement.
d. Recommend changes in curriculum.
Answer: D

12. The schools in the first District plan to adopt the reading program used in the third district. What level of
curriculum improvement is used?
a. Variation
b. Value orientation
c. Substitution
d. Restructuring
Answer: C

13. Mr. Bernardo, a curriculum consultant on Economics insists that in selecting the curriculum content, it is
better that throughout the high school years, economic geography concepts be used to recur and be repeated
with depth for effective learning. What criterion in content selection is shown here?
a. Validity
b. Continuity
c. Significance
d. Learnability
Answer: B

14. The Filipino learners envisioned by the Department of Education (DepEd) in the light of K-12 Curriculum is
a. Technologically literate or logistically developed Filipino
b. Functionally literate or logistically developed Filipino
c. Scientifically Advanced and Values Oriented Filipino

279
d. National Oriented and Internationally Competitive Filipinos
Answer: B

15. Teacher Dominguito believes that a new respect for the child is fundamental in curriculum. Thus, all
activities in the classroom are geared towards the development of the child - the center of the educative
process. To which approach in curriculum does Teacher Dominguito adhere?
a. Learner-centered
b. Subject-centered
c. Problem-centered
d. Pragmatic
Answer: A

16. Mrs. Manuel, the Principal of Bagong Barrio Elementary School invited the Brgy. Captain in the school to
solicit inputs for a new curriculum in Social Science which highlights indigenous knowledge in the community.
What is shown in this situation?
a. Community members as supporters of curriculum
b. Community members as curriculum resources
c. Community members as managers of curriculum
d. Community members as beneficiaries of curriculum
Answer: B

17. Teacher Bert puts emphasis on the immediate felt interests and needs of his students and not on the
anticipated needs and interests. What type of curriculum does teacher Bert adheres?
a. Subject-centered
b. Learner-centered
c. Experience-centered
d. Culture-based
Answer: C

18. What type of curriculum divides the school day into different periods such as language arts, social studies,
science and health, arithmetic, etc.?
a. Correlated
b. Broad fields
c. Integrated
d. Separate Subject
Answer: D

19. Which curriculum design element is taking place when Eduardo, a 4th year student can connect the lessons
he learned in a subject area to a related content in another subject area?
a. Articulation
b. Balance
c. Continuity
d. Integration
Answer: D

280
20. The following curricular changes took place in what particular period? Restore Grade VII, double-single
session was abolished and more textbooks were written by Filipino authors.
a. American Period
b. Philippine Republic
c. Japanese Occupation
d. New Society
Answer: B

21. This concept includes the sub-processes of curriculum planning, organization, implementation and
evaluation. Which concept is this?
a. Curriculum development
b. Curriculum assessment
c. Curriculum management
d. Curriculum and instruction
Answer: A

22. If curriculum is the "means", what is the "end"?

a. Strategies
b. Instruction
c. Technique
d. Approaches
Answer: B

23. The curriculum used during the period in Philippine history terminated the use of English as a medium of
instruction, What period is this?
a. American
b. Spanish
c. Commonwealth
d. Japanese
Answer: D

24. Which of the following statements about the concept of curriculum is NOT quite acceptable?
a. It refers to all experiences that both the school and the teacher provide the students with.
b. It is the set of acquired knowledge, habits and skills
c. It consists of everything that goes within the school.
d. It is a planned action for instruction
Answer: C

25. What process is being undertaken by curriculum developers when they enrich or modify certain aspects of a
particular program without changing its fundamental conceptions?
a. Curriculum improvement
b. Curriculum change
c. Curriculum design

281
d. Curriculum implementation
Answer: A

EDTECH

1. Which of the following statements has a very limited definition of educational technology?
a. It is a profession composed of various job categories.
b. It refers to the computers used for teaching and learning.
c. It includes audiovisual materials, interactive multimedia and self-instructional materials.
d. It is the development, application and evaluation of system, techniques and aids to improve
human learning
Answer: B

2. Which of the following statements is correct about the domains of educational technology?
a. Design is the production stage while development is the planning stage.
b. Both the design and development are the planning stage.
c. Evaluation is synonymous with implementation.
d. Utilization is the action phase.
Answer: D

3. Ms. Gomez is planning to integrate technology in her Mathematics class. Which of the following
would be the logical steps in doing this?
I. Set the objectives
II. Analyze the learners
III. Utilize the materials with showmanship
IV. Evaluate the performance of the students
a. I, II, III, IV
b. II, I, III, IV
c. I, II, IV, III
d. II, I, IV, III
Answer: B

4. Which of the following is a limitation of models and real objects in teaching and learning?
a. They pose problems on storage
b. They make learning more concrete.
c. They provide hands-on learning experiences.
d. They are readily available in the environment, around school and in the home.
Answer: A

5. Which group of technologies has the highest degree of concreteness?

a. Realia and computer
b. Video, picture and television

282
c. Digital video, film, versatile compact disc
d. Book, imaginative literature, programmed instruction
Answer: A

6. Mrs. Del Prado placed text together with the relevant graphics on the same page in her multimedia
presentation. Which principle did she apply?
a. Split attention
b. Spatial contiguity
c. Cost effectiveness
d. Communication effectiveness
Answer: A

7. Mrs. Olivarez presented real samples of rocks in her General Science class. What principle did she
apply?
a. Appropriateness
b. Authenticity
c. Responsiveness
d. Simplicity
Answer: B

8. Which is the best reason why teachers state the objectives before using instructional media?
a. To secure materials
b. To prepare the materials beforehand.
c. To determine which media to use best.
d. To be able to practice how to operate the equipment
Answer: C

9. Which of the following should Mr. Rivera primarily consider in determining the teaching-learning
objectives and use of instructional media?
a. The assessment tool to be used
b. The learning activities
c. The learner
d. The teacher
Answer: B

10. Which of the following technologies provide iconic experiences to students/ children?
a. Video and books
b. Pictures and videos
c. Radio and recording

283
d. Modules and periodicals
Answer: B

11. Which of these technologies used in the classroom are arranged from the most symbolic to
multisensory?
a. Real objects, print, audio-visual materials and visual materials
b. Visual materials, audio visual materials, print and computers
c. Visual materials, print, audio-visual materials and realia
d. Print, audio-visual materials, computers and realia
Answer: D

12. Which of the following is inappropriate in using printed visuals such as charts, graphs and
drawings?
a. Provide written or verbal cues to highlight important aspect of visuals
b. Present the instructional materials simultaneously
c. Use materials that everyone can see
d. Make the presentation suspenseful
Answer: B

13. Susan wants to learn more English. Specifically, she wants to improve her listening skills. She has
a CD player, a tape recorder and has internet access. As an English teacher, what do you suggest?
I. CDs with English listening drills
II. Tapes with English listening drills
III. Internet website such as Go4English, English Language Listening Lab or Randall's listening Lab
a. I and II
b. II and III
c. I or III
d. I, II and III
Answer: D

14. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the contributions of technology to student
learning?
a. The quality of learning can be improved.
b. The delivery of instruction can be more interesting.
c. The method of teaching and learning becomes more interactive.
d. The role of the teacher can be changed into knowledge dispenser.
Answer: D

15. Mr. Tarnate, an ICT teacher takes into account technology standards to address the needs of the
students and help them adapt with the changing society and technology Which of the following
standards is an exception?
a. Creativity and innovation

284
b. Research and information literacy
c. Model digital-age work and learning
d. Technology operations and concepts
Answer: C

16. Ms. Vinluan, a computer teacher demonstrates understanding of local and global issues and
exhibits ethical and legal use of information and communications technology tools. Which is true
about her?
a. She models digital-age work and learning
b. She facilitates and inspires student learning and creativity.
c. She promotes and models digital citizenship and responsibility.
d. She designs and develops digital-age learning experiences and assessments
Answer: C

17. With the fast-paced evolution of technologies nowadays, why are teachers encouraged to shift
gradually from a teacher-centered instruction to a learner-centered instruction?
I. A learner-centered instruction focuses on transformation of facts.
a. II and IV only
b. I, II and IV only
c. I, III and IV only
d. II, III and IV only
Answer: C

18. Ms. Hernandez employs student-centered instruction as the learners create their digital portfolios
in her computer class. What could be developed among them through this approach?
a. Repetition and active learning
b. Mastery of skills and information delivery
c. Information processing and passive learning
d. Construction of knowledge and information exchange
Answer: D

19. Mr. Torres will have a multimedia presentation in his Science class. Which of the following should
he avoid?
a. Consider technical quality.
b. Apply different computer effects per slid.
c. Present information through graphic organizers
d. Use contrasting colors for text and background.
Answer: B

20. Mrs. Sison would like to integrate technology in writing a friendly letter. Which of the following is
the most effective way of doing it?
a. Let the pupils surf a friendly letter from the internet

285
b. Have the pupils write a friendly letter and send it through an email.
c. have the pupils forward a downloaded friendly letter to others via email.
d. Let the pupils write a friendly letter using word processing and have it critiqued by their peers.
Answer: D

21. Which of the following computer-based instructional materials can be used to learn new
concepts?
a. Games
b. Tutorial
c. Simulation
d. Drill and practice
Answer: B

22. Professor dela Cruz would like to create a presentation material for her lesson on the types of
computer-assisted instruction. To make her presentation effective, which?
a. Situating tool
b. Informative tool
c. Productivity tool
d. Communicative tool
Answer: C

23. Professor Reyes is thinking of an online learning approach by which content provides links to
information at other locations and serves as a focal point for a distance education experience. Which
of the following should she use?
a. Teleconferencing
b. Self-paced program
c. Web-based instruction
d. Computer-aided instruction
Answer: C

24. Which is NOT a basic consideration in selecting and evaluating the content of an educational
technology tool?
a. Does it match the content?
b. Can it be easily dismantled?
c. Will it motivate and maintain interest?
d. Is there evidence of its effectiveness?
Answer: B

25. Your father wanted to finish his long dreamed course but he wanted to do it at home during his free time.
Would you recommend an online learning?
a. Yes, because online learning is the "in" thing
b. No, because online learning inhibits student-teacher interaction.

286
c. No, because hiring a helper would enable him to attend regularly in his class.
d. Yes, because he could learn at his own pace using a wide spectrum of technologies.
Answer: D

FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

1. The Department of Education gives greater emphasis on the development of basic skills. What is the
philosophical basis for this? a. Essentialism b. Existentialism c. Perennialism d. Pragmatism Answer:
A

2. Teacher M views his students as unique, free-choosing and responsible individuals. All classroom
activities revolve around the said premise. What theory underlies this?

a. Essentialism b. Existentialism c. Progressivism d. Realism Answer: B

3. Religious rituals in the classroom and in the school programs prove the deep natural religiosity of
the Filipinos. Which philosophy has greatly contributed to the tradition?

a. Buddhism b. Confucianism c. Hinduism d. Islam Answer: B

4. In order to make Roman education truly utilitarian, how should the day-to-day lessons be taught?

a. Taught in the students' native dialect

b. Taught interestingly through the play way method

c. Related and linked to the events happening in everyday life

d. Practiced at home under the guidance of their respective parents. Answer: C

5. Which influenced the military training requirements among students in the secondary and tertiary
levels?

a. Chinese b. Greeks c. Orientals d. Romans Answer: D 6. Which philosophy has the educational
objective to indoctrinate Filipinos to accept the teachings of the Catholic church which is foster faith in
God? a. Realism b. Pragmatism c. Idealism d. Existentialism Answer: C

7. Virtue as one component in the teaching of Rizal as a course focuses on the teaching of good and
beauty consistent with the good and beauty in God. What philosophy supports this?

a. Existentialism b. Idealism c. Progressivism d. Social Reconstructionism Answer B.

8. Giving education the highest budgetary allocation, the Philippine government recognizes the
possible contribution of its future citizens to the national development goals of the Philippine society.
Which stressed this goal of education for social transformation?

a. Athenian education b. Followers of Christ

287
c. Greek education d. Roman education

Answer: D

9. The progressivists emphasized the individuality of the child. What is the concern of the
reconstructionists?

a. Experiential learning b. Socialization c. Social problem

Answer: C

10. One of the following quotations does not conform to the Christian doctrine of Education for
Humanitarianism. Which one is it?

a. Do unto others as you would like others do unto you

b. Love they neighbor as thyself

c. Not on bread alone is man to live but on every utterance that comes from mouth of God

d. Whatever good things we do to our poor, helpless brothers, we do it for God. Answer: C

11. Scouting and Citizen's Army Training (CAT) give training in character-building, citizenship
training, etc. Which leads to the creation of a new social order and a new society eventually. What
philosophy supports this?

a. Existentialism b. Perennialism c. Progressivism d. Social reconstructionism Answer: D

12. Teacher V demonstrated the technique on how to group students according to their needs and
interests and how to use self-paced instructional materials. Which philosophy is manifested in this
activity?

a. Essentialism b. Progressivism c. Realism d. Social Reconstructionism Answer: B

13. Teacher G, a Christian Living teacher, puts so much significance on values development and
discipline. What could be her educational philosophy?

a. Idealism b. Pragmatism c. Progressivism d. Realism

Answer: A

14. Which one does not illustrate the principle that rights and duties are correlative?

a. The right of an unmarried pregnant teacher to abort her baby in relation to her duty to protect her
name and her job as a teacher

b. The right of a state to compel students to military service is reciprocated by the duty of the state to
protect them

288
. c. The right to a living wage involves the duty of the school administrators to give the salary agreed
upon and the duty of the teachers to give a fair amount of work.

d. The right to life of children and to be given respect of such right. Answer: A

15. Why should a teacher take the obligation upon himself to study and understand the custom and
traditions of the community where he works?

a. To change the culture of the community.

b. To have a sympathetic attitude for the people of the community.

c. To identify the weaknesses of the culture of the community.

d. To please the people of the community. Answer: B

16. A teacher who is a recognized expert in carpentry works, taught his students how to prepare and
construct good and aesthetic furniture from local resources. What cultural transmission process is this?

a. Acculturation b. Enculturation c. Indoctrination d.Observation Answer: B

17. Every first day of the school year, Miss Reyes prepared activities which will make her Grade 2
children, sing, plan, learn and introduce themselves to the class. What process did the teacher
emphasize?

a. Acculturation b. Enculturation c. Indoctrination d. Socialization Answer: D

18. Which program in the educational system seems to be aligned to the Christian humanitarian
principle respect for the human personality?

a. The alternative learning system delivery b. The functional literacy program for the out-of-school
youth and adults c. The promotion of the basic human rights of the Filipino d. The study of the
Philippine Constitution Answer: C

19. With a death threat over his head, Teacher Liza is directed to pass an undeserving student, if she is
a hedonist, which of the following will she do?

a. Don't pass him, live her principle of justice. She will get reward, if not in this life, in the next.

b. Don't pass him. She surely will not like someone to give you a death threat in order to pass.

c. Pass the student. That will be of use to her, the student and his parents.

d. Pass the student. Why suffer the threat?

Answer: D

20. Which philosophy approves a teacher who lectures most of the time and requires his students to
memorize the rules of grammar?

289
a. Existentialism b. Idealism c. Pragmatism d. Realism

Answer: B

21. In a student conducted, the pupils were asked which nationality they would prefer if given a
choice. Majority of the pupils wanted to be Americans. In this case, in which obligation relative to the
state are schools seemed to be failing?

a. Instill allegiance to the constitutional authorities b. Promote national pride c. Promote obedience to
the laws of the state d. Respect for all duly constituted authorities. Answer: B

22. Which subject in the elementary and likewise in the secondary schools are similar to the goal of
Rome to train the students for citizenship?

a. Communication ARts b. MAPEH/PEHMS c. Science d. THE/TLE Answer: D

23. Which of the following schools practices is not based on Social Reconstructionism?

a. Establishment of SDF b. Exemption of Scouts from CAT c. Promoting culture and arts in schools d.
Promoting project WOW Answer: C

24.Which of the following is the focus of the Japanese education in the Philippines?

a. Democratic ideals and nationalism b. Love and service to one's country c. Religion and love for
Asian brothers d. Vocational and health education

Answer: D

25. According to reconstructionism, the goal of education is to bring about a new social order. Which
practice best manifests this view?

a. The class conducts scientific experiments to discover or verify concepts.

b. The class discusses role models and their impact on society.

c. The class allowed to engage in divergent thinking.

d. The class undertakes well-planned projects in the community. Answer: D

MEASUREMENT & EVALUATION

1. Who among the teachers described below is doing assessment?

a. Mrs. Bautista who is administering a test to her students.
b. Mr. Ferrer who is counting the scores obtained by the students in his test.
c. Ms. Leyva who is computing the final grade of the students after completing all their requirements.
d. Prof. Cuevas who is planning for a remedial instruction after knowing that students perform poorly
in her test

290
Answer: C

2. Mr. Fernandez is judging the accuracy of these statements. Which statements will he consider as
correct?
I. Test is a tool to measure a trait.
II. Measurement is the process of qualifying a given trait.
III. Assessment is the gathering of quantitative and qualitative data.
IV. Evaluation is the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data for decision making
A. I and II only
b. III and IV only
c. I, II, and III
d. I, III and IV
Answer: D

3. If I have to use the most authentic method of assessment, which of these procedures should I
consider?
a. Traditional Test
b. Performance-based Assessment
c. Written Test
d. Objective Assessment
Answer: B

4. After doing the exercise on verbs, Ms. Borillo gave a short quiz to find out how well students have
understood the lesson. What type of assessment was done?
a. Summative Assessment
b. Formative Assessment
c. Diagnostic Assessment
d. Placement Assessment
Answer: B

5. Who among the teachers below performed a diagnostic assessment?

a. Ms. Santos who asked questions when the discussion was going on to know who among h er
students understood what she was trying to emphasize.
b. Mr. Colubong who gave a short quiz after discussing thoroughly the lesson to determine the
programs of learning.
c. Ms. Ventura who gave 10-item test to find out the specific lessons which the students failed to
understand.
d. Mrs. Lopez who administered a readiness test to the incoming grade one pupils.
Answer: C

6. You are assessing for learning. Which of these will you likely do?
a. Giving grades to students

291
b. Reporting to parents the performance of their child.
c. Recommending new policies in grading students.
d. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of students.
Answer: D

7. Ms. Saplan is planning to do an assessment of learning. Which of these should she include in her
plan considering her purpose for assessment?
a. How to give immediate feedback to student's strengths and weaknesses
b. How to determine the area of interest of learners
c. How to certify student's achievement
d. How to design one's instruction
Answer: C

8. You targeted that after instruction, your students should be able to show their ability to solve
problems with speed and accuracy. You then designed a tool to measure this ability. What principle
of assessment did you consider in this situation?
a. Assessment should be based on clear and appropriate learning targets or objectives.
b. Assessment should have a positive consequence on student's learning
c. Assessment should be reliable.
d. Assessment should be fair.
Answer: A

9. Ms. Ortega tasked her students to show how to play basketball. What learning target is she
assessing?
a. Knowledge
b. Reasoning
c. Skills
d. Products
Answer: C

10. Mr. Ravelas made an essay test for the objective "Identify the planets in the solar system". Was
the assessment method used the most appropriate for the given objective? Why?
a. Yes, because essay test is easier to construct than objective test.
b. Yes, because essay test can measure any type of objective.
c. No, he should have conducted oral questioning.
d. No, he should have prepared an objective test.
Answer: D

11. Mr. Cidro wants to test students' knowledge of the different places in the Philippines, their capital

292
and their products and so he gave his students an essay test. If you were the teacher, will you do the
same?
a. No, the giving of an objective test is more appropriate than the use of essay.
b. No, such method of assessment is inappropriate because essay is difficult.
c. Yes, essay test could measure more than what other tests could measure.
d. Yes, essay test is the best in measuring any type of knowledge.
Answer: A

12. What type of validity does the Pre-board examination possess if its results can explain how the
students will likely perform in their licensure examination?
a. Concurrent
b. Predictive
c. Construct
d. Content
Answer: B

13. Ms. Aviz wants to determine if the students' scores in their Final Test is reliable. However, she has
only one set of test and her students are already on vacation. What test of reliability can she employ?
a. Test-Retest
b. Kuder Richardson Method
c. Equivalent Forms
d. Test-Retest with Equivalent Forms
Answer: B

Refer to this case in answering items 14-15

Two teachers of the same grade level have set the following objectives for the day's lesson. At the
end of the period, the students should be able to:
a. Construct bar graph, and
b. Interpret bar graphs

To assess the attainment of the objectives, Teacher A required the students to construct a bar graph
for the given set of data then she asked them to interpret this using a set of questions as guide.
Teacher B presented a bar graph then asked them to interpret this using also a set of guide
questions.

14. Whose practice is acceptable based on the principles of assessment?

a. Teacher A
b. Teacher B
c. Both Teacher A and B
d. Neither Teacher A nor Teacher B
Answer: A

293
15. Which is true about the given case?
a. Objective A matched with performance-based assessment while B can be assessed using the
traditional pen-and-paper objective test.
b. Objective A matched with traditional assessment while B can be assessed using a performance-
based method.
c. Both objective A and B matched with performance-based assessment.
d. Both objective A and B matched with traditional assessment.
Answer: A

16. In the context of the Theory of Multiple Intelligence, which is a weakness of the paper-pencil
test?
a. It puts non-linguistically intelligent at a disadvantage.
b. It is not easy to administer.
c. It utilizes so much time.
d. It lacks reliability.
Answer: A

17. Mr. Umayam is doing a performance-based assessment for the day's lesson. Which of the
following will most likely happen?
a. Students are evaluated in one sitting.
b. Students do an actual demonstration of their skill.
c. Students are evaluated in the most objective manner.
d. Students are evaluated based on varied evidences of learning
Answer: B

18. Ms. del Rosario rated her students in terms of appropriate and effective use of some laboratory
equipment and measurement tools and the students ability to follow the specified procedures. What
mode of assessment should Miss del Rosario use?
a. Portfolio Assessment
b. Journal Assessment
c. Traditional Assessment
d. Performance-based Assessment
Answer: D

19. Mrs. Hilario presented the lesson on baking through a group activity so that the students will not
just learn how to bake but also develop their interpersonal skills. How should this lesson be assessed?
I. She should give the students an essay test explaining how they baked the cake.
II. The students should be graded on the quality of their baked cake using a rubric.
III. The students in a group should rate the members based on their ability to cooperate in their
group activity.
IV. She should observe how the pupils perform their tasks.

294
a. I, II, and III only
b. I, III, and IV only
c. I, II and IV only
d. I, II, III, and IV
Answer: C

20. If a teacher has set objectives in all domains or learning targets and which could be assessed
using a single performance task, what criterion in selecting a task should she consider?
a. Generalizability
b. Fairness
c. Multiple Foci
d. Teachability
Answer: C

21. Which term refers to the collection of students' products and accomplishments in a given period
for evaluation purposes?
a. Diary
b. Portfolio
c. Anecdotal record
d. Observation report
Answer: B

22. Mrs. Catalan allowed the students to develop their own portfolio in their own style as long as
they show all the non-negotiable evidences of learning. What principle in portfolio assessment
explains this practice?
a. Content Principle
b. Learning Principle
c. Equity Principle
d. Product Principle
Answer: C

23. How should the following steps in portfolio assessment be arranged logically?
I. Set targets
II. Select evidences
III. Collect evidences
IV. Rate Collection
V. Reflect on Evidences
a. I, II, III, IV, V
b. I, III, II, V, IV
c. I, II, III, V, IV
d. I, III, V, II, IV
Answer: B

295
24. Which could be seen in a rubric?
I. Objective in a high level of cognitive behavior
II. Multiple criteria in assessing learning
III. Quantitative descriptions of the quality of work
IV. Qualitative descriptions of the quality of work
a. I and II only
b. II, III and IV only
c. I, II and III
d. I, II, III and IV
Answer: B

25. The pupils are to be judged individually on their mastery of the singing of the national anthem so
their teacher let them sing individually. What should the teacher use in rating the performance of the
pupils considering the fact that the teacher has only one period to spend in evaluating her 20 pupils?
a. Analytic
b. Holistic
c. Either holistic or analytic
d. Both holistic and analytic
Answer: B

1. Mrs. Pua is judging the worth of the project of the students in her Science class based on a set
of criteria. What process describes what she is doing?
a. Testing
b. Measuring
c. Evaluating
d. Assessing
Answer: C

2. Mrs. Acebuche is comparing measurement from evaluation. Which statement explains the
difference?
a. Measurement is assigning a numerical value to a given trait while evaluation is giving meaning to
the numerical value of the trait.
b. Measurement is the process of gathering while evaluation is the process of quantifying the data
gathered.
c. Measurement is the process of quantifying data while evaluation is the process of organizing data.
d. Measurement is a pre-requisite of assessment while evaluation is the pre-requisite of testing.
Answer: A

3. Ms. Ricafort uses alternative methods of assessment. Which of the following will she not likely

296
use?
a. Multiple Choice Test
b. Reflective Journal Writing
c. Oral Presentation
d. Developing Portfolios
Answer: A

4. Ms. Camba aims to measure a product of learning. Which of these objectives will she most likely
set for her instruction?
a. Show positive attitude towards learning common nouns
b. Identify common nouns in a reading selection
c. Construct a paragraph using common nouns
d. User a common noun in a sentence
Answer: C

5. The students of Mrs. Valino are very noisy. To keep them busy, they were given any test available
in the classroom and then the results were graded as a way to punish them. Which statement best
explains if the practice is acceptable or not?
a. The practice is acceptable because the students behaved well when they were given a test.
b. The practice is not acceptable because it violates the principle of reliability.
c. The practice is not acceptable because it violates the principle of validity.
d. The practice is acceptable since the test results are graded.
Answer: C

6. Ms. Delos Angeles advocates assessment for learning. Which will she NOT likely do?
a. Formative Assessment
b. Diagnostic Assessment
c. Placement Assessment
d. Summative Assessment
Answer: A

7. At the beginning of the school year, the 6-year old pupils were tested to find out who among them
can already read. The result was used to determine their sections. What kind of test was given to
them?
a. Diagnostic
b. Formative
c. Placement
d. Summative
Answer: C

297
8. The grade six pupils were given a diagnostic test in addition and subtraction of whole numbers to
find out if they can proceed to the next unit. However, the results of the test were very low. What
should the teacher do?
a. Proceed to the next lesson to be able to finish all the topics in the course.
b. Construct another test parallel to the given test to determine the consistency of the scores.
c. Count the frequency of errors to find out the lessons that the majority of students need to relearn.
d. Record the scores then inform the parents about the very poor performance of their child
in mathematics.
Answer: C

9. Mrs. Nogueras is doing an assessment of learning. At what stage of instruction should she do it?
a. Before instruction
b. After instruction
c. Prior to instruction
d. During the instructional process
Answer: D

10. Mr. Cartilla developed an Achievement Test in Math for her grade three pupils. Before she
finalized the test she examined carefully if the test items were constructed based on the
competencies that have to be tested. What test of validity was she trying to establish?
a. Content-validity
b. Concurrent validity
c. Predictive validity
d. Construct validity
Answer: A

11. Mrs. Robles wants to establish the reliability of her achievement test in English. Which of the
following activities will help achieve her purpose?
a. Administer two parallel tests to different groups of students.
b. Administer two equivalent tests to the same group of students
c. Administer a single test but two different groups of students.
d. Administer two different tests but to the same group of students.
Answer: B

Refer to the situation below in answer items 12 and 13

A teacher set the following objectives for the day's lesson:
At the end of the period, the students should be able to:
a. Identify the parts of friendly letter
b. Construct a friendly letter using the MS Word, and
c. Show interest towards the day's lesson
To assess the attainment of the objectives, Ms. Cidro required the students to construct friendly
letter and have it encoded at their Computer Laboratory using the MS Word. The letter should inform

298
one's friend about what one has learned in the day's lesson and how one felt about it.

12. Which is NOT true about the given case?

a. Ms. Cidro practices a balanced assessment.
b. Ms. Cidro's assessment method is performance-based.
c. Ms. Cidro needs a rubric in scoring the work of the students.
d. Ms. Cidro's assessment targets are all in the cognitive domain.
Answer: D

13. If Mr. Paraiso will have to make a scoring rubric for the student's output, what format is better to
construct considering that the teacher has limited time to evaluate their work?
a. Analytic Rubric
b. Holistic Rubric
c. Either A or B
d. Neither A nor B
Answer: B

14. The school principal has 3 teacher applicants all of whom graduated from the same institution
and are licensed teachers. She only needs to hire one. What should she do to choose the best teacher
from the three?
I. Give them a placement test.
II. Interview them on why they want to apply in the school.
III. Let them demonstrate how to teach a particular lesson.
IV. Study their portfolios to examine the qualities of the students' outputs when they were in College.
a. I and II.
b. II and III.
c. I and III, IV
d. II, III and IV
Answer: D

15. What should be done first when planning for a performance-based assessment?
a. Determine the "table of specifications" of the tasks
b. Set the competency to be assessed.
c. Set the criteria in scoring the task.
d. Prepare a scoring rubric.
Answer: B

16. To maximize the amount of time spent for performance-based assessment, which one should be
done?
a. Plan a task that can be used for instruction and assessment at the same time.
b. Assess one objective for one performance task.
c. Set objectives only for cognitive domains.

299
d. Limit the task to one meeting only.
Answer: A

17. Who among the teachers below gave the most authentic assessment task for the objective "Solve
word problems involving the four basic operations"
a. Mrs. Juliano who presented a word problem involving a four fundamental operations and then
asked the pupils to solve it.
b. Mrs. Mandia who asked her pupils to construct a word problem for a given number sentence that
involves four fundamental operations and then asked them to solve the word problem they
constructed.
c. Mrs. Malang who asked her pupils to construct any word problem that involves the four
fundamental operations and then asked them to show how to solve it.
d. Mrs. Pontipedra who asked her pupils to construct any word problem that involves the four
fundamental operations then formed them by twos so that each pair exchanged problems and help
solve each other's problem.
Answer: D

18. Which is wrong to assume about traditional assessment?

a. It can assess individuals objectively.
b. It can assess individuals at the same time.
c. It is easier to administer than performance test.
d. It can assess fairly all the domains of intelligence of an individual
Answer: D

19. Which statement about performance-based assessment is FALSE?

a. It emphasizes merely process.
b. It also stresses doing, not only knowing.
c. It accentuates on process as well as product.
d. Essay tests are an example of performance-based assessments.
Answer: A

20. Under which assumption is portfolio assessment based?

a. Portfolio assessment is a dynamic assessment.
b. Assessment should stress the reproduction of knowledge.
c. An individual learner is adequately characterized by a test score.
d. An individual learner is inadequately characterized by a test score.
Answer: D

21. Which is a good portfolio evidence of a student's acquired knowledge and writing skills?
a. Project
b. Test Results
c. Reflective Journal

300
d. Critiqued Outputs
Answer: C

22. When planning for portfolio assessment, which should you do first?
a. Set the targets for portfolio assessment.
b. Exhibit one's work and be proud of one's collection
c. Select evidences that could be captured in one's portfolio
d. Reflect on one's collection and identify strengths and weaknesses
Answer: A

23. Which kind of rubric is best to use in rating students' projects done for several days?
a. Analytic
b. Holistic
c. Either holistic or analytic
d. Both holistic and analytic
Answer: A

24. Which is not true of an analytic rubric?

a. It is time consuming
b. It is easier to construct than the holistic rubric
c. It gives one's level of performance per criterion
d. It allows one to pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses of one's work.
Answer: B

25. Mrs. Bacani prepared a rubric with 5 levels of performance described in 5-excellent, 4-very
satisfactory, 3-satisfactory, 2 needs improvement, 1-poor. After using this rubric with these
descriptions, she found out that most of her students had a rating of 3. Even those who are evidently
poor in their performance had a rating of satisfactory. Cold there be a possible error in the use of the
rubric?
a. Yes, the teacher could have committed the generosity error.
b. Yes, the teacher could have committed the central tendency source of error.
c. No, it is just common to see more of the students having grade of 3 in a 5-point scale.
d. No, such result is acceptable as long as it has a positive consequence to the students.
Answer: B

1. In a positively skewed distribution, the following statement are true except

a. Median is higher than the mode.
b. Mean is higher than the Media.
c. Mean is lower than the Mode.
d. Mean is not lower than the Mode.
Answer: C

301
2. Which of the following questions indicate a norm - referred interpretation?
a. How does the pupils test performance in our school compare with that of other schools?:
b. How does a pupil's test performance in reading and mathematics compare?
c. What type of remedial work will be most helpful for a slow- learning pupil?
d. Which pupils have achieved master of computational skills?
Answer: A

3. What is the performance of a student in the National Achievement Test (NAT) if he obtained/got a
stanine score of 5?
a. Between average and above average
b. Between average and below average
c. Below average
d. Average
Answer: D

4. Based on the figure, which is true about the distribution?

a. Mean=55, median=48, mode=34
b. Mean=46, median=40, mode=37
c. Mean=63, median=63, mode=63
d. The distribution is mesokrutic

Answer: C

5. If quartile deviation is to median, what is to mean?

a. Standard deviation
b. Mode
c. Range
d. Variance
Answer: A

302
6. In a normal distribution, which of the following is true?
a. median=mode=mean
b. median≠mode=mean
c. median≠mode≠mean
d. Mean=median=mode
Answer: D

7. Which of the following situations may lower the validity of test?

a. Mrs. Josea increases the number of items measuring each specific skill from three to five.
b. Mr. Santosa simplifies the language in the directions for the test.
c. Miss. Lopeza removes the items in the achievement test that everyone would be able to answer
correctly.
d. None of the above.
Answer: D

8. In a negatively skewed distribution, which of the following statements is true?

a. Mode is lower than the mean.
b. Mean is lower than the mode.
c. Median is higher than the mode.
d. Mode is lower than the median.
Answer: B

9. In a negatively skewed distribution, the following statements are true EXCEPT?

a. Mean is not higher than the median
b. Median is lower than the mode.
c. Mean is lower than the mode.
d. Mode is less than the median.
Answer: D

10. Miss Cortez administered a test to her class and the result is positively skewed. What kind of test
do you think Miss Cortez gave to her pupils?
a. Post test
b. Pretest
c. Mastery test
d. Criterion-referenced test
Answer: B

11. The result of the test given by teacher A showed a negatively skewed distribution. What kind of
test did Teacher A give?

303
a. The test is difficult
b. It is not too easy nor too difficult
c. It is moderately difficult
d. It is easy
Answer: D

12. When the distribution is skewed to the right, what kind of test was administered?
a. Difficult
b. Easy
c. Average/moderately difficult
d. Partly easy- partly difficult
Answer: A

13. In a negatively skewed distribution, what kind of students does Teacher B have?
a. Very good
b. Very poor
c. Average
d. Heterogeneous
Answer: A

14. In a positively skewed distribution, the students are?

a. Very good
b. Very poor
c. Average
d. Normally distributed
Answer: B

15. In a positively skewed distribution, which of the following statements is true?

a. Mode = 67 while Media = 54
b. Median = 53 while Mean = 41
c. Mean = 73 while Mode = 49
d. Median = 34 while Mode = 42
Answer: C

16. Which statements represent criterion-referenced interpretation?

a. Lucresia did better in solving the linear equation than 80% of representative Algebra students.
b. Lucresia's score indicates that she is able to solve about two thirds of all one-variable linear
equations of such complexity.
c. Students who have reached Lucresia's level on linear equations usually succeed in the subsequent
unit on simultaneous equations with special help or extra time; i.e., Lucresia is ready to move ahead.
d. All of the above
Answer: B

304
17. Bernard obtained a 97 percentile rank in an aptitude test. This means
a. He answered 97% of the items correctly.
b. He belongs to the 97% of the group who took the test.
c. 79% of the examinees did better than her on the test.
d. He surpassed 97% of those who took the test.
Answer: D

18. Which set of scores has the least variability?

Set 1 0,5,10,15,20
Set 2 25,35,45,55
Set 3 0,2,8,15,20
Set 4 505,501,503
a. Set 1
b. Set 2
c. Set 3
d. Set 4
Answer: D

19. Standard deviation is to variability as mode to?

a. Correlation
b. Discrimination
c. Central tendency
d. Level of difficulty
Answer: C

20. Goring performed better than 65% of the total number of examinees in the district achievement
test. What is his percentile rank?
a. P35
b. P65
c. P66
d. P75
Answer: B

21. Which is a guidance function of a test?

a. Identifying pupils who need corrective teaching
b. Predicting success in future academic and vocational education
c. Assigning marks for courses taken
d. Grouping pupils for instruction within a class
Answer: B

22. Mr. Reyes, an elementary school teacher in Science found out that many of his pupils got very

305
high scores in the test. What measure of central tendency should he use to describe their average
performance in the subject?
a. Mean
b. Median
c. Mode
d. Range
Answer: B

23. Which of the following indicates how compressed or expanded the distribution of scores is?
a. Measures of position
b. Measures of central tendency
c. Measures of correlation
d. Measures of variability
Answer: D

24. The proportion passing the upper and lower group is .80 and .95, respectively. What is the index
of difficulty?
a. .38
b. .40
c. .58
d. 1.02
Answer: C

25. Mr. Gringo tried to correlate the scores of his pupils in the Social studies test with their grades in
the same subject last 3rd quarter. What test validity is he trying to establish?
a. Content validity
b. Construct validity
c. Concurrent validity
d. Criterion related validity
Answer: C

1. If a test item has a difficulty index of 0.06, how would you describe the test item?
a. It is very easy.
b. It is moderately difficulty.
c. It is very difficult
d. It is difficult
Answer: C

2. Two sections have the same mean but the standard deviation of section 2 is higher than section 1.
Which of the two sections is more homogeneous?
a. Section 1
b. Section 2

306
c. Both A and B
d. None of the above
Answer: A

3. Miss Corteza administered a test to her class and the result is positively skewed. What kind of test
do you think Miss Corteza gave to her pupils?
a. Posttest
b. Pretest
c. Mastery test
d. Criterion-referenced test
Answer: B

4. In his second item analysis, Mr. Gonzales found out that more from the lower group got the test
item 15 correctly. What does this mean?
a. The item has become more valid
b. The item has become more reliable
c. The item has a positive discriminating power
d. The item has a negative discriminating power
Answer: D

5. Q1 is 25th percentile as media is to what percentile?

a. 40th percentile
b. 60th percentile
c. 50th percentile
d. 75th percentile
Answer: C

6. Which is implied by a positively skewed scores distribution?

a. The mean, the median, and the mode are equal.
b. Most of the scores are high
c. Most of the scores are low.
d. The mode is high
Answer: C

7. In a normal distribution curve, what does a T-score of 60 mean?

a. Two SDs below the mean
b. Two SDs below the mean
c. One SD below the mean
d. One SD above the mean
Answer: D

307
For items 8 to 13, what does each figure/distribution on the right indicate?

8. a. mean > median > mode

b. mean < mode > median
c. mean > mode < median
d. mean < median < mode

Answer: D

9. a. mode < mean < median

b. mode > mean > median
c. median < mode > mean
d. none of the above

Answer: D

10. a. equal means, unequal standard deviations

b. equal means, equal standard deviations

308
c. unequal means, equal standard deviations
d. unequal means unequal standard deviations

Answer: A

11. a unequal means, equal standard deviations

b. unequal means, equal standard deviations
c. equal means, equal standard deviations
d. equal means, unequal standard deviations

Answer: A

12. a. unequal variability, equal means, different shapes

b. unequal means, equal variability, different shapes
c. equal variability, equal means, different shapes
d. unequal variability, unequal means, different shapes

309
Answer: C

13. a. unequal means, equal standard deviations

b. equal means, unequal standard deviations
c. equal means, equal standard deviations
d. unequal means, unequal standard deviations

Answer: D

14. In conducting a parent- teacher conference, which of the following is NOT true?
a. Be friendly and informal
b. Be a know-it-all person
c. Be willing to accept suggestions
d. Be careful in giving advice
Answer: B

15. In a frequency distribution, what is the midpoint of the class interval whose lower and upper
limits are 99.5 and 109.5?
a. 107.0

310
b. 105.0
c. 104.5
d. 102.5
Answer: C

16. In a frequency distribution, what is the interval size of the class whose lower and upper limits are
9.5 and 19.5?
a. 11.0
b. 10.0
c. 9.0
d. 5.0
Answer: B

17. Given a mean of 55 and a standard deviation of 8, what two scores include one standard
deviation below and above the mean?
a. 46 and 63
b. 47 and 64
c. 47 and 63
d. 46 and 64
Answer: C

18. Given the same mean of 55 and standard deviation of 8, what score corresponds to two standard
deviation above the mean?
a. 70
b. 71
c. 72
d. 73
Answer: B

19. What principle of test construction is violated when one places very difficult items at the
beginning; thus creating frustration among students particularly those of average ability and below
average?
a. All the items of particular type should be placed together in the test.
b. The items should be phrased so that the content rather than the form of the statements will
determine the answer.
c. All items should be approximately 50 percent difficulty.
d. The items of any particular type should be arranged in an ascending order of difficulty.
Answer: D

20. Mrs. Reyes would like to find out how well her students know each other. What assessment
instrument would best suit her objective?
a. Self-report instrument

311
b. Sociometric technique
c. Guess-who technique
d. All of the above
Answer: C

21. Mr. Reyes asked his pupils to indicate on the piece of paper the names of their classmates whom
they would like to be with for some group activity, what assessment technique did Mr. Reyes use?
a. Self-report technique
b. Guess-who technique
c. Sociometric technique
d. Anecdotal technique
Answer: C

22. Which of the following assessment procedures/tools is useful in assessing social relation skills?
a. Anecdotal record
b. Attitude scale
c. Peer appraisal
d. any of the above
Answer: C

23. If the proportion passing for the upper and lower group is .90 and .30 respectively, what is the
discrimination index?
a. .40
b. .50
c. .60
d. .70
Answer: C

24. Which is an example of affective learning outcome?

a. Interpret stimuli from various modalities to provide data needed in making adjustments to the
environment
b. Judge problem and issues in terms of situations involved than in terms of fixed dogmatic thinking
c. Appreciate the quality and worth of the story read
d. None of the above
Answer: B

312
25. Mr. Mirasol who is a high school teacher in English conducted an item analysis of her test. She
found out that four of the items of the test obtained the following difficulty and discrimination
indices and as follows:

Item Number Difficulty Index

1 .58

2 .92

3 .09

4 .93

Which of the above items should be discard in her item pool?

a. Item 1
b. Item 2
c. Item 3
d. Item 4
Answer: D

PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
What is Philosophy?
- is the science that seeks to organize and systemize all fields of knowledge as a means of
understanding and interpreting the totality of reality.

313
- systematic and logical explanation of the nature, existence, purpose and relationships of things,
including human beings in the universe.
Main Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics – deals with the first principles, the origin an essence of things, the causes and end of
thing.
- it is the science of existence.
2. Epistemology – deals with knowledge and with ways of knowing.
- Conceptua
- Perceptual
– Intuitive
3. Axiology – deals with purposes and values.
- Ethics
4. Logic – deals with the correct way of thinking.
Major Philosophies of Education
1. Idealism – (Platonic) Reality consists of transcendental universal, form, or ideals which are the
object of true knowledge.
(DECS order No. 13 s 1998 – Revised rules and regulation on the teaching of religion in public
elementary and secondary schools)
2. Naturalism – This opposed to idealism. This is the view that the whole of reality is nature.
3. Pragmatism – a tendency, movement, or more definite system of thought in which stress is place
upon critical consequence and values as standard for explicating philosophic concept, and as a test of
truth lies in its practical consequence and that the purpose of conduct.

- James
- Chiller
- Dewey
4. Supernaturalism – has a purpose to educate the individual for his life here on earth and to prepare
for the life beyond.
Humanism – places human being over in above worldly things.
5. Realism– universals are independent of antecedent to and more real than the specific individual
instances in which they manifest.
6. Progressivism
– dominated by the technological experimental advancement which have so powerfully shaped our
modern culture.

314
(DECS order No. 57 s 1998 – Clarification on the changes in the Social Studies Program, WH for 3rd
year and Economics for 4th year)
(DECS order No 91 s. 1998 – Changes in the THE program of the NSEC)
Some important features of Progressivism
The child as the center of the educational process.
It emphasizes learning by doing.
Advocates of Progressivism
John Dewey
William Kilpatrick
7. Existentialism
- Puts emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual.
- Existence precedes, that is, essence is created by existence.
- Human nature is a product of existence.
- Holds the view that human existence, or the human situation is the starting point of thinking.
– It emphasizes concreteness of the individual.
- It values the freedom of choice, individual dignity, personal love, and creative effort.
(DECS order no. 65 s. 1998 – revised Guidelines on the selection of honor students in secondary
level)
(DECS order no. 10 s. 1998 – Revised system of rating and reporting of student performance for
secondary schools)
Freedom of choice is an important value of existentialism and is determined or affected to a large
extent several factors among which are the following:
Influence of the family especially the parents.
Influence of peers and associates.
Religious orientation
Social approval
Cultural patterns
Financial status
Psychological traits
Sex
Health and physical fitness
Education
8. Positivism

315
- a philosophical movement characterized by an emphasis upon science and scientific method as the
only source of knowledge.
9. Relativism
- a doctrine of relationism or relativity – a theory that knowledge is relative to the limited nature of the
mind and the condition of knowing.
10. Materialism
- it maintains that all events are not true to the nature of independent reality and that holds that
absolutely true knowledge is impossible.
11. Empiricism
- it spouses that legitimate human knowledge arises from what is provided to the mind by the senses
or by introspective awareness through experience.
-hence it believes on education through
12. Romanticism
- it questioned the notions of the enlightenment that had dominated Europe in the early 18th century.
13. Epicureanism
- philosophical teaching about nature and ethics that was derived from the writing of Epicurus.
- this philosophy base its knowledge on sense perception, asserting that sensations are invariably good.
14. Hedonism
- it centers on pleasure
- learning is pleasurable
15. Utilitarianism
- it believes that any moral theory that value of human actions, policies, and institutions by their
consequences in men’s experience or by general welfare of all person affected by them.
16. Communism
- disregard basic human rights and educates the young for subservience to the state.
17. Fascism
– conceives that the state is an absolute.
18. Progressivism
- it emphasizes that educational concern must be on the child interest, desires, and the learners freedom
as an individual rather than the subject matter.
19. Essentialism
- it ascribes ultimate reality to immense embodied in a thing perceptible to the senses.

The Educational Philosophies of Frontier Thinkers of Education

316
SOCRATES
a. The end of life is knowledge.
b. Knowledge is virtues
c. “Know thyself”
2. PLATO
a. Each person should devote his life to that which he is best fitted to do.
b. The function of education is to determine what each individual is by nature fitted to do.
c. Social justice (Give what is due to whom it is due)
d. Intellectual aristocracy (The rule of the intellectual elite)
3. ARISTOTLE
a. Virtue is not possession of knowledge but state of the will.
b. The end of education is knowledge alone, but the union of the intellect and the will or
knowledge express in action.
c. Reality, not ideas but the performance, is the highest function.
d. Adaptation of education to the form of government.
e. Objective and scientific not introspective method of education
4. Comenius
a. Development of the whole life.
b. Follow the order of nature.
c. Training for character.
d. Both sexes should be included in education.
5. LOCKE
a. “Tabula rasa” or “blank paper” theory
– a child is born with a blank mind (neither good or bad)
b. Education can shape the pupil according to the will of the teacher.
c. Formal discipline
– Training gained in one area can be applied in another area.

6. Rousseau
a. Development of the child according to his nature.
b. Man should live a simple life.
c. The child, the important
d. Use of instinctive tendencies as the starting point of education
7. Peztalozzi

317
 a. Education as the process of organized growth.
b. All education should be founded upon laws of natural development of the child.
c. Use of object in teaching.
d. Emphasis on method and technique of teaching.
8. HERBART
a. Doctrine of apperception
b. Education should be specific.
c. Mind is a unity, possessing but one power, that of entering into relation with its environment.
9. FROEBEL
a. Self-activity as the means of development.
b. Play, spontaneous activity, manual and industrial development are utilized to promote self-
realization.
c. Process of education determined by the nature of the child.
10. Spencer
Knowledge that is best for use in life is also best for the development of power.
Emphasis on physical education.
Importance of science in the curriculum

11. WILLIAM JAMES

Mental activity is functional.
Knowledge is instrumental.
It is consequences that make the choice good or bad.
12. JOHN DEWEY
Education is life
Education is growth
Education is a social process
Education is a continuous reconstruction of experiences.
13. JESUS CHRIST
Right relationship with God should precede all kinds and types of education.
“But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and His righteousness, and everything shall be added unto
you” (Matthew 6:33)
Education should be used for service.
“Give thyself” is the philosophy of service of Jesus.

318
FUNCTION OF PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
1. Provide guidelines in the formulation of the educational policies and programs and in the
construction of curricula.
2. Provide direction toward which all educational effort should be exerted.
3. Provide theories and hypothesis which may be tested for their effectiveness and efficiency.
4. Provide norms or standards for evaluation purposes.
Importance of Philosophy of Education to the Teacher
1. Provides the teacher with basis for making his decision concerning his work.
2. Help the teacher develop a wide range of interest, attitudes, and values concomitant to his
professional life as teacher.
3. Makes a teacher more aware of his own life and work, and makes him more dynamic,
discriminating, critical and mentally alert.
4. Philosophy of education saves time, money and effort
Philosophical Foundation of Education
A. Hinduism
– (Dharma), characterized by honesty courage, service, faith, self-control, purity, and non-violence
Dharma can be achieved through Yoga
Believes that one should be able to control and regulate his desires, not to devote life to sensual
pleasure success.
Religion should be practical.
God is truth and the best way to seek the truth is by practicing non-violence (Ahimsa)
B. Buddhism
Believes that personal gratification is the root of suffering in the world.
The teaching of Buddha centered on four noble truths:
1. All life is suffering, pain, and misery
2. Selfish craving and personal desire.
3. Suffering can cease.
4. Way to overcome this misery is through following the Eight Fold Paths
2. Chinese Philosophies
Confucianism,
- an essentially optimistic system of belief, argued that those who were naturally virtuous should,
while behaving with loyalty and respect, help to govern their country by maintaining their
independence and criticizing their rulers if necessary: The government served its citizens, rather than
the reverse.

319
Taoism,
- by contrast, taught that humans should withdraw from culture and society, devoting themselves to
meditation and, like water, adapt themselves to natural forces.
3. Japanese Philosophy
Zen Buddhism
- No savior/s paradise, faith on God, no scriptures.
-The third eye helps one to see things in addition to what our two eyes show us, and should be
attuned to the things around us.
Emphasizes silent meditation, aiming to awaken the mind in each person.
4. Muslim Philosophy
Islam
- Emphasized a total commitment in faith obedience, and trust to one and only God.
Koran, its sacred book is the word of God.
Each person will be tried on the judgment when Allah will judge all souls.
Believes in paradise, an oasis of flowing water, pleasant drinks, food and sensual delights.
Five Pillars of Islam:
– 1. Belief in one God
– 2. Prayer
– 3. Fasting
– 4. Alms giving
– 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca
5. Christian Philosophy
God is the Creator of all thing
Jesus is the Messiah, Christ, Son of God
Human being is a sinner who requires redemption
Jesus came down to earth to redeem mankind
Baptism is necessary for salvation
There is life after death

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

1. Devices can make a lecture more understandable and meaningful. What is the most important thing a teacher
should consider in the selection and utilization of instructional materials?
A. Objectives of the lessons C. Attractiveness of instructional materials
B. Availability of instructional materials D. Degree of interest on the part of the
students

320
2. Teacher E asks student A to identify and analyse events, ideas or objects in order to state their similarities and
difference. In which part of the lesson does said activity take place?
A. Preparation B. Generalization C. Application D.
Comparison & abstraction
3. Which part of the lesson is involved in giving of situation or activities based on the concepts learned?
A. Preparation B. Generalization C. Application D.
Comparison & abstraction
4. Teacher F wants the class to find out the effect of heat on matter. Which method will help him accomplish his
objective?
A. Project method B. Laboratory method C. Problem method D.
Expository method
5. In Math, teacher G presents various examples of plane figures to her class. Afterwards, she asks the students to
give the definition of each. What method did she use?
A. Inductive B. Laboratory C. Deductive D.
Expository
6. Teaching Tinkling to I – Maliksi becomes possible through the use of
A. Inductive method B. Expository method C. Demonstration method D.
Laboratory method
7. What is the implication of using a method that focuses on the why rather than the how?
A. There is best method
B. A typical one will be good for any subject
C. These methods should be standardized for different subjects
D. Teaching methods should favour inquiry and problem solving
8. When using problem solving method, the teacher can
A. Set up the problem C. Propose ways of obtaining the needed
data
B. Test the conclusion D. Help the learners define what is to be
solved
9. Which part of the lesson does the learner give a synthesis of the things learned?
A. Motivation B. Application C. Evaluation D.
Generalization
10. The strategy of teaching which makes of old concept of “each-one-teach-one” is similar to
A. Peer learning B. Independent learning C. Partner learning D.
Cooperative learning
11. When using instructional material, what should the teacher primarily consider?
A. The material must be new and skilfully made C. The material must stimulate and
maintain students’ interest
B. It must be suited to the lesson objective D. It must be updated and relevant to
Filipino setting
12. Which is NOT a provision for the development of each learner in a good curriculum?
A. Extensive arrangements are made for the educational diagnosis of individual learners
B. Self-directed, independent study is encouraged wherever possible and advisable
C. Self-motivation and self-evaluation are stimulated and emphasized throughout the learning
opportunities of the school
D. The program provides a wide range of opportunities for individuals with the same abilities , needs and
interests
13. In the elementary level, English literature and Social studies relate well. While history is being studied, different
literary pieces during the historical period is being studied as well. What curriculum design is shown here?
A. Separate Subject design B. Discipline design C. Correlation design D.
Broad field design
14. Ms. Mateo, a History teacher considers the element of time in arranging the content of her lessons in World
History. What way of establishing sequence is given emphasis by Ms Mateo?
A. Simple to complex B. Part to whole C. Concrete to abstract D.
Chronological
15. Teacher Dominguito believes that a new respect for the child is fundamental in curriculum. Thus, all activities in
the classroom are geared towards the development of the child- the centre of the educative process. To which
approach in curriculum does Teacher Dominguito adhere?
A. Learner-centered B. Subject-centered C. Problem-centered D.
Pragmatic
16. Which curriculum design element is taking place when Eduardo, a 4 th year student can connect the lessons he
learned in a subject area to a related content in another subject area?

321
 A. Articulation B. Balance C. Continuity D.
Integration
17. The following curricular changes too place in what particular period? Restore Grade VII, double-single session
was abolished and more textbooks were written by Filipino authors
A. American period B. Philippine republic C. Japanese occupation D.
New society
18. What process is being undertaken by curriculum developers when they enrich or modify certain aspects of a
particular program without changing its fundamental conceptions?
A. Curriculum improvement C. Curriculum design
B. Curriculum change D. Curriculum implementation
19. What refers to the authenticity of the content selected by the curriculum developer?
A. Feasibility B. Learn ability C. Significance D.
Validity
20. Which is NOT a component of curriculum designing?
A. Objective B. Learning content C. Learning experiences D.
Diagnosis of needs
21. What do you call the curriculum when the teacher puts into action all the different planned activities planned
activities in the classroom?
A. Recommended curriculum C. Taught curriculum
B. Written curriculum D. Supported curriculum
22. Prof. Delos Santos is thinking of an online learning approach by which content provides links to information at
other locations and serves as a focal point for a distance education experience. Which of the following should she
use?
A. Teleconferencing B. Self-paced program C. Web-based instruction D.
Computer-aided instruction
23. With the increasing use of educational technology inside the classroom, what role is expected of the teacher?
A. Facilitator B. Researcher C. Knowledge giver D.
Source of information
24. It is impractical to bring real objects to the classroom s Aaron constructed a three-dimensional visual instead.
Which of the following did he construct?
A. Chart B. Cartoon C. Model D.
Graphic organizer
25. Prof. Mandanas would like to use an audio compact disc in teaching a lesson in Filipino. In which activity in the
teaching-learning process is it very effective?
A. In developing listening skills B. In teaching creative writing C. In composing poems D. In
building concepts.
26. If I have to use the most authentic method of assessment, which of these procedures should I consider?
A. Traditional Test C. Written test
B. Performance-based assessment D. Objective assessment
27. After doing the exercise on verbs, Ms. Borillo gave a short quiz to find out how well the students have understood
the lesson. What type of assessment was done?
A. Summative assessment B. Formative assessment C. Diagnostic assessment D.
Placement assessment
28. Ms. Ortega tasked her students to show how to play basketball. What learning target is she assessing?
A. Knowledge B. Reasoning C. Skills D.
Products
29. What type of validity does the pre-board examination possesses if its results can explain how the student will
likely perform in their licensure examination?
A. Concurrent B. Predictive C. Construct D.
Content
30. Which term refers to the collection of student’s product and accomplishments in a given period for evaluation
purposes?
A. Diary B. Portfolio C. Anecdotal record D.
Observation report
31. Mrs. Pua is judging the worth of the project of the students in her Science class based in a set of criteria. What
process describes what she is doing?
A. Testing B. Measuring C. Evaluating D.
Assessing
32. Ms. Ricaforte uses alternative methods of assessment. Which of the following will her NOT likely use?
A. Multiple choice test B. Reflective journal writing C. Oral presentation D. Developing
portfolios

322
33. Mrs. Nogueras is doing an assessment OF learning. At what stage of instruction should she do it?
A. Before instruction B. After instruction C. Prior to instruction D. During the
instructional process
34. In a positively skewed distribution, the following statements are true EXCEPT
A. Median is higher than the mode C. Mean is lower than the mode
B. Mean is higher than the median D. Mean is not lower them the mode
35. If quartile deviation is to median, what is to mean?
A. Standard deviation B. Mode C. Range D.
Variance
36. Miss Cortez administered a test to her class and the result is positively skewed. What kind of test do you think
Miss Cortez gave to her pupils?
A. Post-test B. Pertest C. Mastery test D.
Criterion-referenced test
37. The result of the test given by teacher A showed a negatively skewed distribution. What kind of test did teacher a
give?
A. The test is difficult B. It is not too easy or too difficult C. It is moderately difficult D. It is easy
38. Standard deviation is to variability as mode to _______________
A. Correlation B. Discrimination C. Central tendency D.
Level of difficulty
39. Goring perform better than 65% of the total number of examinees in the district achievement test. What is his
percentile rank?
A. P35 B. P65 C. P66 D.
P75
40. Which is a guidance function of a test?
A. Identifying pupils who need corrective teaching C. Assigning marks for courses
taken
B. Redacting success in future academic and vocational education D. Grouping pupils for instruction
within a class
41. Mr. Labanga, an elementary school teacher in Science found out that many of his pupils got very high scores in the
test. What measure of central tendency should he use to describe their average performance in the subject?
A. Mean B. Median C. Mode D.
Range
42. Which of the following indicates how compressed or expanded the distribution of scores is?
A. Measure of position B. Measure of central tendency C. Measures of correlation D.
Measure of variability
43. Mr. Gringo tried to correlate the scores of his pupils in Social studies test with their grades in the same subject
last 3rd quarter. What test validity is he trying to establish?
A. Content validity B. Construct validity C. Concurrent validity D.
Criterion-related validity
44. In his second item analysis, Mr. Gonzales found out that more from the lower group got the test item 15 correctly.
What does this mean?
A. The item has become more valid C. The item has a positive discriminating
power
B. The item has become more reliable D. The item has a negative discriminating
power
45. Mr. Lorenzo would always give the chapter test on a Friday. What schedule of reinforcement is used by Mr.
Lorenzo?
A. Fixed Interval B. Variable Interval C. Fixed Ratio D.
Variable Ratio
46. Here is a test item: “The improvement of basic education should be the top priority of the Philippine Government.
Defend or defy this position.” What type of question is this?
A. Analysis B. Convergent C. Evaluative D.
Low level
47. Student A wishes to write a lesson plan. Which question s/he asks herself first?
A. What material will I need? C. What do I want to accomplish
B. How will I get things started? D. What exercises will I give my students?
48. Which of the following characterizes best an effective classroom manager? One who is friendly yet
A. Rigid B. demanding C. business-like D.
buddy-buddy
49. Which of the classroom activity below is effective?

323
 A. The concept learned is applicable to daily life C. The techniques and approaches used are
varied
B. The variety of instructional materials used is evident D. The laughter and enjoyment of students
are contagious
50. Which of the following characterizes beat a well-managed class? Which learners?
A. Are controlled by the teacher C. Blindly obey teacher’s instructions
B. Pursue their task without inhibition D. Are engaged in an activity that leads
them to realize the set goal
51. Which of the following belongs to a lower-order thinking skills?
A. Teaching for meaning C. Encouraging creativity
B. Asking convergent question D. Making the students aware of their
mental processes
52. When should Teacher M undertake the task of setting up routine activities?
A. Every homeroom period C. On the very first day of school
B. Every day at the start of the session D. As soon as the students have adjusted to
their schedule
53. Which of the following marks a conducive environment?
A. Excessive praise B. long assignments C. Individual competition D.
cooperative learning
54. Which of the following helps develop critical thinking?
A. Asking low level questions C. Blind obedience authority
B. Asking convergent questions D. Willingness to suspend judgement until sufficient evidence
is presented
55. What design element established the vertical linkage form level to level to avoid getting gaps and wasteful
overlaps?
A. Articulation B. Balance C. Scope D.
Sequence
56. What refers to the authenticity of the content selected by the curriculum developer?
A. Feasibility B. Learnable C. Significance D.
Validity
57. What do we call the allocation of content to a definite grade capable of learning?
A. Time allotment B. Grade Level C. Grade replacement D.
Maturity level
58. Which pattern of experience centered curriculum centers on the normal activities of children and is based on each
child’s needs, interests and potentials?
A. Child centered B. Activity C. Social function D.
Specific competencies
59. Which curriculum development phase focuses on the change which will take place in certain aspects of the
curriculum without changing the fundamental conceptions?
A. Curriculum planning B. Curriculum improvement C. Curriculum design D.
Curriculum evaluation
60. Which is NOT a component of curriculum designing?
A. Objective B. Learning content C. Learning experiences D.
Diagnosis of needs
61. Who controls the subject centered curriculum?
A. Learner B. Teacher C. Parent D.
Separate subjects
62. To ensure success in curriculum development, which of the following specific actions should a curriculum leader
avoid?
A. Work with people not over them C. Use your status frequently to establish
discipline
B. Keep channels of communication open D. Show that you too desire to improve
63. Which of the following is a reason for the continuous appraisal of the existing curriculum in all levels?
A. New national policies in government C. Changing needs and condition of society
B. Economic status of the people D. Political trust of the country
64. Which of the following best defines curriculum development?
A. The total mental phenomenon directly received at any given time
B. The planning of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain desired changes in pupils and the
assessment of the extent
To which these changes have taken place
C. A continuous cycle of activities in which all elements of curriculum are considered

324
 D. Education is aiding each child to be socially creative individuals
65. What do you call the curriculum when the teacher puts into action all the different planned activities in the
classroom?
A. Recommended Curriculum B. Taught Curriculum C. Written Curriculum D.
Supported Curriculum
66. All the reading theories recognize the role of the reader and the text in the comprehension process. However, only
the interactive model accounts for the role of the reading situation in the meaning-making process. What factors
does the interactive model consider in the reading process?
A. Outcome B. task C. context D.
purpose
67. Reading in the content area aims to help students make sense of the text and negotiate meanings as readers
actively interact with the text. Which of the following activities will nest achieve this goal?
A. Have reading of the text be done at home C. Make them read silently
B. Allow students to ask questions D. Practice oral reading fluency
68. Ronald is about to buy a book. After taking a book form the display shelf, he looked at the title, opened it and
looked at the table of contents, then the summary found at the back cover. He realized that what he took from the
shelf is not what he needs. Which of the following strategies do you think id Ronald do to decide why he does no
need it?
A. Scanning B. Close reading C. Skimming D.
Careful slow reading
69. After M. Rivas planned her lesson in English, she found out that the materials at hand do not match her objectives.
Which is the best thing she can do?
A. Modify the available materials C. Teach the lesson the following day
B. Change the objectives to match with available materials D. Carry out the lesson as planned and use
the materials at hand
70. With the increasing use of the educational technology inside the classroom, what role is expected of the teacher?
A. Facilitator B. Knowledge giver C. Researcher D.
Source of information
71. It is impractical to bring real objects to the classroom so Aaron constructed a three-dimensional visual instead.
Which of the following did he construct?
A. Chart B. Cartoon C. Model D.
Graphic organizer
72. Standard deviation is to variability as mode to _______________
B. Correlation B. Discrimination C. Central tendency D.
Level of difficulty
73. Goring perform better than 65% of the total number of examinees in the district achievement test. What is his
percentile rank?
B. P35 B. P65 C. P66 D.
P75
74. Which is a guidance function of a test?
A. Identifying pupils who need corrective teaching C. Assigning marks for courses
take
B. Redacting success in future academic and vocational education D. Grouping pupils for instruction
within a class
75. Mr. Labanga, an elementary school teacher in Science found out that many of his pupils got very high scores in the
test. What measure of central tendency should he use to describe their average performance in the subject?
A. Mean B. Median C. Mode D.
Range
76. Which of the following indicates how compressed or expanded the distribution of scores is?
A. Measure of position B. Measure of central tendency C. Measures of correlation D.
Measure of variability
77. Mr. Gringo tried to correlate the scores of his pupils in Social studies test with their grades in the same subject
last 3rd quarter. What test validity is he trying to establish.
A. Content validity B. Construct validity C. Concurrent validity D.
Criterion-related validity
78. In his second item analysis, Mr. Gonzales found out that more from the lower group got the test item 15 correctly.
What does this mean?
A. The item has become more valid C. The item has a positive discriminating power
B. The item has become more reliable D. The item has a negative discriminating power
79. Q1 is 25th percentile as median is to what percentile?

325
 A. 40th percentile B. 60th percentile C. 50th percentile D.
75th percentile
80. Mrs. Del Salvatier would like to find out how well her students know each other, what assessment instruments
would best suit her objective?
A. Self-report instrument B. Sociometric technique C. Guess-who technique D. All
of the above
81. Which of the following assessment procedures/tools is useful in assessing social relation skills?
A. Anecdotal record B. Attitude scale C. Peer appraisal D.
Any of the above
82. Which educational level/s/provide/s for free and compulsory as stipulated in Article Iv, section 2 of the
Philippine constitution?
A. Elementary level B. Secondary level C. Elementary & secondary levels D.
Tertiary level
83. Who among the following is in the category of non- academic personnel as provided for under Education Act
1982?
A. Guidance counsellors B. School principals C. School nurse D.
School librarian
84. How is gradual progression of teacher’s salary form minimum to maximum done?
A. Regular increment every year C. Regular increment every 3 years
B. Increment after ten years of service D. Increment after 5 years
85. What appointment can be given to Teacher a who possesses the minimum qualifications but lacks the appropriate
civil service eligibility?
A. Contractual basis B. Permanent C. Provisional D.
Substitute
86. Which of the following is true about human development?
A. Human development consider both maturation and learning
B. Development refers to the progressive series of changes of orderly coherent type toward the goal
maturity.
C. Development is the gradual and orderly unfolding of the characteristics of the individuals as they go
through the successive stages of growth
D. All of the above
87. What do you call the quantitative increase in terms of height and weight as observed but the school physician
during the physical examination of the students?
A. Development B. Learning C. Growth D.
Maturation
88. Mrs. Alvarez conducts research on the psychological domain of development. In what particular area of the child’s
development is Mrs. Alvarez mostly like to be interested with?
A. Perpetual abilities B. Emotions C. Brain-wave patterns D.
Use of language
89. Which of the following is the correct order of psychosexual stages proposed by Sigmund Freud?
A. Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
B. Anal stage, oral stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
C. Oral stage, anal stage, genital stage, latency stage, phallic stage
D. Anal stage, oral stage, genital stage, latency stage, phallic stage
90. What is the best description of Erickson’s psychological theory of human development?
A. Eight crises all people are thought to face
B. Four psychological stages in the latency period
C. The same number of stages as Freud’s but with different names
D. A stage theory that is not psychoanalytic
91. In Erickson’s theory, what is the unresolved crisis of an adult who has difficulty establishing a secure, mutual
relationship with a life partner?
A. Initiative vs. Guilt B. Intimacy vs. Isolation C. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt D.
Trust vs. Mistrust
92. Alyssa is eight years old, and although she understand some logical principles, she still has troubles in
understanding hypothetical concepts. According to Piaget, Alyssa belongs to what particular stage of cognitive
development?
A. Sensorimotor B. Concrete operational C. Preoperational D.
Formal operational
93. Which of the following provides the best broad description of the relationship between heredity and environment
in determining height?
A. Heredity is the primary influence, with environment affecting development only in severe situations.

326
 B. Heredity and environment contribute equally to development
C. Environment is the major influence on physical characteristics.
D. Heredity directs the individual’s potential and development determines whether and to what degree the
individual reaches that potential.
94. What is the correct sequence of prenatal stages of development?
A. Embryo, germinal, fetus C. Germinal, embryo, fetus
B. Germinal, fetus, embryo D. Embryo, fetus, germinal
95. When a baby realized that a rubber duck which has fallen out the tub must be somewhere on the floor, he is likely
to achieved what aspect of cognitive development?
A. Object permanence C. Mental combination
B. Differed imitation D. Goal-directed behavior
96. Which of the following will be Freud’s description of the child’s behavior if he has a biting, sarcastic manner?
A. Anally explosive C. Fixated in the oral stage
B. Anally retentive D. Experiencing the crisis of trust vs.
mistrust
97. What is Freud’s idea about a young boy’s guilt feeling brought about by jealousy of his father’s relationship with
his mother?
A. Electra complex C. Phallic complex
B. Oedipus complex D. Penis envy complex
98. When a little girl who says she wants her mother to go on vacation so that she can marry her father, Freud
believes that he is voicing a fantasy consistent with?
A. Oedipus complex C. Theory of the mind
B. Electra complex D. Crisis of initiative vs. Guilt
99. Which of the following can best describe the prescribe the preschooler’s readiness to learn new task and play
activities?
A. Emerging competency and self-awareness C. Theory of the Mind
B. Relationship with parents D. Growing identification with others
100. Erickson’s noted that when preschoolers eagerly begin many new activities but are vulnerable to criticism and
feelings failure, they are experiencing what particular crisis?
A. Identity vs. role confusion C. Basic trust vs. mistrust
B. Initiative vs. Guilt D. Efficacy vs. helplessness
101. Teacher P, the English coordinator was assisted by Teacher Q throughout the celebration of English Week. What
should Teacher P do to acknowledge Teacher Q’s assistance?
A. Buy her a gift
B. Keep quiet about the assistance received
C. Mention formally to the principal the assistance received
D. Make an announcement giving due recognition of the assistance received
102. Is holding a rally to protest the delay of benefits due a person ethically acceptable?
A. Yes, when hold while on official time C. Yes, when hold outside the official time
B. Yes, when hold with the approval of the principal D. Yes , when hold together with parents
and students
103. What should a teacher do when he/she falls in love with/her student?
A. Court the student at home
B. Propose and marry the student
C. Wait till the student is no longer under his/her tutelage
D. Act normally as if nothing happens and the student does not exist
104. When principal starts to exercise his/her powers over making and promoting students, is his/her action
acceptable?
A. Yes, when the teacher cannot make decision on time
B. Yes, when there is abuse of judgement on the part of the teacher
C. No, teachers are more knowledgeable of their student’s performance
D. No, grading and promoting students are exclusive functions of teachers
105. Teacher R was asked by her principal to teach pre-school class in addition to her regular grade one class, what
will be for her additional compensation?
A. Her basic salary C. Performance rating
B. Number of years of service D. Her regular salary + 25% of her basic
pay
106. Which of the following shows responsiveness of public officials and employees?
A. Avoiding wastage in public funds C. Formulating rules regarding work
B. Providing public information D. Encouraging appreciation of
government services

327
107. Teacher S, a Science teacher has been accused of sexual harassment by one her students. What should the school
principal do?
A. Ask the teacher to surrender to the police C. Tell the teacher to stop reporting to
school
B. Advice the teacher to transfer to other school D. Create a committee to investigate the
accusation
108. Teacher T receives a love letter form one of her third year high school student in English. What should Mr. Martin
do?
A. Read her letter to the class
B. Kept the student express her feelings through letters
C. Return the letter to the student and tell her to not do it again
D. Surrender the letter to the parent of the student
109. Mr. Nico, a Social Science teacher is advocating reforms which the principal failed to recognize. What should the
principal do?
A. Subject Mr. Nico to a disciplinary measure
B. Just keep quiet about the behavior of Mr. Nico
C. Call Mr. Nico to the office and clarify things out with him
D. Send Mr. Nico a memo requiring him to explain his behavior
110. Which of the following manifests “Commitment to democracy” as explained in R.A. 6713
A. Maintaining the principle of accountability
B. Committing to democratic values and ways of life
C. Manifesting by deed the supremacy of civilian authority over the military
D. All of the above
111. Teacher U was ordered by her principal to come to school on four Consecutive Saturdays for the training of the
students ‘editorial staff of their school paper. Is this allowed under R.A. 4670
A. Yes, provided the teacher is compensated
B. No, because it’s not within the regular functions of the classroom teacher
C. Yes, because it’s part of the teachers other duties
D. No, because it’s not clearly indicated in the law
112. In observation and imitation learning. What should be the learner’s response when the teacher initially models
the behaviour?
A. Reproduce and match C. imitate and practice
B. Pay attention D. shows satisfaction
113. What is the correct sequence of the information processing?
A. Sensory register –STM-LTM C. Sensory register LTM-STM
B. STM-sensory register-LTM D. LTM-sensory register- STM
114. What should be the hierarchy of the type’s pf learning according to the cumulative learning theory?
1. Problem solving learning 3. Rule learning
2. Discrimination learning 4. Concept learning
A. 2-1-3-4 C. 2-3-4-1
B. 2-1-4-3 D. 2-4-3-1
115. Which is essential in meaningful reception learning?
A. Concepts are presented to learner and received by them C. Concepts are discovered by the learner
B. Concepts are related to one another D. Concepts are solicited form learners
116. Grace is bilingual. She speaks both English and Filipino fluently. She begins to Study Spanish and immediately
recognizes many similarities between Spaniard and Filipino languages and uses this information to acquire the
new language faster. What kind of transfer was Grace able to use?
A. Lateral transfer B. Specific transfer C. General transfer D.
Vertical transfer
117. Cristina has been staring at the match stick puzzle problem. She figuring out how to solve it. Suddenly, a bright
idea flashes in her mind and excitedly, successfully solves the puzzle problem. What type of learning is exhibited?
A. Analytic learning B. insight learning C. Discovery learning D.
trial and error learning
118. Marko excels in adding numbers. He learned this skill in his Math class. He is now able to apply this skill in his
Music class. What type of transfer was used?
A. Lateral transfer B. Specific transfer C. General transfer D.
Vertical transfer
119. Mr. Lorenzo would always give the chapter test on a Friday. What schedule of reinforcement is used by Mr.
Lorenzo?
B. Fixed Interval B. Variable Interval C. Fixed Ratio D.
Variable Ratio

328
120. To remember the six digits 8,4,3,9,4,5, the Math teacher grouped the number in twos 84,39,45 or in threes,
843,945. What control process of retaining information is referred to?
A. Chunking B. Rehearsing C. Interfering D.
Remembering
121. Here is a test item: “The improvement of basic education should be the top priority of the Philippine Government .
Defend or refute this position.” What type of question is this?
B. Analysis B. Convergent C. Evaluative D.
Low level
122. What can help achieve the relevant quality education?
A. Strong curriculum B. Competent instruction C. School-community relations D.
Competent administrators
123. Which of the following provisions under the Magna Carta for public School teachers will most likely promote
teachers’ welfare and defend their interests?
A. Be promoted in rank and salary C. Undergo and participate in professional development
B. Regulate their social involvement D. Establish, join and maintain professional & self –
regulating organization
124. What kind of tension is referred to when people prefer to have quick answers and ready solution to many
problems even if it calls for a patient, concerted, negotiated strategy of reform?
A. Tension between modernity and tradition C. Tension between spiritual and material
B. Tension between long term and short term considerations D. Tension between individual and the
universal
125. In what strands of the four pillars of education implies a shift from skill to competence, or a mix of higher –order
skills to each individual?
A. Learning to know B. Learning to do C. Learning to live together D.
Learning to be
126. Which pillar of education of J. Delor (UNESCO) focuses on voc-tech relevant to people-centered human
development?
A. Learning to know B. Learning to do C. Learning to live together D.
Learning to be
127. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Multicultural Education?
A. Personally empowering B. Socially transformative C. Pedagogically humanistic D. Culturally
discriminating
128. What is the kind of education that manifests democratization of access and inclusivity?
A. Relevance B. Sustainability C. Quality D.
Equity
129. Which among the following rights manifests rule of law and good governance?
A. Right to education B. Right to environmental protection C. Right of participation D. Right to
work

130. Which among is NOT a core principle of human rights?

A. Human dignity B. Non-discrimination C. universality D.
Independency

PREBOARD EXAMINATION

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

The Teaching Profession, Social Dimensions for Education

1. To whom does the word teacher refer?

I. Full time teachers
II. Part time teachers
III. Guidance counselors

329
 IV. Librarians
V. Division Superintendent
a. I, II, and III
b. I and III
c. I, II, III, and IV –I,II,V BEST ANSWER
d. III and IV
2. Teacher Kevin has not practiced his profession for the past five years. Can he go back to
teaching immediately?
a. Yes, if nobody can take his place
b. No, unless she has enrolled in refresher course of 12 units
c. No
d. Yes
3. Is membership to the accredited professional organization for teachers mandatory for all LET
passers?
a. No
b. Yes, when the teacher is already teaching
c. Yes
d. Only for LET passers who are not repeaters
4. Which is true of the periodic merit exam for teacher provided for in RA 7836?
I.Consist of oral exam
II.Consist of written exam
III.May serve as additional basis for merit promotion in addition to performance rating
IV.Taken with fee of P 1000 per examinee
a. I only
b. I and IV
c. II and III – I,II,III BEST ANSWER
d. II only
5. Can Manny Pacquiao be given a special permit to teach boxing in a special school?
a. No, he is not a teacher education graduate
b. No, he has not passed the LET
c. Yes, he is a graduate of ALS
d. Yes, he has excelled and gained international recognition
6. Is it professional for a teacher to receive gifts from the student and parents?
a. Not at all
b. No, especially if done in exchange for requested concessions
c. Yes, if deserved
d. Yes, in-season and out-of-season gifts
7. An Education graduate without a license is accepted to teach in a private school? Is this in
violation of RA 7836?
a. No provided he has taught for at least 3 years
b. Yes. No one may teach without a license
c. No

330
 d. Yes
8. For relevance to business and industry, what did the First Biennial National Education on
Education (2008) impose for updating the Licensure Examination for teachers?
a. Moral or ethical values
b. Technical and scientific competencies
c. Upgraded laboratory facilities
d. Vocational skills
9. What does the Teacher Education Development Program signify as a prerequisite for
employment of teachers in basic education schools?
a. National Standard Competencies among teachers
b. Licensure Examination for Teachers
c. Induction of new teachers
d. Job interviews for teacher applicants
10. Among active participation of school officials and teachers in the community, which of the
following is not appropriate due to prevailing religious sentiments?
a. Literacy assistance for out of school children/youths
b. Household campaign for healthful practice
c. Promoting contraceptives for planned parenthood
d. Introducing cooperative thrift practices
11. Which of the following is not John Dewey’s contribution to the sociological foundation of
education?
a. Facilitating learning along social conditions of the learner
b. As a social process, education begins at birth
c. True education is transmission of knowledge
d. The school is a continuation of home
12. Of the following, which is most fundamental to building up a strong school culture of
excellence?
a. High standards of performance
b. Student-centered curriculum
c. Mission and core values
d. Student handbook of conduct
13. Among rights of the schools, which is not provided by the law?
a. Right for basic education to determine subjects of the study
b. Right to enforce administrative systems
c. Right to provide proper governance
d. Right for institutions of higher learning to determine academic grounds for admission
14. What kind of grassroots model best advances Education for All as served children of slum city
dwellers?
a. Mobile education on Kariton
b. Leaf flyers for out-of-school children
c. Radio education modules
d. Educational television

331
15. After the implementation of NCBTS, results of LET still reveal low performance among
examinees. What can teacher education institutions do to upgrade their graduates’ LET
performance?
a. Review curriculum vis-à-vis TOS
b. Intensify Field Study Courses
c. Hire expensive review trainers
d. Implement selective admission in TEIs
16. What is the cultural trait of conflicting values that aims to please people in different venues
and situations rather than abide by principles?
a. Crab mentality
b. Split personality
c. Kanya-kanya system
d. Bahala na mentality
17. Among qualities which employers look for in the 21st century workplace, which is the most
challenging and demanding?
a. Aptitude for teamwork
b. Skills and social behavior
c. Readiness to take risks
d. Specific competencies for work
18. In educating the whole person as demanded by the “Learning to be” pillar of the 21st century
education, where does the concept of meaning, purpose and engagement belong?
a. Mind and body
b. Aesthetic sense
c. Spiritual values
d. Personal responsibility
19. Which program directly embodies both the pre-service and in-service programs?
a. BESRA – Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda
b. TEDPA – Technical Education Development Program
c. K-12
d. BEC – Basic Education Curriculum
20. How can the efforts of four agencies (DepEd, CHED, PRC, CSC) be best achieved for the
training and development of teachers?
a. Synchronization
b. cost-reduction
c. streamlining
d. sharing of resources
21. What is the core of the Teacher Education Development Program?
a. high order thinking skills or HOTS
b. student-centered learning
c. National Competency-Based Teaching Standards
d. Technology integration in instruction

332
22. What is known as a self-appraisal for professional growth that is acceptable and useful for
recognizing weakness and strengths for a new beginning teacher?
a. master teacher’s evaluation
b. student’s evaluation
c. principal’s evaluation
d. self-evaluation
23. Among reforms for enhancing teacher professionalism, which has been implemented by law
in order to determine whether prospective teachers have acquired professional
competencies prior to granting them a permit to teach?
a. accrediting a national organization for teachers
b. setting up centered for excellence in teacher education centers
c. licensure examination
d. creation of a professional board for teachers
24. From global competence as defined by international educators, which is the most
appropriate characteristic of globally competent individual?
a. familiarity with new culture
b. open-mindedness to new culture
c. adaptability to new work environment
d. foreign-language policy
25. For a school, which of the following is most significant in repairing shorelines with depleted
coral reefs?
a. outreach by depositing rubber tires as artificial coral reefs
b. implement reporting system against dynamite fishermen
c. legislative lobby to disallow tourism in endangered shorelines
d. outreach by educating the villagers on protection of coral reefs
26. In a tertiary school, the President organized a Fun Run for students, faculty and personnel to
enjoy camaraderie, physical exertion under the sun, sense of engagement and achievement.
What does the activity promote?
a. spiritual vigor
b. cultural consciousness
c. national integrity
d. moral integrity
27. In the Education Act of 1901 which established a free public education in the Philippines,
what language was imposed under the one-language policy?
a. Spanish
b. English
c. Tagalog
d. Filipino
28. Of the following, which is the most functional intervention in order to achieve a basic right of
every Filipino Child under the Constitution and Magna Carta for Disabled Persons?
a. Philosophy of education
b. policy for curricular reform

333
 c. home study program
d. structural organization
29. Of the following interventions, which is directly aimed at responding to the transitional gap
between academic achievement and employment?
a. identification of centers of excellence
b. deregulation of tuition fees
c. school networking with business and industry
d. voluntary accreditation of schools
30. In the formal education system during Hispanic times in the Philippines, what was not
implement but which we enjoyed during the American period?
a. vocational education
b. private education
c. religious education
d. public education
31. If Dr. Jose Rizal lives in the 21st century, what character expression and commitment would
have shown our generation?
a. inventor of techniques
b. citizen and producer
c. member of family and community
d. creative dreamer
32. In the learning to do pillar of new education, what is the enabling factor that can make the
learner fully contribute to a peaceful and just society?
a. knowledge
b. skills
c. insights
d. values
33. Before being able to fully learn to live and work together under the pillar of the 21st century
education, what must the learner attain for himself?
a. find peace within oneself
b. attain an altruistic mind
c. love his fellowmen
d. become self-actualized
34. The Transparency International’s perception that the Philippines suffers a cultural malaise of
corruption, what component of our character needs to be further developed along the
Learning To Be Pillar of education in the 21st century?
a. Familial-social component
b. Physical-economic component
c. Intellectual-emotional component
d. Ethical-spiritual component
35. This powerful European country supplied arms to Afghanistan rebels who were fighting a
terrorist war in the Middle East. What was the principle of moral discernment applicable in
this case?

334
 a. Principle of double effect
b. Principle of lesser evil
c. Principle of material cooperation
d. Principle of moral cooperation
36. Which of the following best defines a morally mature person?
a. Cultural values clarification
b. Unhampered exercise of one’s right
c. Transmittal of one’s moral viewpoint
d. Knowledge and practice of universal moral values
37. Educated in a religious school, Sansa goes to confession every day to be free of any kind of
sin. How do you characterize Dona’s moral attitude?
a. Callous
b. Pharisaical
c. Scrupulous
d. Strict
38. How would you characterize the moral attitude of Hispanic friars who taught religion but
were unfaithful to their vow of property by amassing the land properties of natives?
a. Scrupulous
b. Strict
c. Lax
d. Pharisaical
39. How would you characterize the moral attitude of prisoners with criminal minds, who have
no sensitivity to the welfare of other people?
a. Pharisaical
b. Strict
c. Lax
d. Callous
40. What was the degree of moral certitude when U.S. statement decided to drop the atomic
bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to prevent mass deaths by a land invasion of Japan?
a. Doubtful
b. Certain
c. Perplexed
d. Probable
41. Teacher Slash is of the thinking that from the very start students must be made to realize
study is indeed hard work. To which philosophy does Teacher Susan adhere?
a. Essentialism
b. Perennialism
c. Progressivism
d. Reconstructionism
42. If your students appear to be more interested in a topic outside your planned lesson for the
day, you set aside your lesson plan for that day and grasp the opportunity to discuss the topic

335
 of particular interest to your students. Strike the iron while it is hot! Which philosophy
governs for your action?
a. rationalism
b. empiricism
c. existentialism
d. progressivism
43. Students must be taught self-responsibility is the desire of the ___________ teacher.
a. Existentialist
b. Utilitarianist
c. Pragmatic
d. Constructivist
44. Who asserts that teaching is not just depending knowledge into the empty minds of the
learners? It is helping students create knowledge and meaning of their experiences?
a. Constructivist
b. Essentialist
c. Existentialist
d. Pragmatist

SITUATIONAL

In a faculty meeting, the principal told his teachers: We need to improve our school
performance in the National Achievement Test. What should we do? The teachers gave
varied answers as follows:
1. Let’s give incentives and rewards to students who get a rating of 85%
2. Let’s teach them to accept complete responsibility for their performance
3. Let’s make the school environment conducive for learning
4. Let’s make use of the experiential methods of teaching
45. On which educational philosophy is response #1 anchored?
a. Behaviorism
b. Progressivism
c. Existentialism
d. Essentialism
46. Which response/s come/s from a behaviorist?
a. 1 and 3
b. 2 and 4
c. 1 and 2
d. 3 and 4
47. If you lean toward a progressivist philosophy, with which response do you agree?
a. 4
b. 2
c. 1
d. 3

336
 How a teacher relates to his/her pupils depends on his/her concepts about him/her. In a
faculty recollection, the teachers were asked to share their thoughts of the learner, their
primary customer. What follows are the gists of what were shared:

Teacher A – The learner is a product of his environment. Sometime he has no choice. He is

determined by his environment.
Teacher B – The learner can choose what he can become despite his environment.
Teacher C – The learner is a social being who learns well though an active interplay with
others
Teacher D – The learner is a rational being. Schools should develop his rational and moral
powers

48. Whose philosophical concept is that of Teacher A?

a. Behaviorist’s
b. Existentialist’s
c. Progressivist’s
d. Rationalist’s
49. If you agree with Teacher C, you are more of a/an
a. Progressivist
b. Perrenialist
c. Essentialist
d. Rationalist
50. Whose response denies man’s freewill?
a. Teacher A’s
b. Teacher C’s
c. Teacher B’s
d. Teacher D’s

Human Growth and Development, Facilitating Learning, Developmental Reading

51. From a broad vantage view of human development, who has the primary duty to educate the
youths or children?
I. Parents
II. Teachers
III. the state
IV. the schools
52. Of the three aspects of learning, which is not mentioned as needed so that the individual
learner in the 21st century can learn how to learn?
a. Ability to think
b. Mathematical skills
c. Memory skills

337
 d. Concentration
53. Which of the following belongs to the more sophisticated learning-to-learn skills for the
individual learner?
a. To ask and gather data
b. To listen and observe
c. To process and select information
d. To read with understanding
54. Of the following effects on learning, what is the effect of simulations that make students feel
and sense experience in the classroom?
a. Reinforcing learning
b. Providing experiences that otherwise might not be had
c. Motivating students
d. Changing attitudes and feelings
55. Of the following effects on learning, what is the effect of assigning various sections of the
newspaper, and allowing choice depending on the learner’s choice?
a. Encouraging participation
b. Reinforcing learning
c. Allowing different interests
d. Changing attitudes and feelings
56. A young mother observes her seven year old girl glued to her computer games. What aspect
of the family life may suffer due to obsession of the young with technology gadgets?
a. Family social life
b. Family economic life
c. Discipline and obedience
d. Parent-child relationship
57. Which of the following is not an advanced process of meta-cognition among learners?
a. Learning how to recognize thoughts
b. Acquisition of new knowledge
c. Assessing own thinking
d. Learning how to study
58. Of comprehension or thinking strategies, which is relating one or two items, such as nouns
and verbs?
a. Basic elaboration strategies
b. Complex rehearsal strategies
c. Complex elaboration strategies
d. Affective strategies
59. Of skills teacher should understand and students need to acquire, which is the ability to
integrate complex information into categories through its attributes (characteristics,
principles or functions)?
a. Scanning
b. Complex cognitive
c. Sharpening-leveling

338
 d. Complexity-simplicity
60. Inculcating moral maturity among students, which of the following relates to belief and
ideals?
a. Promoting human equality
b. Refraining from prejudiced action
c. Avoiding deception and dishonesty
d. Respecting freedom of conscience
61. Research studies showed that children in slums generally have lower reading achievement
then children in urban schools. What factor is shown to affect reading achievement?
a. Mobility
b. Personality and emotional factors
c. Socio-economic status
d. Listening comprehension
62. When preacher Xian read the Genesis story on creation, he explained that God is so powerful
he created the universe in only seven days. What level of reading comprehension did
preacher John apply?
a. Evaluative reading on character, plot or style
b. Literal reading the lines
c. Applied reading beyond the lines
d. Interpretative reading between the lines
63. What is the main organization and orientation of science and social studies reading
materials?
a. Expository
b. Descriptive
c. Narrative
d. Argumentative
64. In his History class, teacher Naomi used a current events IQ contest to determine champions
in identifying people, places, and events. What learning objective outcome does she aim to
achieve?
a. Knowledge or recall
b. Perpetual abilities
c. Application
d. Responding
65. In Erikson’s stage theory of development questionnaire, which affirmation does not belong to
the stage of initiative vs. guilt?
a. People can be trusted
b. In difficulty, I will not give up
c. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I have done
d. I am prepared to take a risk
66. For cognitive learning, what are sets of facts, concepts, and principles that describe
underlying mechanism that regulate human learning, development and behavior?
a. Facts

339
 b. Concepts
c. Theories
d. Hypothesis
67. Literature teacher Kim introduced figures of speech in poetry to improve ability of her
students to interpret verses. What kind of thinking is she developing in her students?
a. Critical thinking
b. Metaphoric thinking
c. Convergent thinking
d. Divergent thinking
68. Of clusters of meaningful learning activities, which does not belong to spatial learning
activities?
a. Visualization
b. Concept-mapping
c. Peer tutoring
d. Art projects
69. From cluster of meaningful learning activities, which does not belong to verbal-linguistic
intelligence learning?
a. Ecological field trip
b. Debates
c. Journal writing
d. Reading
70. Which of the following violates the principle that “each child’s brain is unique and vastly
different from one another”?
a. Giving ample opportunity for a pupil to explore rather than simply dish out information
b. Employing principles in multiple intelligence in teaching
c. Making a left-handed pupil write with her right hand as this is better
d. Allowing open dialogue among students of various cultural backgrounds
71. Of the following which is normally expected of Grade VI pupils?
a. Getting along with classmates
b. Being independent of parents
c. Showing class leadership
d. Displaying a male or feminine social role
72. From categories of exceptionalities in the young child and adolescents what involves
difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language, memory due to mental
retardation, emotional/behavioral disorder, or sensory impairment?
a. Learning disabilities
b. Speech and communication disorders
c. Emotional/conduct disorders
d. Autism
73. Of the following, which is most true of adolescents?
a. Hormonal changes
b. Last splurge of dependence

340
 c. Unruly behavior
d. Defiance of peer group
74. Research says, “people tend to attribute successes to internal causes and their failures to
external causes.” What does this imply as a most potent key to success?
a. Reasoning
b. Imagination
c. Application
d. Motivation
75. From Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, what is the moral reasoning or perspective of
Mother Teresa who pledged her life to serve the sick and very old?
a. Social contract
b. Universal principles
c. Obedience
d. Law and order
76. Blind cyclist and teacher Maria Bunyan won 8th place in the able-bodied Sydney 2000
Olympics. Of the following, which is the central and fundamental quality she displayed by
never thinking that blindness is an impediment to becoming a great athlete?
a. Perseverance
b. Passion
c. Dedication
d. Self-belief
77. How can new information be made more meaningful to students?
a. Relating it to knowledge they already know
b. Valuing new knowledge
c. Demonstrating novelty of new knowledge
d. Increasing retention of new knowledge
78. Under the domains of learning, to what domain do Reflex movements, perceptual abilities,
and non-discursive communication belong?
a. Psychomotor
b. Affective
c. Cognitive
d. Reflective
79. In what development stage is the pre-school child?
a. Early childhood
b. Babyhood
c. Infancy
d. Late childhood
80. What is mainly addressed by early intervention program for children with disabilities, ages 0
to 3 years old?
a. Ensuring inclusion for special children
b. Early growth development lag
c. Identifying strengths and weaknesses in special children

341
 d. Preventing labeling of disabled children
81. What is the degree of moral certitude of Jade Althea who entered into marriage only out of
obedience to her parents, but uncertain whether she wanted marriage at all?
a. Certain
b. Lax
c. Probable
d. Doubtful
82. On categories of exceptionality in the young, what is difficulty in focusing and maintaining
attention, and/or recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior?
a. ADHD
b. Emotional/conduct disorders
c. Autism
d. Speech and communication disorders
83. What kinds of skills are commonly dominant in subjects like Computer, PE, Music, and the
like?
a. Problem-solving skills
b. Manipulative skills
c. Affective skills
d. Thinking skills
84. How is the disorderly behavior of children classified when they tell lies?
a. Moral
b. Intellectual
c. Social
d. Psychological
85. Which of the following is not among the major targets of the child-friendly school system
(CFSS)?
a. All school children are friendly
b. All children complete their elementary education within six years
c. All children 6-12 years old are enrolled in elementary schools
d. All grade six students pass the division, regional, and national tests
86. Research studies that reading power affects college students who have insomnia, conflicts
with parents, poor rapport with other people. What factor(s) is shown to effect reading
achievement?
a. Home conditions
b. Socio-economic status
c. Personality and emotional factors
d. Perception and comprehension
87. Among the following, which is the abstract form of learning, parents teach their children?
a. Tumulong ka sa paglinis ng bahay
b. Magbasa ka ng libro
c. Palagi kang magdasal
d. Mapakabuti ka

342
88. What characteristic differentiate spiritual intelligence or spiritual quotient as developed by
Harvard University, from sectarian religion (E.g. Christian, Buddhist, Jewish, etc.)?
a. Authoritarian values
b. Universal values
c. Creedal values
d. Sectarian values
89. Among models of reading strategies, what did student Jk adopt when she reads back and
forth, attending to both what is in her mind and what’s on the page?
a. Bottoms-up
b. Interactive
c. Down-top
d. Top-down
90. Of the following, how can self-esteem be best developed among learners?
a. Doing fair share in community work
b. Fulfilling commitments
c. Through relationships with others
d. Displaying self-control
91. Of Piaget’s Cognitive Concepts, which refer to the process of fitting a new experience to a
previously created cognitive structure or schema?
a. Assimilation
b. Schema
c. Accommodation
d. Equilibrium
92. In Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, which is the tendency of the child to only see his
point of view and to assume that everyone has the same point of view?
a. Reversibility
b. Egocentrism
c. Symbolic function
d. Centration
93. Which is the most basic in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
a. Socialization
b. Actualization
c. Self-esteem
d. Altruism
94. Which aspect of multi-intelligence is enhanced by asking students to work on a physical
model of the atom after a teacher’s discussion on the subject of the atom?
a. Interpersonal
b. Linguistic
c. Kinesthetical
d. Mathematical
95. Among specialist in reading, who are mainly concerned about reading as a thinking process
that involves the recognition of printed or written symbols which serve as thought stimuli?

343
 a. Semantics
b. Psychologists
c. Linguists
d. Sociologists
96. Sequence the following events on the historical development of reading:
I. Greek letters and the Roman alphabet were developed
II. Through the Semite’s ingenuity, sounds, and symbols gave rise to the Phoenician
alphabet
III. People used pictures and characters to convey messages
IV. Researchers showed the processes of reading, comprehension, and interpretation
a. I, II, III, and IV
b. I, II, IV and III
c. III, II, I and IV
d. IV, II, I and III
97. How is the disorderly behavior of children classified when they don’t focus and lack
attention?
a. Intellectual
b. Social
c. Moral
d. Psychomotor
98. How do you describe transfer of learning across subject matter, e.g value of thrift in
Economic and Social Science?
a. Horizontal
b. Spiral
c. Vertical
d. Cyclic
99. What broad learning is needed for a learner to desire to learn throughout life?
a. Four basic Rs
b. Basic education
c. General education
d. Pre-school system
100. What observation attests to the fact that the sudden student’s motivation vary according to
socio-cultural background?
a. Females mature earlier than boys
b. Children from low-income household meet more obstacle in learning
c. Genetic endowments may show gifted endowments among the young
d. Brains of boys are bigger and better than those of females

Assessment of Learning, Field Study, Practice Teaching

101. Of the types of validity tests, what is concerned with the relation of test scores to
performance at some future time, e.g. Freshmen college test can show success in college?

344
 a. Curriculum validity
b. Criterion validity
c. Content validity
d. Predictive validity
102. The test questions in Teacher Dae Dae’s test were confusing and subject to wrong
understanding, especially to poorer students. What was wrong with the test?
a. Inappropriate level of difficult of items
b. Unclear directions
c. Ambiguity
d. Test items inappropriate for outcomes being measured
103. Of the following, which exemplifies the best example of cooperation and voluntarism in the
Parent-Teacher Associations?
a. Helping hands after a natural crisis, e.g. devastating storm
b. Attending regular meetings
c. Fund raising for PT funds
d. Running the school canteen
104. Among standardized tests, which reveals strengths and weaknesses for purposes of
placement and formulating an appropriate instructional program?
a. Personality tests
b. Achievement tests
c. Diagnostic tests
d. Competency tests
105. Among standardized tests, which can show how students perform in comparison with each
other and to students in other schools?
a. Competency tests
b. Subject exit tests
c. Achievement tests
d. Diagnostic tests
106. Teacher Bea Bunana makes her tests easy for students to understand, easy to administer
and score and suitable to test conditions, e.g. time. What is she achieving for her tests?
a. Efficiency
b. Usability
c. Reliability
d. Validity
107. Of the following subjects, which does not belong to performance-based subjects in which
direct instruction is effectively used?
a. Values education
b. Music
c. Science
d. Mathematics
108. Which of these approaches would reform assessment outcomes?
a. Apply sanctions on low performing schools

345
 b. Focus on testing without investing the learner’s needs
c. Use understanding as means of giving feedback on students learning
d. Compare results of performance of all schools
109. Using extrinsic motivational assessment, what could be the most noble motive in students
pursuing a lifetime work and mission for the teaching profession?
a. Promise of high rank and prestige
b. Social service to upcoming generations
c. Economic security and welfare
d. Respected position in society
110. To what process of evaluation does determining the extent objectives are met belong?
a. Authentic
b. Formative
c. Criterion-referenced
d. Norm-referenced
111. Which form of the foundation of all cognitive objects without which the next level of higher
thinking skills cannot be attained?
a. Knowledge
b. Synthesis
c. Application
d. Analysis
112. What primary response factor is considered by Essay questions?
a. Factual information
b. Wide sampling of ideas
c. Originality
d. Less time for construction and scoring
113. Among written categories of assessment methods, what did teacher Maggie Lagid use when
she assessed the stock knowledge of her students through questioning in an open class?
a. Oral questioning
b. Performance test
c. Product rating scale
d. Observation and self-report
114. In the context of the 6 facets of understanding cited by Wiggins and McTIghe, what is a
proof of a student’s understanding a principle?
a. Stating given examples
b. Repeating it as given by the teacher
c. Applying it to solve his problem
d. Retaining it in memory for a long period of time
115. What does it mean if student Pete got a 60% percentile rank in class?
a. He scored better than 60% of the class
b. He scored less than 60% of the class
c. He got 40% of the test wrongly
d. He got 60% of the items correctly

346
116. Which of the following may not be adequately assessed by a paper and pencil test?
a. Sight reading in music
b. Multiplication skills
c. Subject-verb agreement
d. Vocabulary meaning
117. What should be done with test item whose difficulty index is .98?
a. Revise it
b. Retain it
c. Reject it
d. Reserve it for another group of students
118. What is known as the scoring guides for rating open-ended questions?
a. Rubrics
b. Outcomes
c. Scales
d. Outputs
119. What does it mean to say that the facility index of a test item is .50?
a. It is reliable
b. It is valid
c. It is moderate in difficulty
d. It is very easy
120. With the mode of answering as a point of reference, which of the following does not belong
to this test group?
a. Completion
b. Essay
c. Problem-solving
d. Matching
121. One half of the class scored very low. Teacher Janus gave another tests to determine where
were the students were weakest. What type of test is this?
a. Aptitude test
b. Remedial test
c. Diagnostic test
d. Readiness test
122. On what is normative marking based?
a. High marks of few students
b. Failure of some students
c. Normal curve of standard distribution
d. Student achievement relative to other students
123. What cognitive domain is involved in the student’s clarifying information from conclusion?
a. Synthesis
b. Evaluation
c. Analysis
d. Application

347
124. Which of the following indicates a strong negative correlation?
a. -75
b. -15
c. -10
d. -25
125. What is the graphic illustration for the relationship between two variables?
a. Histogram
b. Normal curves
c. Frequency polygons
d. Scatter diagram
126. What does a negative discrimination index mean?
a. The test item has low reliability
b. More from the lower group answered the test item correctly
c. More from the upper answered the test correctly
d. The test could not discriminate between the upper and lower group
127. What is the deviation from a standard or desired level of performance?
a. A problem
b. A deficit
c. A defect
d. A gap
128. How does a student’s 80 percentile score interpreted?
a. High in all the skills being tested
b. Higher than 80% of the members of the group
c. Better relative to the competencies targeted
d. 80% of the specified content
129. Of the types of validity for tests, what is focused on the extent to which a particular tests
correlates with acceptable measure of performance?
a. Curricular validity
b. Content validity
c. Criterion validity
d. Predictive validity
130. Among general categories of assessment methods, what instruments did pre-school teacher
Justine use when he rated the handwriting of his students using a prototype handwriting
model?
a. Product rating scale
b. Performance test
c. Written response instruments
d. Observation and self-reports
131. On what should teacher’s evaluation of a learner’s work be based?
i. Attendance
ii. Merit
iii. Quality of academic performance

348
 iv. Behavior in class
a. I and II
b. II, III, and IV
c. II and III
d. I, II, III, and IV
132. Self-evaluation can be done in various ways, but this is not one of them:
a. Use of an evaluation instrument
b. Written reflection
c. Self-videotape of class performance
d. Per feedback session
133. In her test, Teacher Marian R unknowingly gave clues to the answers that reduce usability of
the test. What was wrong with the test?
a. Ambiguity
b. Unclear directions
c. Poorly constructed test items
d. Test too short
134. In preparing classroom tests, which of the following checklists is the LAST among steps in
tests preparation?
a. How are the objective items to be scored?
b. How are the test results to be reported?
c. How I have prepared a table of specifications?
d. How are the test scores to be tabulated?
135. What formula is used to total and compute test scores at the end of the year?
a. [Test scores = transmutation table] x 100
b. [Highest score + Lowest possible score] x 100
c. [Student’s score x 100]
d. [Student’s score + Highest possible score] x 100
136. What can be said of student performance in a positively skewed score distribution?
a. A few students performed excellently
b. Most students performed well
c. Almost all students had average performance
d. Most students performed poorly
137. Which is true when the standard deviation is small?
a. Scores are toward both extremes
b. Scores are spread apart
c. Scores are tightly bunched together
d. The bell curve is relatively fat
138. In her tests, Teacher Tomden made tests that were either too difficult or too easy. What
was wrong with her tests?
a. Unclear directions
b. Inappropriate level of difficulty of the test items
c. Ambiguity

349
 d. Identifiable patterns of answers
139. What is an alternative assessment tool that consists of a collection of work artifacts or in
progress accomplishment by a targeted clientele?
a. Evaluation instrument
b. Rubric
c. Achievement test
d. Portfolio
140. What computation did teacher Panny use in getting the difference between the highest and
lowest scores in each class?
a. Mean
b. Range
c. Standard deviation
d. Median
141. Which measure of central tendency is most reliable when scores are extremely high and
low?
a. Cannot be identified unless individual scores are given
b. Median
c. Mode
d. Mean
142. Which measure of central tendency is most reliable to get a picture of the class performance
whose raw scores in a quiz are: 97, 95, 85, 86, 77, 75, 50, 10, 5, 2, 1?
a. Mode
b. None. It is best to look at individual scores
c. Mean
d. Median
143. Self-evaluation has become an important kind of performance assessment among teachers,
useful as an honest self-criticism and a starting point to removal evaluation by supervisors,
peers, or students. How is self-evaluation described?
a. Evidence of teaching performance
b. Substitute to supervisor’s rating
c. Guide for self-adjustment
d. Tool for salary adjustment
144. What is the common instrument used in measuring learning in the affective domain?
a. Multiple choice
b. Checklist
c. Scaling
d. Questionnaire
145. On the test giver’s list of Do’s, which of the following is not relative to motivating students
to do their best?
a. Read test directions
b. Reduce test anxiety, e.g. “Take a deep breath.”
c. Explain the purpose of the test

350
 d. Tell students: “I will be proud of you if you perform well.”
146. What is the range if the score distribution is: 98, 93, 93, 93, 90, 88, 87, 85, 85 , 85, 70, 51, 34,
34, 34, 20, 18, 51, 12, 9, 8, 6, 3, 1?
a. 93
b. 85
c. 97
d. Between 51 and 34
147. What does the test mean if the difficulty index is 1?
a. Very difficult
b. Missed by everyone
c. Very easy
d. A quality item
148. What is the meaning of a negative correlation between amount of practice and number of
errors in tennis?
a. The increase in the amount of practices does not at all affect the number of errors
b. As the amount of practice increases, the number of errors decreases
c. The decrease in the amount of practice sometimes affects the number of errors
d. Decrease in the amount of practice goes with decrease in the number of errors
149. An entering college would like to determine which course is best suited for him. Which test
is appropriate for this purpose?
a. Aptitude test
b. Intelligence test
c. Achievement test
d. Diagnostic test
150. Which of the following criteria is the basis for selecting tests that yield similar results when
repeated over a period of time?
a. Efficiency
b. Validity
c. Usability
d. Reliability

Principles and Methods of Teaching, Educational Technology, Curriculum Development

151. Facilities such as classrooms, fixtures, and equipment can often damage the morale of
new teachers and become an obstacle for adapting well to the school environment. What
should be the policy for assigning said physical facilities?
a. needs of student’s basis
b. position ranking basis
c. first-come, first-served basis
d. service seniority basis

351
152. There are various functions a fellow teacher or peer coach can help new teachers. What
role does a peer coach play by being present/available to share ideas, problems and success
with a new teacher?
a. a provider of technical feedback
b. a facilitator of strategies
c. an analyzer of teaching job
d. a close peer or companion
153. Teacher Princess sees to it that her classroom is clean and orderly so her pupils will less
likely disarrange seats and litter on the floor. On which thought is her action based?
a. existentialism
b. progressivism
c. behaviorism
d. reconstructionism
154. Teacher Nancy is directed to pass an undeserving student with a death threat. Which
advise will a utilitarian give?
a. Don’t pass him. You surely will not like someone to give you a death threat in order to
pass
b. Pass the student. That will be off use to the student, his parents and you.
c. Pass the student. Why suffer the threat?
d. Don’t pass him. Live by your principle of justice. You will get reward, if not in this life, in
the next!
155. In what setting is differentiated and multi-lingual teaching most effective?
a. special children with classes
b. multi-grade classes
c. children with diverse cultural backgrounds
d. pre-school children
156. After the embarrassing incident, Teacher Kevin vowed to himself to flunk the student at
the end of the school term. What has Dante done that is against the guidelines for using
punishment?
a. Punishing immediately in an emotional state
b. Using double standards in punishing
c. Doing the impossible
d. Holding a grudge and not starting with a clean slate
157. Following the principles for punishing students, which of the following is the LEAST
desirable strategy for classroom management?
a. Punishing while clarifying why punishment is done
b. Punishing while angry
c. Punishing the erring student rather than the entire class
d. Give punishment sparingly
158. According to the guidelines on punishment, what does it mean that the teacher should
give the student the benefit of the doubt?
a. Make sure facts are right before punishing

352
 b. Doubt the incident really happened
c. Don’t punish and doubt effectiveness of punishment
d. Get the side of the students when punishing
159. Which of the following guidelines for punishment may be done?
a. Don’t punish students outside of school rules on punishment
b. Don’t threaten the impossible
c. Don’t use double standards for punishing
d. Don’t assign extra homework
160. For group guidance in classroom management, what element is lacking when there is too
much competitiveness and exclusiveness with the teacher being punitive and partial to some
students?
a. Dissatisfaction with classroom work
b. Poor interpersonal relations
c. Poor group organization
d. Disturbance in group climate
161. To demonstrate here authority Teacher Kokeyni made an appeal to undisciplined
students. What kind of appeal did she make by saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, don’t engage
in that kind of behavior, you can do much better?”
a. Invoke peer reaction
b. Exert authority
c. Internalizing student’s image of themselves
d. Teacher-student relationship
162. What is the term for the leap from theory to practice in which the teacher applies theories
to effective teaching methods and theories?
a. Integration process
b. Informational process
c. Conceptualization process
d. Construction process
163. Of subcategories of movement behavior, what is happening when the teacher ends an
activity abruptly?
a. Thrust
b. Truncation
c. Stimulus-bounded
d. Flip-flop
164. Of subcategories of teacher movement behavior, what is happening when the teacher
goes from topic or activity to other topic or activities, lacking clear direction and sequence of
activities?
a. Truncation
b. Dangle
c. Thrust
d. Flip-flop

353
165. Of subcategories of teacher movement behavior, what is happening when the teacher is
too immersed in a small group of students or activity, thus ignoring other students or
activity?
a. Truncation
b. Flip-flop
c. Stimulus-bounded
d. Thrust
166. From classroom management strategies applied on erring students, which of the following
should not be done?
a. Surprise quiz
b. Communicating problems to parents
c. Parent-principal conference
d. Shaming erring student before the class
167. Among mistaken goals in the Acceptance Approach to discipline, what happens when
students defy adult by arguing, contradicting, teasing, temper tantrums, and low level hostile
behavior?
a. Power seeking
b. Withdrawal
c. Revenge seeking
d. Attention getting
168. Teacher Ann Patuan dealt effectively with a minor infraction of whispering by a student to
a neighbor during class. Which of the following did she do?
a. Reprimand quietly
b. Continue to teach and ignore infraction
c. Reprimand student after class
d. Use nonverbal signals (gesture or facial expression)
169. What mistake is teacher Senemin Basic trying to avoid by never ignoring any student or
group of students in her discussions and other activities?
a. Non-direction
b. Dangled activity
c. Divided attention
d. Abrupt end
170. Teacher Dra D Explorer is a great lecturer and so she is invited to speak and represent the
school on many occasions. What is one quality of her lecturers when she follows a planned
sequence, not diverting so as to lose attention of her listeners?
a. Explicit explanations
b. Continuity
c. Inclusion of elements
d. Fluency
171. Teacher Aldub makes certain content interesting to his students. Focusing on learners, he
also uses many simple examples, metaphors and stories. What is this quality of lesson
content?

354
 a. Interest
b. Feasibility
c. Self-sufficiency
d. Balance
172. Teaching English, teacher Krizzy is careful about her lesson content. What quality of
content did he achieve when she made certain her information came with the “information
explosion” which she got in the Internet, such as how to effectively teach phonetics?
a. Learnability
b. Significance
c. Balance
d. Interest
173. Teacher Kevin made certain his lesson content can be useful to his students, taking care of
their needs in a student-centered classroom. What is this kind of quality content?
a. Utility
b. Balance
c. Self-sufficiency
d. Interest
174. In the implementation of the curriculum at the classroom level, effective strategies are
called “Green”. Which of the following belongs to the Green Flag?
a. Homogenous students grouping
b. Content delivery based on lessons
c. Excess in chalkboard talk
d. Student interest and teacher enthusiasm
e. Rigidity if movement
175. In the implementation of the curriculum at the classroom level, ineffective strategies are
called “Red”. Which of the following belongs to the Red Flag?
a. Content applied to real-life situations
b. Overemphasis on drill and practice
c. Available enrichment activities
d. Integration of problem solving
176. Teacher Maggie explains by spicing her lectures with examples, descriptions and stories.
What is this quality in her lectures?
a. Planned sequence
b. Elaboration through elements
c. Use of audiovisuals
d. Simple vocabulary
177. Can technology take the place of the teacher in the classroom? Select the most
appropriate answer:
a. No. It is only an instrument or a tool
b. Yes, when they hire less teachers and acquire more computers
c. Yes. When teachers are not competent
d. Yes, such as in the case of Computer-assisted instruction (not teacher-assisted instruction)

355
178. What kind of tool is technology as evidenced by its use in word processing databases,
spreadsheets, graphics design and desktop publishing?
a. Analyzing tool
b. Encoding tool
c. Productivity tool
d. Calculating tool
179. In avoiding implying sickness or suffering, which of the following is the most preferable
way to refer to those with disabilities like polio?
a. “Is polio-stricken”
b. “Had polio”
c. “Polio victim”
d. “Suffers from polio”
180. If threat of punishment is necessary on erring students, how should this best be done?
a. Make the threat and reinforce with warning
b. Make the threat with immediate punishment
c. Ward and threat at the same time
d. First a warning before the threat
181. Among cognitive objectives, what is also known as an understanding and is a step higher
than more knowledge of facts?
a. Comprehension
b. Analysis
c. Synthesis
d. Application
182. What is the quality of teacher Pining Garcia’s lecture when she makes use of various
pictures, charts, graphs, videos to support her lectures?
a. Simplified vocabulary
b. Enrichment through visual aids
c. Causal and logical relationships
d. Continuing sequence
183. In determining the materials and media to use, what consideration did Teacher Ina A. Mag
adopt when he chose materials that can arouse and sustain in curiosity?
a. Satisfaction
b. Interest
c. Expectancy
d. Relevance
184. Which of the following is true of a democratic classroom?
a. Teacher acts as firm decision maker
b. Students decide what and how to learn
c. Consultation and dialogue
d. Suggestions are sent to higher officials for decisions
185. This is appropriate use of technology which can unite people of the world rather than
exploit them?

356
 a. For pornography
b. For social media
c. For financial fraud
d. For propaganda
186. From structures in Multifunctional Cooperative Learning, which involves each student
writing in turn one answer as a paper and pencil is passed around the group?
a. Jigsaw
b. Inside-outside circle
c. Roundtable
d. Partners
187. How does the “humaneness” of the teacher best described when he/she is full interest
and enthusiasm in the work of teaching?
a. Responsiveness
b. Perceptiveness
c. Knowledge
d. Sensitivity
188. Teacher Lester Cruz Valdez gets more information about how his students learn in order
to upgrade his pedagogy. What principle is he following?
a. Teachers should keep track of learning outcomes
b. Teachers should value information
c. Teachers should document information data on students
d. Teachers should teach and test learning
189. In order to assist new teacher, which is the most effective way to clarify the schools’ goals
and responsibilities early in the first year?
a. Student’s handbook
b. Orientation
c. Principals’ memorandum
d. School curriculum
190. Of components of direct instruction, which involves teachers and students working
together on a skill or task and figuring out how to apply the strategy?
a. Consolidation
b. Guided practice
c. Application
d. Modeling
191. In direct/expositive instruction, what is the logical pattern of procedures in a lesson
adopted?
I. Provide motivation and draw commitments
II. Explain rationale and objectives
III. Provide feedback
IV. Practice for mastery
a. II, I, IV, and III
b. IV, I, II and III

357
 c. I, IV, III, and II
d. I, II, IV and III
192. Teacher JanJan made certain his lesson content is within the capacity of his young forum
grade learners. What is the quality of John’s lesson content when he fits lesson to learner’s
capacity to absorb lesson content?
a. Learnability
b. Balance
c. Validity
d. Interest
193. From structures of Multifunctional Cooperative Learning, which makes each group to
produce a group product to share with the whole class?
a. Coop-coop
b. Think-pair-share
c. Team Word-Webbing
d. Partners
194. This is the more appropriate understanding of technology in education?
a. Methods and process
b. Inventions and equipment
c. Channels and instruments
d. Hardware, designs, and environment
195. A teacher introduces herself as teacher only. What does this imply?
a. She must have been forced to pursue a career in teaching.
b. The teaching profession is not a very significant one
c. The teaching profession is the lowest paid profession
d. She takes no pride in the teaching profession
196. In the guided exploratory approach to learning, which is not the term used for Inquiry
learning?
a. Heuristic learning
b. Problem-solving learning
c. Discovery learning
d. Expository learning
197. What is another quality of teacher Lassie Pecson’s lectures when she used words that are
within the grasp of her listeners, avoiding technical terms and jargons?
a. Use of specific descriptions and examples
b. Enriched audiovisuals
c. Normal vocabulary
d. Planned sequence
198. In delivering her lessons, teacher Blackie Lou Blanco is careful that no topic is extensively
discussed at the expense of other topics. That guiding principle in selection and organization
of lesson content is she following?
a. Significance
b. Self-sufficiency

358
 c. Feasibility
d. Balance
199. In determining materials and media to use, what consideration did Teacher Grachie adopt
when she gave importance to the level of outcome and the learner’s sense of fulfillment in
performing the task?
a. Expectancy
b. Satisfaction
c. Interest
d. Relevance
200. In the inductive approach to learning, what is not among the facilitating skills needed on
the part of the teacher?
a. Teacher giving generalization of principles
b. Commenting to pave way for generalizations or principles
c. Organizing answers
d. Asking the right questions

359
GENERAL EDUCATION

GENERAL EDUCATION

GENERAL EDUCATION

360
 LET Reviewer-ENGLISH
LECTURE NOTES

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

The communication process is indeed a paradox. We always communicate with each other, yet defining
the process itself seems to be a very difficult task. Language of different historical periods, in their dire
attempts to bridge the gap, were able to formulate their own theories to explain the process of
communication, Since the linear representation of Aristotle to the complex depiction of modern linguist,
we can say that this endeavor has come a long way.

Renowned linguist have different points of view about the communication process, and this diversity
proves to be the fuel that keeps linguist of today on taking forward steps en route to the better
understanding of this process.

Two to be discussed in this chapter, each representing the traditional and the contemporary schools of
thought as regards communication. Berio’s representation, being the most widely cited and extensively
use model, will be discussed to explain in the basic components of the communication cycle, while the
Dance Helix model will be clarified to give a fresh and novel perspective on the practice of other long-
standing theories.

Berios’Model

David Berios’s paradigm of the communication process is considered one of the most recognizable
representations. It has four major components: source, receiver, message, and the channel. That is why
at times this model is also called SMRC.

361
 SOURCE MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CONTENT
ATTITUDES
TREATMENT
KNOWLEDGE
CODE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
CULTURE

RECEIVER
CHANNEL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
SEEING ATTITUDES
HEARING KNOWLEDGE
TOUCHING SOCIAL SYSTEM
SMELLING CULTURE
TASTING

SMRC’s linearity is oftentimes criticized, but Berio’s elucidations regarding the significance of each
component redeem it all. According to him, the interlocutors’ ( source and receiver) , and attitude are

communication skills, knowledge, socio-cultural system, and attitude are important for successful
communication to take place ( Berio, 1960). For example, if the source has a higher level of language
proficiency compared to the receiver, or vice versa, then problems are expected. Refer to the sample
conversation below and then try, to figure out what caused the lapse in communication.

Conversation Sample

Setting: Jakarta International Airport Immigration Counter

Situation: The immigration officer is interviewing a tourist about the latter’s whereabouts.

Specifications: The immigration officer is a native speaker, while tourist is a beginner learning of
English language.

Immigration Officer: Good morning, Miss! May I know your travel itinerary?

Tourist: Uhh….sory. What is that again?

Immigration Officer: oh, I mean… where do you plan to go?

Tourist: Oh, I see. Actually I plan to go to the Metropolitan Museum and to the Museum of Modern
Art, and maybe stay for another two days in New York City before flying to Florida.

Immigration officer: Okay. Welcome to America. Enjoy your vacation!

362
In the sample conversation above, the difference between the proficiencies of the interlocutors led to
lapses in communication. It is also noticeable that success of the process relies largely on the one who
has higher proficiency. Since the tourist has limited vocabulary (being a beginner), the immigration
officer paraphrased the statement to fit the level of the tourist.

Discrepancy between knowledge of the interlocutors also poses great treat. Read the sample
conversation below and try to cite some reasons for the communication breakdown.

Conversation Sample

Setting: Computer repair shop

Situation: One client wants to have her laptop fixed.

Specifications: Both the client and the technician have the same language of proficiency.

Client: Good morning! May I ask why my laptop shouts down automatically just right after turning it
on?

Technician: Okay, let me see it.

Client: So what do you think?

Technician: I think your laptop has been infected by Trojans and worms…

Client: Huh? Trojans? Worms?

Technician: Yes. By the way, do you do defragmentation every once in a while? Doing so greatly helps
the performance of your computer.

Client: Huh? What is that again? Defragment…what?

Technician : Defragmentation. Anyway, to fix your laptop, I will just rebot and reformat everything, is
that ok with you?

Client: I am not really familiar with you are saying. So fix it and send me the Bill Ok?

In conversation above, the technician uses jargon exclusive to those who are adept in the computers
and information technology. For someone who is not really into the technicians of computer software
and hardware nomenclature, understanding what the technician is saying poses great difficulty that can
later on lead to communication breakdown.

English Language Learning

Learning the English language circles around the Three Sets of Four, and below is a table that
summarizes these sets.

MACRO SKILLS CUEING SYSTEMS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCIES

363
Learning Phonology Grammatical
Speaking Morphology Discourse
Reading Semantics Sociolinguistic
Writing Syntax Strategic

THE FOUR CUEING SYSTEMS

CUEING SYSTEM Definition

Phonology Pertains to the sounds of language
Morphology Pertains to formation of words
Types of morphemes
 Bound morpheme ( dependent)
 Free morpheme (independent)

Semantics Pertains to meaning derivation

Syntax Grammar, structure, and form of the language

LISTENING

 Experts say that listening is the first language skill that students learn. If we are to think about
it, this claim may be true. Upon hearing things, the one can speak-just like how we learned our
first utterances. Parents keep on repeating words until the babies initiate and repeat the
utterances successfully ( behaviorist). But is listening as easy as it may sound?

The Listening Process

Receiving Decoding Selecting

Retaining Comprehending Interpreting

364
 Reacting Responding

The receiving of the message from the source signals is the start of listening process. The listener, then,
will decode the message and select important parts of the message that will help the listener in
interpreting it. Based on the interpretation, the receiver now comprehends the message and retains
information needed for him to react and respond.

Kinds of Listening

Interactional/ Emphatic Listening

 This type of listening is very common at times done in an informal setting. This happens
when persons listen to each other for the purpose of communicating and empathizing. At
times, the aim of this type of listening is to accomplish tasks or to come up with something.
 In classroom setting, this is when students listen to each other for them to able to accomplish
given tasks and activities.

Transactional/Critical Listening

 In this type of listening, the listener is concerned with acquiring new knowledge for the
purpose of improving his skill in generalizing and decision making.
 In a classroom setting, this is when the students listen to their teacher to gain more
knowledge

THREE MODELS OF LISTENING

Joan Morely in her essay “Aural Comprehension, instruction: principles and Practices” made mention
of the three modes of listening, namely: Undirectional, Birectional, and Autodirectional.

Undirectional If the listener cannot respond to the things he/she heard

Bidirectional If the listening process is reciprocal-meaning, two way ( indicated by prefix

“bi”)

Autodirectional If the listening process is reflexive-meaning, the speaker this is

intrapersonal listening

SPEAKING

Language and language learning developed as fast as civilization. In the olden times, man used language
merely for survival-now, language functions as one important medium of change and innovation.

365
But the question still remains… what is language? Language was defined by Webster as the expression
and communication of emotions or ides between human beings by means of speech and hearing that is
systematized and confirmed by usage among a given people over a period of time. If we are to look a
Webster’s definition can infer that there are only two functions of language.

The first one is to express how one feels ( emotions); and the second one is to express how one thinks
(ideas). He also mentioned two important factors of language speaking (speech) and listening (hearing).
The two word systematized in Webster’s definition can also be related to grammar-meaning it follows
certain rules and systems, and lastly, he also mentioned”period of time”, which can be interpreted as the
changes language goes through with me.

Webster’s definition is in line with the structurist’s. For them language follows a system-meaning, one
cannot just mix letters to form words. X,Y, K, and D cannot be combined to form a meaningful word-
well, at least in English. In the sentence” she is pretty,”it will be erroneous if one will change “is” to
“are”. These instances are the bases of the structurist in saying that language is a system. They also
believes that language is primary vocal, is another claim of the structurists. For them, and other Webster,
speaking and listening are important language skills. They also adhere to the concept that language is
arbitrary. For them, language constantly goes through series of innovations developments, and changes.
The word “thee”, “thou”, “growist”, and hath” are no longer used today. This is one proof that language,
just as other things, constantly changes.

The cognitivist, however, believe that language is a mental phenomena. For them, language learning is
innate in the individual. According to them, there is one part in our brain called LAD (language
acquisition device) that is responsible for language acquisition. If we are to analyze their definition, we
can infer that language (for them) is not learned but acquired. The difference of learning from acquiring
is that learning is voluntary while acquiring is involuntary. We choose to learn, but we no choice what
to acquire. We acquire traits from our parents, but we learn how to solve math problems.

The functionalist have rather functional definition about language. For them language performs specific
functions, such as to express, to persuade, to give or ask information, and to make someone to do
something. Most people will agree with this definition, because practically these functions are what
language is really for.

The behaviorists also have their own definition of language. For them, language is learned through
imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. If a teacher teaching grade one pupils will ask her students to
say word the she does, then pupils learned( imitation). If the teacher will ask the same pupils to repeat
saying the world over and over again, then the pupil will be punished. On the other hand, if the pupil
were able to say it correctly, then he/she will receive a prize. Given the two instances above, then the
pupils learned ( reinforcement)

THE SEGMENTALS

According to the structurist, language is primarily vocal, but the question is-how to speak properly? Is
it merely opening and closing the mouth? Or is there a complex process that guides speech production?
In this action, you will know how the speech mechanism works.

The Family of Consonant Sounds

366
Consonant sounds can be classified according to the three dimensions: the place of articulation (where
the sounds is made), the manner of articulation (how the sounds is made), and voicing (voiceless or
voiced).

Manner of Articulation

Stops/Plosives

These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a small creating
friction. The sounds F,V,S,Z,H,TH ( voiced) and voiceless), Sh Zh, are the members of this group.

Affricates

These are sounds produced when a plosive is followed by a fricative. Ts ( Ch), and Dz (J) are the
members of this group.

Nasals

Nasal sounds are produced when the oral cavity is blocked, and so the air passes through the nose. N,
M, and Ng are nasal sounds.

Liquid/Lateral

Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed manner. Sounds like
L and R are examples.

Glides

Glides are sounds that are close to vowel sounds, like W and Y.

Point of Articulation

Bilabial Two lips touching each other

Labio Dental Lower lips touches upper teeth
Dental Tip of the tongue and the inner edge of the upper teeth
Alveolar Tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge
Palatal The tongue and hard palate
Velar Dorsal tongue and soft palate
Glottal Throat passage

Voiced or Voiceless

A sound is voiced if the vocal cords vibrate, whereas a sound is voiceless if the vocal cords are not
vibrating upon the production of sounds.

Consonant Chart

367
 Place of Articulation
Manner
Bilabial Labio Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Dental
Stop TD KG
Fricative FV Th SZ SH ZH H
(voiced
and
voiceless
Affricate TS DZ
Nasal M N NG
Loud L R
Glide W Y

VOWELS

Vowels sounds are produced with one’s mouth open. It is also a fact that all vowel sounds are voiced
sounds can be classified according to the height of the tongue and jaw, and the way the mouth opens.

Vowel sounds can be classified as SPREAD, ROUND, OR NEUTRAL.

SPREAD

/i/ Long/i/sound as in “phoenix” and “beat”

/l/ Short /l/ sound as in “bit”, “captain”, “pin”, and “maariage”
/e/ Soft /e/ sound as in “hate”, “mate”, “grape”, and “gate”
/E/ Hard /E/ sound as in “let”, “set”, “any”, and “ jeopardy”
/ae) Combination of /a/ and /e/ as in “family”, “man”, “anger”, and
“hamburger”

NEUTRAL

/Y/ Unaccented schwa sound as in “towel”, and

“America”
/^/ Accented schwa as in “judge”, and “cup”

ROUND

/u/ Long /u/ sound as in “balloon”, “soon”, and

“pool”

368
 /U/ Short /U/ sound as in ”pull”, “would”, “push”,
and”cook”
/o/ Complete/o/ sound as in “boat”, “phone”,
and”own”
/a/ The /a/ sound as in” dark”, sergeant”, and “psalm”

THE SUPRA SEGEMENTALS

Juncture
Juncture is defined as the pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse. It is commonly represented by
a single slash(/) for short pauses, double slashes (//) for long pauses, and three slashes(///) for rests at the
end of the paragraph

Pitch
This is the highness or lowness of sound

Volume
This is the loudness or softness of sound

Intonation
This is the rising and falling sound

Stress
This is the placement of emphasis or force on certain words or syllables

READING

Jean Chall, Proposes skills that are essential for real reading to take place. She said that there are five
skills that a student must have like.

1. Phonemic Awareness- being familiar with the sounds of the language

2. Phonics – drawing out the relationship between the symbol and the sound ( graphonemic
relationship)
3. Fluency – the ability to blend and mix the sounds to form a meaningful utterance
4. Vocabulary- the ability to attach meaning to words
5. Comprehension- the ability to create and decode meaning from a group of words.

Chall also constructed a matrix of stages of reading development. She states that there are six stages
namely:

Stage 0 Pre-Reading Stage

In this stage, the students are being exposed to the different sounds of the language. This is the reason
why songs, nursery rhymes, and poetry are being read to the students of reading. Automatically in
recognizing a particular language is the key in the next stages. The teacher can determine if the students
have phonemic awareness if they can name from language the words they hear are from.

369
Stage 1 Initial Reading Stage
In this stage, the students will start to realize the correspondence between the symbol and the sound. For
example, upon seeing the symbol M, the students will know that the sound is /m/ as in “mother”

Stage 2 Confirmation Stage

This stage is deemed to be very crucial in reading development and according to Chall, most will mistake
fluency for comprehension. She reiterates that mere verbalization of written text cannot be considered
complete reading.

Stage 3 Reading to Learn (Academic Reading)

The first three stages are considered”learning to read stages” while stage 3 up until stage 5 are “reading
to learn stages”. In this particular stage, students must be beyond fluency. They must be able to
comprehend what they read because if not, they will have difficulty in learning

Stage 4 Multiple Viewpoint Stage and Stage 5 Construction and Judgment Stage
After reading a text, if students were able to give their opinions they belong to the fourth stage. On the
other hand, if students were able to criticize a particular text, and in turn were able to write their own,
they belong to fifth stage

Purpose of Reading

Skimming- reading to get the main idea

Scanning – reading to get specific information

Other Purposes of Reading

1. Information searching
2. General comprehending
3. New information learning
4. Information evaluating and synthesizing

WRITING

The Paragraph

The paragraph is defined as a group of unified, coherent, well-developed sentences that are properly and
logically organized to support one specific idea or topic.

Based on the given definition, we can infer that it is important for a paragraph to have Unity, Coherence,
logical Organization, support or Development, proper Emphasis, and one governing and limiting topic
sentence- “UCODE TS”

The paragraph Paradigm

370
Based on the diagram below, we can say that a paragraph is unified if all the sentences are about the
topic sentence. It has coherence if all the sentences are connected with each other properly and logical
and coherent order.

S2

S1 Topic Sentence
S3

S4

GRAMMAR

Part of Speech

NOUNS

A noun names something- person, place, things, events, phenomena, emotions, etc.

Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper nouns- names of specific persons, things, or places
2. Common nouns- refer to any one of a class of persons, places, or things
3. Count nouns- nouns that can be counted and quantified using numbers
4. Non count nouns Mass nouns- nouns that cannot be counted and quantified using
measurements
- Mass nouns, abstract nouns, events, occasions and phenomena are under noon count nouns.
5. Collective nouns- nouns that name a group of persons or things
6. Compound nouns- nouns that are made up of two words acting as a single unit.
- Compound nouns may be written as separate words hyphenated words, or combined words.

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that stand for nouns

371
 Kinds of Pronouns

1. Personal pronouns- these are pronouns that refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to,
or the
person or thing spoken about.

SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON I ( Subjective) WE ( Subjective)
ME ( Objective) US ( Objective)
SECOND PERSON YOU YOU

THIRD PERSON SHE, HE, HER,HIM, IT THEY ( Subjective)

THEM ( Objective)

2. Possessive pronouns- these are pronouns that show possession

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

MY MINE
OUR OURS
YOUR YOURS
THEIR THEIRS
HIS HIS
HER HERS
ITS

Examples:
Possessive Adjective: This is my book ( “my” qualifies the book)
Possessive Pronoun: This book is mine. (‘mine” represents the owner of the book)

3. Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

SINGULAR PLURAL
FIRST PERSON MYSELF OURSELVES
SECOND PERSON YOURSELF YOURSELVES
THIRD PERSON HIMSELF THEMSELVES
ITSELF
ONSLELF

Example:

REFLEXIVE INTENSIVE
The pronoun refers to the subject The pronoun shows emphasis
a. I see myself in his actions a. I, myself is the culprit
b. Did you teach yourself? b. You, yourself teach
c. He cut the paper himself c. He, himself cut the paper

372
 d. They were shocked about themselves d. They themselves were shocked

4. Indefinite Pronouns- do not refer to a specific noun.

SINGULAR PLURAL BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL

ANY ,EVERYONE BOTH, SEVERAL NONE
ANYBODY, NO ONE FEW ALL
EVERYBODY MANY SOME
ANYONE

5. Interrogative pronouns- used in asking questions

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
WHO HOW TO WHOM
WHAT WHOM TO WHAT
WHICH WHOSE TO WHICHWHERE
WHY WHEN

6. Demonstrative pronouns- used in pointing nouns

SINGULAR THIS THAT

PLURAL THESE THOSE

ADJECTIVES

An adjective qualifies and tells something about a NOUN or PRONOUN through descriptions.

It answers the questions:

What kind?
Which one?
How many?
How much?

Comparison of Adjectives

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

BIG BIGGER BIGGEST
USEFUL MORE USEFUL MOST USEFUL
ACTIVE LESS ACTIVE LEAST ACTIVE
BAD WORSE WORST

Order of Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives

373
 determiner observation origin material qualifier noun
size shape age color sports Car
An Expensive Red European Necklace
An Extrai- Daisies
ordinary
Six Long White american Hair
stemmed
Her shiny Short Black Dog
My Big Old German Boxes
Those Long Ceramic jewelry Locket
That Smooth Big Insects
Few Tiny African gold Films
Some Erotic Indian

VERBS

Oftentimes. Verbs are defined as action words. But reality, verbs are far more than that. Verbs also link
ideas in a sentence, help other verbs, and state conditions. We can classify verbs into (1) verbs actions,
(2) linking/be verbs, (3) helping verbs, (4) emphatic verbs, and of course, (5) modals.

Action Verbs
These are verbs that express action. A majority of verbs are of this nature, and that is why most of the
time, learners tend to define verbs as action words. Words like run, walk, talk, sing, dance, etc. are
common examples of action verbs. We can further classify actions verbs into two more sub
classifications-Regular and Irregular verbs.

Regular verbs
Action verb is considered regular if its past form is derived by adding d or ed. Let us take the word walk
for an example; the past form of walk is walked.

BASE FORM PAST FORM

Watch Watched
Bake Baked
Pick Picked
Save Saved

Irregular verbs
Action verb is considered irregular if its past form is derived not by adding d or ed, but through a change
or through retention in spelling.

BASE FORM PAST FORM

Pay Paid
Put Put
Say Said
write Wrote

374
Linking verbs

Linking Verbs as Copula

The copula is defined by Celce-Muricia as the link between the subject and non verbal predicates (
nouns, adjectives, and some adverbials). The copula also carries the tense and would determines subject-
verb agreement.

Examples:
She is beautiful---She is a pronoun, and beautiful is an adjective.
She is beautiful---She is singular, that is why we used “is”

Linking Verbs as Perception Corpulas

These are verbs that expresses no action, but at the same time, are not conventional ( is, are, was, were)
linking verbs. They are called Perception copulas because they are perceived through the senses ( mental
or sensory)

Examples:
Appear Seem Feel Look
Smell Sound Taste

Linking Verb as State Copulas

State copulas are verbs that are not locomotive. They are more of a condition than an action.

Examples:
Lie Remain
Rest Stand

Linking Verbs as Change of State Copulas

These linking verbs do not express instant locomotion or movement. Mostly, these verbs express
changes from one state to another.

Examples:
Become Come Fall
Get Go Grow
Turn

These are also called helping verbs because they always appear with another verb in a sentence ( main
verb). Linking verbs such as is, was, were, are considered auxiliary verbs if they appear together with a
for a s verb in progressive form. Other helping verbs are has, have, and had.

The verb has is used for singular subjects in the present tense. The verb “have” is used for plural subjects
in the present tense, and had is used doe both singular and plural subjects in the past tense. Has, have
and had, are also considered Auxiliary verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb( main verb)
in the past participal form.

Example:
She has taken a bath already the verb”has” functions as an auxiliary

375
Emphatic Verbs

Emphatic verb are used to give certain emphasis. These verbs are do, does, and did. Do is used for plural
subjects in the present tense. DOES is used for singular subjects in the present tense, and DID for both
plural and singular in the past tense.

The verbs, DO,DOES, and DID can also be used as main verbs. They are only considered em phatic
verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb in its base form.

Example:
She did not drink her milk ----- DID is used as an emphatic verb

Modals
According to Celece-Muria, modals are helping verbs that are used to give a proposition. A degree of
probability, to express one’s attitude, and to perform various social functions such as expressing
politeness or indirectness when making request, giving advice, or grabting permission. It is always
couples with a verb on its base form.

a. Stating Ability
I can do anything

b. Expressing Regret
I should have loved you
c. Giving warning
You may be in danger

d. Expressing Admission with Reservation

I might be wrong, but I know what I did

e. Expressing observation
You must do this

ADVERBS

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or another adverb.

Adverb of Manner

This answers the question how a thing is done

Example:
He did the job poorly
Question: How did he do the job?
Answer: Poorly

Adverb of Time

This answers the question when the action happened

Example:
He will go there tomorrow
Question: When will he go there?

376
 Answer: Tomorrow

Adverb of Frequency

This answers the question how often

Example:
She is there every week
Question: how frequent is she there?
Answer: every week

PREPOSITION

A preposition links words with a sentence. It also states how two separate things are related. A
preposition may indicate a location, direction, possession, or cause.

Common Prepositions

In front of About In Beneath

In regard to Above Near During
Inside Across Down By
In spite of Against Despite By means
Into Among From Amid

CONJUNCTION

If prepositions link words within a sentence, conjunctions relate or join words into single unit.

Coordinating Conjunctions- connect words or group of words

Examples: but, and, for, nor, or, so, yet
TIP: Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same grammatical structures.

Correlative Conjunctions- connect words under the same grammatical structure, but they always appear
in pairs.
Examples: either….or, neither… nor

Subordinating Conjunctions- connects two complete ideas to make one dependent to other.
Examples: inasmuch as, whenever, unless

INTERJECTION

These are words that express strong feelings or emotions. They may function as an independent sentence
with the speaker as the subject.
Examples: ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray

Subject and Verb Agreement

377
Collective Nouns
These nouns can either take a singular or plural verb depending on how they are used in a sentence. On
the other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as one entity, then it would take a singular verb. On the
other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as individuals the group, it will take a plural verb.
Examples: Our debate team has won the competition
Our debate team have won all their battles

Noun ending in –s-and –ics

Nouns ending in s and ics are always paired with verbs in the singular form
Examples: Mathematics is my favorite subject
Measles is a dangerous disease

Nouns in sets of twos.

Nouns of this nature take a singular verb if the word” pair” is present. If not. They take a plural verb.
Examples: A pair of scissors in on the table
The scissors are on the table

“A number” and “The number”

Sentence beginning with the phrase “ a number” always take a plural verb, while sentences that begin
with “ the number” take a singular verb”
Examples: A number of students have been expelled
The number of students being expelled is rising.

Fraction and Percent

Nouns in percent and in fraction take a singular verb if paired with a non-count noun, and vice versa.
Examples: 50% of the Earth’s water is still safe for drinking
One-third of the students were expelled

Compound Nouns
Compound subjects joined by a conjunction take plural verbs.
Examples: Paul and Robin are brothers

Neither…nor and Either…or

The verb must agree with closet noun.
Example: Neither John nor his brothers are going to America

As well and Together with

The verb must agree with the first noun (subject).
Example: the president, together with his advisers, is leaving tomorrow

Tenses

Simple Present Tense

Verbs in the present tense express habitual or factual actions.
Examples: She sings

378
 The sun shines
Simple Past Tense
Verbs in the past tense express actions that happened in the past.
Example: She sang yesterday

Simple Future Tense

Verbs in the future tense express actions that will happen in the future.
Example: She will sing.

Present Progressive Tense

Verbs in the present progressive tense, express actions that are happening at the moment.
Example: She is singing.

Past Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that started and ended in the past.
Example: She was singing all afternoon yesterday.

Future Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that will happen in the future.
Example: She will be singing in the competition.

Present Perfect Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past, but is still happening at present
Example: I have sung a song.

Past Perfect Tense

This expresses two past actions, in which one happened before the other.
Example: she had sung before she danced.

Future Perfect Tense

This expresses two future actions, in which one will happen before the other.
Example: She will have sung before she dances.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past and still happening at present and will most likely
continue to happen in the future.
Example: She has been singing since this morning.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two past actions, where the first one was still happening when the second one transpired.
Example: She had been singing before the bomb exploded.

Future Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two future actions, where the first action is still happening when the second one is
transpires.
Example: She will have been singing before the bomb explodes.

SUMMARY SUMMARY

379
 Present I dance
Past I danced
Future I will dance
Present Progressive I am dancing
Past Progressive I was dancing all afternoon yesterday
Future Progressive I will be dancing
Present Perfect I have danced
Past Perfect I had danced before I sang
Future Perfect I will have danced before I sing
Present Perfect Progressive I have been dancing since then
Past perfect Progressive I had been dancing when the bomb exploded
Future Perfect Progressive I will have been when the party ends

Faulty Modifiers

Dangling Modifier- absence of the word being modified

Example: Inside the store, shoes must be worn
Who must wear the shoes?
Customers must wear shoes inside the store.

Misplaced Modifier- the modifier modifies the wrong word.

Example: Turning green, I watched the lights turning green.

Fragment- group of words masquerading as a sentence

Example: The justice system in the olden times

Sentence

Four Kinds of Sentences according to Function

Declarative- states an idea and express facts and opinion

Example:
She is a pretty girl
We must learn how to swim
The earth is round

Interrogative- used in asking questions

- Ends with a question mark

Example:
Who are you?
What is the capital city of Hungary?

Imperative- used in asking someone to do something

- “you” is the implies subject

380
Example:
Go away
Turn around
Write your name

Exclamatory- used to express strong feeling or emotion

-end with a exclamation point
Example:
Fire!
Bomb!
You won!

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Sentence Patterns with Transitive Verbs

S-AV-DO ( Subject-Action Verb-Direct Object)
Beth read the book quickly
I gave him a book

S-AV-IO-DO (Subject- Action Verb- Indirect Object-Direct Object)

I gave the place a new coat of paint
Mr. Padilla gave me the test results

S-AV-DO-OC (Subject- Action Verb-Direct Object- Object Complement)

The judges considered him a champion
The movie’s ending made her happy
Sentence Patterns with Linking Verbs

S-LV-PN (Subject-Linking Verbs-Predicate Nominative

That boy is the culprit
One of the contestants is she.

S-LV-PA (Subject- Linking Verb- Predicate Adjective

The show is cool
The singer sounds bad

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Simple Sentence- composed of one independent clause

Compound Sentence- composed of two or more independent clauses
Complex Sentence- composed of one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses
Compound- Complex- composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate
clauses

Examples:

Simple Sentence I tried to stop her

Compound Sentence I tried to stop her, but she still went away
Complex Sentence I tried to stop her when she left
Compound- Complex I tried to stop her when she left, but she still went away

381
 LITERATURE

Introduction to Fiction

FICTION
Fiction is a prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact.

The different types of fiction are the following:

Short story- a relatively brief prose fictional composition based in a single main incident which is
designed to produce a single dominant impression.

Novel- a prose fictional work of considerable length that deals with a series of complications involving
characters in a particular setting.

Drama- a composition in prose or verse designed for stage performance through mine and dialogue.

Allegory- a symbolic fictional account conveying meaning/s beyond the literal

Element of Fiction

Plot
The plot is a series of events knit together following the principle of cause and effect. It is also deemed
to be an arrangement of incidents, the narrative structure, the organization of a narrative, and the logical
sequence of actions. A plot can be arranged and organized in two ways, the first one is through
Chronology-which means that the events are arranged according to time and space, and the second one
is through Climax-which means that the events are organized according to order of suspense.

There are also two types of plot, the first one is called organic, which means the story sprouted from just
one conflict; and the second one is episodic, which means there are two or more sources of conflicts.

Conflict
Conflict is considered as the soul of the plot, and it is the tension between opposing forces in the story.
It can be external, which means that conflict is from outside forces; or internal which means the conflict
resides the main character.

Here are the types of conflicts:

 Physical-man vs. nature
 Social- man vs. man
 Psychological- man vs. self
 Cosmic- man vs. God

Character
Characters in the story are the moral agents of actions. They are the invented personages in fiction.

There are two types of characters namely major and minor. Under major characters, we have the
protagonist, who is the central character where the story revolves; and the antagonist, who prevents the

382
protagonist in solving the conflict. Under minor characters we have foil, who has the opposite traits of
the main protagonist; the confidant, who serves as the friend of the protagonist; and the background
characters, who are not closely related with the protagonist.

We also have two kinds of character. The first one is round, which means the character was able to
undergo change, while the second one is called flat, which means there was no change in the outlook
and action of character.

Setting
The setting serves as the background of the story, may it be physical, mental, or spiritual. It serves as
the backdrop and sets the mood of the characters. There are three elements of setting. The first one is
time, which sets the duration of the events; next is place, which talks about the locally; and the third
one is atmosphere, which is the emotion or the mood.

Theme
Theme is considered as the central message of the story. It is the universal truth expressed in the text.

Point of View
This pertains to the vantage point where the story is narrated. Below are the different types;

FIRST person- a principal character in the story is the one narrating it.
SECOND person (unlimited)- an indirect disclosure of the narrating self for characterization and
analysis
THIRD person-(limited) also known as the central intelligence point of view; the author choose a
character from whose consciousness the entire story is told
CAMERA EYE- presents the dialogues, and the incidents of a narrative like a mechanical recording
device.
REVOLVING-characterized by a narrative shift from one point of view to another
COMPOSITE point of view-gives a comprehensive view of the events and incidents in the story through
the different angles adapted by several narrating characters

Figurative Language
1. Synecdoche-an association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: the face who launched a thousands ships
2. Simile- an indirect association
Example: she like a flower
3. Personification-given human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)
Example: the sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron- a self-contrasting statement
Example: Loud silence
5. Metonymy- an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that
represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate
6. Metaphor- a direct comparison
Example: you are the sunshine of my life
7. Irony- the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break
8. Hyperbole- an exaggeration
Example: Cry me a river
9. Euphenism- Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.
Example: Loved child (illegitimate child)

383
 10. Ellipsis- omission of words in a sentence
Example: She walked away and so the world turns…
11. Asyndeton- Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions)
Example: No retreat, no surrender

12. Apostrophe- A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away
Example: Love, please come and take me.

WORD LITERATURES

WORKS AUTHORS
The Epic of Gilamesh LEQI-UNNINNI, SCRIBE (700BCE)
Lliad HOMER, (800 BCE)
Odyssey
The Analects CONFUCIUS (551-479 BCE)
The Oresteia AESCHYLUS (496-406 BCE)
Agamemnom
Theban Plays: SOPHOCLES (496-406 BCE)
Oedipus Rex
Oedipus at Colonus
Antigone
Alcestis EURIPIDES 9484-406 (BCE)
Medea
Hippolytus
The Trojan Women
Electra
The Histories HERODOTUS (484-425 BCE)
The History of the Pelipennesian War THUCYDIDES (470-400 BCE)
The Art of War SUN-TZU (450-380 BCE)
Lysistrata ARUSTOPHANES (448-388 BCE)
The Clouds
The Birds
The Republic PLATO (428-348 BCE)
Ethics ARISTOTLE ( 384-322 BCE)
Politics
Poetics

The Book of Mencius MENCIUS (400-320 BCE)

The Ramayana VALMIKI (300 BCE)
The Mahabharata VYASA (200BCE)
The Bhagavad Gita ANONYMOUS (200BCE)
Records of the Grand Historian SSU-MA CHE’IEN (145-86BCE)
Of the Nature of Things LUCRETUS 1(100-50 BCE)
The Aeneid VIRGIL (70-19 BCE)
Mediations AURELIUS, MARCUS (121-180)
The Confessions SAINT AGUSTINE (354-430)
The Cloud Messenger KALIDASA (400)
Sakuntala/Shakuntala
The Koran MUHAMMAD (650)

384
The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriach HUI-NENG (638-713)
Shah Nameh FIRDAUS (940-1020)
The Pillow Book SEI SHONAGON (965-1035)
The Tale of Genji ( First Novel in the world) MURSAKI, LADY SHIKIBU (976-1015)
The Rubaiyet KHAYAM, OMAR (1048)
The Divine Comedy ALIGHIERI, DANTE (12655-1321)
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms KUAN-CHUNG, LUO (1330-1400)
The Canterbury Tales CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1342-1400)
1001 Nights/Arabian nights ANONYMOUS (1500)
The Prince MACHIAVELLI, NICOLO (1469-1527)
Gargantua and Pantagruel RABELAIS, FRNCOIS (1483-1553)
Journey to the West WU CHE’ENG-EN (1500-1582)
Essays-Apology for Raymond Sebond MONTAIGNE, MICHEI (1533-1592)
Don Quixote SAAVEDRA. MIGUEL DE CERVANTES (1547-1616)
Romeo and Juliet SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)
Much Ado About Nothing
Twelfth Knight
Merchant of Venice
Devotions DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631)
Sermons
First and Second Anniversaries
Dialogue Concerning The Two Chief World GALILEI, GALILEO (1574-1642)
Systems
Leviathan HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1
Discourse on Method DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)
Paradise Lost MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674)
Lycidas
Areopagitica
The School for Wives MOLIERE (1622-1673)
Rartuffe
The Would-Be Gentleman
Thoughts PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
Pilgrims BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688)
Second Treatise of Government LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
The Narrow Road to the Deep North BASHO, MATSU (1644-1694)
Robinson Crusoe DEFOE, DANIEL (1660-17310
Gulliver’s Travel SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745)
Candid VOLTAIRE (1694-17178)
An Enquiry Concerning Human HUME,DAVID (1711-1776)
Understanding
Tom Jones FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754)
Confessions ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
The Social Contact
Tristram Shandy STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768)
The Life of Samuel Johnson BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795)
Basic Documents in American History JEFFERSON, THOMAS
Faust WOLFGANG VON GOETHE, JOHANN
A Poison Tree BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)
The Prelude WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850)

385
The Ancient Mariner COLEERIDE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
Christabel
Kublai Khan
Pride and Prejudice AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)
Emma
The Read and the Black STENDHAL (1783-1842)
Pere Goriot DE BALZAC, HONORE (1799-1850)
Eugenie
Cousin Bette
Self Reliance EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882)
The Scarlet Letter HAWTHORNE,NATHANIEL (1804-1864)
Democracy in America DE TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS (1805-1859)
On Liberty MILL.JOHN STUART (1806-1873)
The Subjection of Women
The Voyage of the Beagle DARWIN, CHARLES (1809-1859)
The Origin of the Species
Dead Souls GOGOL, NIKOLAI (1809-1882)
The Cask of Amontillado POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849)
Annabel Lee
Vanity Fair THACKERY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-1863)
Pickwick Papers DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870)
The Tale of Cities
A Christmas Carol
David Copperfield
Great Expectations
The Warden TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882)
Jane Eyre BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855)
Wuthering Heights BRONTE, EMILLY (1818-1848)
Walden THROREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817-1862)
Civil Disobedience
Fathers and Sons TURGENEY, IVAN (1818-1883)
The Communist Manifesto MARX, KARL (1818-1883)
Moby Dick MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891)
The Mill on the Floss ELIOT, GEORGE (1819-1880)
Middlemarch
Silas Marner
Leaves of Grass WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892)
Madame Bovary FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880)
Crime and Punishment DOSTOYEVSKY, FYDOR (1821-1880)
Brothers Karamazov
War and Peace TOLSTOY, ELO (1828-1910)
Annakarenina
The Soul Selects Her Society DICKENSON, EMILY (1830-1886)
A Dimple in the Tomb
Huckleberry Finn TWAIN, MARK (1835-1910)
Tom Sawyer
The Mayor of Casterbridge HARDY, THOMAS (1840-1928)
The Interpretation of Dreams FRUED, SIGMUND (1856-1939)
Uncle Vanya CHEKOV, ANTON (1860-1904)
Three Sisters

386
The Cheery Orchard
The Age of Innocence WHARTON, EDITH (1862-1937)
The House of Mirth
The Road Not Taken FROST, ROBERT (1874-1963)
Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening
A Passage of India FORSTER, E.M (1879-1970)
Ulysses JOYCE, JAMES (1882-1941)
Mrs. Dalloway WOOF, VIRGINIA ( 1882-1941)
To the Lighthouse
Orlando
Sons and Lovers LAWRENCE, DFAVID HERBERT (1885-1930)
Lady Chatterley’s Lover
The Fox
A long Day’s Journey into the Night O’NEIL, EUGENE (1888-1953)
Mourning Becomes Electra
Waste Land ELIOT,T.S (1888-1965)
Brave New World HUXLEY, ALDOUS ( 1894-1963)
The Sound and the Fury FAULKNER, WILLIAM (1897-1962)
A Rose for Emily
Old Man and the Sea HEMINGWAY, ERNEST (1899-1962)
1984 ORWELL, GEORGE (1903-1950)
Animal Farm
The English Teacher NARAYAN, R.K
Waiting for Godot BECKETT, SAMUEL (1906-1989)
One Hundred MARQUEZ, GABRIEL GARCIA (1928-PRESENT)
Love in the Time of Cholera
Things Fall Apart ACHEBE, CHINUA (1930-PRESENT)
No longer At Ease
Sula MORRISSON (1931-PRESENT
The Beloved
Jazz
Song of Solomom

FILIPINO AUTHORS and their WORKS

WORKS AUTHORS
Magnificence and other stories ALFON, ESTRELLA
The Knifed Horizon ANGELES, CARLOS
A Stun of Jewels
How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife ARGUILLA, MANUEL
and Other Stories
Sunflower Poems AYALA, TITA LACAMBRA
The Archipelago BAUTISTA, CIRILO
Telex Moon
Sunlight on Broken Stones
What is an Educated Filipino BENITEZ, FRNCISCO
Dead Stars BENITEZ, FRNACISO
Stepping Stories

387
Half a Life
The Living and the Dead BRILLANTES, GREGORIO
A Wind Over the Earth
Distance to Andromeda
America is in the Heart ( Autobiographical) BULOSAN, CARLOS
The Laughter of My Father
The Voice of Bataan
The Power of the People
People in the War CORDERO-FERNANDO, GILDA
The Visitation of the Gods
The Butcher, The Baker, and the Candlestick
Maker
The Wedding Dance DAGUIO, AMADOR
No Certain Weather DEMETILLO, RICARDO
Barter in Panay
Daedalus and OtherPoems
Masks and Signatures
The Devil Flower ENRIQUEZ, EGMIDIO ALVAREZ DEMETILLO,
House of Images RICARDO
Palabas: Essays on Philippine Threater FERNANDEZ, DOREEN
Poems in Spanish and Ilocano FLORENTINO, LEONA
Now and at the Hour FORD, AIDA RIVERA
Fire Poem/Rain Poem GAMALINDA, ERIC
Popular Delusions
Planet waves
Poems GLORIA, ANGELA MANALANG
The Winds of April GONZALES N.V.M
A Season of Grace
Seven Hills Away
Children of the Ash-Covered Loam
The Bamboo Dancers
Children of the City GUERRERO, AMADIS MA
Dogeaters HAGEDOREN, JESSICA
Gangster of Love
Encanto IGLORIA, MARIA LUISA
Blood Sacrifice
Juanita Crus JALANDONI, MAGDALENA
Ang Dalaga sa Tindahan
Ermita JOSE, FRANCISO SIONIL
Poon
My Brother, My Executioner
The Woman Who Had Two Navels JOAQUIN, NICK
Summer Soistice
May Day Eve
Small Key LATORENA, PAZ
Desire
Sunset
Literature and Society LOPEZ, SALVADOR
Reevaluation LUMBERA, BIENVENIDO
Abot-Tanaw

388
My humble Opinion NAKPIL, CARMEN GUERRERO
Women Enough
The Virgin POLOTAN-TUVERA-KERIMA
The Hand of the Enemy

Mythology RAMOS. MAXIMO

The Creatures of Philippine Lower
Zita ROTOR, ARTURO
The Wound and the Scar
The Volcano SANTOS, BIENVENIDO
The Man Who ( Thought He) Looked Like
Robert Taylor
The Day the Dancers Came
Scent of Apples
Lidia SOTTO, JUSN CRISOSTOMO
His Native Coast TIEMPO, EDITH
The Tracks of Babylon
Blade of Fem
Valediction sa Hillcrest TINO, ROLANDO
Claudia and Her Mother
Man Songs VILLA, JOSE GARCIA
Footnote to Youth
Like the Molave ZULUETA DA COSTA, RAFAEL
Twisted ZAFRA, JESSICA

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

EXPRESSION MEANING
Come hell of high water I am by your side come hell or high water.
This means the speaker would not leave the one he/she
is speaking with no matter what happens
Put your finger in the pie To finish the task at a much earlier time, everyone must
put his/her finger in the pie.
It means they must do their share in a particular task.
Be in the limelight The soprano did her best to be in the limelight.
It means to be at the center of everybody’s attention.
Flogging a dead horse Rallies and mass demonstrations against the RH law are
like flogging a dead horse.
It means that the work being done is futile.
Bring home the bacon The speech coach cheered his contestants. He said
“Bring the bacon!”
It means that he wants the team to win.
Between the devil and the deep blue sea This situation is hopeless!. It is like the devil and the
deep blue sea.
This situation is at its worst and the resolution is seen to
be unpleasant.
In your face The debater was criticized straight in her face.
To state something in an aggressive manner.
Under the weather She did not attend her class. She said that she feels under
the weather.

389
 The person is sick.
Back to square one Her efforts are wasted since she is back to square one.
The person has to start again from the beginning.
Hold your horses The commandant reminds his team hold their horses
until the right time comes.
Be patient.
Tickled your horses The news tickled her pink.
Made one every happy.
When pigs fly There is no chance of us being husband and wife, unless
when pigs fly.
Impossible to happen.
At the pink of health She looks beautiful and well rested. I assume she is at
the pink of health
Good health.

Phrasal Verbs
Add up Add
Bring about Cause to happen
Bring up Raise
Call off Cancel
Carry on Continue
Back up Support
Bring off Accomplish
Carry out Complete
Count in Include
Cut down Reduce
Fill out Complete (printed form)
Fill up Complete ( container0
Hang up Suspend
Hold up Rob
Pay off To complete payment
Touch up Repair
Turn down Refuse
Throw over Reject
Save up Accumulate
Put off Postpone
Down play Diminish
Figure out Understand
Breakdown Analyze

Practice Test

Choose the correct meaning of the underline word.

Vocabulary:

1. The teacher-adviser monitors the class activities of his pupils.

a. Demands c. Identifies

390
 b. Observes d. regulates
2. There is a need to renovate the old school building to avoid future accidents.
a. repair c. restore
b. repaint d. redecorate
3. The athlete was in a sanguine mood after the ball game
a. Frustrating c. sad
b. happy d. discouraging
4. There is a need for an amicable settlement between the parent and the teacher
a. embarrassing c. peaceful
b. humble d. continuing
5. There is an altercation going on between the teacher and principal in the office.
a. dispute c. settlement
b. competition d. jealousy
6. The English teacher is proficient in her teaching.
a. effective c. engrossed
b. expert d. perfect
7. Stipulate in your constitution and by-laws the qualified of the officers.
a. specify c. fasten
b. attach d. underline
8. Integrate values in all your subject areas
a. remove c. decrease
b. include into d. criticize
9. His preposterous reason made him the talk of the campus.
a. magnificent c. funny
b. ridiculous d. positive
10. The singer was fidgety as the judges were deciding on the winner.
a. appealing c. restlessly
b. with love d. none of these
11. He was deprive of a mother’s love
a. satisfied c. chosen
b. debarred d. given
12. The flagrant pupils came shouting with stones in their hands.
a. industrious c. notorious
b. group of pupils d. intelligent
13. There was a question of fraud among the notorious pupils who took the special examination.
a. cheating c. unfairness
b. injustice d. favoritism
14. Her answer was explicable in public
a. undetermined c. unacceptable
b. can be explained d. unreasonable
15. She looked haggard when she came in
a. fresh c. gaunt
b. at ease d. inspired
Subject-Verb Agreement
16. Everybody in the gymnasium _____ frustrated when the candidate did not appear in public.
a. was b. were
17. A bag of candies and a bottle of coke ____ on the table.
a. Is b. are
18. That _____ seem correct.
a. don’t b. doesn’t
19. Either the boys or girls _____ here.

391
 a. is b. are
20. The number of teacher in the school ____ from year to year.
a. vary b. varies
21. One-third of the classroom_____ under water.
a. was b. were
22. She is one of those honor pupils who always _____ into confusion.
a. get b. gets
23. Each of the members of the club _____ a duty to perform.
a. Have b. Has
24. Mrs. Tecson’s creativeness and concern _____ well appreciated.
a. is b. are
25. There ____ many pupils here.
a. Is b. are
26. Many years of his life _____ spent in province
a. Was b. were
27. No one ____ at home.
a. is b. are
28. My leg and my arm _____ aching.
a. Is b. are
29. She _____ to read novels.
a. like b. likes
30. There _____ eight men in the game.
a. is b. are

Identify the figure of speech in the following statement.

31. Michael shouts like mike does.

a. hyperbole c. metaphor
b. simile d. litotes
32. Dona was tired to death after a long day of cooking.
a. simile c. metaphor
b. hyperbole d. personification
33. She has a Venus beauty
a. simile c. metaphor
b. hyperbole d. litotes
34. As the rain falls, the leaves dance merrily while the cool breeze touches my lips gently.
a. Hyperbole c. metaphor
b. litotes d. personification
35. Mt. Apo is a small volcano compared to Mt. matutum.
a. Litotes c. Metaphor
b. Hyperbole d. Simile
36. Chris was a limb in the group during the disco party.
a. simile c. hyperbole
b. metaphor d. litotes
37. Her lips are as cold as ice
a. simile c. personification
b. metaphor d. synecdoche
38. James was crushed by the death of Kris.
a. simile c. hyperbole
b. personification d. metaphor

392
 39. Her skin is as white as onion
a. simile c. hyperbole
b. metaphor d. litotes
40. She has the King Solomon ideas.
a. Simile c. metaphor
b. Hyperbole d. personification
IV. Vocabulary

41. That coke is delicious

a. looks good c. looks colorful
b. tastes good d. smells good
42. I won’t come anymore
a. come soon c. already came
b. never come d. any of these
43. The story is uninteresting
a. very interesting
b. interesting in some part
c. not interesting
d. some how interesting
44. She was attracted by the hedge
a. stone c. fence
b. low bushes d. none of these
45. The memo is compulsory.
a. must be done c. must be kept
b. a request d. optional
46. She has to economize.
a. earn more money c. put business
b. spend less d. spend more
47. The pond is shallow
a. has clear water
b. is full of mass
c. is not deep
48. The oil trickles down the machine
a. flows rapidly
b. flows little by little
c. flows in large quantities
49. That pond is full of fry.
a. small fish c. mosquito
b. frogs d. wraps
50. I sneaked out.
a. went out noisily c. went out easily
b. went out without attracting
51. He hasn’t come yet
a. he’ll come later c. he won’t come
b. we won’t wait for him d. he will never come
52. You will sprinkle the flower once a day
a. change c. cut
b. water d. throw
53. These fish are fresh
a. cooked c. cheap
b. newly caught d. rotten

393
 54. The light is dim
a. off c. colored
b. not bright d. very bright
55. The ants are motile
a. small c. numerous
b. movable d. big

V. Answer the following correctly.

56. How do you address a Christmas card where the husband is a Doctor of Philosophy and the
wife is an attorney? Which is the right form?
a. Dr. and Atty. Ben Marquez
b. Dr. Ben Reyes and Atty. Rose Reyes
c. Dr. Reyes and Atty. Reyes
d. Dr. and Mrs. Ben Reyes
57. Writing to your superior, what complimentary wending should be used?
a. truly yours, c. Yours truly,
b. very truly yours, d. Truly very your’s
58. Choose the proper use of everyday.
a. You find this headline everyday.
b. You find this headline everyday in the newspapers.
c. You don’t find the issue clear everyday.
d. I read the issue everyday
59. Which declaration shows determination?
a. What an embarrassing situation!
b. I have good words for you.
c. This time, I won’t stop teaching.
d. I will still think about it.
60. When you are writing to someone you hardly know, the salutation should be
a. My dear Mrs. Ponce
b. Dear Mrs. Ponce
c. To ever dearest Mrs. Ponce
d. My ever dearest Mrs. Ponce
61. “Early to bed, early to rise, keeps a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” means
a. sleep early and wake up early so you will become wealthy
b. Develop healthy habits of going to bed early and getting
c. Sleeping is the root of making wealth
d. Sleeping will give you a healthy mind.
62. “Tell me who your friends are and I’ll tell you who you are” means
a. You are the judges as to who your peers are.
b. Your friends are your everyday companions.
c. You choose your friends.
d. Tell me who you to be with.
63. Which of this word are synonymous with settlement?
a. Autonomy c. Accord
b. Breakthrough d. Policy
64. What does it mean by saying “Not all close eyes are asleep”.
a. Not all eyes are blind.
b. The eyes seem to be closed, yet she knows what’s going on.
c. When we sleep sometimes we open our eyes.
d. Sleeping is not always closing our eyes.

394
65. What is meant by live within your means?
a. Grow as your live
b. Liking is the means of growing.
c. Spend according to your income.
d. Growing is the means to live.
66. “ I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul” was written by
a. Henley c. Elliot
b. Dickens d. Shelley
67. “ A thing of beauty is a joy forever” expressed the philosophy of
a. Spencer c. Elliot
b. Keats d. Tennyson
68. America’s greatest humorist
a. Benjamin Franklin c. Washington Irving
b. Mark twain d. Samuel Clemens
69. A long narrative poem dealing with persons of heroic proportion and actions of great
significance
a. Ballad c. Sonnet
b. Epic d. Elegy
70. Considered the father of the modern American short story
a. Shakespeare c. Edgar Allan Poe
b. Bacon d. Robert frost
71. It is a Japanese poem with 17 syllables.
a. Niponggo c. Canto
b. Haiku d. Tanaga
72. A collection of literary pieces
a. Prose c. Anthology
b. Biography d. Diary
73. Verse with 14 iambic pentameter lines
a. Epic c. Verse
b. Sonnet d. Prose
74. Longest epic ever written
a. Invictus c. Mahabharata
b. Lam-ang d. Lament
75. Stories that reflect people’s beliefs and are handed from generation to generation
a. Prose c. Poetry
b. Folktales d. Ballad
76. These are not tales making use of animals as characters
a. Myths c. Fables
b. Legends d. Fiction
77. Known for his pen name “Dolores Manapat”
a. Antonio Luna c. Gracianio Lopez Jaena
b. Marcelo H. del Pilar d. Andres Bonifacio
78. Filipino essayist an Patriots who edited and published “La Solidaridad”
a. Apolinario Mabini c. Jose Rizal
b. Andres Bonifacio d. Marcelo H. del Pilar
79. His words were the source of inspiration for the poem “ Like the Molave”
a. Mabini c. Quezon
b. Carlos Romulo d. Rizal
80. A poem lamenting the dead
a. Sonnet c. Elegy
b. Ode d. Satire

395
81. Represent of a thing or ideas of a person
a. hyperbole c. Heroic Couplet
b. Allusion d. Personification
82. A speech by a person who reveals his thoughts
a. Sonnet c. soliloquy
b. Metaphor d. simile
83. Figure of speech where two different things are compared thru the use of “as” and “like”
a. simile c. facsimile
b. allegory d. epic
84. Author of “ how My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife”
a. Manuel Arguilla c. Paz Benitez
b. Fernando maramag d. None of these
85. These stories, which reflect the people’s belief, are handed down from one generation to
another by word of mouth.
a. novels c. prose
b. folktales d. poetry
86. A type of literature which narrates heroic deeds and supernatural happenings with local color
and which people sing or chant
a. epic c. verse
b. poetry d. riddles
87. He wrote the famous letter “ To the Women of Malolos”
a. Gregorio del Pilar c. Jose Rizal
b. Andres Bonifacio d. Emilio Jacinto
88. A kind of literary piece which moralizes and was written in letter from between two sisters
dwelling in the city ad the other in the province.
a. urbana at Felisa c. Manang Biday
b. Pasyon, religious play d. None of these
89. How is the author of “The legend of sleepy Hollow” which revolves around a headlines
horseman’s tale
a. George Washington c. Washington Irving
b. Robert Surtess d. Shakespeare
90. Considered as one of the world’s greatest short stories and it is Edgar Allan Poe’s story of
terror about a hypochondriac living in morbid fear.
a. Annabel Lee c. Macbeth
b. The fall of the house of Usher d. The Raven
91. He is Edmond Rostand’s famous character who is a poet and a soldier noted for his peculiar
nose.
a. Roxanne c. Ichabod
b. Don Quixote d. Cyrano de Bergerac
92. “If eyes are made for seeing, then beauty is its own excuse for being “- is taken from the poem’
a. The bells c. Don juan
b. Sonnet d. Rhodora
93. A great epic poem whose plot centers around the anger and wrath of Achilles against
Agamemnon, a geek leader
a. Bernardo Carpio c. The Odyssey
b. The Iliad of Homer d. Myth
94. “I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul”,, is taken room the poem
a. O Captain, my captain
b. Invictus
c. The arrow and the Song
d. None of these

396
 95. He was the American President who said: “Ask not what America will do for you, but what
together we can do for the freedom of man.”
a. Gerald Ford c. Harry Truman
b. F. Roosevelt d. Abe Lincoln
96. The speech of Abe Lincoln which end, thus; “That the government of the people, by the people,
for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” – is in his famous
a. farewell Address at Sprinfield
b. Inaugural Address
c. Address at Gettysburg
d. None of these
97. The figure of speech, which uses exaggerated statement for aesthetic reason.
a. Alliteration c. Hyperbole
b. Onomatopoeia d. Metaphor
98. His famous work is Mona Lisa
a. Jose Rizal c. Juan Luna
b. Leonardo da Vinci d. Pavarotti
99. The famous painting Juan Luna made
a. Spolarium c. Rice Paddies
b. Bahag-hari d. Sunset
100. The stature of David was created by
a. Sigfried Vandike c. Michelangelo
b. Vincent Gogh d. Andre Warbol

LET Reviewer-Filipino

LECTURE NOTES

Wika

Ilang mga pananaw ukol sa wika:

“…Maari nating hiramin sa loob ng isang panahon ang wika ng ibang bayan, ngunit hindi tayo tunay na
makapag-aangkin ng isang wikang pambansa maliban sa pamamagitan ng pagpapatibay, pagpapaunlad
at paggamit ng isang wika na sariling atin.” (Manuel L. Quezon)

Parang hininga ang wika, sa bawat sandali ng buhay natin ay nariyan ito. Palatandaan ito na buhay tayo,
at may kakayahang umugnay sa kapwa nating gumagamit din nito. (Bienvenido L. Lumbera)

Ang wika ay isang panlipunang penomenon. Ibig sabihin, mahalaga ito hindi lamang s indibidwal kundi
lalo na sa lipunang kanyang kinabibilangan. (Pamela C. Constantino)

Mahalagang kasangkapan ng panlipunang kapital ang wika na ang gamit ay gawing episyente o mabisa
ang mga transaksyon sa isang ekonomiya. (Tereso Tullao, Jr.)

397
 Ang pag-aaral ng wikang Filipino ay binubuo ng dalawang kakayahan:
 kakayahang makabuo ng mga pahayag o pangungusap na may wastong kayariang pambalarila;
tinatawag itong kakayahang linggwistika o linguistic competence
 kakayahang maunawaan at magamit ang mga pangungusap na may wastong pambalarilang
kayarian sa angkop na panlipunang kapaligiran ayon sa hinihingi ng sitwasyon; tinatawag itong
kakayahang komunikatibo o communicative competence.

Ponolohiya
 Patern o kumbinasyon ng mga tunog sa loob ng isang wika
 Ponema – pinakamaliit ngunit pinakamakahulugang yunit ng tunog ng isang wika.

Mga Ponemang Segmental

Ito ay makabuluhang tunog sa Filipino na ginagamitan ng mga katumbas na titik upang mabasa at
mabigkas. Kabilang dito ang mga ponemang katinig, patinig, diptonggo, at klaster.

Mga Ponemang Katinig

Ang mga katinig ng Filipino ay maiaayos ayon sa punto o paraan ng artikulasyon at kung ang mga ito
ay binibigkas nang may tinig o walang tinig.

Mga Ponemang Patinig

Ang mga patinig ng Filipino ay maiaayos sa tsart ayon sa kung aling bahagi ng dila ang gumagana sa
pagbigkas ng isang patinig—unahan, sentral, likod—at kung ano ang posisyon ng nasabing bahagi sa
pagbigkas—mataas, nasa gitna, o mababa.

Posisyon ng Bahagi ng Dila sa Bahagi ng Dila

Pagbigkas
Harap Sentral Likod

Mataas i () u

Gitna e o

Mababa a

Ang /i/, halimbawa, ay tinatawag na mataas-harap sapagkat kapag binibigkas ito, ang harap na bahagi
ng dila ang gumagana na karaniwan ay umaarko nang pataas.

May limang pangunahing patinig ang wikang Filipino: ang /a/. /e/, /i/, /o/, at /u/. Gayon man,
mapapansing isinama sa tsart ang ponemang () (schwa) na gamitin sa Pangasinan, ilang pook sa Ilokos,
Maranaw, at iba pang lugar sa Pilipinas.

Sa maraming katutubong wika ng Pilipinas at maging sa wikang Filipino, mga allophone, o maaaring
mapagpalit-palit, ang mga tunog ng /e/ at /i/, gayon din ang mga tunog ng /o/ at /u/. Tulad nito:

398
/lalakeh/ ~ /lalakih/ ‘man’
/babaeh/ ~ /babaih/ ‘woman’
/miyerkoles/ ~ /miyerkules? ‘Wednesday’

Mga Diptonggo
Tumutukoy ang diptonggo sa mga pinagsamang tunog ng isang patinig (a, e, i, o, u) at isang malapatinig
(w, y). Nasa ibaba ang tsart ng mga diptonggo sa wikang Filipino.

Posisyon ng Bahagi ng Dila sa Bahagi ng Dila

Pagbigkas
Harap Sentral Likod

Mataas iw, iy uy

Gitna ey oy, ow

Mababa ay, aw

Mga halimbawang salita:

aywan baytang alay

awdisyon restawran dilaw

Mga Klaster

Ang mga klaster o kambal-katinig sa Filipino ay dumarami dahil sa pagpasok ng ng mga salitang Ingles
sa sa wikang Filipino. Ang klaster ay ang magkakabit na dalawang magkaibang katinig sa isang pantig.

Mga halimbawa:

blakbord brigada kard

kliyente krokis nars
komonwelt transportasyon dimpols

Mga Ponemang Suprasegmental

Tumutukoy ang mga ponemang suprasegmental sa mga makahulugang yunit ng tunog na karaniwang di
tinutumbasan ng titik o letra sa pagsulat. Kabilang sa mga ponemang suprasegmental ang tono (pitch),
haba (length), diin (stress), at antala (juncture).

Tono

Tinutukoy ang tono sa paraan ng pagbigkas na maaaring malambing, pagalit, mabilis na parang
nagmamadali, mahina at iba pa. Naiiba-iba ang tono o pagtaas at pagbaba ng tinig sa wikang Filipino
batay sa iba’t ibang layunin at damdamin ng nagsasalita. Halimbawa maiiba-iba ang intonasyon sa
sumusunod na pangungusap ayon sa inihahayag na emosyon ng nagsasalita. Basahin ang mga
pangungusap batay sa ipinahahayag na emosyon:

399
Ikaw nga! (nagulat)
Ikang nga! (pagalit)
Ikaw pala. (ordinaryong pagbati)
Ikaw pala. (walang interes na pagbati)

Diin
Ginagamit sa gramatikang ito ang dalawang magkahiwalay na bar (/ /) upang maglaman ng notasyong
ponemik na sisimbolo sa paraan ng pagbigkas ng isang salita. Ginagamit din ang tuldok / . / upang
matukoy ang pantig o silabol ng isang salita na may diin (stress). Ito ay nangangahulugan naman ng
pagpapahaba ng pantig na laging may kasamang patinig. Tulad ng sumusunod kung saan may diin at
pinahahaba ang pantig na sinusundan / . /:

/kasa.ma/* = companion
/kasama/ = tenant
/magnana.kaw/ = thief
/magna-na.kaw/ = will steal
/magna.nakaw/ = will go on stealing

Punto at Intonasyon
Tumutukoy ang punto sa kakaibang pagbigkas ng isang grupo ng mga tao. Halimbawa sa rehiyong
Tagalog, iba-iba ang punto ng mga Batangenyo, Kabitenyo, taga-Quezon, Rizal, Bataan, at iba pang
nasa Katagalugan. Sa pagsasalita pa lamang, madaling matukoy kung saan nagmula ang isang tao, lalo
pa’t gumagamit siya ng “Ala e!” kung taga-Batangas, ng “Aru!” kung taga-Queson at iba pa. Ang ilang
lugar naman sa Cebu na gumagamit ng “Agi!”

Hinto

Ito ay ang pagtigil sa pagsasalita na maaaring panandalian (sa gitna ng pangungusap), o pangmatagalan
(sa katapusan ng pangungusap). Sa pasulat na komunikasyon, sinisimbolo ng kuwit (,) ang panandaliang
paghinto at ng tuldok (.) ang katapusan ng pangungusap.

Halimbawa

Juan Carlo Jose ang pangalan niya.//

(Tinutukoy si Juan Carlo Jose at sinasabi ang kanyang buong pangalan. Maaaring itinuturo lamang si
Juan Carlo Jose, o maaari rin namang kaharap siya ng mga nag-uusap.)

Juan/ Carlo Jose ang pangalan niya.//

(Kinakausap si Juan, at ipinakikilala sa kanya si Carlo Jose.)
Juan Carlo/ Jose ang tawag sa kanya.//

(Kausap ang isang lalake na Juan Carlo ang pangalan. Ipinakikilala sa kanya si Jose, o kaya’y itinuturo
si Jose.)

Alpabetong Filipino

Ang alpabetong Filipino ay binubuo ng 28 letra na ganito ang ayos:

400
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ň, NG, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z,

Sa 28-letrang ito ng alpabeto, 20 letra ang nasa dating ABAKADA (A, B, K, D, E, G, H, I, L, M, N,

NG, O, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y), at 8 letra ang dagdag dito (C, F, J, Ň, Q, V, X, Z) na galing sa mga umiiral
na wika ng Pilipinas at sa iba pang wika.

Ang ngalan ng mga letra. Ang tawag sa mga letra ng alpabetong Filipino ay ayon sa tawag-Ingles
maliban sa Ň (enye) na tawag-Kastila.

Silabikasyon

Sa kasalukuyan ay may mga kayarian ng pantig na ambag ng mga lokal na wika at panghihiram.

Ang pagtukoy sa pantig, gayundin sa kayarian nito, ay sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng simbolong K

para sa katinig at P para sa patinig. Narito ang ilang halimbawa ng mga pantig.

Kayarian Halimbawa

P u-pa
KP ma-li
PK is-da
KPK han-da
KKP pri-to
PKK eks-perto
KKPK plan-tsa
KKPKK trans-portasyon
KKPKKK shorts

Palabuuan ng Salita
1. Morpolohiya – ito ay sistema ng pagsasama-sama ng mga morpema sa pagbuo ng mga salita sa
isang wika. Pag-aaral ng mga morpema ng wika.

Morpema – pinakamaliit na yunit o bahagi ng wika na nagtataglay ng sariling kahulugan. Ito

ay maaaring isang salita o bahagi lamang ng salita.

Mga Paraan ng Pagbuo ng Salita

Payak ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng salitang-ugat lamang, tulad nito:

langit yaman sulat

ilog puti lantad/hantad
bahay diwa talino

Maylapi ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng salitang-ugat at panlaping maaaring ilagay sa
unahan o hulihan ng salitang-ugat. Dahil sa panlaping nag-uuri, nagkakaroon ng iba’t ibang
kahulugan ang salita, tulad ng makikita sa loob ng parentesis:

Mga Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pangngalan

401
-an

1. lalagyan ng maraming bagay na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat

Halimbawa: atisan, manggahan, aklatan

2. pook na ginagampanan ng kilos na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat

Halimbawa: saingan, katayan, laruan

3. panahon o maramihang pagganap na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat

Halimbawa: binyagan, anihan, taniman

4. gantihang kilos
Halimbawa: tulakan, tulungan, kuwentuhan

5. maramihan o sabayang kilos

Halimbawa: suguran, bilihan, sigawan

-in

1. relasyong isinasaad ng salitang-ugat

Halimbawa: pininsan, inale, inapo

2. nagsasaad ng karaniwang gamit o tungkulin ayon sa salitang-ugat

Halimbawa: salain, salukin, pikutin

ka-

1. kasama sa pangkat, katulong sa gawain

Halimbawa: kabayan, kalahi, kaklase

2. nagsasaad ng relasyon ayon sa isinasaad ng salitang-ugat.

Halimbawa: kalaro, kausap, kamag-anak

tag-

1. nagsasaad ng panahon
Halimbawa: tag-init, tag-ulan, tag-araw

Mga Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pang-uri

ma- + su : mahusay, maganda

mapag- + su : mapagbigay, mapagtanong
-in / -hin + su : silanganin, kanluranin, artistahin
(nangangahulugan ng pagtataglay ng katangiang
inihuhudyat ng salitang-ugat ang lahat ng panlaping ito)
maka- + su : makabayan, makabago, makamanggagawa
(mahilig, kampi, may malasakit)
mala- + su : malabituin, malasanto, malatelenobela
(tila, parang, halos)
pala- + su : palaluto, palabasa, palabati, palakain

402
su + -in : sakitin, bugnutin, magagalitin
(may tendensi, ugali o pagkamahilig)
ka- + su : kalahi, kasukat, kakulay
(kaisa, katulad)
su + -an/-han : noohan, pangahan, ilongan, matahan
(labis ang laki, malaki sa karaniwan)
-al : emosyonal
uwal/-wal : aktuwal/aktwal
-ante : importante, bastante

Mga panlapi para maipakita ang nasyonalidad o rehiyong pinagmulan, pati

sekswalidad:

-o/a : Amerikano/Amerikana, Australyano/a

-es/esa : Hapones/Haponesa
-ano/a : Ilokano/a, Bikolano/a
-ense : Pangasinense
-enyo/enya : Batangenyo/a

Inuulit ang anyo ng salita kapag inuulit ito ng parsyal o buo, tulad nito:

maganda-ganda (nangangahulugan ng moderasyon, di labis, di kulang)

mataas-taas
malayu-layo

masamang (+-ng) + masama :masamang-masama

(naghahayag ng kasukdulan)

Tambalan ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng dalawang salitang maaaring magkaroon ng
ibang kahulugan kapag pinagsama. May gitling (-) sa pagitan ng dalawang salitang pinagtambal
subalit taglay pa rin nito ang kani-kanilang kahulugan. Wala nang gitling ang dalawang salitang
pinagtambal kung nagkaroon na ito ng pangatlong kahulugan.

Halimbawa:
balat + sibuyas : balat-sibuyas (sensitibo)
ningas + kugon : ningas-kugon (mabuti lamang sa simula)
kapit + tuko : kapit-tuko (di humihiwalay)
palabat + bunga : pabalat-bunga (pakitang-tao)
isip + lamok : isip-lamok (kahinaan ng pag-iisip, di nag-iisip)
boses + ipis : boses-ipis (mahinang-mahina ang boses)

bahaghari
dalagambukid

Mga Panlaping Makadiwa o Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pandiwa

1. Pandiwang pokus sa tagaganap o aktor

Panlaping mag-, um-, mang-, maka-, makapag
Halimbawa: magsaing, bumili, umasa, mangisda, makapagbenta

2. Pandiwang pokus sa layon

403
 Panlaping i, -an, ipa, -in
Halimbawa: igisa, balatan, ipaukit, tabasin

3. Pandiwang pokus sa ganapan

Panlaping –an, pag—an
Halimbawa: saingan, pagsalangan, paglutuan

4. Pandiwang pokus sa tagatanggap

Panlaping i-, ipang-, ipag-
Halimbawa: ibili, ipanghingi, ipagluto

5. Pandiwang pokus sa instrumento

Panlaping ipang-
Halimbawa: ipangsalok, ipambili, ipandilig

6. Pandiwang pokus sa sanhi

Panlaping ika-, ikapang-
Halimbawa: ikagulat, ikainis, ikinagaling, ikinapanghina

7. Pandiwang pokus sa direksyunal

Panlaping –an
Halimbawa: puntahan, kuhanan, utangan

Pagbabagong Morpoponemiko

 Karamihan sa mga pagbabago sa anyo at bigkas ng mga salita ay sanhi ng pagdaragdag ng

panlapi o pagsasama ng dalawa o higit pang morpema upang bumuo ng salita. Ang nagaganap
na pagbabago ay tinatawag na pagbabagong morpoponemiko.

Asimilasyon pang + bansa = pambansa; mang + daya = mandaya

pang + tukoy = pantukoy; mang + dukot = mandukot
pang + talo = panalo; mang + kuha = manguha
Pagpapalit ano + ano = anu-ano
Paglilipat y + in + akap = yinakap = niyakap
lipad + in = linipad = nilipad
yaya + in = yinaya = niyaya
Pagbabago ng ma + dama = marami; ma + dapat = marapat
Ponema tamad + in = tamarin; lipad + in = liparin
Pagkakaltas bili + han = bilihan = bilhan; dakip + in = dakipin = dakpin
tirah + an = tirahan = tirhan; sarah + an = sarahan = sarhan
Pagdaragdag paalala + han = paalalahan; paalalahan + an = paalalahanan
Pag-aangkop hintay + ka = teka

Kaantasan ng Katangiang Ipinahahayag ng Pang-uri

1. Lantay – karaniwang anyo ng pang-uring ginagamit sa paglalarawan

Halimbawa: mataba, palabiro, sutil

404
 2. Katamtaman – nagpapahayag ng katamtamang antas ng paglalarawan. Gumamit ng mga
salitang medyo, nang kaunti o nang bahagya.
Halimbawa: Medyo maitim siya ngayon.
Payat siya nang bahagya ngayon.

Maaari rin ang katamtamang antas sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng salitang-ugat o dalawang

unang pantig nito.
Halimbawa: Malayu-layo rin ang kanilang bagong bahay.

3. Masidhi – nagagawa ang pag papasidhi ng pang-uri sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng salita

at paggamit ng pang-angkop na na o –ng.
Halimbawa: Masayang-masaya siya ngayon.

Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga panlaping napaka-, pagka at kay.

Halimbawa: Pagkalapi-lapit lang ng kanilang tirahan.
Kay init-init ng panahon ngayon.
Napakasungit ng kaibigan mo.

Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salitang lubha, masyado, totoo, talaga, tunay, ubod
ng, hari at iba pa.
Halimbawa: Talagang maaasahan ang kaibigan kong iyon.
Tunay na mahal ang mga bilihin ngayon.

Antas ng Hambingan

1. Pahambing – tawag sa mga pang-uring ginagamit sa paghahambing ng

dalawang tao, bagay, o pook.
Halimbawa: Kasinlaki mo si Kuya.
Kapwa matalino ang magkapatid.
Di kasinhusay ni Paul si Christian.
Di hamak na mainam tumira sa probinsya kaysa Manila.

2. Pasukdol – panlaping ginagamit sa pagbuo ng pasukdol na anyo ng pang-uri ay ang pinaka-

at ka- -an.
Halimbawa: Pinakamabili ang tinda nilang paputok.
Kasuluk-sulukan ang kanilang pinuntahang bahay.

Pokus ng Pandiwa

 Ito ay tumutukoy sa makahulugang ugnayan ng pandiwa at ng paksa ng pangungusap. May

pitong (7) uri ng pokus ang pandiwa.

1. Pokus sa Tagaganap/Aktor – ang paksa ay ang tagaganap ng kilos na ipinahihiwatig ng

pandiwa. Mga panlaping ginagamit: mag-, um-/um, mang-, maka-, at makapag-
Halimbawa: Sumalok ng tubig ang bata.

2. Pokus sa Layon – binibigyang-diin sa pangungusap ay ang layon. Mga panlaping

ginagamit: i-, -an, ma, ipa, at –in.
Halimbawa: Isinalok ng bata ang timba.

405
 3. Pokus sa Ganapan – binibigyang-diin ng paksa ay ang lugar o ang ganapan ng kilos. Mga
panlaping ginagamit: pag-…-an/-han, mapag-…-an/-han, at pang-..-an/-han
Halimbawa: Pinagsalukan ng bata ng tubig ang balon.

4. Pokus sa Tagatanggap – ang paksa ay ang tagatanggap o ang pinaglalaanan ng kilos na

ipinahahayag ng pandiwa. Mga ginagamit na panlapi: i-, ipang-, at ipag-.
Halimbawa: Ipinangsalok niya ng tubig ang ama.

5. Pokus sa Intrumento o Gamit – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang instrumento o gamit sa

pagsasagawa ng kilos na isinasaad ng pandiwa. Panlaping ginagamit: ipang-
Halimbawa: Ipinangsalok niya ng tubig ang timba.

6. Pokus sa Direksyon – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang direksyon o tinutungo ng kilos na

isinasaad ng kilos. Mga panlaping ginagamit: -an/-han.
Halimbawa: Pinagsalukan ng bata ng tubig ang balon.

7. Pokus sa Sanhi – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang dahilan o sanhi ng kilos. Mga panlaping
ginagamit: i-, ika- at ikapang-.
Halimbawa: Ikinatakot ng bata ang pagkaubos ng tubig.

Aspekto ng Pandiwa

 Ang aspekto ay ang katangian ng pandiwa na nagsasaad kung nasimulan na o hindi pa ang kilos.
Ang mga pandiwa sa Filipino ay nababanghay sa tatlong aspekto.

1. Perpektibo/Pangnagdaan – ang kilos ay nasimulan na o natapos na. Maaari rin itong magsaad
ng kilos na katatapos lamang. Nabubuo ito sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng unlaping ka- at
pag-uulit ng unang katinig at unang patinig o unang patiniog lamang ng salitang-ugat.
Halimbawa: Nagtinda siya ng isda sa palengke.
Katitinda lang niya ng isda sa palengke.
2. Imperpektibo/Pangkasalukuyan – ang kilos ay nasimulan na at ipinagpapatuloy pa.
Halimbawa: Nagtitinda siya ng isda sa palengke.
3. Kontemplatibo/Panghinaharap – ang kilos ay di pa nasisimulan.
Halimbawa: Magtitinda siya ng isda sa palengke.

Ang Paningit o Ingklitik

 Ang paningit o ingklitik ay katagang isinisingit sa pangungusap upang higit na maging malinaw
ang kahulugan nito.
Halimbawa: ba, kasi, kaya, daw/raw, din/rin, ho, lamang/lang, man, muna, na, naman, nga, pa,
pala, sana, tuloy, at yata.

Ayos ng Pangungusap sa Filipino

 Ang batayang pangungusap sa Filipino ay binubuo ng dalawang panlahat ng bahagi—ang

panaguri at ang paksa.

1. Paksa – pinag-uusapan o pinagtutuunan ng pansin sa pangungusap.

2. Panaguri – nagbibigay ng kaalaman o impormasyon tungkol sa paksa.

Iba’t Ibang Uri ng Panaguri sa Filipino:

406
 1. Panaguring Pangngalan
Halimbawa: Kompyuter ang gustong regalo ng bata.
Aklat-pambata ang dala ko.

2. Panaguring Panghalip
Halimbawa: Sila ang kamag-anak ko.
Tayo ang maghahatid ng sulat.

3. Panaguring Pang-uri
Halimbawa: Malungkot ang buhay sa Dubai.
Mahal ang nabili kong damit.

4. Panaguring Pandiwa
Halimbawa: Tumalon ang bata.
Pumitas ng talbos si Joan.

5. Panaguring Pang-abay
Halimbawa: Ngayon ang alis namin.
Ganito ang paluluto ng yema.

Karaniwang-Ayos ng Pangungusap – likas ng kayarian ng pangungusap sa Filipino na mauna ang

panaguri sa paksa. Ginagamit ito sa pang-araw-araw na usapan.
Halimbawa: Nakabili ng dyip ang Tatay.
Naglaba kami ng mga damit sa sapa.

Di Karaniwang-Ayos ng Pangungusap – higit na gamitin sa mga pormal na sitwasyong komunikatibo,

tulad ng pulong, sa hukuman, o pakikipag-usap sa mga pinuno.
Halimbawa: Ako ay naatasang mamuno ngayon.
Sila ay maghahain ng reklamo laban sa Kapitan ng barangay.

Ang Wastong Gamit ng Salita

Ng at Nang

Gamit ng NG

 ginagamit bilang pantukoy

Halimbawa: Nag-aaral ng Ilokano si Sonia.

 ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas sa ingles ay with

Halimbawa: Hinampas niya ng payong ang aso.

 ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas ay sa

Halimbawa: Magsisiuwi ng Pilipinas ang magagaling na doktor.

Gamit ng NANG

 ginagamit na pangatnig sa hugnayang pangungusap bilang panimula ng katulong na sugnay o

sugnay na di makapag-iisa
Halimbawa: Nang siya ay dumating, dumagsa ang tao.

407
 ginagamit bilang pang-abay na nanggaling sa “na” na inangkupan ng “ng” kayat nagiging
“nang”
Halimbawa: Nagbalita nang malakas ang aking kaibigan sa opisina.

May at Mayroon

Gamit ng May

 ginagamit ang may kung ang sumusunod na salita ay:

Pangngalan
Halimbawa: May batang nahulog.

Pandiwa
Halimbawa: May sasayaw na babae mamayang gabi.

Pang-uri
Halimbawa: May bagong bahay na nasunog.

Panghalip na paari
Halimbawa: May kanya-kanya tayong alam.

Pantukoy na mga
Halimbaa: May mga batang pupunta dito mamaya.

Pang-ukol na sa
Halimbawa: May sa-kalabaw ang boses ng taong iyan.

Gamit ng Mayroon

 sinusundan ng panghalip na palagyo

Halimbawa: Mayroon kaming dadaluhang pulong bukas.

 sinusundan ng isang kataga

Halimbawa: Mayroon ding pulong ang kababaihan.

 ginagamit sa patalinghagang kahulugan

Halimbawa: Si Mayor Favila ang mayroon sa lahat.

Subukin at Subukan

subukin – “pagsusuri o pagsisiyasat sa uri, lakas o kakayahan ng isang bagay o tao.”

subukan – “tingnan kung ano ang ginagawa ng isang tao o ng mga tao.”
Halimbawa: Subukin mong gamitin ang sabon na ito.
Sunubukan nila ang disiplina ng mga mag-aaral.

Pahirin at Pahiran

408
pahirin – pag-aalis o pagpawi
pahiran – paglalagay ng bagay
Halimbawa: Pahirin mo ang dumi sa iyong mukha.
Pahiran mo ng pulang pintura ang gate.

Walisin at Walisan

walisin – pandiwang pokus sa layon.

walisan – pandiwang pokus sa ganapan.
Halimbawa: Walisin mo ang mga tuyong dahon sa bakuran.
Walisan mo ang bakuran.

Maliban at Bukod

maliban – (except o aside) may kahulugang matangi sa bagay na binanggit ay wala nang iba.
bukod – (in addition to o besides) karagdagang sa mga bagay na binanggit.
Halimbawa: Maliban sa lupa, wala na siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak.
Bukod sa lupa, may bahay pa siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak.

Kung at Kong

Gamit ng Kung

 ginagamit na pangatnig sa mga sugnay na di makapag-iisa sa mga pangungusap na hugnayan

Halimbawa: Kung siya’y narito, tayo’y magiging magulo.

Gamit ng Kong

 buhat sa panghalip na ko ang kong at nilalagyan lamang ng pang-angkop na ng sa pakikiugnay

sa salitang sumusunod:
Halimbawa: Ipinagtapat kong nangyari.

Din at Rin; Daw at Raw; Doon at Roon

Gamit ng din, daw, doon

 ginagamit kapag ang nauunang salita ay nagtatapos sa katinig maliban sa w at y

Halimbawa: Napanood din nila ang pelikula.
Napanood daw nila ang pelikula.
Napanood doon nila ang pelikula.

Gamit ng rin, raw, roon

 ginagamit kapag ang nauunang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig. Ang w at y ay itinutuing na

malapatinig. Samakatuwid, ang rin, raw, roon ay ginagamit kapag ang sinusundang salita ay
nagtatapos sa mga titik na ito.
Halimbawa: Himala rin ang kailangan niya.
Kaliwete raw ang dalaga.
Umuwi roon ang kanyang asawa.

409
 Ika at Ika-

Gamit ng ika

 ginagamit bilang panlapi sa bilang na isinusulat bilang salita

Halimbawa: ikatlong taon
Ikalimang araw

Gamit ng ika-
 ginagamit ang ginitlingan na “ika” bilang panlapi kung mismong bilang ang isusulat.
Halimbawa: ika-25 ng Enero
Ika-5 taon

Maka at Maka-

Gamit ng maka
 ginagamit ang “maka” na walang gitling kung pangngalang pambalana ang kasunod na salita
Halimbawa: Naglunsad ng poetry reading ang mga makabayan.

Gamit ng maka-
 ginagamit ang may gitling na “maka-“ kapag sinusundan ng pangngalang pantangi
Halimbawa: Maka-Nora ang mga nanonood ng kanyang mga pelikula.

Gawin at Gawan

 ginagamit ang mga panlapi -in/-hin sa mga pandiwang pokus sa layon

Halimbawa: Gawin mo ang sa tingin mo ay tama.

 ginagamit ang panlaping -an/-han sa mga pandiwang pokus sa direksyon

Halimbawa: Subukan mong gawan siya ng mabuti.

Ang Wikang Filipino sa 1987 Konstitusyon ng Republika ng Pilipinas

Artikulo XIV – Edukasyon, Syensya at Teknolohiya, Mga Sining, Kultura, at

Isports

Wika

Seksyon 6. Ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino. Samantalang nalilinang ito, ito ay dapat na
payabungin at pagyamanin pa salig sa umiiral na wika sa Pilipinas at sa iba pang mga wika.
Alinsunod sa mga tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat na maaaring ipasya ng
Kongreso, dapat magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang Pamahalaan upang ibunsod at puspusang itaguyod
ang paggami ng Filipino bilang midyum ng opisyal na komunikasyon at bilang wika ng pagtuturo sa
sistemang pang-edukasyon.

Seksyon 7. Ukol sa mga layunin ng komunikayon at pagtuturo, ang mga wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay
Filipino at, hangga’t walang ibang itinatadhana ang batas, Ingles.
Ang mga wikang panrehiyon ay pantulong na mga wikang opisyal sa mga rehiyon at
magsisilbi na pantulong na mga wikang panturo roon.
Dapat itaguyod nang kusa at opsyonal ang Kastila at Arabic.

410
Seksyon 8. Ang Konstitusyong ito ay dapat ipahayag sa Filipino at Ingles at dapat isalin samga
pangunahing wikang panrehiyon, Arabic at Kastila.

Seksyon 9. Dapat magtatag ang Kongreso ng isang komisyon ng wikang pambansa na binubuo ng mga
kinatawan ng iba’t ibang mga rehiyon at mga disiplina na magsasagawa, mag-uugnay at magtataguyod
ng mga pananaliksik sa Filipino at iba pang mga wika para sa kanilang pagpapaunlad, pagpapalaganap
at pagpapanatili.

Pagbasa

Mga papanaw ukol sa pagbasa:

 Ang pagbasa ay isang masalimuot na prosesong pangkaisipan kung saan ang mambabasa’y
aktibong nagpaplano, nagdedesisyon at nag-uugnay ng mga kasanayan at istratehiyang
nakatutulong sa pag-unawa.
 Ang pagbasa ay isang kompleks na gawaing kinapapaloooban ng may kamalayan at walang
kamalayang paggamit ng iba’t ibang estratehiya, kasama na ang mga estratehiya sa paglutas ng
suliranin upang makabuo ng modelo ng kahulugang ninanais ipahatid ng awtor (Jonhston,
1983).
 Ang pagbasa’y proseso ng pamimili ng mga pahiwatig pangwika batay sa ekspektasyon ng
bumabasa. Habang ang bahagi ng impormasyon ay nakikilala, nakagagawa ang mambabasa ng
pansamantalang desisyon o hinuha na patutunayan niya, iwawaksi o pagtitibayin habang
bumabasa (Kenneth Goodman, 1976).
 Dahil magkaugnay ang pagbasa at pag-iisip, binanggit ni Mikuleckey (1990) ang ginawang
pagtutulad nina Kintsch at Van Dijk (1978), Rumelhart at Ortony (1977) at Winograd (1977),
sa pagbasa sa pagpoproseso ng impormasyon upang maunawaan kung paano nag-iisip at
umuunawa ang isang tao. Ayon sa kanila, dalawang aspekto ng “human information processing
system” ang nagkakatulungan kapag nagbabasa ang isang tao:
o Concept Driven o Itaas-Pababa – kapag ang bumabasa ay higit na nakatuon sa kug ano
ang alam niya upang maintindihan ang binabasa.
o Data Driven o Ibaba-Pataas – kapag higit na umaasa ang bumabasa sa mga
impormasyong tekstwal.

Ang Mapanuring Pagbasa

 Ang mapanuring pagbasa ay isang halimbawa ng marahan at maingat na pagbasa na

nangangailangan ng masusing prosesong pangkognitibo. Pangunahing layunin nito ay
malayang pag-iisip at kasanayan sa pagsusuri a pagtataya.

Mga Kasanayan sa Mapanuring Pagbasa

1. Paghinuha sa maaaring mangyari

2. Pagpapangkat ng mga ideya
3. Paghahambing at pagtutulad
4. Pagtatangi ng katotohanan sa palagay/opinyon
5. Pagbuo ng konklusyon
6. Pagbibigay ng sanhi at bunga
7. Pagkakasunud-sunod ng mga ideya
8. Paglalagom

411
 9. Pagtukoy at pagpapahalaga sa katangian ng tauhan
10. Pagsusuri ng mga impormasyon
11. Pagpapakahulugan sa matatalinghagang pahayag
12. Pagpapakahulugan sa mga pahiwatig ng pahayag
13. Pagtukoy sa magkakaugnay na ideya/konsepto
14. Pagtukoy sa suliraning tinutukoy sa binasa
15. Pagbibigay reaksyon sa himig at tono ng seleksyon

Proseso ng Pagbasa

 Ang pagkuha ng impormasyon ay di lamang nakakamit sa pagbasa ng mga nakalimbag na

sagisag. Mayroon ding mga impormasyong ginagamit ang bumabasa na nasa kanyang isipan
na kanyang binabalikan kung kailangan niya sa pagbasa ng teksto. Ito ay ang mga di biswal na
impormasyon ng binubuo ng datihang kaalaman (prior knowlegde).

Teoryang Iskema sa Pagbasa

 Ginagalugad ng mambabasa ang mga nakaimbak o nakalagay niyang network ng mga

abstraktong ideya sa kanyang isipan upang humanap ng iskema na tumutugma sa mga elemento
o impormasyong taglay ng teksto (Anderson, 1985).
 Habang bumabasa, patuloy na naaapektuhan ng makabuluhang iskemang nagising ang
pagpoproseso ng impormasyon. Sa pamamagitan ng nagising na iskema, naghihinuha ang
mambabasa ng mga impormasyong semantika, sintaktika at leksikal upang makabuo ng
kahulugan.

Metakognisyon sa Pagbasa

 Pagkakaroon ng kamalayan, kaalaman at kasanayan sa pagkontrol sa sariling proseso ng pag-

iisip o pag-unawa.
 Ang metakognisyon ay ang mataas na kasanayang pampag-iisip na kinapapalooban ng aktibong
pagkontrol sa mga prosesong kognitiv na napapaloob sa pagkatuto (Livingston, 1996).
 Sa pamamagitan ng metakognisyon, nalalampasan ang kognisyon dahil nagagawa nitong
malinan sa mambabasa ang may kamalayang paggamit ng mga estratehiyang kognitibo at
pahalagahan sa halip na simpleng gamitin lamang ang mga ito. Binibigyang-diin ng
metakognisyon ang malawakang kontrol sa mga proseso sa halip na sa mga tiyak na estratehiya
o gawain (McNeil, 1987).
o Tatlong Uri ng Prosesong Metakognitiv Ayon kay McNeil:
 Kaalaman ng mambabasa sa kanyang sariling kahinaan at kalakasan sa pagbasa;
 Kaaalam kung alin estratehiya ang angkop na gamitin ayon sa sitwasyon; at
 Kalaaman ng mambabasa sa pagsubaybay sa kanyang pag-unawa o pagkaalam
kung kailan siya di na nakauunawa.

Komunikasyon

 Aktibong proseso ng paghahatid at pagkuha ng mensahe at tugon (feedback) sa pamamagitan

ng interaksyon ng tagahatid at tagatanggap.

412
  Ang komunikasyon ay ang pagpapahayag, pagpapahatid o pagbibigay ng impormasyon sa
mabisang paraan. Ito ay isang paraan ng pakikiugnayan, pakikipagpalagayan, o pakikipag-
unawaan.
 Ang komunikasyon ay proseso ng pagbibigay (giving) at pagtanggap (receiving).
 Kung kahulugang komunikatibo ang susuriin sa isang pahayag, tiyak na iuugnay ito sa tungkulin
ng komunikasyon at ang kaugnay na gawi ng pagsasalita tulad ng ipinakikita ng sumusunod na
tsart ni Gordon Wells.

Tungkulin ng Komunikasyon Gawi ng Pagsasalita

(Functions of Communication) (Speech or Commmucation Arts)
A. Pagkontrol sa kilos o gawi ng iba Pakikiusap, pag-uutos, pagmumungkahi,
(Controlling Function pagpupunyagi, pagtanggi, pagbibigay babala
B. Pagbabahagi ng damdamin Pakikiramay, pagpuri, pangsang-ayon, pahayag,
(Sharing feelings) paglibak, paninisi, pagsalungat
C. Pagbibigay o pagkuha ng impormasyon Pag-uulat, pagpapaliwanag, pagtukoy,
(Getting factual information) pagtatanong, pagsagot
D. Pagpapanatili sa pakikipag-kapuwa at Pagbati, pagpapakilala, pagbibiro,
pgkakaroon ng interaksyon sa kapuwa pagpapasalamat, paghingi ng paumanhin
(Ritualizing Function)
E. Pangangarap at paglikha Pagkukuwento, pagsasadula, pagsasatao,
(Imagining/Creating Function) paghula

Panitikan

 Ang salitang Tagalog na “panitikan” ay galing sa unlaping PANG- (na nagiging PAN- kapag
ang kasunod na ugat ay nagsisismula sa d, l, r, s, t); sa ugat ng TITIK (letra) na nawawalan ng
simulang T sa pagkakasunod sa PAN-; at sa hulaping –AN, samakatwid: pang * titik * an.
 Ang salitang ito ang panumbas ng Tagalog sa “literatura” o “literature” na parehong batay sa
ugat na Lating “litera” na ang kahuluga’y “letra” o titik.
 Ayon kay Hno. Azarias, sa kanyang aklat na “Pilosopia ng Literature”, ang Panitikan ay
pagpapahayag ng mga damdamin ng tao hinggil sa mga bagay-bagay sa daigdig, sa pamumuhay,
sa lipunan at pamahalaan, at sa kaugnayan ng kaluluwa sa Bathalang lumikha.
 “Nasusulat na tala ng pinakamabuting kaisipan at damdamin ng tao.” (W.J. Jong)

Anyo ng Panitikan

 Tuluyan (prosa) – maluwag na pagsasama-sama ng mga salita sa katutubong takbo ng

pangungusap. Halimbawa, anekdota, alamat, maikling katha, kathambuhay, sanaysay,
talambuhay, dula, at iba pa.
 Patula – pagbubuo ng pahayag sa pamamagitan ng salitang binilang sa pantig (6, 8, 12, 16, o 18
sa taludtod) at pinapagtugma-tugma sa mga dulo ng mga taludtod sa loob ng isang estropa
(stanza). Halimbawa, liriko, oda, pastoral, kurido, tulang pasalaysay, tulang padula, soneto, at
iba pa.

Matandang Panitikan

Ang matandang panitikan ay inuuri sa dalawa:

 Pasalita – kabilang sa panitikang hindi nakasulat ang mga pahayag na binubuo ng maiikling
taludturan tulad ng salawikain, kasabihan, bugtong, mga talinghaga at mga awiting-bayan.

413
  Pasulat – sa paglipas ng panahon, ang panitikang ito’y nagpasalin-salin sa bibig ng mga
mamamayan; ito ay napagyaman, hanggang sa naging maunlad ang panulatan at palimbagan at
napatala na sa mga aklat – mga akdang kababakasan ng nakalipas na panahon..

Salawikain o Sawikain at Kasabihan – karamihan sa mga ito ay may impluwensya ng Arabe, Malay
at ng Indo-Tsina.

Salawikain o Sawikain – nagtataglay ng talinghaga. Nagsisilbing mga panuntunan sa buhay – mga

bata ng kaugalian at patnubay ng kagandahang-asal. Binubuo ito ng mga taludtod na karaniwa ay
dadalawa, may sukat at tugma at nagbibigay-aral.

Halimbawa:

Ang bato sakdal man ng tigas

Tubig na malambot ang nakaaagnas.

Di man makita ang apoy

Sa aso matutunton.

Ang inahing mapagkupkop

Di man anak isusukob.

Sabi o Kasabihan – hango sa karunungan ng matatandang may mga karanasan sa buhay. May himig
paalaala, kung minsa’y parang nanunudyo, ang mga ito’y hindi gumagamit ng malalalim na mga
talinghaga. Payak lamang ang kahulugan ng mga ito na kasasalaminan din ng gawi at ugali ng tao.

Halimbawa:

Anak na di paluhain Walang sumisira sa bakal

Ina ang patatangisin. Kundi kanya ring kalawang.

Nasa banig Ang maniwala sa sabi

Lumipat sa sahig. Walang bait na sarili.

Kuwalta na
Naging bato pa.

Bugtong, Talinghala, Tanaga – sa aklat na Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (1754) nina Padre Juan
de Noceda at Pedro de San Lucar, maraming maiikling matulaing pagpapahayag na kinabibilangan ng
bugtong, talinghaga, at tanaga.

Bugtong – tugmang naghahamon sa tao na mag-isip nang madalian nang walang pagbabatayan kundi
ang inilalarawan ng mga salita. May layunin itong mapasigla ang guniguni at mapatalas ang isip.

Halimbawa:

Di matingalang bundok Kinalag ang balangkas

Darak ang nakakamot. Sumayaw nang ilagpak.
(BALAKUBAK) (TRUMPO)

Kakabiyak na niyog Isang balong malalim,

414
Magdamag inilibot. Punung-puno ng patalim.
(BUWAN) (BIBIG)

Talinghaga – isang payak na metaporang may walong pantig sa bawat taludtod. Ito ay may sukat at
tugma.

Halimbawa:

Labong ng kawayang bagong tumutubo

Langit na mataas ang itinuturo;
Kapag tumanda na at saka lumago,
Lupang pinagmulan, doon din ang yuko.

Tanaga – ayon kina Noceda at Sanlukar, isang tulang may apat na taludtod na pipituhing-pantig at
naghahamon din sa isip.

Halimbawa:

Ang tubig ma’y malalim Baging akong kalatkat

Malilirip kung lipdin Kaya ako nataas
Itong budhing magaling Sa balite kumalat
Maliwag paghanapin. Nakinabang ng taas.

Bulong – tulang ginagamit sa panggagamot o pang-iingkanto.

Halimbawa:

Huwag magagalit, kaibigan, Tabi po, tabi po

Aming pinuputol lamang Huwag pong manununo.
Ang sa ami’y napag-utusan.

Awiting-bayan – tulad ng alinmang tula, ang mga ito ay may sukat at tugma. Di nakilala ang mga
kumatha ng maraming awiting bayan.

Itinala ni Epifanio de los Santos Cristobal ang sumusunod na awiting-bayan:

1. suliranin (awit sa paggaod)

2. talindaw (awit sa pamamangka)
3. diona (awit sa panliligaw at pagkakasal)
4. oyayi o ayayi (awit sa paghehele)
5. kumintang (awit sa pakikidigma; nang lumao’y naging awit sa pag-ibig)
6. sambotani (awit sa pagtatagumpay)
7. kundiman (awit ng pag-ibig)
8. dalit (himno)

Epiko – mga tulang-salaysay tungkol sa mga bayani at sa kanilang kabayanihan. Ang mga bayaning ito
ay tila mga bathala sa pagtataglay ng kapangyarihan. Ang mga epiko ay paawit kung isalaysay.
Sinasabing ang mga epiko ng mga Bisaya, Tagalog, Iluko, Ifugao, at Bikol ay napasulat sa Alibata,
samantala ang epiko ng Mindanao ay nakasulat sa Sanskrito.

Halimbawa:

415
 1. Hudhud (Ifugao)
2. Ibalon (Bikol)
3. Biag ni Lam-ang (Ilokano)
4. Maragtas (Hiligaynon-Iraya)

Akdang Panrelihiyon

1. Doctrina Cristiana – Ito ang kauna-unahang aklat na nilimbag sa Pilipinas. Nilimbag ito sa
pamamagitan ng silograpiya noong 1593.
2. Nuestra Señora del Rosario – sinulat ito at inilimbag ni Pari Blancas de San Jose, O.P., noong
1602 sa Imprenta ng Santo Tomas.
3. Barlaan at Josaphat – sinulat ito ni Pari Antonio de Borja, S.J., at inilathala noong 1708 at
muli noong 1712. Ito ay batay sa sa mga salaysay mula sa Bibliya. Ipinalalagay na ito ang
kauna-unahang nobelang Tagalog kahit salin lamang.
4. Pasyon – sa panahon ng kuwaresma, ang buhay at pagpapakasakit ng Panginoong Hesukristo
ay inaawit.
5. Mga Dalit kay Maria – sabayang inaawit bilang handog kung buwan ng Mayo sa pag-aalay ng
bulaklak sa Mahal na Birhen.

Pari Modesto de Castro – dahil sa kanyang Urbana at Feliza, tinagurian siyang “Ama ng Tuluyang
Klasika sa Tagalog.”

Ang Dula

Panunuluyan – isang uri ng dulang pangrelihiyon na namalasak noong panahon ng Kastila. Ang
pinakadiwa nito ay ang paghahanap ng bahay na matutuluyan ng mag-asawang San Jose at Birheng
Maria noong bisperas ng Pasko.

Senakulo – isang uri ng dulang makarelihiyon na ang pinakamanuskrito ay ang pasyon. Itinatanghal ito
kung Mahal na Araw, kadalasa’y nagsisimula sa Lunes Santo at nagtatapos ng Biyernes Santo, kung
minsan pa’y umaabot ng Linggo ng Pagkabuhay. Ito ay itinatanghal sa entablado. Tinatawag din itong
“pasyon sa tanghalan”.

Moro-Moro – itinatanghal sa entablado. Dalawang pangkat ang naghaharap dito: ang mga Kristiyano
at ang mga moro. Tinawag itong comedia de capa y espada na sa kalauna’y naging kilala sa palasak na
tawag na “moro-moro”. Nasusulat sa anyong tula, pumapaksa sa paglalaban ng mga Kristiyano at mga
di-Kristiyanong tinawag ng mga Kastilang “moro”. Laging magtatagumpay ang mga Kristiyano sa mga
paglalaban.

Tibag – ito ay may kaugnayan sa senakulo sapagkat ito ay nauukol sa paghanap sa krus na kinamatayan
ni Kristo sa bundok ng Kalbaryo. Ang mga tauhan dito ay sina Emperatris Elena at ang kanyang anak
na si Emperador Constantino. Tinawag na tibag sapagkat ito ay nauukol sa pagtibag ng bundok ng
Kalbaryo sa paghanap ng krus.

Mga Unang Tula

Ang unang tula sa Tagalog ay sinulat ni Tomas Pinpin at kasamang inilimbag sa kanyang aklat na
Librong Pag-aaralan nang manga Tagalog sa Uicang Castila. Ang tula ay binubuo ng magkasalit na
taludtod sa Tagalog at Kastila sa layuning matutuhan ang Kastila.

416
Felipe de Jesus – ipinalalagay ng mga mananaliksik na ang kritikong si Felipe de Jesus ng San Miguel,
Bulakan, ang unang tunay na makatang Tagalog.

Mga Tulang Romansa

Kurido - tulang pasalaysay na may sukat na walong pantig sa taludtod at may mga paksang
kababalaghan at maalamat (karamiha’y halaw at hiram sa paksang galing sa Europa) na dala rito ng mga
Kastila. Inaawit ito nang mabilis o “allegro”. May walong pantig ang taludturan. (Halimbawa: Ibong
Adarna).

Awit – isang uri ng tulang binubuo ng labindalawang pantig bawat taludtod ng isang saknong at kung
inaawit ay marahan o “andante”. (Halimbawa: Florante at Laura)

Mga Manunulat ng Kurido at Awit

Ananias Zorilla – may akda ng awit na Dama Ines at Prinsipe Florinio.

Jose de la Cruz (1740 – 1829) – kilala sa sagisag na Huseng Sisiw. Siya ang kauna-unahang mag-aayos
ng tula. Tinawag siyang Huseng Sisisw sapagkat sisiw ang karaniwang pabuya na ibinibigay ng
nagpapagawa sa kanya ng mga tula ng pag-ibig at ng mga nagpapaayos sa kanya ng tula. Kumatha ng
Historia Famosa ni Bernardo Carpio, Doce Pares de Francia, Rodrigo de Villas, Adela at Florante at
Flora at Clavela.

Francisco Baltazar (Balagtas) 1788 -1862 – Isinilang sa Panginay. Bigaa, Bulacan noong ika-2 ng
Abril, 1788. Sumulat ng Florante at Laura na inialay niya sa kanyang iniibig na si Maria Asuncion
Rivera (M.A.R.) na tinawag niyang si “Celia” sa akda.

Karagatan – isang paligsahan sa tula na nilalaro bilang parangal sa isang namatay. Ang mga kasali rito
ay umuupo nang pabilog at nasa gitna ang hari.

Duplo – isa pang paligsahan sa pagtula na karaniwang ginaganap sa bakuran ng namatayan, sa ikasiyam
na gabi matapos mailibing ang namatay, bilang panlibang sa mga naulila.

Ensilada – isa pang paligsahan sa pagtulana ginagawa bilang pang-aliw sa namatayan. Ito ay ginagawa
gabi-gabi habang nagsisiyam ang namatay.

Panahon ng Pagbabago at Paghihimagsik

Herminigildo Flores – isang manunulat sa panhon ng himagsikan. Sa kanyang mga sinulat ay lalong
bantog ang mahabang tulang may pamagat na, “Hibik ng Pilipinas sa Inang Espanya”.

Mga Pangunahing Manunulat-Propagandista

Jose P. Rizal (1861 – 1896) – Naipalimbag niya sa Berlin ang nobelang Noli Me Tangere (1887). Noong
1890, tinapos niya ang ikalawang nobela, ang El Filibusterismo sa Ghent, Belgium. Gumamit si Rizal
ng mga sagisag na “Dimas-Alang” at “Laong-Laan”. Si Rizal ay nakapagsasalita ng dalawampu’t
dalawang wika.

Marcelo H. del Pilar – bilang pangunahing pinuno ng Kilusang Propaganda, ipinakita niya kaagad ang
pagtutol sa mga pamamalakad ng mga Kastila. Lantad ang gayon niyang damdamin sa pahayagang
Diariong Tagalog, na itinatag at pinamatnugutan niya noong 1882. Noong Nobyembre 15, 1889,

417
napasalin sa kanya ang pagiging patnugot ng La Solidaridad. Gumamit siya ng mga sagisag tulad ng
“Dolores Manapat”, “Piping Dilat”, “Maitalaga”, “Kupang”, “Carmelo”, “L.O. Crame” at “Pupdoh”.

Mga Akda ni del Pilar:

1. “Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa” – salin ng tulang “Amor Patrio” ni Rizal.

2. Caiigat Cayo (1888)
3. Dasalan at Tocsohan (1888)
4. Ang Kadakilaan ng Dios
5. Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (1889)
6. Dupluhan…Dalit…mga Bugtong…

Graciano Lopez Jaena (1856-1896) – itinatag niya sa Espanya ang Circulo Hispano-Filipino; sumulat
ng mga ulat para sa Circulo. Noong 1889, itinatag niya ang La Solidaridad at naging unang patnugot
nito. Nang mapalipat kay M. del Pilar ang tungkulin ng patnugot, naging manunulat na lamang siya ng
pahayagan. Nagkubli siya sa pangalang “Diego Laura”. Sa kanyang panahon, higit siyang kinilalang
orador kaysa manunulat. Sinulat niya ang Fray Botod, isang maikling nobelang mapang-uyam na
naglalarawan sa “kasibaan ng mga prayle”. Ang Fray Botod ay prayleng napakalakas kumain.

Mariano Ponce (1863-1899) – gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Naning”, “Tikbalang”, “Kalipulako”.

Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Mga Alamat ng Bulakan”, at ang dulang “Pagpugot kay Longino”.

Antonio Luna (1866-1899) – parmasyutikong gumamit ng sagisag na Taga-ilog sa kanyang pag-akda.

Marami siyang naiambag sa La Solidaridad. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Noche Buena”, “La
Tertulia Filipina”, “La Maestra de Mi Pueblo” at ang “Impresiones”.

Pedro A. Paterno (1858-1911) – may-akda ng Ninay isang nobelang sosyolohiko. Ito ang unang
nobelang sinulat sa Kastila ng isang Pilipino.

Pascual Poblete (1858-1921) – nobelista, makata, mananalaysay at tinaguriang “Ama ng Pahayagan”.

Siya ang nagtatag ng mga pahayagang El Resumen, El Grito del Pueblo at Ang Tinig ng Bayan. Siya
rin ang kauna-unahang nagsalin sa Tagalog ng Noli Me Tangere.

Jose Maria Panganiban (1865-1895) – sumulat ng mga sanaysay, lathalain at mga talumpati sa ilalim
ng sagisag na Jomapa.

Pedro Serrano Laktaw – leksikograpo at manunulat; isa ring pangunahing Mason. Siya ang unang
sumulat ng Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (1889).

Isabelo delos Reyes – nagtatag ng “Iglesia Filipina Independente”; nagtamo ng gantimpala sa

Exposisyon sa Madrid, sa sinulat na “El Folklore Filipino”.

Fernando Canon – kaklase ni Rizal sa Ateneo. Sumulat siya ng tula ukol kay Rizal. Sa mga tulang
pang-Rizal nagsimula ang kanyang katanyagan.

Kapwa pintor naman sina Juan Luna at Felix Resureccion Hidalgo.

Mga Akdang Mapanghimagsik

Ang paghihimagsik laban sa mga Kastila ay pinagtampukan ng mga akda nina Bonifacio at Emilio
Jacinto, mga akdang nasulat sa Tagalog, ang wikang opisyal ng Katipunan. Samantala, ang

418
paghihimagsik laban sa mga Amerikano ay tinampukan naman ng mga akda nina Apolinario Mabini at
Jose Palma.

Andres Bonifacio (1863-1897) – kinilalang “Ama ng Demokrasyang Pilipino” kinilala rin siyang
“Dakilang Plebyo”. Siya ay kasal kay Gregoria de Jesus, ang tinaguriang “Lakambini ng Katipunan”.
Si Bonifacio ay gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Agap-ito Bagumbayan” at “May Pag-asa”.

Mga Akda ni Bonifacio:

1. Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (tula)

2. Sampung Utos
3. Pahimakas (salin ng Mi Ultimo Adios ni Rizal)
4. Mga Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan (dekalogo ng Katipunan)
5. Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog (sanaysay)
6. Katapusang Hibik ng Pilipinas (tulang tugon sa tula ni del Pilar na Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik
ng Pilipinas)

Emilio Jacinto (1875-1899) – kinilalang “Utak ng Katipunan” dahilan na rin sa kanyang katalinuhan.
Sumulat ng Kartilya ng Katipunan. Ginamit niya sa pagsulat ang sagisag na “Dimas-Ilaw”; ginamit
naman niyang pangalan bilang kasapi ng Katipunan ang “Pingkian”.

Mga Akda ni Jacinto:

1. A La Patria (tulang hawig sa Mi Ultimo Adios ni Rizal)
2. A Mi Madre (isang oda)
3. Liwanag at Dilim (katipunan ng mga sanaysay)
4. Ang Tao ay Magkakapantay
5. Kalayaan

Apolinario Mabini (1864-1903) – kilala sa bansag na “Dakilang Lumpo”. Tinaguriang siyang “Utak
ng Himagsikan”. Bilang manunulat, marami siyang akda sa Kastila – mga akdang pampolitika,
sosyolohiko, pampamahalaan at pilosopiko.

Mga Akda ni Mabini:

1. La Revolucion Filipino
2. El Verdadero Decalogo (Ang Tunay na Dekalogo)

Jose Palma (1876-1903) – kabilang sa mga manunulat sa panahon ng rebolusyon laban sa mga
Amerikano. Ang tulang “Filipinas” ang makabuluhan niyang ambag sa panitikan. Ito ang naging titik
ng musikang nalikha ni Julian Felipe.

Pag-unlad ng Tula

Unang Hati. Sa mga unang tatlumpu hanggang apatnapung taon ng pananakop ng mga Amerikano, ang
mga makatang Pilipino ay mapapangkat sa dalawa: nakatatanda at nakababata.

1. Nakatatanda – kabilang sa nakatatanda sina Lope K. Santos, Pedro Gatmaitan, at Iñigo Ed.
Regalado. Ang unang pangkat na ito ay aral sa Kastila.
2. Nakababata – sa nakababata naman ay sina Jose Corazon de Jesus, Teodoro Gener, Ildefonso
Santos, Cirio H. Panganiban, Aniceto F. Silvestre at Amado V. Hernandez.

419
Lope K. Santos (1879-1963) – tinatawag na “Ama ng Balarilang Pilipino”. May-akda ng Banaag at
Sikat. Bilang makata, laging mababanggit kaugnay ng pangalan niya ang mga tulang “Ang
Pangginggera”, “Puso’t Diwa”, “Mga Hamak na Dakila,” at “Sino Ka – Ako’y Si…”

Pedro Gatmaitan – Ang kanyang mga tula ay napatanyag dahil sa hindi malayong paggunita sa mga
kabayanihan ng mga bayani ng digmaan at ng himagsikan 1896. Nagkubli siya sa mga sagisag na “Pipit-
Puso”, “Dante”, “Ernesto Salamisim” at “Alitaptap”. Nakilala ang kanyang “Tungkos ng Alaala”, isang
katipunan ng kanyang mga natatanging tula.

Ikalawang Hati. Sa panahong ito namayani ang mga nakababatang Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng
Batute), Cirio Panganiban, Deogracias A. Rosario, Ildefonso Santos, Benigno Ramos at Aniceto
Silvestre.

“Ilaw at Panitik” – isang tanyag na samahang pangwika na natatag noon. Ang unang pangulo ng
samahan ay si Jose Esperanza Cruz, naging patnugot ng Liwayway. Panahon din ito ng mga patimpalak
sa pagtula at pagsulat ng tula, at sa mga ganitong pagkakataon ang mga makatang kasapi ng “Ilaw at
Panitiki” ay naghali-halili sa pagkakamit ng unang gantimpala.

Balagtasan – supling ng matandang duplo. Abril 6, 1924, idinaos ang kauna-unahang balagtasan.
Ginanap iyon sa bulwagan ng Instituto de Mujeres, sa Kalye Tayuman, Tondo, Maynila. Ang pamagat
ay “Bulaklak ng Lahing Kalinis-linisan”. Si Jose Corazon de Jesus ang lumagay na “Paruparo” at si
Florentino Collantes naman ang sa “Bubuyog”. Si Sofia Enriquez naman ang mabangong “Kampupot”
o Bulaklak ng Kalinisan, samantala si Lope K. Sntos ang siyang nag-lakandiwa. Si Jose Corazon de
Jesus ang nanalo sa labanang iyon, ayon sa pasiya ng hurado. Naging unang Hari ng Balagtasan si
Batute.

Jose Corazon de Jesus – naging “Makata ng Pag-ibig” sa halalan ng mga mambabasa ng pahayagang
Mithi noong 1916. Isa sa mga tanyag niyang tula ang “Isang Punongkahoy”.

Florentino Collantes – naging katunggali ni Batute sa mga pagbabalagtasan. Naibigay sa kanya ang
karangalang “Makata ng Bayan” kapanabay ng pagbibibay kay Lope K. Santos ng karangalang “Paham
ng Wika”. Kabilang sa mga tula niya ang sumusunod: Ang Sawa, Sa Dakong Silangan, Ang Lumang
Simbahan at Ang Tulisan.

Iba Pang Makata

Teodoro E. Gener – pangunahing tula niya ang “Subo ng Sinaing”, “Guro” at “Pag-ibig”.

Aniceto F. Silvestre – makata ng damdamin. Ang kanyang tulang “Filipinas” ay ipinagwagi niya ng
gantimpala sa tula sa isang patimpalak na Surian ng Wikang pambansa noong 1946.

Teo S. Baylen – ang mga tula niya sa loob ng tatlumpung taon ay isina-aklat niya sa kanyang Tinig na
Darating.

Ang Pag-unlad ng Dula

 Ang dula ay isang sangay na panitikang naglalahad ng isang pangyayari o mga pangyayaring
kinasasangkutan ng isa o dalawang pangunahing tauhan at ng iba pang mga katulong na tauhan
na itinatanghal sa isang dulaan.

420
Sarsuwela – bilang panooring panlibangan, ay ipinakilala ng mga Kastila noong mga taong 1878-1879
ngunit di nagkaroon ng sapat na panahon upang umunlad at lumaganap. Kaagaw pa nito ang moro-moro
na mas dinudunog ng mga mamamayan.

Mga Nakilalang Mandudula

Severino Reyes (1861-1942) – pangunahing manunulat ng sarsuwela si Severino Reyes. Kilala rin siya
sa sagisag na “Lola Basyang” dahil sa kanyang mga kuwentong-bayan na inilathala sa Lingguhang
Liwayway. Ang kanyang sarsuwelang Walang Sugat ang itinuturing na kanyang obra-maestra. Noong
1922, naging patnugot siya ng Liwayway.

Patricio Mariano – isang mandudula, peryodista, kuwentista, nobelista at makata. Marami siyang
nasulat na dula na kinabibilangan ng Anak ng Dagat, Ang Tulisan, Ang Dalawang Pag-ibigi, Ako’y Iyo
Rin, at iba pa. Siya ng tinaguriang Dekano ng mga Mandudulang Tagalog.

Hermogenes Ilagan – siya ang masasabing kaagaw ni Severino Reyes sa kasigasigan sa paglikha at
pagtatanghal ng sarsuwela. Ang pinakatanyag niyang dula ay ang Dalagang Bukid.

Julian Cruz Balmaseda – namumukod ang kanyang aral sa pag-iimpok sa sulang Ang Piso ni Anita.
Ito ang dulang nagtamo ng unang gantimpala sa timpalak ng Kawanihan ng Koreo; sa kanyang Sa
Bunganga ng Pating, binaka niya ang sakit na nililikha ng salaping patubuan.

Aurelio Tolentino (1868-1913) – dalubhasa sa paggamit ng tatlong wika, Pampango, Tagalog at

Kastila. Maraming dula siyang nasulat tulad ng Bagong Kristo, isang sulang sosyolohiko; Sumpaan,
isang romantikong sarsuwelang may tatlong yugto. Ngunit higit sa lahat ng mga dula niya, ang
nakilala’y ang kanyang Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas. Isang alegoriya ang dulang ito ay naglalahad sa
pamamagitan ng mga simbolikong tauhan na pinagdadaanan ng Pilipinas.

Juan K. Abad – nang magsimula ang himagsikan sinunog ng lahat ni Abad ang kanyang mga akdang
nanunuligsa sa pamahalaan at sa mga prayle at pagkaraa ay umanib siya sa Katipunan. Hinarap ni Abad
ang pagbaka sa comedia sa paniniwalang ito ay nakakalason sa isipan ng mga Pilipino.

Ang Pag-unlad ng Nobela

 Ang kauna-unahang nobelang Tagalog na ipinalimbag sa anyong aklat ay ang Nena at Neneng
ni Valeriano Hernandez Peña; inilimbag ito noong 1905. Isusunod na sana ang Banaag at Sikat
ni Lope K. Santos, na labis na pinananabikang mabasang muli, subalit dahilan sa kakapalan nito,
nauna ang Miminsan Akong Umibigi ni Valeriano Hernandez Peña na lumabas noong 1906.
Sumunod na rin nang taon din iyon ang Banaag at Sikat ni Santos.
 Ang Kathambuhay o nobela ay isang sangay ng panitikang naglalahad ng maraming
pangyayaring kinasasangkutan ng isa o dalawang pangunahing tauhan at iba pang katulong na
mga tauhan at ang buong pangyayari ay sumasaklaw nang higit na mahabang panahon kaysa
maikling katha.

Ang Panahong Ginto ng Nobelang Tagalog

 Panahong saklaw ng unang dalawampung taon, nasulat ang mga nobelang nagtataglay ng mga
katangiang kasalaminan ng panahon at umayon sa layuning “makapagturo ng mabuti,
makapaghimaton ng pag-iwas sa mga sakuna at kasawian sa buhay, makapagbinhi ng mabuting
kaugalian at makapagpaunlad ng isip.” Sa palagay ni Regalado, “hindi maitatanggi ng sino

421
 man na ang nobekang Tagalog ay nagkaroon ng Panahong Ginto…at ang panahong iyon ay
sumasaklaw sa mga taong buhat sa 1905 hanggang 1921.”

Ang Maikling Kuwento

 Ang anyo ng maikling kuwento ay nakilala lamang sa Pilipinas ng mgaunang taon ng ika-20
siglo nang narito na ang mga Amerikano. Ang mga unang anyo ng maikling kuwento ay ang
(1) dagli, na ang himig ay nangangaral. Ang mga ito’y namumuna at nanunuligsa, at (2)
pasingaw o munting kasaysayan na nagpapahayag ng pag-ibig sa mga nililigawan o
hinahangaang paraluman.
 Ang maikling kuwento ay isang sangay ng panitikang naglalahad ng isang natatangi at
mahalagang pangyayari sa buhay ng isang pangunahing tauhan s aisang takdang panahon.

Sangkap ng Maikling Kwento:

1. Paksang-diwa o tema – pangunahing kaisipan ng kuwento, ng isang pangkalahatang

pagmamasid sa buhay ng may-akda na nais niyang ipabatid sa mambabasa.
2. Banghay – balangkas o istruktura ng mga pangyayaring kinapapalooban ng mga kilos,
pagkahubog ng tauhan, tunggalian at mga hadlang, at mga detalye na buhat sa simula ay mabilis
sa pag-akyat sa kasukdulan. Ito ay mabilis na sinusundan ng wakas.
3. Katimpian – higit na masining ang matimping paglalarawan ng damdamin.
4. Paningin – pananaw na pinagdaraanan ng mga pangyayari sa isang katha. Ito ang kahulugan
ng paningin.

Apat na paraan ng pagsasalaysay ng kuwento ayon sa paningin ng nagpapahayag:

a. Paningin sa Unang Panauhan – sumasanib ang may-akda sa isa sa mga tauhan na
siyang nagsasalaysay sa unang panauhan.
b. Paningin sa Pangatlong Panauhan – pangatlong panauhan ang ginamit ng manunulat
sa pagsasalaysay ng mga pangyayari sa kuwento. Ang isipan at damdamin ng mga
tauhan ay maaari niyang utusan.
c. Itinakdang Obhetibong Paningin – maaaring ang pangunahing tauhan o ang alin man
sa mga katulong na tauhan ang tauhang nagsasalaysay.
d. Obhetibong Paningin – ang tagapagsalaysay ay nagsisilbing isang kamera na
malatang nakalilibot subalit maitatala lamang nito ang tuwirang nakikit at naririnig.

5. Pahiwatig – nagiging malikhain ang mga mambabasa sapagkat naiiwan sa kanyang guniguni o
imahinasyon sa mga pangyayaring nagaganap o maaaring maganap sa kuwento.
6. Simbolo – ito ang mga salita na kapag binanggit sa isang akda ay nag-iiwan ng iba’t ibang
pagpapakahulugan sa mambabasa. Halimbawa, ang puti ay kumakatawan sa kalinisan o
kawagasan.

Deogracias A. Rosario – Ama ng Maikling Kuwentong Tagalog

Sanaysay

 Naglalarawan ng mga kuru-kuro at pansariling kaisipan ng isang manunulat. Ang sanaysay ay

maaaring maanyo (pormal) at maaari namang malaya (di-pormal o personal).
 Ang salitang sanaysay ay salitang-likha ni Alejandro G. Abadilla (AGA). Ayon sa kanya, ito
ay pinagsanib na mga salitang pagsasalaysay ng isang sanay o nakasulat na karanasan ng isang

422
 sanay sa pagsasalaysay. Di gaya ng maraming salitang-likha, ang sanaysay ay dagling
tinanggap ng bayan.

Dalawang uri ng Sanaysay:

1. maanyo o pormal – tanging layunin nito ay magbigay ng kaalaman

2. malaya o di-pormal – higit na kaaliw-aliw na basahin dahil sa ang mga salitang ginamit ay
madaling maintindihan at ang paksa ay karaniwan.

Talambuhay

 Naglalahad ng mahahalagang pangyayari sa buhay o kasaysayan ng isang tao. Kapag ang

talambuhay ay nauukol sa taong siyang sumulat, ito ay tinatawag na pansariling talambuhay
(autobiography).

Pangulong Tudling

 Naglalahad ng kuru-kuro ng patnugot ng isang pahayagan. Ang mga pitak ng mga kolumnista
ay kahawig ng pangulong tudling, lamang, ang kuru-kuro ng patnugot ay higit na matimbang o
may bigat at siyang kuru-kuro na ng pahayagan.

Panahon ng Hapones (1942-1944)

 Marami ang nagsasabing “gintong panahon” daw ng maikling kuwento at ng dulang Tagalog
ang panahong ito. Sa panahong ito, halos ipinagbawal ang Ingles ng mga mananakop kung
kaya’t naging luwalhati naman ng wikaing Tagalog ang pangyayaring ito.
 Sa pangangasiwa ng Surian ng Wikang Pambansa, ang pinakamahusay na maikling kuwento ng
panahong iyon ay pinili. Ang tatlong kuwentong nanguna ay ang mga sumusunod: “Lupang
Tinubuan” ni Narciso G. Reyes, “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” ni Liwayway Arceo, at “Lunsod,
Nayon at Dagat-dagatan” ni N.V.M. Gonzales.
 Tatlong uri ng tula ang namalasak noong panahon ng Hapon: Karaniwang anyo, malayang
taludturan, na ang pinakamarami ay haiku at tanaga.

Tanaga – isang uri ng tulang Tagalog noong unang panahon na sa katipiran ng pamamaraan ay
maihahalintulad sa Haiku ng mga Hapones, bagamat lalong maikli ang haiku. Ang tanaga ay may sukat
at tugma. Ang bawat taludtod ay may pitong (7) pantig.

Halimbawa:

Palay

Palay siyang matino

Nang humangi’y yumuko,
Ngunit muling tumayo;
Nagkabunga ng ginto.

Gawad Pambansang Alagad ng Sining (Panitikan)

Amado V. Hernandez - 1973

Jose Garcia Villa - 1973

423
Nick Joaquin - 1976
Carlos P. Romulo - 1982
Francisco Arcellana - 1990
Levi Celerio - 1997 (Musika at Panitikan)
N.V.M. Gonzalez - 1997
Edith L. Tiempo - 1999
F. Sionil Jose - 2001
Virgilio S. Almario - 2003
Alejandro R. Roces - 2003

Mga Teorya/Pananaw Pampanitikan

Teorya

 Ito ang pormulasyon ng palilinawing mga prinsipyo ng mga tiyak na penomena, paniniwala, o
ideya upang makalikha ng isang sistematikong paraan ng pagpapaliwanag ng mga ito.

Teoryang Pampanitikan

 Ang pagbabalangkas ng mga prinsipyo na magpapaliwanag sa pinagmulan at kalikasan ng

panitikan, ano ito ngayon at ano dapat ito, papaano ito nalikha at papaano ito nagagamit ng
lipunan.
 Isang sistema ng mga kaisipan at mga kahalagahan na nagbibigay-kahulugan sa kalikasan at
tungkulin ng panitikan pati na sa proseso ng paglikhang masining, at mga layunin ng may-akda
at ng tekstong pampanitikan.

Teoryang Klasisismo
 Pagtuklas at pagtanaw sa katotohanan, kagandahan, at kabutihan ang nilalayon ng klasisismo.
Hinahangad nito na palawakin ang pananaw at pang-unawa ng matwid na tao, at makamtan
yaong tinatawag na grandeur d’ame o pagkadakila ng pagkatao. At dahil ang tao ay sadyang
may katutubong karupukan, kinakailangan din na ang panitikan ay makatulong sa paglilinis o
pagpupurga sa kalooban at niloloob upang lalong makatulong sa pagkakamit ng kadakilaan ng
katauhan.

Teoryang Humanismo
 Walang higit pang kawili-wiling paksa kaysa tao. Kung pumasok man ang kalikasan sa sining
ay upang lalong mapalitaw ang mga katangian ng tao. Ang Diyos man ay nagiging
makabuluhan sa daigdig dahil sa tao sapagkat kung walang tao sa daigdig, walang makakaisip
ng anuman tungkol sa Diyos. Hindi nito sinasabi na higit na dakila ang tao kaysa Diyos.
Isinesentro lamang nito sa daigdig ang tao.

Teoryang Romantisismo
 Higit na pinahahalagahan ang “damdamin” kaysa ideyang siyentipiko o may batayan.
Nananalig ang mga romantisista sa Diyos; naniniwala sila sa katwiran, siyensya, eksperimento
at obserbasyon (empirisismo); materyal din ang tingin nila sa kalikasan at santinakpan. Ngunit
para sa kanila, kulang pa at hindi maipaliliwanag o nasasagot ng mga ito ang mga tanong at mga
karanasan tungkol sa puso.

Teoryang Realismo

424
  Higit na mahalaga ang katotohanan kaysa kagandahan. Hinahangad nito ang katotohanan at ang
makatotohanang paglalahad at paglalarawan ng mga bagay, mga tao at lipunan, at alin pa mang
maaaring mapatunayan sa pamamagitan ng ating mga sentido. Ang paraan ng paglalarawan ang
susi, at hindi ang uri ng paksa. Naniniwala ang realismo na ang pagbabago ay walang hinto.

Teoryang Naturalismo
 Pinalawak ng naturalismo ang saklaw ng realismo. Tinangka kasi ng naturalismo ang mas
“matapat, di-piniling representasyon ng realidad, isang tiyak na hiwa ng buhay na ipinakita nang
walang panghuhusga”. Dahil sa walang muwang na “scientific determinism,” binigyang-diin
ng naturalismo ang namana (o aksidente) at pangpisikal na likas ng tao kaysa mga katangian
niyang pangmoral o rasyonal. Naipakitang ang mga indibidwal ay produkto ng pinanggalingan
at kapaligiran.

Teoryang Formalismo
 Ang isang akda ay may sariling buhay at umiiral sa sarili nitong paraan. Nasa porma o kaanyuan
ng isang akda ang kasiningan nito. Ang porma ay binubuo ng imahe (gamit ng lengguwahe na
kumakatawan sa mga bagay, aksiyon at mga ideyang abstrakto), diksiyon (pagpili ng mga salita
at paraan ng pagkakaayos nito), sukat, tugma, at iba pa. Kailangang magkasama ang porma at
ang nilalaman upang magkaroon ng buong kahulugan ang isang akda.

Teoryang Imahismo
 Malaya ang makatang pumili ng anumang nais na paksain ng kanyang tula. Gumagamit ng wika
o salitang pangkaraniwan. Kailangang angkop at tiyak ang bawat salita, at walang hindi
kinakailangang palamuti. Ang imagism, isang tradisyon ng panulaang modernista na sadyang
tiwalag sa tradisyon ng pangangaral o pang-aliw bilang akdang pansining ay may bukod-tanging
kairalan, at hindi ito kailangang ipasailalim sa anumang layuning hindi makasining. Wika nga,
“Art for art’s sake”.

Teoryang Siko-Analitika
 Masalimuot ang teorya ni Freud. Sa pinakamadaling sabi, ang panitikan sa kanya ay ang
kabuuan ng kamalayan at di-kamalayan: lumalabas dito ang mga bagay na di masasabi o
maisusulat ng makata nang tuwiran sa harap ng ibang tao.

Arketipal na Pananaw
 o mitolohikal na oryentasyon. Ito ay isa pang pagdulog na tila kawangis ng sikolohikal na
pananaw. Tulad ng sikolohikal na pananaw, nakapako ang atensiyon nito sa paraan ng paglikha
at ang epekto nito sa mambabasa. Subalit waring higit na malawak ang larangang sinusuyod ng
arketipong pananaw sapagkat buong kalipunan ng mga sagisag at imaheng palagiang lumilitaw
sa mga teksto ng pandaigdigang kultura ang pinagpapakuan nito ng masusing pansin.

Teoryang Eksistensiyalismo
 Tulad ng romantisismo, ito ay mahilig sa eksperimentasyon tungo sa “tunay” na buhay at
pananalita o ekspresyon. Sinusuri nito ang lahat ng bagay bilang “lived facts”; wala itong dini-
diyos at itinuturing na dapat igalang (sacred) maliban sa kalayaan, pagka-responsable at
indibidwalismo ng bawat tao – ng manunulat o ng mambabasa. Walang makapagsasabi ng kung
alin ang tama o mali, totoo o malikmata, importante o walang silbi, maliban sa taong nakararanas
sa pinag-uusapan.

Teoryang Istrukturalismo

425
  Iisa ang simulain ng teoryang ito: ang pagpapatunay na ang wika o lengguwahe, ay hindi lamang
hinuhubog ng kamalayang panlipunan kundi humuhubog din sa kamalayang panlipunan.
Nakabaon ang panlipunang kamalayan sa paggamit ng wika (social discourse) o paggamit sa
mga salita ayon sa mga kinikilalang tuntunin at pagsasapraktikang panlipunan (social
conventions).

Teoryang Dekonstruksiyon
 Binibiyang-diin sa teoryang ito ang kamalayan ng manunulat at ng mambabasa bilang mga
produkto ng social discourse na nakasulat. Ito ay naangkop sa panitikang nakasulat bilang
produkto ng isang tiyak na may-akda na tagapagdala o tagapagingat ng isang tradisyong pang-
intelektuwal at pampanitikan. Ang kahulugan ng isang tekto ay nasa kamalayang gumagamit
sa teksto, at hindi sa teksto mismo.

Teoryang Moralistiko
 Pinalalagay na ang akda ay may kapangyarihang maglahad o magpahayag hindi lamang ng
literal na katotohanan kundi ng mga panghabambuhay at unibersal na mga katotohanan at mga
di-mapapawing pagpapahalaga (values). Pinahahalagahan ang panitikan di dahil sa mga
partikular na katangian nito bilang likhang-isip na may sinusunod na sariling mga batas at
prinsipyo sa kanyang pagiging malikhain, kundi dahil sa mga aral na naidudulot nito sa mga
nakikinig o bumabasa.

Teoryang Historikal/Sosyolohikal
 Di teksto bilang teksto ang lubusang pinagtutuunan ng pansin kundi ang kontekstong dito’y
nagbigay-daan; hindi ang partikular na kakanyahan lamang ang sinusuri kundi ang mga
impluwensiyang dito ay nagbigay-hugis—ang talambuhay ng awtor, ang politikal na sitwasyon
sa panahong naisulat ang akda, ang mga tradisyon at kombensiyon na maaaring nakapagbigay
sa akda ng mga katangian.

Marxistang Pananaw
 Ang panitikan ay tinitignan bilang instrumento ng pagbabago, o bilang behikulo na magagamit
upang mabuksan ang isipan ng tao sa kanilang kalagayang api.

Feministang Pananaw
 Pinagtutuunan ng pananaw Feminismo ang kalagayan o representasyon ng kababaihan sa isang
akda. Layunin nito na baguhin ang mga de-kahong imahen o paglalarawan sa kababaihan sa
anumang uri ng panitikan. Layunin ng pananaw na ito na masuri ang mga akdang pampanitikan
sa paningin o perspektiba ng babae. Dahil sa matagal na panahon, halos mga lalaki ang
nagsusuri kung kaya hindi man maka-lalaki ang pananaw, ay nagtatanghal lamang ng mga
nagawa ng kalalakihan.

Mga Tayutay o Mga Salitang Patalinghaga

Tayutay (Figures of Speech)

 Nagpapaganda sa akda, nagpapalalim sa kaisipan at nagpapayaman sa guniguni ng bumabasa.

Ang mga tayutay ay madalas na gamitin sa mga akdang pampanitikan.

1. Patulad o Simile – paghahambing ng dalawang bagay na magkaiba ng uri (ginagamitan ng

salitang para, gaya, katulad, kaparis, at iba pa).

426
 Halimbawa:
Para ng halamang lumaki sa tubig,
Daho’y nalalanta munting di madilig.

2. Pawangis o Metapora – paggamit ng salitang nangangahulugan ng isang bagay sa

pagpapahayag ng ibang bagay.

Halimbawa:
Sapagkat ang haring may hangad sa yaman
Ay mariing hampas ng langit sa bayan.

3. Sinekdoke – gumagamit ng bahagi sa halip ng kabuuan o ng kabuuan sa halip ng bahagi.

Halimbawa:
At ang balang bibig na binubukalan
Ng sabing magaling at katotohanan.

4. Pangitain o Vision

Halimbawa:
Sa sinapupunan ng Konde Adolfo’y
Aking natatanaw si Laurang sinta ko.

5. Panawagan o Apostrophe – kagyat na pagtutol sa naunang pagpapahayag at pananawagan sa

tao o bagay na wala roon.

Halimbawa:
Kamataya’y nahan ang dating bangis mo?

6. Pabaligho o Paradox – pahayag na wari’y salungat o laban sa likas na pagkukuro ngunit

nagpapakilala ng katotohanan.

Halimbawa:
Ang matatawag kong palaya sa akin
ng ama ko’y itong ako’y pagliluhin
agawan ng sinta’t panasa-nasaing
lumubog sa dusa’t buhay ko’y makitil.

7. Padamdam o Exclamation – pagbubulalas ng masidhi o matinding damdamin.

Halimbawa:
Nanlilisik ang mata’t ang ipinagsaysay
Ay hindi ang ditsong nasa orihinal,
Kundi ang winika’y ikaw na umagaw
Ng kapurihan ko’y dapat kang mamatay!

8. Pandiwantao o Personification – binibigyang-katauhan ang isang bagay na walang buhay o

kaisipang basal (abstract).

Halimbawa:

427
Parang walang malay hanggang sa magtago’t
Humilig si Pebo sa hihigang ginto.

9. Pahalintulad o Analogy – tambalang paghahambing, pagkakawangki ng mga pagkakaugnay.

Halimbawa:
Inusig ng taga ang dalawang leon,
si Apolo mandin sa Serpyente Piton.

10. Enigma – naikukubli ang kahulugan sa ilalim ng malabong pagtukoy.

Halimbawa:
Tapat ang puso ko’y di nagunamgunam
Na ang paglililo’y nasa kagandahan.

11. Papanuto o Aphorism – maikling paglalahad ng isang tuntuning pangkaasalan.

Halimbawa:
Kung ang isalubong sa iyong pagdating
ay masayang mukha’t may pakitang-giliw
pakaingatan mo’t kaaway na lihim,
siyang isaisip na kakabakahin.

12. Tanong na Mabisa o Rhetorical Question – tanong na naglalayong magbunga ng isang

tanging bisa at hindi upang magtamo ng kasagutan.

Halimbawa:
Anong gagawin ko sa ganiton bagay
ang sinta ko kaya’y bayaang mamatay?

13. Pagmamalabis o Hyperbole – pahayag na ibayong maindi kaysa katotohanan o lagpas sa

maaaring mangyari.

Halimbawa:
Bababa si Marte mula sa itaas,
Sa kailalima’y aahon ang parkas.

14. Aliterasyon – paulit-ulit na tunog ng isang katinig na ginagamit sa mga magkakalapit na salita
o pantig.

Halimbawa:
At sa mga pulong dito’y nakasabog, nangalat, nagpunla.
Nagsipanahanan, nangagsipamuhay, nagbato’t nagkuta.

15. Asonansya – inuulit ang tunog ng isang patinig sa halip ng katinig.

Halimbawa:
Ang buhay ng tao at sa taong palad,
Nasa ginagawa ang halaga’y bigat.

16. Onomatopeya – pagkakahawig ng tunog ng salita at ng diwa nito.

428
 (1) Tuwirang onomatopeya – kapag ginagagad ng ga tunog ng patinig at katinig ang tunog ng
inilalarawan ng taludtod.

Halimbawa:
Ikaw’y iniluwal ng baha sa bundok
Hahala-halakhak at susutsut-sutsot.

(2) Pahiwatig na onomatopeya – kapag ang mga tunog ng patinig at katinig ay hindi gumagagad
kundi nagpapahiwatig lamang ng bagay na inilalarawan.

Ayon kay Lope K. Santos, ang ating mga titik ay nag-aangkin ng sari-sariling pahiwatig na
kaisipan. Ang A ay nagpapahiwatig ng kalakhan, kalinawan, kalawakan, kalantaran,
samantalang ang I ay nagtataglay ng diwa ng kaliitan, labuan, karimlan, kalaliman, kalihiman,
at iba pa.

a – araw, buwan, ilaw, buwan, linaw, tanghal

i – gabi, lilim, lihim, kulimlim, liit, unti, itim

i - Ang suot ay puti’y may apoy sa bibig,

Sa buong magdamag ay di matahimik,
Ngunit ang hiwagang di sukat malirip,
Kung bakit sa gabi lamang namamasid.

Mga Uri ng Matalinghagang mga Pananalita

Pahayag Idyomatiko (Idiomatic Expression)

 Isang pariralang ang kahulugan ay di mahahanago sa alinmang bahagi ng pananalita.

 Ang kahulugan ng mga ito ay di bunga ng pagsasama ng kahulugan ng mga salitang bumubuo
sa mga ito kundi isang natatanging kahulugang naiiba sa mismong parirala.
 Malayo ang kahulugang literal o tuwirang kahulugan sa kontekstuwal o tunay na kahulugan.
 Matatag na ang pagiging gamitin ng mga pahayag idyomatiko dahil ginagamit na sa mahabang
panahon at bahagi na ng talaslaitaan ng bayan.
 Nagpasalin-salin ito sa bibig ng mg tao.

Halimbawa:
alagang ahas – taksil, walang utang-na-loob, kalawang sa bakal
gagapang na parang ahas – maghihirap ang buhay, maghihikahos, magiging miserable ang buhay
parang ahas na kuyog – galit na lahat ang buong angkan sa kagalit ng isa sa kanila
bagong ahon – baguhan sa pook, bagong salta
alanganin – bakla, tomboy
lumilipad sa alapaap – walang katiyakan, alinlangan
inalat – minalas, inabot ng alat
pinakain ng alikabok – tinalo sa isang karera ng takbuhan
nasagap na alimuom – nakuhang tsismis, sabi-sabi, bali-balita, alingasngas

Patayutay na Pananalita ((Figurative Word or Phrase)

429
  Isang salita o parirala na ang kahulugan ay ipinahihiwatig ng salita o ilan sa mga salita sa
parirala.
 Nasisinag ang kontekstuwal na kahulugan sa mga salitang ginagamit.

Halimbawa:
magulo pa sa sangkuwaltang abaka – masalimuot, napakagulo, nakalilito, walang-walang kaayusan
abo ang utak – walang pang-intindi, bobo, tanga, mahina ang ulo
anay – lihim na kaaway
anak sa labas – anak sa di tunay na asawa, anak sa ibang babae
parang iniihan ng aso – di mapakali, di mapalagay, balisa
buhol-babae – mahina o madaling makalas ang pagkakatali, di matatag/matibay
agawin ang buhay – iligtas ang buhay sa kamatayan
mag-alsa ng boses – sumigaw (sa galit), magtaas ng tinig
mabigat ang katawan – masama ang pakiramdam o di maganda ang pakiramdam, tamad

Eupemistikong Pananalita (Euphemistic Expression)

 Pananalitang ipinapalit sa mga salita o pariralang kapag ipinahayag sa tuwirang kahulugan ay

nagdudulot ng pagkalungkot o pagdaramdam, pagkarimarim, pagkalagim o ibang di kanais-nais
na damdamin sa pinagsasabihan o nakakarinig.
 Ginagawa ang ganitong pagpapalit upang maging kaaya-aya sa pandinig ang pahayag at nang
maiwasan ang makasugat ng damdamin ng iba.
 Madalas na ginagamit ang mga eupemistikong pananalita sa mga pahayg kaugnay ng
kamatayan, maseselang bahagi ng katawan ng tao at sa malalaswang gawain.

Halimbawa:

Eupemistikong Pananalita Kahulugan

sumakabilang buhay
o binawian ng buhay namatay
pagsisiping o pagtatalik pag-aasawahan

Practice Test

I. Direksyon: Piliin ang titik ng sagot sa bawat bilang.

1. May prinsipyo si Daves, kaya nang mabalitaan niyang may tali sa ilong ang kanyang kaibigan
dahil sunud-sunuran sa lahat ng ipinag-uutos ng kanyang hepe, pinangaralan niya ito.
a. nasa ilalim ng kapangyarihan
b. di makahalata
c. kulang ang pagkalalake
d. walang iisang salita
2. Ang lihim na kanyang iniingatan ay nabunyag dahil siya ay nahuli sa kanyang sariling bibig.
a. tsismosa
b. sa sariling bibig nagmula ang katotohanan
c. pagiging totoo
d. di marunong magsinungaling
3. Talagang sakit ng ulo ang pag-aasawa nang wala sa panahon.

430
 a. masasakitin ang ulo
b. di nag-iisip
c. malaking suliranin o alalahanin
d. mahirap isipin

4. Ang taong may krus sa dibdib ay pinagpapala ng Diyos.

a. maunawain
b. mapagmahal
c. maka-Diyos
d. mapagpatawad
5. Pagdaan ng mga taon, saka mo pa lamang makikita na may pileges ang noo mo.
a. nagiging batang muli
b. nagiging isip-bata
c. maraming problema
d. matanda na
6. Paano ko maiintindihan ang kanyang ulat, e boses-ipis siya.
a. mahina ang boses
b. di makarinig
c. di marinig magsalita
d. a at c
7. Galit ako sa mga istudyante parang kampana ang bibig sa loob ng klase.
a. tulad ng tunog ng kampana ang boses
b. mukhang kampana
c. malakas ang boses
d. malaki ang bukas ng bibig kung magsalita
8. Bukod sa pagtuturo, nais ibuhos ni Miguel ang isip sa pagguhit.
a. ituon ang isip
b. ubusin ang panahon
c. mag-isip nang mag-isip
d. maging malikhain
9. Kaya matumal ang paninda mo ay isang bakol ang mukha mo. Ngumiti ka naman.
a. nakakunot ang noo
b. nakangiwi
c. malungkot
d. nakasimangot
10. Lumuha ka man ng bato, di na maibabalik ang buhay ng iyong ama.
a. matinding panangis
b. di makaiyak o makaluha
c. di matinag
d. wala ng pakiramdam
Direksyon: Basahin at unawain ang tula. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

Hapunan

Nagdiriwang sa hapag 1

ang tatlong payat na tinapa;

tinatanuran ng nilagang kamatis

431
 na binudburan ng maghapong pagtitiis

sa ilalim ng matinding sikat ng araw.

Iniingatang may lumusot na butil

ng pawis sa awang ng mesang kawayan;

biyaya itong hulog ng langit

kaya’t dapat pag-ingatan.

Hati ang mag-asawa 2

sa nakahaing tinapa.

Salit-salitan

sa sawsawang nilapirot sa asin.

Bumukal ang maliliit na butil ng pawis 3

sa noo ng mag-asawang pagal

sa pagbubungkal ng lupa.

Tahimik na tahimik 4

sa harap ng hapunang pambihira.

11. Anong larawang-diwa ang ipinakita ng tula?

a. pagsasama ng mag-asawa
b. kahirapan ng buhay
c. payak na buhay sa bukid
d. pagtitipid ng mga magsasaka
12. Iniingatang may lumusot na butil ng pawis sa awang ng mesang kawayan. Ang butil ng pawis
ay nangangahulugan ng/na _________________.
a. pagtiisan ang anumang pagkaing nasa hapag.
b. pagpapahalaga sa pagkaing nasa hapag dahil ito ay kanilang pinaghirapan.
c. pagiging kuntento sa kung anong mayroon.
d. pasasalamat sa biyayang tinanggap.
13. Anong saknong ang nagpapahayag ng positibong pananaw.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
14. Alin sa mga saknong ng binasang tula ang nagpapahiwatig ng pagkakaroon ng pag-asa ng
mag-asawa?

432
 a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
Direksyon: Basahin ang sanaysay. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

Itanghal nga natin ang nasyonalismong Pilipino. Itambal ang diwang malaya, ang
sipag sa paggawa at taimtim na pagmamahal sa mga likas at pinaunlad na pamana ng
ating mga ninuno. Pagyamanin at pagmalasakitan silang palagi. At huwag limutin na
sila ang susing ginto sa tunay na kalayaan at katubusan ng Pilipinas.

Ating tandaan, na sa sandaling ang Pilipinismo’y maging kalangkap ng ating buhay

na pang-araw-araw, sa ating mga basar, groseri at pamilihan ay mamumutiktik na ang
mga produktong Pilipino at sila ang magiging gamit sa bahay-bahay; hindi na ang mga
made in USA, made in Japan at made in Germany. At mangyari pa, mawawala na ang
mga sawimpalad na kababayang namumulot sa mga basurahan upang makatawid sa
gutom.

MATUTUHAN LAMANG NG PILIPINO NA SIYA’Y MAGPAKA-PILIPINO.

- Pilipinismo: Susi ng Bayang Tagumpay

ni Amado V. Hernandez

15. Ano ang paksa ng binasang sanaysay?

a. Pagtangkilik sa mga produktong Pilipino
b. Pagmamalasakit sa pamana ng mga ninuno
c. Pagtulong sa mga sawimpalad na Pilipino
d. Pagiging makabayan
16. Batay sa binasang sanaysay, ano ang masasabing kalagayan ng lipunang Pilipino?
a. Pinagmamalasakitan ang mga ninuno na nakipaglaban upang makamit ang kalayaan
ng Pilipinas
b. Higit na pagtangkilik sa mga produktong banyaga kaysa mga produktong Pilipino
c. Pagkakaroon ng mahihirap na Pilipino na namumulot sa mga basurahan
d. Maraming Pilipino ang nagnanais na makapangibang-bansa
17. Ipinaliwanag ng sanaysay na kung ang Pilipinismo’y magiging kalangkap ng pang-araw-araw
na buhay ng mga Pilipino, ______________________.
a. dadami ang mga produkto gawa ng mga Pilipino.
b. mababawasan ang mga Pilipinong kumakalam ang sikmura.
c. hindi na aangkat ng mga banyagang produkto sa ibang bansa.
d. higit na makakamit ang pag-unlad sa buhay ng bawat Pilipino.
18. Ano ang itinuturo ng binasang sanaysay?
a. Pagtatanghal ng nasyonalismong Pilipino.
b. Itambal ang diwang malaya, ang sipag sa paggawa at taimtim na pagmamahal sa mga
likas at pinaunlad na pamana ng ating mga ninuno.
c. Pagyamanin at pagmalasakitang palagi silang susing ginto sa tunay na kalayaan at
katubusan ng Pilipinas.
d. Mawawala na ang mga sawimpalad na kababayang namumulot sa mga basurahan
upang makatawid sa gutom.

433
Direksyon: Basahin ang bahagi ng kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

Kay Ama niya inihabilin ang paglilibing sa kanya. Dito sa Maynila, sinabi na
naman niya. Mag-iisa akong malilibing dito, Tiyo Julio, ngunit gusto kong dito
malibing.

“Magdasal ka,” payo ni Ama, “iyang hinanakit mo’y kalimutan mo na.

Masama iyang babaunin mo pa ang mga iyan.”

“Mahirap makalimutan, Tiyo Julio. Natatandaan ba ninyo noon, noong maliit

ako? Noong hindi ko matagpuan ang libing ni Ama’t Ina? Wala akong mauuwian
doon, Tiyo Julio. Mag-iisa rin ako.”

Tumungo ang maputing ulo ni Ama; pati siya’y ibig na ring maluha sa sinasabi
ni Layo.

“Walang hindi umuuwi sa kanyang bayan. Mayroon nga riyan, namamatay sa

Amerika, pagkatapos manirahan doon nang kay tagal, ngunit ang huling kahilingan ay
ang malibing dito sa atin.”

“Maganda ang sinabi ninyo, Tiyo Julio.”

“Wala ngang hindi umuuwi sa atin, sa kanyang bayan, Layo. Ikaw man ay uuwi
rin.”

Lahat ay umuuwi sa kanyang bayan, ibig ko ring sabihin kay Layo. Maaaring
narito ka, ngunit ang iyong kaluluwa ay naglalakbay na pabalik doon. Maaaring naging
mapait ang kabataan mo roon, ngunit huwag mong sabihing ikaw ay di babalik.

Ngayo’y hindi siya nakatingin sa akin, ni kay Ama, ni kay Ising. Nakatingin
siya sa kisame. Nakaangat ang kanyang baba at tila mga mata ng isang bulag ang
kanyang mga mata. Alam kong naglalakbay ang kanyang diwa: marahil, nalalaman ko
kung saan naglalakbay iyon.

Gusto kong isipin na ngayo’y naglalakbay ang kaluluwa ni Layo patungo sa

aming bayan; gusto kong isipin na ngayo’y tila mga tuyong dahon nang malalaglag ang
kanyang hinanakit: gusto kong isipin na sa paglalakbay ng kanyang kaluluwa, sa
paglalakbay na iyong pabalik, ay nakatatagpo siya ng kapayapaan…

Nalagay sa mga pahayagan ang pagkamatay ni Layo.

Ang sabi sa pahayagan ay ilalagak daw ang kanyang bangkay sa San Roque.

Ang kabaong ni Layo ay isinakay sa isang itim na kotse.

Mula sa Maynila, naglakbay iyon sa mga bayan-bayan.

Tumitigil iyon sa mga bahay-pamahalaan. Nanaog ang nakaunipormeng tsuper

at ipinagbigay-alam ang pagdaraan.

434
 Hapon na nang dumating iyon sa San Roque.

Sa San Roque, marami ang naghihintay na makikipaglibing kay Layo.

Naghihintay rin sa kanya ang lupa ng sariling bayan.

- Sa Lupa ng Sariling Bayan

ni Rogelio R. Sikat

19. Ano ang maituturing na kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa?

a. Pagsasabi ni Tiyo Julio na ang lahat umuuwi sa sariling bayan
b. Pag-uuwi ng bangkay ni Layo sa San Roque
c. Paghahabilin ni Layo na ilibing siya sa Maynila
d. Pagkikipaglibing ng mga taga-San Roque kay Layo

20. Ang suliranin ng kuwento ay binigyang-solusyon sa pamamagitan ng

________________________.
a. pagpanaw ni Layo dahil sa kanyang karamdaman.
b. pangangaral ni Tiyo Julio
c. pag-uuwi ng bangkay ni Layo sa San Roque, ang kanyang sariling bayan
d. paglalathala sa pahayagan ng ukol sa pagpanaw ni Layo
21. Ano ang ibig ipakahulugan ng wakas na ito: Naghihintay rin sa kanya ang lupa ng
sariling bayan?
a. Lahat ay umuuwi sa kanyang bayan.
b. Tanggap pa rin siya ng mga taga-San Roque.
c. Pagkakaroon ng lubos na kapayapaan.
d. Pagkawala ng hinanakit ni Layo sa San Roque.
22. Mahirap makalimutan, Tiyo Julio. Natatandaan ba ninyo noon, noong
maliit ako? Noong hindi ko matagpuan ang libing ni Ama’t Ina? Wala
akong mauuwian doon, Tiyo Julio. Mag-iisa rin ako. Anong damdamin
ang mababakas kay Layo sa mga pahayag niyang ito?
a. hinanakit
b. kalungkutan
c. pangungulila sa mga magulang
d. pagtatampo
23. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. Ang mga sugat ay napaghihilom ng panahon.
b. Ang pakikiramay ay bahagi ng pakikipagkapwa.
c. Lahat ay naghahangad ng isang maayos na libing.
d. Walang hindi umuuwi sa sariling bayan.

Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

Opener ako kinabukasan. Mas gusto kong maging opener, kakaunti lang kasi
ang kumakain. Karamihan mga nag-oopisina at lagi pang take out. Lagi silang mga
nagmamadali. Kapag konti ang kumain, konti ang aking lilinisin.

435
 Pero sa kawnter ako napunta. Kahit takot akong humawak ng pera, kailangan
kong matutunan ang lahat ng bahagi ng operasyon. Ingat na ingat ako sa pagsusukli
dahil kapag nagkulang ang aking benta, kaltas sa sahod ko.

Habang napupuno ng pera ang lalagyan ng benta at wala namang bumibili,

inisip ko ang una kong sasahurin. Mamaya, pag-out ko, tiyak na may laman na ang
ATM ko.

“Siguro konti para sa mga delata’t sabong panligo at panlaba, bayad kay Nanay
at ‘yung matitira, baon at pamasahe ko,” pagkukwenta ko.

Pagkatapos ng anim na oras, ini-remit ko ang benta kay Ma’am Sarri. Naglog-
out ako at kumain. Minadali ko ang pagkain. Sabik na ‘kong makuha ang aking sahod.

Pinuntahan ko ang bangkong tumatanggap ng ATM ko. Pumasok ako at

ipinasok sa machine ang kard at agad kong pinindot ang PIN na galing sa pangalan ni
Nanay. Habang hinihintay ko ang lalabas sa screen, may pumasok. Sa tunog ng
kanyang sapatos sa sahig, at sa suot niyang long-sleeve at kurbata, halatang nag-
oopisina siya. May dalawng machine sa loob. ‘Yung isa ang ginamit niya. Tumunog
ang machine na gamit ko.

“Pambihira! Wala pa!” dinig ko sa mamang de-opisina.

Naisip ko, nagiging mabangis pala ang tao kapag nade-delay ang sahod. Siguro,
tulad ko, malaki rin ang pangangailangan niya. May utang din siyang dapat bayaran.

Gusto kong pagsisipain ang machine dahil wala pa rin ang sahod ko. Lumabas
na ako’t sumakay na dyip papuntang Quiapo na dadaan sa eskwelahang pinapasukan
ko.

Pagkatapos ng klase ko, pumunta uli ako sa bangkong pinuntahan ko kanina.

Ipinasok ko ang ATM kard ko at pinindot ang PIN. Parang nag-iisip ang machine. At
ilang sandali pa, namilog ang aking mata sa aking nakita.

“Sa wakas!”

Nanginginig kong kinuha ang dadaaning sahod ko. Kay sarap tanggapin ang
perang pinagpaguran. Di ko na binilang dahil alam kong di ito maaaring magkulang.
Matatalino ang mga machine na ‘to. Maggo-groseri ako. Pero di pa ‘ko nakakalayo sa
bangko, ay may biglang umakbay sa akin.

“Akina! Bilisan mo!” ang mahina ngunit madiin niyang iniutos sa akin.

Mahigpit ang pagkakaakbay niya sa ‘kin. Iginawi niya ako sa madalim na lugar
palihis ng Taft Avenue. At saka niya ako tinutukan ng patalim. Di na ‘ko nakapalag.

436
 ‘Nung ibinibigay ko ang unang sahod ko, parang ibinibigay kong buung-buo
ang sarili ko. Habang papalayo ang holdaper lubusan ko siyang nakilala. Siya ‘yung
pumasok kanina sa loob, ‘yung mukhang de-opisina.

Kasabay kong lumuha ng dilim ang buwan. Nagdidilim ang isip ko. Gusto
kong biglang mawala na lang.

Sa pag-uwi ko, naalala ko si Nanay. Di ko pa siya mababayaran ngayon. At

kailangan ko uling magkaroon ng dagdag na lakas ng loob upang muling mangutang.

- McDonaldisasyon
24. Alin sa sumusunod na pangyayari ang kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa?
a. Nang ibinibigay niya sa holdaper ang kanyang unang sahod.
b. Nang makuha na niya ang pinakaaasam na sahod na ATM.
c. Nang umuwi na siya at maalala ang kanyang Nanay.
d. Nang may umakbay sa kanyang holdaper at igawi siya sa madilim na lugar.
25. Sa pag-uwi ko, naalala ko si Nanay. Di ko pa siya mababayaran ngayon. At kailangan
ko uling magkaroon ng dagdag na lakas ng loob upang muling mangutang. Ano ang
tawag sa bahaging ito ng kuwento kung saan binibigyang solusyon ang suliranin?
a. wakas
b. kasukdulan
c. kakalasan
d. suluranin
26. Ano ang ipinahihiwatig ng wakas ng kuwento?
a. May mga taong maaaring mautangan sa oras ng kagipitan.
b. Patuloy na pagkakaroon ng pag-asa sa buhay
c. Anuman ang suliraning maranasan, tuloy pa rin ang buhay.
d. Walang magulang ang makatitiis sa kanyang anak.
27. Kasabay kong lumuha ng dilim ang buwan. Nagdidilim ang isip ko. Gusto kong biglang
mawala na lang. Anong damdamin ang mababakas sa pangunahing tauhan sa bahaging
ito ng kuwento?
a. matinding kabiguan
b. panghihinayang
c. paghahanap ng katarungan
d. kawalan ng pag-asa
28. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. May mga pagsubok sa buhay na kailangang harapin.
b. Di nakakamit ng mahihirap ang katarungan.
c. May mga taong kumakapit sa patalim kapag nagigipit.
d. Talamak ang karahasan sa isang lipunang dumaranas ng kahirapan.

Nang makitang walang-kibo ang maysakit, nabuhos ang loob ni Padre

Florentino sa isang suliranin at naibulong: “Nasaan ang kabataang dapat mag-alay ng
kaniyang kasariwaan, ng kaniyang mga panaginip at sigasig ukol sa kabutihan ng
kaniyang Inang Bayan? Nasaan siya na dapat kusang-loob na magbuhos ng kaniyang
dugo upang mahugasan ang nakaparaming kahihiyan, ang napakaraming pagkakasala,
ang napakaraming kasuklam-suklam? Dalisay at walang batik dapat ang alay upang
tanggapin ang paghahandog!...Nasaan kayo, mga kabataan, na magsasakatauhan sa

437
 sigla ng buhay na tumakas sa aming mga ugat, sa kadalisayan ng pag-iisip na nabulok
sa aming mga utak, sa apoy ng sigasig na napugto sa aming mga puso? Hinihintay
namin kayo, O mga kabataan! Halikayo, sapagkat hinihintay namin kayo!”

At dahil naramdaman niyang namamasa ang kaniyang mga mata, binitawan

niya ang kamay ng maysakit, tumindig, at lumapit sa bintana upang masdan ang
malawak na karagatan.

- El Filibusterismo
Jose Rizal

Salin ni Virgilio S. Almario

29. Sino ang sinisimbolo ni Padre Florentino sa kasalukuyang panahon?

a. mga gurong nagtuturo ng kasaysayan
b. matandang nawawalan ng pag-asa
c. pangulo ng Pilipinas
d. mga Pilipinong hangad ay pagbabago
30. Ang maysakit sa binasang bahagi ng El Filibusterismo ay sumisimbolo sa
____________________.
a. mga Pilipinong nawalan ng pag-asa.
b. sakit ng lipunang Pilipino.
c. bigong paghihimagsik ng mga bayani
d. mga Pilipinong nagbuwis ng buhay

31. Alin sa sumusunod na teorya ang mababakas sa binasang bahagi ng El Filibusterismo?

a. Humanismo
b. Eksistensyalismo
c. Realismo
d. Romantesismo
Direksyon: Tukuyin ang simbolo ng lupa sa sumusunod na saknong ng tula.

Di na ako yaoang basal na bahagi ng daigdig,

Kundi lupang nalinang na ng kalabaw at ng bisig;

Ang datihang pagka-gubat ay hinawan at nalinis.

- Lope K. Santos, Ako’y si Bukid

32. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________.

a. kabataan
b. kasaganaan
c. kabuhayan
d. bayan
Aling pag-ibig pa ang hihigit kaya

Sa pagkadalisay at pagdakila

Gaya ng pag-ibig sa tinubuang lupa?

438
 Aling pag-ibig pa? Wala na nga, wala.

- Andres Bonifacio, Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa

33. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________.

a. kabataan
b. kasaganaan
c. kabuhayan
d. bayan
Nakayapak, mahilig tayong tumahal sa lupa.

Lupang mahalumigmig, malambot, marangay.

- Lamberto E. Antonio, Lupa

34. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________.

a. kabataan
b. kasaganaan
c. kabuhayan
d. bayan
35. Noong sumiklab ang Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig, sumapi si Ka Amado sa mga
gerilya bilang Intelligence Officer. Pagkatapos ng giyera, nagsimula ang kanyang
pagkilos bilang lider-manggagawa.

Anong uri ng panandang diskurso ang mga nakahilig na salita?

a. komparison at kontras
b. enumerasyon
c. order o pagkakasunud-sunod
d. sanhi at bunga

36. Di na naituturo nang maayos ang mga asignaturang tulad ng Araling Panlipunan ay
babawasan pa ang oras ng pagtuturo nito. Kung kaya di nakapagtataka na ang mga
istudyante ay nagiging pasibo sa mga usapin sa eskwela at sa lipunan.

Anong uri ng panandang diskurso ang mga nakahilig na salita?

a. komparison at kontras
b. enumerasyon
c. order o pagkakasunud-sunod
d. sanhi at bunga

Direksyon: Basahin ang sumusunod na talata. Tukuyin kung anong uri ng teksto ang mga ito.

Nagkaroon ako ng pasyenteng bata na ang amoy ng sipon ang inirereklamo ng ina.
Ayon sa ina, mabaho raw ang sipon ng bata (hindi mabaho ang karaniwang sipon).
Nang sinilip ko ang loob ng butas ng ilong, nakita ko ang waring piraso ng tela na
nakasuksok doon. Malalim na ang pagkakabaon nito sa loob ng ilong. Nang makuha

439
 ko ito, nagulat ako na foam pala ito ng sifa na unti-unting ipinasok ng bata sa loob ng
ilong hanggang sa mapipi ito doon.

- Luis P. Gatmaitan, MD
37. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________.
a. descriptiv
b. informativ
c. narativ
d. informativ
Ang kompyuter ay produkto ng makabagong teknolohiya. Ito ay isang elektronikong
kasangkapan na ginagamitan ng kuryente. Binubuo ito ng tatlong mahahalagang
bahagi: monitor, keyboard, at CPU (central processing unit). Tumutulong ito sa tao
upang mapadali ang pagmamanipula ng mga datos.

- Ligaya Tiamson Rubin

38. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________.
a. descriptiv
b. informativ
c. narativ
d. informativ
Taong 2001, bigla na lamang naglaho si Danny at walang makapagsabi kung saan siya
naroon. Hinanap siya ng mga kamag-anak at kakilala. Buong Mindanao ay hinagilap
siya subalit walang balitang nakalap tungkol sa kanya. Hanggang isang araw, may
isang taong sumulpot at ibinalitang nakakulong si Danny sa Malaysia dahil sa salang
pagpupuslit ng tao patungong Sabah.

39. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ___________.

a. descriptiv
b. informativ
c. narativ
d. informativ

40. Isang tuntunin o kautusang kinikilala at pinagtibay ng karanasan at nauugnay lalung-

lalo na sa mga bagay at kapakanang maaaring mangyari o may kahalagahan sa buhay.
Nagsilbing batas at tuntunin ng kagandahang-asal ng mga tao.
a. salawikain
b. kawikaan
c. kasabihan
d. lahat ito
41. Alin sa sumusunod ang mali?
a. buk-san
b. kop-ya
c. to-kwa
d. kap-re
42. Alin sa sumusunod ang tama?
a. sob-re
b. ek-spe-ri-men-to
c. trans-krips-yon
d. ek-sklu-si-bo

440
43. Ang yosi, boylet, jologs ay mga halimbawa ng anong kategorya ng wika?
a. literari
b. kolokyal
c. lalawiganin
d. balbal
44. Ito ay itinuturing na mahalagang ambag sa palatunugang Filipino. Ang tunog na ito ay
maaaring nasa unahan, gitna at hulihang posisyon.
a. Ñ
b. NG
c. C
d. F
45. Alin sa sumusunod ang mali?
a. Ang alpabetong Filipino ay binubuo ng 28 letra.
b. Sa 28 letra ng alpabeto, 20 letra ang nasa dating ABAKADA.
c. 8 letra ang dagdag sa alpabetong Filipino.
d. Ang lahat ng letra sa alpabetong Filipino ay binibigkas nang pa-Ingles.
46. Ito ay mga salitang may pekulyaridad at sa isang lalawigan lamang naririnig.
a. kolokyal
b. literari
c. balbal
d. lalawiganin
47. Filipino ang ating pambansang lingua franca
a. ginagamit mong wika sa klase
b. ginagamit mong wika sa pakikipag-usap sa mga piling tao
c. wikang komon na ginagamit ng dalawang taong nag-uusap na magkaiba ang
katutubong wika
d. wika sa pang-araw-araw na buhay
48. Kinikilala ng Estado bilang pundasyon ng isang matatag na bansa.
a. Wikang Pambansa
b. Pamilya
c. Edukasyon
d. Mag-asawa
49. Romantikong kuwento ng pag-ibig at digmaan ng mga Ifugao na inaawit ng kababaihan.
a. Aliguyon
b. Hudhud
c. Ulpi
d. Mumbaki

50. Alinsunod sa tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat sa maaaring ipasya ng

Kongreso, dapat magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang ___________ upang ibunsod at
puspusang itaguyod ang paggamit ng Filipino.
a. akademya
b. lipunan
c. pamahalaan
d. mamamayan
51. Ito ay isang uri ng tekstong naglalarawan ng isang biswal na konsepto tungkol sa tao,
bagay, pook, o pangyayari. Maaaring nagbibigay rin ito ng mas malalim na
paglalarawan sa kabuuan ng bagay o ng isang pangyayari.
a. informativ
b. deskriptiv

441
 c. narativ
d. argumentativ
52. Ang isang teksto ay ____________ kung ito ay naglalahad lamang ng isang mahalagang
pagkukuro, paniniwala o pananaw. Di ito humihikayat sa mambabasa upang tanggapin
ang mga patotoo ukol sa isang pananaw.
a. informativ
b. deskriptiv
c. narativ
d. argumentativ
53. _____________ ang teksto kung nagtataglay ito ng mahahalaga at tiyak na
impormasyon tungkol sa mga tao, bagay, lugar at pangyayari.
a. informativ
b. deskriptiv
c. narativ
d. argumentativ
54. Hindi, makakapunta si Lee sa ating pulong mamaya.
a. di makakapunta si Lee sa pulong
b. makakapunta si Lee sa pulong
c. di siguradong darating si Lee
d. nakapunta na si Lee sa pulong
55. Pagsunud-sunurin ang sumusunod ayon sa tuntunin sa paghihiram.
1. Bigkasin sa orihinal na anyo ang hiniram na salita mula sa Kastila, Ingles at iba
pang wikang banyaga, at saka baybayin sa Filipino.
2. Gamitin ang kasalukuyang leksikon ng Filipino bilang panumbas sa mga salitang
banyaga.
3. Kumuha ng mga salita mula sa iba’t ibang katutubong wika sa bansa.

a. 1,2,3
b. 2,3,1
c. 3,1,2
d. 3,2,1

II. Direksyon: Piliin ang titik ng sagot sa bawat bilang.

1. Madali kasi siyang napakagat sa pain.

a. naloko
b. napakain
c. napahanga
d. napaniwala

2. Madali nilang nakamit ang tagumpay, magkataling-puso kasi sila.

a. magkaibigan
b. magkasundo
c. mag-asawa
d. magkakilala
3. Di niya matanggap ang kasawiang-palad na inabot ng kanyang pamilya.
a. aksidente
b. kamalasan

442
 c. naputulan ng kamay
d. nawalan ng suwerte
4. Magkasundung-magkasundo sila sa lahat ng bagay, pano’y kumakain sila sa iisang pinggan.
a. magkaibigan
b. ayaw maghugas ng pinggan
c. magkasundo
d. magkasama sa iisang bahay
5. Umuwi siya isang gabi na parang lantang bulaklak.
a. walang lakas
b. hinang-hina
c. nawalan ng puri
d. nanlalata
6. Di dapat silang magsama dahil sila ay parang langis at tubig.
a. may sama ng loob
b. di magkasundo
c. mainit ang dugo sa isa’t isa
d. magkaaway
7. Ayaw kong maniwala na kaya nakakuha siya ng mataas na marka sa pagsusulit ay dahil
dinuktor ito ng iba.
a. minalian
b. winasto kahit mali
c. inayos sa pamamagitan ng pandaraya
d. ipinawasto sa iba
8. Talagang tabla ang mukha mo. Di mo man lang inisip na ako ang nagpasok sa iyo sa trabaho.
Bakit mo ako siniraan sa ating Boss?
a. walang munti mang kahihiyan
b. mukhang tabla ang mukha
c. mahiyain
d. walang utang na loob
9. Kaya nagmamagandang-loob si Paulo ay dahil naghuhugas siya ng kamay. Huwag mo siyang
paniwalaan.
a. takot magkaroon ng kasalanan sa ibang tao
b. nagbabayad ng kasalanan sa isang tao
c. humihingi ng patawad nang di-tahasan
d. umiiwas magkaroon ng pananagutan sa isang naganap na pangyayari
10. Ngayon lang ako nakakita ng labanang ngipin sa ngipin.
a. walang ayawan
b. ubusan ng lahi
c. gantihan nang ubos-kaya
d. lakas sa lakas
Direksyon: Basahin at unawain ang tula. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

SA TABI NG DAGAT

ni Ildefonso Santos

Marahang-marahang 1

manaog ka, Irog at kita’y lalakad,

443
 maglulunoy kitang

payapang-payapa sa tabi ng dagat;

di na kailangang

sapinan pa ang paang binalat-sibuyas,

ang dating garing

sa sakong na wari’y kinuyom na rosas!

Manunulay kita, 2

habang maaga pa, sa isang pilapil

na nalalatagan

ng damong may luha ng mga bituin…

patiyad na tayo’y

mangaghahabulang simbilis ng hangin,

ngunit walang ingay,

hanggang sumapit sa tiping buhangin…

Pagdating sa tubig, 3

mapapaurong kang parang nangingimi,

gaganyakin kita

sa nangaroong mga lamang-lati;

doon ay may tahong,

talaba’t halaang kabigha-bighani,

hindi kaya natin

mapuno ang buslo bago tumanghali?

Pagdarapit-hapon 4

444
kita’y magbabalik sa pinanggalingan,

sugatan ang paa

at sunog ang balat sa sikat ng araw!

Talagang ganoon…

Sa dagat man, Irog, ng kaligayahan,

lahat, pati puso,

ay naaagnas ding marahang-marahan…

1932

11. Anong larawang-diwa ang ipinakita ng tula?

a. pangingisda
b. pagsusuyuan
c. pag-iibigan
d. paghihirap
12. Di na kailangang sapinan pa ang paang binalat-sibuyas. Ano ang kahulugan ng paang
binalat-sibuyas?
a. maselan
b. may-kaya
c. babae
d. delikado
13. Anong saknong ng tula ang nagbibigay ng positibong pananaw sa nagbabasa?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
14. Alin sa sumusunod na taludtod ng tula ang nagpapakita ng kagandahan?
a. sakong na wari’y kinuyom na rosas
b. sa isang pilapil na nalalatagan ng damong may luha ng mga bituin
c. sugatan ang paa at sunog ang balat sa sikat ng araw
d. sa dagat man, Irog, ng kaligayahan, lahat, pati puso, ay naaagnas ding marahang-
marahan

Direksyon: Basahin ang sanaysay. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

Ikalat natin ang aral at kaisipan ni Balagtas. Itanghal natin siya sa kanyang dapat
kalagyan. Siya ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini, Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani, ang
naging bukal ng kanyang panulat at pakikibaka. Kaya dapat din siyang kilalanin at
itanghal, bungkalin at basahin ang iba pa niyang mga akda. Ipabasa natin sa ating mga
kaibigan ng magagandang saknong sa Florante at Laura. Sumulat tayo ng mga artikulo
tungkol kay Balagtas at ipalathala ito sa mga magasin. Magkaroon ng pagkakataon ang
mga hindi Tagalog o ang ibang lahi na makilala siya, tulad ng mga dakilang makata sa
daigdig. Kailangan nating maipakilala si Balagtas sa buong bansa at sa buong daigdig.
Gumawa ng mga sticker, tarpaulin, at iba pa, ng magagandang linya buhat sa kanyang

445
 awit upang ipaskil o idikit sa mga paaralan, pampasaherong dyip, bus, FX, pedicab, sa
mga waiting shed, mall, tambayan, tindahan, palengke, at iba pa o maging palamuti ng
mga mug, t-shirt, sombrero, at iba pang ating malimit na isinusuot. Ipabasa sa mga
programa sa telebisyon at radyo ang ilan sa mga linya o bahagi ng kanyang mga akda.
At kung maaari ay maging isang teleserye o fantaserye ang Florante at Laura, tiyak na
hahakot ito ng rating. Pero higit pa sa mga ito, kailangan nating isabuhay ang mga sinabi
ni Balagtas. Ang mga pag-alaala sa kanya tuwing Abril 2 at ang pagsasagawa ng
Balagtasan tuwing Buwan ng Wika ay hindi dapat maging pabalat bunga lamang.
Kailangan nating siyang basahin. Kailangang maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita
sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya.

- Ang Awit na Florante at Laura sa Aking Ipod

at Si Francisco Balagtas sa Aking Desktop

15. Ano ang paksa ng binasang sanaysay?

a. Pagkakalat ng mga gintong kaisipan ni Balagtas
b. Pagkilala kay Francisco Balagtas Baltazar
c. Pagkalimot sa mga aral ni Balagtas
d. Pagpapakilala sa masang Pilipino si Balagtas
16. Alin sa sumusunod na kaisipan sa sanaysay ang maiuugnay sa lipunan?
a. Isapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita kay Balagtas lalo na ngayong panahon ng
makabagong teknolohiya.
b. Isabuhay ang mga sinabi ni Balagtas para sa mga kabataan.
c. Ang mga pag-alaala kay Balagtas tuwing Abril 2 ay hindi dapat maging pabalat bunga
lamang.
d. Si Balagtas ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini, Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani.
17. Alin sa sumusunod na pahayag ang nagpapaliwanag kung bakit dapat pahalagahan si
Balagtas?
a. Ikalat natin ang aral at kaisipan ni Balagtas dahil siya ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini,
Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani, ang naging bukal ng kanilang panulat at
pakikibaka.
b. Ang pag-alaala sa kanya tuwing Abril 2 at ang pagsasagawa ng Balagtasan tuwing
Buwan ng Wika ay hindi dapat maging pabalat bunga lamang.
c. Kailangan nating siyang basahin.
d. Kailangang maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong
panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya.
18. Alin sa sumusunod na pahayag ang nagtuturo?
a. Kailangang maipakilala si Balagtas sa buong bansa at sa buong daigdig.
b. Ipabasa sa mga programa sa telebisyon at radyo ang ilan sa mga linya o bahagi
ng kanyang mga akda.
c. Maging isang teleserye o fantaserye ang Florante at Laura.
d. Kailangang maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong
panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya.

Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

‘Nung gabi, sa gilid ng isang tindahang sarado kami nahiga ni Tatay. Di ako
makatulog. Kahit anong gawin ko, di pa rin ako makatulog. Iniisip ko ang aming bahay,

446
 ang aming mga gamit. Ang dalawa naging pinggan at baso, ang aming kutsara’t platito,
ang aming kaldero’t takure, ang kahon ng aming damit, ang boteng makulay at pati ang
mga piktyur.

Paggising namin, walang mainit na kape, walang mainit na pandesal.

Sa buong maghapon, nagkargador si Tatay. Pagkatapos na maibaba ang lahat ng

gulay, mga karne naman, mga damit, mga tela, mga bihon at harina, mga mantel, batya
at palanggana. Kaya paghapon na, hapung-hapo si Tatay. Ako, naiiwan muna sa harap
ng simbahan. Tapos ganon uli kinabukasan. Magkakargador uli si Tatay at maiiwan
uli ako sa harap ng simbahan.

“’Wag kang lalayo, pag-uwi ko, masarap na tukneneng ang pasalubong ko sa ‘yo,”
ang bilin lagi sa akin ni Tatay.

Pero iniisip ko pa rin ang aming may gulong na bahay. Mabawi pa kaya namin ni
Tatay ang aming may gulong na bahay?

At isang hapon, laging gulat ko nang iparada ni Tatay sa aking harapan ang aming
may gulong na bahay. Isang drayber na uli ang aking Tatay. Nabawi na rin namin ang
aming bahay. Isa-isa kong tinignan ang aming mga gamit.

“Sa wakas!” ang nasigaw ko.

Pinasakay ako ni Tatay sa aming bahay at saka niya ito minaneho patungo sa aming
pinagliliguan. Inalis namin ang aming mga gamit at saka inisis ni Tatay ang loob at
labas, ako naman sa manibela. Sinabon at saka binihusan ng tubig. Tapos naging
matingkad na asul ang aming bahay.

“Ang bangong higaan!” ang nasabi ko.

Mula noon, lagi kong binabantayan ang aming bahay. Ako na rin ang nagpapaalala
kay Tatay kung bawal itong iparada sa gilid ng kalsada.

Tuwing gabi, di pa rin nauubos ang mga kwento ni Tatay tungkol sa mga may
gulong na bahay.

At habang nakahiga kami sa mabangong higaan at natatanaw ang malawak na

langit, ay sinabi ni Tatay, “Ngayon, aking Bunso, hinding-hindi na mahihiwalay sa atin
ang ating munting bahay, ang ating mabango at may gulong na bahay.”

Habang bumababa ang mga asul na asul na ulap.

- May Gulong na Bahay

19. Batay sa iyong binasa, ano sa palagay mo ang kasukdulan ng kuwento?

a. Nang matulog ang mag-ama sa gilid ng isang tindahang sarado
b. Nang magkargador ang ama upang makaipon ng pambawi ng kanilang bahay
c. Nang mawala ang bahay na kariton ng mag-ama

447
 d. Nang iparada ng ama ang kanilang may gulong na bahay sa karapan ng bata
20. Paano binigyang solusyon ang suliranin ng kuwento?
a. Paghihintay ng anak sa kanyang ama
b. Pagkakargador ng ama upang kumita
c. Pagpupunyagi ng ama na mabawi ang kanilang bahay
d. Pangangako ng ama sa kanyang anak na mababawi nila ang kanilang bahay
21. Ano ang ibig ipakahulugan ng: Habang bumababa ang mga asul na asul na ulap bilang
wakas ng kuwento?
a. Lahat ng problema ay nabibigyang-solusyon.
b. Hindi dapat mawalan ng pag-asa.
c. Maging kuntento sa kung ano ang mayroon.
d. Ang kaligayahan ay hindi matatamo sa mga materyal na bagay.

22. Di ako makatulog. Kahit anong gawin ko, di pa rin ako makatulog. Iniisip ko ang
aming bahay, ang aming mga gamit. Ang dalawa naging pinggan at baso, ang aming
kutsara’t platito, ang aming kaldero’t takure, ang kahon ng aming damit, ang boteng
makulay at pati ang mga piktyur. Anong damdamin ang mababakas sa batang
nagkukuwento sa mga pahayag niyang ito?
a. panlulumo
b. pagkabalisa
c. panghihinayang
d. pagkalungko
23. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. Mahalaga ang bahay sa bawat bata.
b. Tungkulin ng magulang na ipagkaloob sa mga anak ang maayos na buhay.
c. May mga taong kuntento sa kung anong mayroon sila.
d. Di dapat husgahan ang mahihirap.
Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong.

“Okey lang,” sabi niya sa sarili. “Sino ba si Eric? Nobyo lang na hanggang
ngayo’y nagdedepende pa rin sa magulang. Okey lang.”

Naghihimagsik ang kanyang damdamin. Parang sasabog ang kanyang dibdib.

A, kung mapaghihingahan lamang niya ng sama ng loob ang mga libro. Kung malulutas
lamang ng psychology books ang kanyang suliranin. Mangyari, kahit anong pag-iwas
ang kanyang gawin, si Eric pa rin ang laman ng kanyang isipan. Kahit ngayong nasa
library siya. Wala sa sariling tinitigan ang hilera ng mga libro sa kabinet. Kanina’y
memoryado niya ang call number ng librong hinahanap. Mangyari’y makalawang ulit
na siyang nagpabalik-balik sa card catalogue. Isinulat sa kapirasong papel ang call
number, ang pamagat ng libro at ang may-akda. Minemorya. Pero nang malingunan
kanina si Eric, kinabahan. Namutla. Di makatinag. Matigas ang leeg na itinuon ang
paningin sa hilera ng mga libro. Nasa likuran niya si Eric, at sa minsang paggalaw niya,
presto! A, bakit ba ganoon? Kung sino ang iniiwasan mo ay siya mong nakikita?

Brag! Nahulog ang hawak niyang libro. Di naman niya makuhang pulutin.
Baka lumingon si Eric.

“Gie!” tawag mula sa kanyang likuran.

448
 Kilala niya ang tinig. Bumilis ang tibok ng kanyang puso. Bago nakaiwas,
nasa harapan na niya si Eric. Iniabot ang nahulog na aklat.

“Namatanda ka ba? Naengkanto? Why don’t you speak up?” Hinahabol ni

Eric ang paghinga. “Ang labo mo naman, Gie. Library ‘to. Puwede mo naman akong
kausapin, di ba?” Napalakas ang tinig ni Eric.

K-R-I-N-G! Bell iyon ng librarian. Napalingon sila sa mesa ng istriktong puno

ng library. Itinuro ng librarian ang malaking sign board: SILENCE.

Napahiya wari, nagkatinginan sila. Si Gie ang unang umiwas. Pilit iniiwas ang
mukha sa binata.

Dati-rati, sa ganoong pagkakataon, lalo nilang iniinis ang masungit na

librarian. Naroong magsenyasan sila na animo mga piping nag-uusap. O di naman
kaya’y tutop ng kaliwang palad ang kanilang bibig hanggang sa sila’y umalis. At sa
labas, sabay silang magtatawanan. Pero ngayon, parang pinitpit na luya si Gie. Walang
kibo, isang bakol pa ang mukha. A, kabisado na niya ng dalaga. Ang pagmamaktol
nito’y nangangahulugan galit sa kanya si Gie.

- OKEY SA ‘YO SI ERIC, ‘TAY?

ni Pat V. Villafuerte

24. Alin sa sumusunod na pangyayari ang kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa?

a. Paghihimagsik ng damdamin ni Gie.
b. Nang sitahin sila ng istriktong librarian.
c. Nang mahulog ang hawak na libro ni Gie.
d. Nang marinig niya ang isang pamilyar na tinig.
25. Bakit sinita ng librarian sina Gie at Eric?
a. Bawal ang mag-usap sa loob ng library.
b. Nakakaistorbo sila sa ibang estudyante.
c. Bawal ang maingay sa loob ng library.
d. Di nila sinusunod ang nakapaskil na sign board.
26. Ano ang ipinahihiwatig ng huling bahagi ng kuwento?
a. Galit si Gie sa mahigpit na librarian.
b. May tampo si Gie kay Eric.
c. Napahiya nang labis si Gie.
d. Naguguluhan si Gie.
27. Naghihimagsik ang kanyang damdamin. Parang sasabog ang kanyang dibdib. Anong
damdamin ang mababakas kay Gie sa bahaging ito ng kuwento?
a. paghihimagsik
b. panghihinayang
c. matinding pag-ibig
d. sama ng loob
28. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento?
a. Di dapat seryosohin ang unang pag-ibig.
b. Piliin ang wastong lugar sa pag-uusap.
c. Walang pinipili ang pag-ibig.
d. Di maitatago ang tunay at wagas na damdamin.

449
 At si Donya Victorina, ang tanging babaeng nakaupo sa piling ng mga Europeo, ang
makapagsasabi kung tamad ang Tabo, matigas ang ulo, at sumpungin. Nerbiyosang
tulad ng dati, nilalait ni Donya Victorina ang mga kasko, bangka, balsang niyog, ang
mga namamangkang Indio, at pati ang mga naglalaba at mga naliligo na ikinayayamot
niya ang katuwaan at tawanan. Oo nga, maaaring bumuti ang takbo ng Tabo kung
walang mga Indio sa ilog, walang mga Indio sa bayang ito! Oo nga, kung wala na kahit
isang Indio sa mundong ito. Nawala sa isip niya na pawang mga Indio ang nagtitimon,
Indio ang mga marino, Indio ang mga makinista, Indio ang siyamnapu’t siyam na bahagi
ng mga pasahero, at isa rin siyang Indio kung kakayurin ang kulapol niya sa mukha at
huhubarin ang mayabang niyang damit.

- El Filibusterismo
Jose Rizal

Salin ni Virgilio S. Almario

29. Sino ang sinisimbolo ni Donya Victorina sa kasalukuyang panahon?

a. Pilipinong nagsisilbi sa ibang bansa
b. Pilipinong banyaga sa sariling bayan
c. Pilipinong walang pagmamahal sa sariling bayan
d. Pilipinong may colonial mentality
30. Oo nga, maaaring bumuti ang takbo ng Tabo kung walang mga Indio sa ilog, walang mga
Indio sa bayang ito! Ang Tabo ay maaaring sumimbolo sa __________________.
a. mga Pilipino
b. bansang Pilipinas
c. mahabang kasaysayan ng pananakop
d. ekonomiya
31. Alin sa sumusunod na teorya ang mababakas sa binasang bahagi ng El Filibusterismo?
a. Humanismo
b. Eksistensyalismo
c. Realismo
d. Romantesismo

Direksyon: Tukuyin ang simbolo ng lupa sa sumusunod na saknong ng tula.

Hindi ko na ibig na maging halaman

na namumulaklak ng may bango’t kulay.

At sa halip nito’y ibig ko na lamang

Maging lupa ako’t magsilbing taniman.

- David T. Mamaril, Lupa at Halaman

32. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________.

a. kamatayan

450
 b. buhay
c. pagsamba sa Diyos
d. kabataan
Nakalaan akong

malamay:

lupa ang simula ng lahat ng bagay,

diyan din sisibol

ang binhi ng baging pag-asa at buhay.

- Amado V. Hernandez, Lupa

33. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________.

a. kamatayan
b. buhay
c. pagsamba sa Diyos
d. kabataan

Sa maghapon, tatlong ulit yumukod

Ang kaniyang palaspas pahalik sa lupa

- Rio Alma, Sa Panahon ng Babaylan

34. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________.

a. kamatayan
b. buhay
c. pagsamba sa Diyos
d. kabataan

Direksyon: Punan ng panandang diskurso ang mga patlang sa talata.

Isang kasunduan ang nilagdaan namagbibibgay ng dagdag ng karapatan at benepisyo sa

mga Overseas Filipino Worker (OFW) sa Timog Korea. Ang kasunduan ay nilagdaan
ng mga kinatawan ng Pilipinas at Timog Korea. Sa ilalim ng kasunduan, ang mga OFW
sa Timog Korea ay magkakaroon ng karagdagang benepisyo _____________ ang
industrial accidents insurance, medical insurance, at employment insurance.

35. Anong panandang diskurso ang dapat ilagay sa patlang?

a. ang mga halimbawa
b. kabilang dito
c. ang apekto
d. tulad ng
Magkakaroon ang Kalakhang Maynila ng krisis sa basura sa susunod na dalawang taon.
Ito ang naging babala ng Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA). At upang
maiwasan ito, ______________ nang maghanap ang MMDA ng iba pang tapunan ng

451
 basura sakaling mapuno na ang mga kasalukuyang tapunan ng basura.
______________ ay ang paghihikayat sa mga mamamayan na iwasan ang pagtatapos
ng basura sa mga ilog at pampublikong lugar.

36. Anong mga panandang diskurso ang dapat ilagay sa mga patlang?
a. una, Ikalawa
b. noon, Ang sumunod
c. sinimulan, Pagkatapos
d. bago, Nang lumaon
Direksyon: Basahin ang sumusunod na talata. Tukuyin kung anong uri ng teksto ang mga ito.

Nagbago ang mukha ng Tondo. Tapos na raw ang masasayang araw ng mga “halang
ang kaluluwa” dahil ang mga dating siga, ngayon ay nagtataguyod na ng mga proyekto
para sa mga kabataan. Ito raw ay para makaiwas sa mga rambol at droga. Pero sa
paglilinis ng Tondo sa kanyang imahe, may ilang lugar naman sa Metro Manila ang tila
nanganganak ng bagong pugad ng mga siga.

37. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________.

a. informativ
b. descriptiv
c. narativ
d. ekspositori

Layunin ng 13 bansa sa Asta sa inilunsad na Asian Environmental Compliance Network

(AECEN), kasama ang Pilipinas na isulong at pagtibayin ang pagpapatupad at
pagpapasunod sa mga batas pangkalikasan. Isa itong napakagandang simulain ng isang
ugnayang makapagsasaayos ng mga problemang dulot ng pagkasira ng ating mga likas-
yaman.

38. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________.

a. informativ
b. descriptiv
c. narativ
d. ekspositori
Sa isang Parliamentary System, ang namumuno sa gobyerno (ang tawag sa kanya ay
Prime Minister o Premier) ay di direktang hinahalal ng mamamayan. Sa sistemang ito,
ang mga mamamayan ay naghahalal muna ng mga kasapi ng Parliament. Ang mga
kasapi naman ng Parliament ang maghahalal ng Prime Minister. Ang Prime Minister,
kasama ang kanyang gabinete na pipiliin din niya mula sa mga kasapi ng Parliament,
ang siyang magpapatakbo ng gobyerno. Kadalasan, ang pinuno ng partidong may
pinakamaraming nanalo sa Parliament ang siyang pinipiling Prime Minister.

39. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ___________.

a. informativ
b. descriptiv
c. narativ
d. ekspositori

452
40. Ito ay pagsasagawa ng plano, pamamaraan, patakaran o batas upang magkaroon ng isang
pamantayan sa paggamit ng alpabetong Filipino.
a. intelektwalisasyon
b. pagsasalin
c. instandardisasyon
d. ispeling
41. Kailangang itaas ang antas ng wikang Filipino upang magamit ito sa mga larangang
pangkaisipan tulad agham, medisina, teknolohiya, at iba pa.
a. intelektwalisasyon
b. pagsasalin
c. instandardisasyon
d. ispeling
42. Ang lahat ng wika ay arbitraryo dahil
a. nagkakaiba-iba ang sistema ng paggamit nito
b. may napagkasunduang sistema ng paggamit nito
c. may mga di sumusunod sa itinakdang sistema ng paggamit nito
d. ginagamit ito sa pakikipag-usap sa ibang tao
43. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang di totoo?
a. Ang wika ay may istruktura.
b. Ang wika ay binubuo ng mga tunog.
c. Ang wika ay di nanghihiram.
d. Ang wika ay may katumbas na simbolo o sagisag.
44. Tawag sa isang taong maraming alam na wika
a. dalubwika
b. polyglot
c. linguist
d. translator

45. Paraan ng pagsasalita na naririnig sa isang partikular na lalawigan o bayan.

a. sociolect
b. idiolect
c. dialect
d. punto
46. May sariling register ang ekonomiks. Ang register ay ______________.
a. mga salitang hinihiram mula sa ibang wikang banyaga
b. mga salitang di mahahanapan ng katumbas sa wikang Filipino
c. salitang kalimitang ginagamit sa isang larangan tulad ng ekonomiks
d. salitang pinanatili na lamang ang orihinal na ispeling
47. Alin sa sumusunod ang daglat?
a. KWF /key-dobolyu-ef/
b. Fe /ef-i/
c. Kgg. /kapital key-ji-ji/
d. MLQ /em-el-kyu/
48. Alin sa sumusunod ang di papantig?
a. pa-pan-tig
b. p-a-p-a-n-t-i-g
c. pa-ti-tik
d. bay-ba-yi
49. NAGPAGANDAHAN – Ilang pantig mayroon ang salitang ito?
a. 4

453
 b. 5
c. 6
d. 7
50. Ito ay siyentipikong pag-aaral ng wika.
a. translation
b. sociolingguistics
c. lingguistics
d. code switching
51. Alin sa sumusunod na pahayag ang di totoo?
a. Ang wikang Filipino ay naging instrumentong politikal nang sakupin tayo ng dayuhan
noong siglo 16.
b. Ang Doctrina Christiana ay inilimbag para sa mga katutubo.
c. Ang pagsasalin ng mga tekstong Espanyol ang panimulang hakbang sa pag-angkin ng
mga misyonero sa Tagalog.
d. Wikang katutubo ang ginamit ng mga Kastila sa pagpapalaganap ng Kristiyanismo.
52. Ang Florante at Laura ni Francisco Balagtas Baltazae ay isang ___________.
a. diona
b. awit
c. korido
d. romance
53. Sino ang sumulat ng tulang “Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Filipinas”?
a. Jose Rizal
b. Andres Bonifacio
c. Marcelo H. del Pilar
d. Graciano Lopez-Jaena
54. Kinikilalang “Ama ng Maikling Kuwento ng Tagalog”
a. Edgardo M. Reyes
b. Rogelio Sicat
c. Deogracias A. Rosario
d. Genoveva Edroza Matute
55. Alin sa sumusunod ang pangungusap na walang paksa?
a. Maraming salamat!
b. Sasama ka ba?
c. Namili kami sa Divisoria.
d. Alin ang bibilin mo?

a. mabagal lumakad b. madaldal

III. Tukuyin ang kahulugan ng sumusunod na pahayag idyomatiko sa kahon sa ibaba. Isulat
ang titik ng sagot sa patlang.
c. may asawa na d. iniligtas sa kamatayan

e. matinding kagutuman f. masama ang rekord

g. malaki ang agwat h. matinding pagsubok

i. nagpigil ng sarili j. malaking kamalasan

454
_____1. Naghunusdili ang babae kaya naayos agad ang problema.
_____2. Parang gutom na aso ang batang aking pinakain.
_____3. Hindi matanggap ni Mang Nestor ang dagok ng kapalaran sa kanilang pamilya.
_____4. May pananagutan na sa buhay ang kanyang napangasawa.
_____5. Parang palakang kokak kung magsalita ang babaeng iyon.
_____6. Inagaw sa kamatayan ni Aling Lilia ang anak sa nasusunog nilang bahay.
_____7. Parang nakikipagprusisyon ang batang iyong kung maglakad.
_____8. Langit at lupa ang kanilang kalagayan kaya di nagtagal ang kanilang pagsasama.
_____9. Nagdaan ako sa butas ng karayom bago ko natamo ang aking mga pangarap.
_____10. Hindi siya nanalo sa eleksyon dahil basa ang kanyang papel.

Pagsasalin. Tukuyin ang katumbas sa salitang ingles ng sumusunod na matalinghagang mga

pananalita. Isulat ang titik ng sagot sa patlang.
a. one who speaks convincingly
b. one who immediately strikes another with his hand or fist when irritated
c. to live in solitude
d. cruel; merciless; ruthless
e. great liking; passionately fond of
f. sterile; unproductive
g. one who has no perseverance; one who just relies on whatever fortunes comes his way
h. very much alike; very similar
i. hard-headed
j. prostitute; whore
____11. Hindi na magkakaanak si Sonia dahil sira ang aparato niya.
____12. Matigas ang ulo ng kanyang anak.
____13. Ang napangasawa niya ay kalapating mababa ang lipad.
____14. Marami siyang naloko dahil matamis ang dila niya.
____15. Walang puso ang pumatay ng aso.
____16. Patay na patay ang binata sa anak na babae ni Mang Gustin.
____17. Nag-ermitanyo si Ruben nang mamatay ang maybahay.
____18. Parang biniyak na bunga ang magkapatid.
____19. Magaan ang kamay ni Sally sa mga anak.
____20. Ang taong parang hipong tulog ay hindi uunlad sa buhay.

Na o Pa (time markers)

21. Dagdagan ang pagkain

Kumain ka _____.

22. Simulan ang pagkain

Kumain ka _____.

23. Kadarating pa lang

Dumating _____ siya.

24. Simulan ang pagtulog

Matulog ka _____.

25. Dagdagan ang oras ng paghihintay.

Hintayin _____ natin siya.

455
 26. Huwag ng hintayin.
Iwan _____ natin siya.

27. Simulan ang pag-aaral.

Mag-aral ka _____.

28. Pagtataka sa pagdating

Aba nandito ka _____ pala!

29. Hindi matanda

Bata _____ si Tolits.

30. Humihingi ng dagdag.

Bigyan mo ako ng isa _____.

IV. Tukuyin ang kahulugan ng sumusunod na pahayag idyomatiko sa kahon sa ibaba. Isulat
ang titik ng sagot sa patlang.

a. payat na mataas g. hindi magkasundo

b. kinukuwartahan h. lumalaban sa makapangyarihan

c. mapagpatawad i. buhay na maraming pagsubok

d. matalik at matapat na kaibigan j. naubos ang pera sa sugal

e. anak na maliliit k. ngiting pakunwari

f. walang galang l. mga abubot

_____1. Ngiting aso ang ipinakita niya sa kanyang kaibigan.

_____2. Parang aso’t pusa ang magkapatid.
_____3. Kahit saan siya magtungo ay dala niya ang kanyang mga retaso.
_____4. Parang tutubing karayom ang banyagang kanyang napangasawa.
_____5. Kahiramang suklay niya ang aking kapatid na babae.
_____6. Nanalo siya sa eleksyon dahil may krus sa dibdib ang taong iyon.
_____7. Baligtad ang bulsa ni Mang Nestor kahapon sa perya.
_____8. Naging palabigasan ni Lilia ang kanyang anak na panganay dahil may trabaho
na ito.
_____9. Pilit tinahak ni Sally ang landas na matinik kung kaya siya nagtagumpay.
_____10. Huwag mo nang ituloy ang demanda, para ka lang bumangga sa pader.

Pagsasalin. Tukuyin ang katumbas sa Ingles ng sumusunod na matalinghagang mga pananalita. Isulat
ang titik ng sagot sa patlang.

456
_____11. Hilamos-pusa ang kanyang ginawa sapagkat maginaw ang panahon.
_____12. Hubarin mo na ang damit mo sapagkat hinahabol na ng sabon.
_____13. Huwag ka nang magpilit sumama sa piknik nila baka masabon ako ng Nanay
kapag nalamang umalis ka.
_____14. Kumukulo ang dugo ko tuwing nakababasa ako tungkol sa mga lalaking nang-
aabuso ng mga babae.
_____15. Maraming hirap na ang tiniis mo sa iyong asawa kaya kailangan mo nang
magdilat ng mata.
_____16. Nagdamdam si Angela nang malaman niyang siya’y pamasak-butas lamang sa
kasintahan ni Ruben.
_____17. Hindi magustuhan ni Rosa si Roy dahil sa ginawa niyang ligaw-Intsik.
_____18. Ang taong mahaba ang dila ay malimit maging dahilan ng away.
_____19. Makatulo-laway ang katawan ng babaing nakilala nila kanina sa parke.
_____20. Makalaglag-matsing ang tinging iniukol ni Tomas sa nililigawang si Nena.

a. to be scolded; to be reprimanded
b. to open the eyes
c. conveyor of what is heard or seen; talkative; tale bearing
d. substitute
e. an alluring look or a fascinating stare
f. wooing by means of giving gifts and visiting the ladylove at noontime
g. mouth-watering
h. very angry; very much annoyed
i. very dirty ; needs bathing or washing
j. quick and superficial washing of the face

Direksyon: Piliin ang titik ng sagot sa bawat bilang.

21. Ipinagdiriwang ang Buwan ng Wika tuwing buwan ng ____________.

a. Marso
b. Abril
c. Hunyo
d. Agosto

22. Ang Araw ni Balagtas ay tuwing ____________.

a. Marso 2
b. Abril 2
c. Hunyo 2
d. Agosto 2

23. Manunulat-Propagandista na gumamit ng sagisag-panulat na “Laong-Laan”.

a. Jose P. Rizal
b. Marcelo H. Del Pilar
c. Graciano Lopez-Jaena
d. Mariano Ponce

24. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang hindi akda ni Emilio Jacinto?

a. La Patria
b. A Mi Madre
c. Liwanag at Dilim
d. Dasalan at Tocsohan

457
25. Alin sa sumusunod na salita ang dapat na walang gitling (-)?
a. kahoy-gubat
b. ala-ala
c. kabi-kabila
d. maka-Johnson

26. Tinutukoy si Maria Josefa Cruz at sinasabi ang kanyang buong pangalan. Maaaring
itinuturo lamang si Maria, o maaari rin namang kaharap siya ng mga nag-uusap.
a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.//

27. Kinakausap si Maria, at ipinakikilala sa kanya si Josefa Cruz.

a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.//

28. Kausap ang isang babae na Maria Josefa ang pangalan. Ipinakikilala sa kanya si
Cruz, o kaya’y itinuturo si Cruz.
a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.//
d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.//

29. Namili ng mga tela ang nanay sa Baclaran para kay Mely.
a. pokus sa layon
b. pokus sa ganapan
c. pokus sa tagaganap
d. pokus sa tagatanggap

30. Binili ng nanay ang mga tela sa Baclaran para kay Mely
a. pokus sa layon
b. pokus sa ganapan
c. pokus sa instrumento
d. pokus sa tagatanggap

Piliin ang wastong sagot sa loob ng panaklong.

31. Nawawala ng takip (nang, ng) kaldero.

32. Tawag (nang, ng) tawag ang kanyang amang nasa sa Singapore.
33. Ipinamana na (nang, ng) matanda ang kanyang mga lupa sa anak.
34. Paano (daw, raw) natin ipagdiriwang ang Buwan ng Wika?
35. Bakit di pa (doon, roon) sila matulog bukas?
36. Tinutulungan (raw, daw) nila ang mga batang-lansangan.
37. Dumating (rin, din) ang mga hinihintay naming lumang damit.
38. Nagsalita (din, rin) ang mga manggagawang nawalan ng trabaho.
39. (May, Mayroong) batang naiwan sa loob ng simbahan.
40. (May, Mayroon) siyang aasikasuhin sa Maynila.

458
 41. (May, Mayroon) mga dadalhin akong aklat bukas.
42. (May, Mayroon) pa kaya akong masasakyan pauwi?
43. (MakaNora, Maka-Nora) pala ang nanay mo.
44. (Maka-bansa, Makabansa) ang aking mga mag-aaral.
45. Sa (ika-17, ika 17) ng Abril ang kanyang alis papuntang Canada.
46. (Ikalawa, Ika-lawa) ko ng pagpunta rito.
47. (Dalhin, Dalhan) mo ng pagkain ang iyong tatay sa bukid.
48. (Dalhin, Dalhan) mo na itong bigas sa tindahan.
49. (Walisan, Walisin) mo na ang iyong silid.
50. (Walisan, Walisin) natin ang mga tuyong dahon sa bakuran.

LET Reviewer- Mathematics

Lecture Notes
ARITHMETIC

Real numbers – all numbers having decimal representations.

Rational numbers – all numbers that is a quotient of two integers whose divisor is not equal to zero.
Irrational numbers – any that is not rational and represented by a non repeating decimal.

A. Integers – the set of positive numbers, zero, and negative numbers.

I = {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3…}

Operation on Integers

 Addition
In adding integers with the same sign, add the numbers and copy the sign of the given numbers.

Example:

a) (-3) + (-6) = -9 b) 2 + 5 = 7

In adding integers with opposite signs, subtract the numbers and copy the sign of the larger number.

Example:

a) (-12) + 8 = -4 b) 18 + (-15) = 3

 Subtraction
In subtracting integers, change the sign of the subtrahend. Then, proceed to the steps in adding integers.

Example:

a) 14 – (-5) = 14 + 5 b) -8 – (-10) = -8 + (-10)

= 19 = -18

459
  Multiplication/Division
The sign of the product/quotient of two integers with the same sign is positive (+).

Examples:

a) (-3) (-3) = 9 b) 4 / 2 = 2

The sign of the product/quotient of two integers with opposite signs is negative (-).

Examples:

a) 14 x (-3) = -42 b) (-51) / 3 = -17

B. Law of Addition and Multiplication

Commutative Law of Addition

A+B=B+A

Associative Law of Addition

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

Commutative Law of Multiplication

AB = BA

Associative Law of Multiplication

A (BC) = (AB) C

Distributive Law
(A + B) C = AC + BC

C. Least Common Multiple (LCM)

The LCM of two or more numbers is the smallest number which is the common multiple among the numbers.

Example: Find the LCM of 18 and 24.

i) 18 = 3 x 3x 2 24 = 3 x 2 x 2 x 2
ii) The common factor is 3 and 2, so delete these in one of the factors
iii) LCM is equal to 3 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 or 72

D. Divisibility
A number is divisible by a certain number if the remainder of their quotient is equal to zero.

Divisibility by 2 – even number

Example: 22 is an even number, therefore it is divisible by 2

Divisibility by 3 – sum of digits is divisible by 3

Example: The sum of the number 111 is equal to three (1+1+1 = 3) which is
divisible by 3, therefore 111 is divisible by 3.
Divisibility by 4 – Last two digits is divisible by 4

Example: The last two digits of the number 528 is 28 which is divisible by 4, therefore 528 is
divisible by 4.

Divisibility by 5 – Last digit ends by 5 or 10

460
 Example: The last digit of 635 is 5 therefore it is divisible by 5.

Divisibility by 6 – divisible by 2 and 3

Example: 222 is an even number which makes it divisible by 2. The sum of its digits is equal to
6 which is divisible by 3. Since it is both divisible by 2 and 3, 222 is divisible by 6.

Divisibility by 8 – The last three digits is divisible by 8

Example: The last three digits of 6328 is 328 which is divisible by 8, therefore 6328 is
divisible by 8.

Divisibility by 9 – sum of digits is divisible by 9

Example: The sum of 2736 is 18 which is divisible by 9, therefore 2736 is divisible by 9.

Divisibility by 10 – ends with zero

Example: The last digit of 820 is zero therefore it is divisible by 10.

E. Fraction – a number written as a ratio of two whole numbers.

 Expressing Mixed Numbers as Fractions

A mixed number consists of a whole number and a fraction. Any mixed number can be
changed into fraction. One way of changing a mixed number to fraction is by multiplying the whole
number to the denominator of the fraction and then the product will be added to the numerator. The
result will then be written over the denominator.

Example: Change 2 3/5 into a fraction

((2 x 5) + 3) / 5 = 13/5

 Multiplication of fractions
In multiplying fractions, multiply the numerators together for the numerator of the product and
the denominators together for the denominator of he product.

Example:
5/8 x 3/7 = 15/56

 Division of fractions
The division of fraction is changed to multiplication of fraction by changing the divisor into its
reciprocal and proceeding as in multiplication.

Example:
¾ / 4/5 = ¾ x 5/4 = 15/16

 Addition/Subtraction of fractions
When the fractions have the same denominator, add or subtract the numerators and write the
result over the common denominator.

Example:
2/15 + 6/15 = 8/15

When the fractions have different denominators, express the fraction to equivalent fractions
having a common denominator. Find the Least Common Denominator. The LCD of the desired fraction
is the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of the given denominators.

461
 Example:

¾ + 7/8 + 5/6 = 18/24 + 21/24 + 20/24 = 59/24

Finding the LCD,

4=2x2
8=2x2x2
6=2x3
LCD = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 24

 Addition/Subtraction of Mixed Numbers

The sum/difference of mixed fractions is equal to the sum/difference of the whole number
added to the sum/difference of the fraction.

Example:
3 ½ + 4 2/6 = 3 3/6 + 4 2/6 = 7 5/6

 Lowest Term
A fraction is n its lowest term if the numerator and the denominator are prime to each other.
Two numbers are prime to each other when the only common divisor or factor is 1.
To express a fraction in its lowest terms, divide the numerator and denominator by a factor
common to both until the only common divisor is 1.

Example:
24/36 = (24/12) / (36/12) = 2/3

 Equivalent Fractions

F. Decimals

 Addition of Decimals
In adding decimals, write the given numbers so that the decimal point falls in line or arranged
in one column. Then proceed as in addition of whole numbers and place the decimal point to the sum in
the same column as the other decimal points.

Example: Add 32.8, 5.235, 122.2

32.8
+ 5.235
122.2
160.235

 Subtraction of Decimals
Write the given numbers so that the decimal point falls in line or arranged in one column. Then
proceed as in subtraction of whole numbers and place the decimal point to the difference in the same
column as the other decimal points. If the minuend contains fewer figures after the decimal point than
the subtrahend, annex zeroes.

Example: Subtract 2.34 from 12.5

12.50
- 2.34
10.16

 Multiplication of Decimals

462
 To multiply a decimal, multiply as in whole numbers; then, beginning from the right of the
product, move the decimal point to the left depending on the number of decimal places of both factors.

Example: Multiply 53.165 by 3.02

53.165 x 3.02 = 160.5583

 Division of Decimals
To divide a decimal, divide as in whole numbers and place the decimal point in the quotient
above the point in the dividend.

Example: Divide 81.5 by 2

When the divisor is a decimal fraction, convert the divisor into a whole number by moving the
decimal point to the right of it, and move also the decimal point of the dividend.

Example: Divide 32.2 by .125

G. Percent

Percent is only another name for hundredths. Since percent means hundredths, it can be converted to a
decimal or a fraction.

Conversion of fractions, decimal and percents

 Fraction to Decimal
Divide the numerator by the denominator.

Example: Change 3/5 to decimal form.

3/5 = 0.60

 Decimal to Percent
Move the decimal point two places to the right and write the % sign.

Example: Change 0.02 to percent

0.02 = 2%

 Fraction to Percent
First, change the fraction to decimal by dividing and then change the decimal to percent by
moving the decimal point and writing the % sign.

Example: Change 2/5 to percent

2/5 = 0.4
0.4 = 40%

 Percent to Decimal
Move the decimal point two places to the left and remove the % sign.

Example: Change 35% to decimal

35% = 0.35

 Decimal to Fraction
Write the decimal number as the numerator of the fraction. The denominator of the fraction
will be the last place value in the decimal.

Example: Change 0.7 to fraction

463
 0.7 = 7/10

 Percent to Fraction
Write the percent as the numerator of a fraction with a denominator of 100.

Example: Change 23% to fraction

23% = 23/100

Example: In a class of 25 students, 10 are male. We can describe this statement by saying:

a) 2/5 of the class are males. (Fraction)

b) 0.4 of the class are males. (Decimal)
c) 40% of the class are males. (Percent)

NOTE: In verbal problems concerning fractions, decimals and percents, the word “of” usually means
multiplication.

Finding a percent of a number

To find the percent of a certain number, express the percent as a decimal and multiply.

Example:
a) 5% of 600 = 0.05 x 600 = 30
b) 20% of 50 = 0.20 x 50 = 10

To find what percent one number is of another number, divide the first number by the second and
express the result as percent.

Example:
a) Find what percent 25 is of 625
25/625 = 0.04 or 4%

b) 30 is what percent of 120?

30/120 = 0.25 or 25%

To find a number when a certain percent is given, express the percent as a decimal and divide the
known part of the number by the decimal.

Example:
a) 15 is 25% of what number?
15 / 0.25 = 60

b) 25 is 10% of what number?

25 / 0.10 = 250

Finding the percent of increase and decrease

To find the percent of increase and decrease in a quantity, divide the amount of increase or decrease by
the original number before the increase or decrease.

Example:
a) A farmer harvested 60 cavans of palay last year and 80 cavans this year. What is the percent of increase?

80 – 60 = 20
20/60 = 33 1/3 %
b) A farmer harvested 80 cavans of palay last year and 60 cavans this year. Find the percent of decrease.

464
 80 – 60 = 20
20/80 = 25%

H. Ratio and Proportion

Ratio – comparison of two quantities

- expressed by the quotient obtained by dividing the first quantity by the second quantity

Proportion – formed when we express the fact that one ratio is equal to another

Example:
2:4 = 3:6
2/4 = 3/6
2(6) = 3(4)
12 = 12

Kinds of Proportion

a) Direct Proportion
If two quantities are related in a manner that an increase or decrease in one will produce the
same kind of change in the other, the two quantities are directly proportional with each other.

Example: Ms. Ramirez used 15 meters of cloth for 6 dresses. How many meters will be used for 10
dresses?

15:6 = n:10
15/6 = n/10
6n = 150
N = 25 meters

b) Indirect Proportion
If two quantities are related in a manner where an increase or decrease in one will produce an
opposite change in the other, then the two quantities are inversely proportional with each other.

Example: If 40 men can build a house for 15 days, how long will 20 men do the same work?

40:20 = n:15
40/20 = n/15
20n = 600
N = 30 days

c) Partitive Proportion
This proportion is used when a number is divided into parts proportional to a given ratio.

Example: Divide 636 into parts proportional to 3:4:5

3 + 4 + 5 = 12

3/12 x 636 = 159

4/12 x 636 = 212
5/12 x 636 = 265

I. Consecutive Numbers

A collection of numbers is said to be consecutive if each number is the successor of the number
which precedes it.

465
 Example:
a) 1,2,3,4 b) 2,4,6,8

 Average of Consecutive Numbers

The average of consecutive numbers is the average of the smallest and largest number.

Example:
a) 2,4,6,8
(2 + 8) / 2 = 10 / 2 = 5

 Counting Consecutive Integers

The number of integers from R to S inclusive is S – R + 1.

Example: How many integers are there from 21 to 242, inclusive?

242 -21 + 1 = 222

 Sum of Consecutive Numbers

Sum = average x number of terms

Example: What is the sum of the integers from 21 to 242?

Average = (242 + 21) / 2 = 131.5

No. of terms = (242 -21 + 1) = 222
Sum = 222 x 131.5 = 29193

J. Exponents and Roots

Exponent – no. of times that a number/base will be multiplied to itself.

bn or b^n

where b = base
n = exponent

Example:
3^4=3x3x3x3
= 81

Laws of Exponent

 bm x bn = bm+n

Example: 33 x 34 = 3(3+4) = 37

 (bm)^n = bmn

Example: (32)2 = 3(2x2)

 ambm = (ab)^m

466
 Example: 22 x 32 = (6)2

NOTE:
a) b0 = 1 , for any non-zero value of b

Example:
10800 = 1

b) b-n = 1/bn

Example:
25-2 = 1/252 = 1/625

Roots = an exponent that is a fraction

2  22

Laws of Radicals

> n
a  n b  n ab

Example: 2
9  2 16  2 9  16  12

n
a a
>  n
n
b b

3
216 216
Example:  3 2
3
27 27

K. Multiplication Shortcuts
To save time and effort

a) Multiplying by 10 or a multiple of 10
When a number is multiplied by 10 or by a multiple of 10 (100, 1000, etc.), move the decimal
point of the number as many places to the right as there are zeroes in the multiple of 10.

Example:
22.5 x 10 = 225
22.5 x 100 = 2250
22.5 x 1000 = 22500

b) Multiplying by the reciprocal of 10 or its multiple

When a number is multiplied by a reciprocal of 10 or its multiples (0.1, 0.01, 0.001, etc.), move
the decimal point of the number to as many places to the left as there are decimal places in the
reciprocal of 10 or its multiple.

Example:
22.5 x 0.1 = 2.25
22.5 x 0.01 = 0.225
22.5 x 0.001 = 0.0225

467
c) Multiplying two numbers that both end with 5 and whose lefthand digits are the same.
Two numbers ending with five when multiplied shall always have 25 for its rightmost digits.
The lefthand digits of the product will be obtained by multiplying the lefthand digit of the multiplicand
by a number which is the same digit increased by 1.
Example:

25 x 25 = 2<5> x 2<5>
= 6<25>
The rightmost digits, 5 and 5 were multiplied to get 25. The lefthand digit 2, was multiplied by
3 (2 increased by 1) which gives a result of 6. Putting these together, the result is 625.

45 x 45 = 4<5> x 4<5>
= 20 <25>
The rightmost digits, 5 and 5 were multiplied to get 25. The lefthand digit 4, was multiplied by
5 (4 increased by 1) which gives a result of 20. Putting these together, the result is 2025.

d) Multiplying two numbers whose rightmost digits make a sum of 10 and whose lefthand digits are the
same.
When multiplying such numbers, we multiply the rightmost digits of the two numbers. The
other digit shall be multiplied by a number which is the same digit increased by 1.

Example:
36 x 34 = 3<6> x 3<4>
= 12<24>
The rightmost digits, 6 and 4, were multiplied and gave the result of 24. The lefthand digit 3,
was multiplied by 4 (3 increased by 1) and gave a result of 12. Putting these together, the result is 1224.

*If the rightmost digits are 9 and 1, we will write its product as “09”.

Example: 49 x 41 = 4<9> x 4<1>

= 2009

The rightmost digits, 9 and 1 were multiplied to get 09. The other digit 4, was multiplied by 5
(4 increased by 1) to get 20. Putting these together, we get 2009.

e) Multiplying two digit numbers to 11

The lefthand of the two digit number that will be multiplied will be placed on the lefthand of the
product. The righthand of the two digit number will be placed on the righthand of the product. The
middle part of the product is the sum of the lefthand and righthand of the two digit number. If the sum is
greater than 10, it will be carried to the lefthand digit number.

Example:
a) 23 x 11 = 2 5 3
For the middle part,
2+3 = 5
b) 59 x 11 = 6 4 9
For the middle part.
5+9 = 14
1 will added to the lefthand digit which is 5
5+1 = 6
The answer will then be 649.

468
 ALGEBRA

ALGEBRA

Algebra is a branch of mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation and quantity. The name is
derived from the treatise written by the Persian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and geographer, Muhammad
bin Mūsā al-Khwārizmī titled Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala (meaning "The Book of Compulsion and
Encountering" "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing"), which provided symbolic
operations for the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations.

Together with geometry, analysis, combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the main branches
of mathematics. Elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in secondary education and provides an
introduction to the basic ideas of algebra, including effects of adding and multiplying numbers, the concept of
variables, definition of polynomials, along with factorization and determining their roots.

In addition to working directly with numbers, algebra covers working with symbols, variables, and set
elements. Addition and multiplication are viewed as general operations, and their precise definitions lead to
structures such as groups, rings and fields.

A variable is a letter that represents a number. Since it represents a number, you treat it just like you do
a number when you do various mathematical operations involving variables.
“x” is a very common variable that is used in algebra, but you can use any letter (a, b, c, d, ....) to be a
variable.

An algebraic expression is a number, variable or combination of the two connected by some

mathematical operation like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and/or roots.
2x + y, a/5, and 10 - r are all examples of algebraic expressions.

You evaluate an expression by replacing the variable with the given number and performing the
indicated operation.

Sometimes, you find yourself having to write out your own algebraic expression based on the wording of a
problem.

In that situation, you have to

1. read the problem carefully,

2. pick out key words and phrases and determine their equivalent mathematical meaning,
3. replace any unknowns with a variable, and
4. put it all together in an algebraic expression.
Here are some commonly used terms that signal specific mathematical operation.

Addition: sum, plus, add to, added to, more than, increased by, total
Subtraction: difference of, minus, subtracted from, less than, decreased by, less, diminished by
Multiplication: product, times, multiply, twice, thrice, of
Division: quotient divide, into, ratio

Simplifying algebraic expressions

Some pointers to remember:

469
A. To simplify any given expression, it is advised that one should be guided by the acronym, PEMDAS
(Parentheses- Exponentiation- Multiplication-Division- Addition-Subtraction).

The strategy suggests that:

1. The operations inside the parenthesis (or any grouping symbol) should be performed first.
2. Exponent should be dealt after step 1 is accomplished.
3. The operations: Multiplication and Division should be performed before Addition and Subtraction.
B. The order in which letters and numbers are used as factors does not matter.
(Commutative Property of Multiplication)

Example: 21mn = 21nm

C. You may use the following laws of exponents to simplify terms with roots or powers.

D. Combining like terms

Terms having identical literal coefficients are combined.

POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials are algebraic expressions which is the sum of finite number of terms, each of which is the
product of a finite collection of numbers and variables. A polynomial contains positive integral exponents.

6x2 + 4y – 5 is a polynomial while 20x-4 + y2 -3 is not.

Polynomials like 3x2 and 5xyz4 which have only one term are called monomials. Those with two terms
like x – 4y are called binomials. 5x3- xy2 + 4 in an example of a trinomial; that is, it is composed of three terms.

I. Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

Just like any algebraic expression, the process of addition can be conveniently carried out by
combining like terms. In order to subtract two polynomials, convert the problem to addition and
proceed.

II. Multiplication of Polynomials

Multiplication of polynomials is based upon the method of multiplying monomials, together with
the repeated use of the distributive law.

Binomials as Factors
a) Product of Two Binomials
Illustrative examples:
1. (x + 1) (x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2
2. (x + 5) (x – 7) = x2 – 2x – 35
Note: When multiplying two binomials with only one variable, the middle term is just the sum of
the constant terms where each one takes the operation that precedes it as its sign (i.e., 1 for x + 1,
and -7 for x-7).

b) Binomial Raised to a Nonnegative Integer

It is practical to use the Pascal’s Triangle in order to identify the numerical coefficient of
specific term of a binomial expansion of a binomial of the form (a + b) n , where a and b are any
variable, and n is a nonnegative integer.

The Pascal’s Triangle is illustrated below:

0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1

470
 4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1

The numbers on the left indicate the value by which the binomial is being raised.
For example,
“3” is for (x + y)3 and the numbers on its right are the coefficients of the expansion.
So that (x + y)3 = 1x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
The literal coefficients are either a single variable raised to the highest exponent or a product of the
two variables whose exponents add up to the original (the exponent of the given).

c. Special Products
For any variable x and a, or any constant a,
(x + a) (x + a) = (x + a) 2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x – a) (x – a) = (x - a) 2
= x2 + 2ax + a2
(x + a) (x – a) = x - a 2 2

(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
(x + a) (x2 - ax + a2) = x3 + a3
(x - a) (x2 + ax + a2) = x3 - a3
(x + a)3 = (x3 + 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3)
(x - a)3 = (x3 - 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3)

III. Division of Polynomials

The following are some of the points to consider when dividing a polynomial:

1. If the divisor is a monomial (a variable, a constant or a product of variable/s and constant) each term is
to be divided one-by- one.
2. If the divisor is a binomial, the dividend should be written in a decreasing order of exponent. In
case a
3. The division continues step by step until a remainder is reached whose degree is less than the degree of
the divisor. If the remainder is zero, the division is said to be exact.

Example: Divide 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4 by 3x + 1

2x2 – x + 4
3x + 1 / 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4
- 6x3 + 2x2 2
- 3x + 11x
- - 3x2 - x
12x + 4
- 12x + 4
0
EQUATIONS

An equation is a statement that says two algebraic expressions are equal.

There are two important things to note in solving equations (finding the roots or value of the variable/s
that will satisfy the given):
i) If you add or subtract the same algebraic expression to or from each side of an equation, the
resulting equation is equal to the original equation; and
ii) If you multiply of divide both sides of an equation by a nonzero algebraic expression, still the
resulting equation is equivalent of the original equation.

Solving Two Equations with Two Unknowns

A. By Substitution

471
 Use one equation to solve for one unknown in terms of the other, change the second
equation in only one unknown and then solve.

Example: Solve for the value of x and y in system of equation,

2x + y = 4 (equation 1)
3x + 2y = 6 (equation 2)
Solution:
Using equation 1, solve for y in terms of x, y = -2x + 4 (equation 3)
Now, substitute the value of y obtained in equation 3 to equation 2, then solve for the value of x.
3x + 2 (-2x + 4) = 6
3x + (-4x) + 8 = 6
-x = 6 - 8
-x (-1) = -2 (-1)
x=2
Since y = -2x + 4 (equation 3) and x = 2, by substitution
y = -2(2) + 4
y=0
B. By Elimination through addition or subtraction

Sometimes we can solve two equations by adding them or subtracting one from the other.

Example: Solve for x and y: x + 2y = 4 (equation 1)

4x – 2y = 6 (equation 2)
Solution: Adding equations 1 and 2, we were able to eliminate terms containing the variable y,
x + 2y = 4
4x – 2y = 6
5x = 10
then solve for the value of x,
5x = 10
x = 2.
By subtracting the value of x to either equation 1 or 2 we will be able to find the value of y.
x + 2y = 4 (equation 1)
2 + 2y = 4
2y = 2
y=1
Solving Quadratic Equations

Equations in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0, are called quadratic equations.

In order to find the value of the variable that will satisfy the given quadratic equation:
1. Group all the terms on one side of the equation so that the other side is zero.
2. Combine the terms on the nonzero side.
3. Factor the expression into linear expressions (if possible).
4. Set the linear factors equal to zero and solve.

The method is based on the fact that if a product of an expression is zero, then at least one of the
expressions must be zero.

Example: Solve for x in x2 + 5x = -6

Solution:
1. x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
2. (x +2) (x + 3) = 0
3. x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
4. x = -2 or x = -3 Solution set {-2, -3}.

472
Note: a quadratic equation will usually have two different solutions, but it is possible to have only one solution or
even no real solution or root.

You can also solve for the value of the variable in a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula,
Given ax2 + bx + c = 0 then

x = -b ± √ b2 – 4ac
The quadratic formula will always give you the solution to any quadratic equation, but if you can factor
the equation, factoring will give you the solution in less time. If you can’t find the solution immediately, then use
the formula. 2a

Solving Radical Equations

When the given variable in an equation occurs in a square root, cube root, and so on, that is; it occurs in
a radical, the equation is called a radical equation.

In some cases, a suitable operation changes a radical equation into linear or quadratic.

Example: √ 2x – 4 - 2 = 0
3

(3√ 2x – 4 )3 = (2) 3
2x – 4 = 8
2x = 12
x=6
Note that the most commonly used procedure is to isolate the most complicated radical on one side of
the equation and then eliminate it by raising both sides of the equation to a power equal to the index of the
radical.

Checking is necessary to identify the solution set of the given equation. Sometimes, the value(s) do not
satisfy the given. Those which satisfy the equation are included in the solution set while those which do not are
discarded.

Inequalities

An inequality is a statement involving two expressions separated by one of the inequality symbols <, ≤,
>, ≥ or ≠.

The following basic principles are used in working with inequalities:

1. If a < b then a + c < b + c
2. If a < b then a – c < b – c
3. If a < b and c >0 then ac < bc
4. If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc
5. If a < b and c < d then a + c < b + d
6. If a < b and b < c then a < c

The above principles also applies when the inequality symbol is replaced by >, ≤, >, ≥ or ≠.

As with equations, one method of solving inequalities is to replace it by a series of equivalent

inequalities until an inequality with an obvious solution like x > 5 is obtained. Operations used in solving
equations may be used to solve inequalities.

The following procedures leave the inequality symbol unchanged:

i) simplifying both sides of the inequality by combining like terms;

ii) adding or subtracting the same expression or quantity to both sides of the inequality; and
iii) multiplying or dividing by the same positive number or expression.

473
 The following procedure reverses the sense of inequality symbols, thus making it inconsistent:

i) interchanging the two sides of inequality

8 < x becomes x < 8
ii) multiplying or dividing both sides by the same negative expression without changing the
inequality symbol
-4x > 12 becomes -4x > 12
-4 -4
Note: When you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality with a negative quantity, the inequality
symbol is replaced as follows: (a) > by < and (b) ≤ by ≥ .

Example 1: Solve the inequality 3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x)

Solution: 3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x)
3x + 6 ≥ 10 – 2x
3x + 2x ≥ 10 – 6
5x ≥ 4
x ≥ 4/5

Example 2: Solve the inequality 4x – 10 < 5x – 3

Solution: 4x – 10 < 5x – 3
-10 + 3 < 5x – 4x
-7 < x or x > -7

VERBAL PROBLEMS

Verbal Problems are solved by translating them into appropriate algebraic equations. These are the general
steps in solving a verbal problem

 Read the problem carefully

 Determine the given and the unknown quantities
 Write the working equation
 Solve the equation
 Check if the answer satisfies the conditions given by the problem

Motion Problems

The general formula for this type of problem is:

Distance = Rate x Time

Example:

Two trains start at the same time and travel toward each other from cities 260 miles apart. How many
hours will it take for them to meet if one train travels at 60 mi/h and the other travels at 70 mi/h?

Given:
Rate of train 1: 60 mi/h
Rate of train 2: 70 mi/h
Distance of Stations from each other = 260 mi

Let:
t = time from when the train starts to when they meet
60t = distance traveled by train 1

474
70t = distance traveled by train 2

Solution:
60t + 70t = 260
130t = 260
t=2

It takes 2 hours for the trains to meet

Work Problems

It is always assumed that workers in the same category work at the same rate.

The general formula for work problems is:

1/t1 + 1/t2 = 1/t

where:
t1 = time taken by the 1st person
t2 = time taken by the 2nd person
t = time taken by both

the formula can be extended depending on the number of persons involved in the problem

Example

Jamee can clean the house in 6 hours. Christine can do the same job in 5 hours. How long will it take
them to clean the house together?

1/6 + 1/5 = 1/t

(1/6 + 1/5)30 = (1/t)30
5 + 6 = 30/t
11 = 30/t
t = 30/11 or 2 8/11 hours

Counting Problems:

In a public survey done by the SWS 60% owned a mobile phone, 80% owned a landline and 50% owned both a
mobile phone and a landline. What percent of those surveyed owned a mobile phone or a landline?

People who owned a mobile phone or a landline = people who own a mobile phone + people who own a landline
– people who own both a landline and a mobile phone

People who own a mobile phone or a landline = 60% + 80% – 50%

= 90%

90% percent of those surveyed owned either a landline or a mobile phone

VARIATION

Direct Variation

If the ratio of two variables is a constant (not zero), then either variable is said to vary directly as the other.

If the variables are x and y then:.

475
 y/x = k

where k is called the constant of variation and can be any constant except zero

Example:

If y varies directly as x and x = 13 and y = 5. What is the value of y when x = 21?

Solution:

If we are given one set of values of x and y, we can solve for the value of k and in turn find the
corresponding value of y at a certain value of x.

y = kx
5 = 13k
k = 5/13

since we need to find the value of y at x = 21

y = 21(5/13)
y = 8 1/13

Inverse Variation

If the product of two variables x and y is constant (not zero), then x and y is said to vary inversely.

xy = k
Example:

If the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure and if the gas occupies 20 cubic centimeter at a pressure of
40 lb, what is the volume of the gas at a pressure of 50 lb?

Solution:

We have two variables, the volume and the pressure. Knowing one set of values of V and P, we can solve the
constant k.

xy = k
800 = k

Substituting the value of k in the equation VP = k we can get the new volume of the gas at 80 lb.

VP = 800
V = 800/80
V = 10 cc

SEQUENCE AND PROGRESSION

A sequence is a set of numbers, which obeys a fixed law. In the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12 … 3, 6, 9, 12 are called terms
of the sequence.

Arithmetic Progression

A sequence of numbers, called terms, in which each term after the first is formed from the preceding term by
adding to it a fixed number called the common difference.

476
 an = a1 + (n-1) d

where:
an = last term n = number of terms
a1 = 1st term in the progression d = common difference

Example
Find the 38th term of the series 7,1,-6 . ..

Given:
a1= 7
n = 38
d = -6
Solution:

an = 7 + (38-1) -6
an = 7 + (37) -6
an = -215

The nth term or the last term of an arithmetic progression can be solved by using the formula:

Sn = (n/2) (a1 + an) or Sn = (n/2) (2a1 + (n-1)d)

Example:
Find the sum of the first 100 terms of the progression 10,7,4 …

Solution:

Given:
a1= 10
n = 100
d = -3

Solution:
Sn = (100/2) (2(10)+ (100-1)-3)
= 50( 20 + 99(-3))
= 78

Geometric Progression
A sequence is a considered a geometric progression when the ratio of two consecutive terms in the
sequence is always the same.

an = a1r(n-1)

where:
r = common ratio

Example:
Write the first 3 terms of the geometric progression in which an is 5 and r is ½.

a2 = 5(1/2) = 5/2

477
 a3 = 5(1/2)2 = 5/4

the first three terms of the geometric progression are 5, 5/2, 5/4

GEOMETRY

Geometry is an example of a mathematical system. Being a mathematical system, it is characterized by (1)

acceptance of undefined terms on which definitions are based and (2) a set of assumed principles from which other
principles can be deduced. In geometry, the assumed principles are called postulates in geometry while axioms in
algebra.

The statements that are deduced (or proved) are known as theorems.

Four Parts of a Mathematical System

1. Undefined terms
2. Defined terms vocabulary
3. Axioms or postulates
4. Theorems principles

Undefined Terms

“Point”, “line”, and “plane” are terms often used without being defined. Instead, they are simply described and
serve as building blocks for later terminology. A point, which is represented by a dot, has location but not size;
that is, a point has no dimension.
Lines have quality of “straightness” that is not defined but assumed. Whereas a point has no dimensions, a line is
one-dimensional; that is, the distance between any two points on a given line can be measured. Plane, another
undefined term is two-dimensional; that is, it has infinite length and infinite width, but no thickness.

Notations
↔ “line AB”
AB

− “line segment AB”

AB

→
AB “ ray AB”

AB “length of segment AB”

Postulate 1
Through two distinct points, there is exactly one line.

Postulate 2
The measure of any line segment is a unique positive number.

Postulate 3
If Z is a point on AB and A-Z-B, then AZ + ZB = AB.

Postulate 4
Through three non-collinear points, there is exactly one plane.

Postulate 5
If two distinct planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

478
Postulate 6
Given two distinct points in a plane, the line containing those points also lies in the plane.

Sample Problem:
In the figure on the right, AB and EF are said to be
skew lines because they neither intersect nor are parallel.
How many planes are determined by
(a) parallel lines AB and DC (ans. 1) G F
(b) intersecting lines AB and BC (ans. 1)
(c) skew lines AB and EF (ans. infinitely many) A B
(d) lines AB, BC, and DC (ans. 1)
(e) points A, B, and F (ans. 1) H E
(f) points A, C, and H (ans. 1)
(g) points A, C, F, and H (ans. 4)
D C
ANGLES

If two lines meet at a point, they form an angle. The point is called the vertex of the angle and the lines are
called rays of the angle. Thus, as defined, angle is the union of two rays that share a common endpoint.

Naming Angles
A
(i) ABC
B
(ii) B (Given that B is the vertex Cof the angle)

(iii) 1 or x where x or 1 is written inside the angle

1 x
Adjacent angles are angles having the same vertex and a common side and one angle is not inside the other.

Postulate 7
The measure of an angle is a unique positive number.

Postulate 8
If a point D lies in the interior of , ABC
then m ABD + m DBC = m ABC.
Congruent angles are angles with the same measure.
Complementary angles are pair of angles whose sum adds up to 90 degrees.
Supplementary angles are a pair angles whose measure adds up to 180 degrees.

When two straight lines intersect, the pairs of nonadjacent angles formed are known as vertical angles,
and vertical angles are congruent.
In the figure on the right,
and
s are
u vertical angles s
as and . v t
t v u
Practice on these:
5
1) Consider the figure below, l and m intersect so that m = 2x + 2y
5
m 8 = 2x – y
7 8 m 6 = 4x – 2y
6

479
Find the value of x and y.

2) Given: m RST = 2x + 9 R
m TSV = 3x – 2
m = 67˚ S T
RSV
Find x.
V
3) Suppose that (a) and are adjacent and AF → →opposite rays. What can
and AD are
FAC CAD
you say about and FAC CAD ?
4) The two angles are complementary and one angle is 12 degrees larger than the other. Using the variables x
and y, find the size of each angle.

5) Find the value of z.

7x + 54

z
3x + 90
A transversal is a line that intersects two (or more) other lines at distinct points; all of the lines lie in
the same plane.

In the figure on the right, 1 2

the interior angles are: , ,3 , and
4 5 6
3 4
exterior angles are: 1, and
2, 7, 8
5 6
Two angles that lie in the same relative positions
when two lines are cut by a transversal are 7 8
corresponding angles.

Corresponding angles: 1
and , 5 3
and 7, and 2 6, and 4 8
Two angles that have different vertices (plural of “vertex”) and lie on opposite sides of the transversal
are alternate interior angles.

Alternate interior angles: 3

and , 6 and 1 5
Two exterior angles that have different vertices and lie on opposite sides of the transversal are alternate
exterior angles.

Alternate exterior angles: 1

and , 8 and 7
2
Parallel Lines

Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect.

Postulate 9
Through a point not on a line, exactly one line is parallel to the given line.

Postulate 10
If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are congruent.
Try this:

In the figure, if l║m (read as l parallel to m)

1 v
l 480 2
1
3 4
and m = 117˚, find

(a) m 2
(b) m 5
(c) m 4
(d) m 8

TRIANGLES

A triangle is a 3-sided polygon.

Types According to the Number of sides of Equal Length

Equilateral triangle “has three sides of equal length”

Isosceles triangle “has two sides of equal length”
Scalene triangle “none of the sides are equal in length”

Equilateral triangle Isosceles triangle Scalene triangle

Types According to Component Angles

Acute triangle- all angles measure less than 90˚
Right triangle- has a right angle
Obtuse triangle – one of the angle measures greater than 90˚

Acute triangle Right triangle Obtuse triangle

Significant Facts About Triangles

1. The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180˚.

2. The measure of the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of two the remote interior angles.

100˚
130˚
30˚

3. If two angles of a triangle are congruent to the two angles of a second triangle, the third angles are
congruent.

Illustrative example
− ┴
− − − BFE
┴

Given ED AB, BC AE and m = 126˚. Find x and y.

481
 E

126˚
F

y x B
A
D

Solution:

90˚ + x = 126˚ ( Since 126˚ is the measure of the exterior angle of the triangle and
by (2) the sum of the remote angles x and the right angle must be equal to it.)
solving for x,
x = 126˚ - 90˚
x = 36˚
Alternative solution:
To solve for y, we can use (1).
y + x + 90˚ = 180˚

since x = 36˚ To find the value of y, we can simply

y + 36˚ + 90˚ = 180˚ subtract the value of x from 90˚ since the angle
solving for y,
y = 180˚ – ( 36˚ + 90˚) other than x and y is a right angle.
y = 180˚ – ( 126˚)
y = 54˚ So that y = 90˚ - 36˚
Therefore x = 36˚ and y = 54˚.
y = 54˚

Right Triangles

The Pythagorean Theorem

In any right triangle, the sum of the squares of the length of its legs is equal to the square of the length
of the hypotenuse.

In symbols,
a2 + b2 = c2 where a and b are length of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse.

Example

Find the length of the hypotenuse, x.

x2 = 32 + 52
x2 = 9 + 25
3
x x2 = 34
___
x = √34

482
5
 Note: we only considered the positive root since the length is nonnegative

Special Case: 30˚ – 60˚ – 90˚ triangle

a) The leg opposite the 30˚ angle is ½ the hypotenuse.

__
b) The leg opposite the 60˚ angle is √ 3hypotenuse.
of the
2 __
c) An altitude in an equilateral triangle forms a 30˚- 60˚ - 90˚ triangle and is therefore equal to of the 3
√
hypotenuse.

Formula to find the area of a triangle:

A = ½ bh where b is the length of the base

and h is the altitude

For an equilateral triangle,

__
A = s2 √ 3 where s is the length of the side of the equilateral
4 triangle.

Polygons

Polygon is a closed figure in a plane composed of line segments which meet only at their endpoints. The
line segments are called sides of the polygon and a point where two sides meet is called a vertex of the polygon.
B G
A
H
C

D J I
ABCD is a polygon while GHIJ is not.

1. Polygons are classified by the number of angles or sides they have.

2. If the sides and angles of the polygon are all equal in measurement, that polygon is called a regular
polygon.
3. The sum of the measures of the angles of a polygon with n sides is (n-2) 180˚.

In a parallelogram: M N
a) Opposite sides are parallel.
b) Opposite sides are congruent.
c) Opposite angles are congruent.
d) Consecutive angles are supplementary.
O
e) Diagonals bisect each other. P
f) Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.

In a rectangle, in addition to the properties listed above:

a) All angles are right angles
b) Diagonals are congruent.]

In a rhombus, the properties are the same with that of a parallelogram,

a) All sides are congruent.

483
 b) Diagonals are perpendicular.
c) Diagonals bisect the angles.

A square has all the properties given above.

The apothem of a regular polygon is perpendicular to a side, bisects that side, and also bisects a central
angle.

OX is an apothem.
It bisects AB, and is perpendicular to AB
and bisects AOB . O

The area of a regular polygon is equal to

one- half of the product of its apothem and perimeter.
A X B
CIRCLES

Circle is a set of points equidistant from a fix point called the center.
A tangent is a line that touches a circle at exactly one point; the point of intersection is the point of contact or
the point of tangency.
A secant is a line (or segment or ray) that intersects a circle at exactly two points.

A polygon is inscribed in a circle if its vertices are points on the circle and its sides are chords of the circle. In
such case, the circle is circumscribed about the polygon.

CIRCLES, ANGLES and ARCS

E
A
D 1

2 6
O
4 5
F 3
B
C

Given: m AB = 92◦
m DA = 114◦ TERM
m BC = 138◦
Find the measure of each of the numbered Inscribed angle of a circle is an angle whose
angles. vertex is a point on the circle and whose sides are
chords of the circle.
Solution:
(a) m 1 = 360˚ – ( m DA + m AB + m BC)

2
= 360˚ – ( 114˚ + 92˚ + 38˚ ) THEOREM 1
2
= 360˚ – 344˚ A central angle is equal in degreesAto its
2 intercepted arc.
= 16˚ B
2 O
= 8˚
Therefore, angle 1 is equal to 8 degrees.
(Note that Theorem 2 is applied to arrive If AB = 40˚

484then AOB = 40˚

to the final answer.)
THEOREM 2
(b) m 2 = ½ AB
= ½ (92˚) The measure of an inscribed angle of a
= 46˚ circle is one-half the measure of its interceptedAarc.

B
C
If AC = 130˚

then ABC = 65˚

THEOREM 3

(c) m 3 = ½ (m AB – m CD) An angle outside the circle formed by

but, two secants, a secant and a tangent, or two
m CD = 360˚–(m AB + m DA + m BC) tangents is equal in degrees to one half the
= 360˚ - ( 92˚ + 114˚ + 138˚)
= 360˚ - 344˚ difference of its intercepted arc.
= 16˚
Now,
m 3 = ½ ( 92˚ - 16˚)
= ½ ( 76˚) If RS = 60˚, QR = 20˚
= 37˚
then RTV = ½ (60˚ - 20˚)

S = ½ (40˚)

=O20˚
T
R Q

Theorem 4

An angle formed by two chords intersecting in a circle is equal in degrees to one-half of the
sum of its intercepted arcs. A C
40˚ E 80˚

D
If m AD = 40˚ and m CB = 80˚ B

then CEB = 60˚ .

(d) m 4 = ½ (m AB + m CD) Theorem 5

= ½ (92˚ + 16˚)
= ½ ( 108˚) Two tangent segments drawn to a
= 54˚
circle from the same external point are
A
congruent.
485

B O.
(e) m 5 = ½ ( m DA + BC)
= ½ ( 114˚+ 138˚)
= ½ ( 252˚)
= 126˚

(f) m 6 = ½ ( m AB)
= ½ (92˚)
= 46˚

Theorem 6

The radius (or any other line through .O

the center of a circle) drawn to a tangent at

the point of tangency is perpendicular to the

FORMULAS
tangent IN FINDING THE AREA, VOLUME, PERIMETER and CIRCUMFERENCE
at that point.
1. Rectangle: AR = lw
PR = 2l + 2w where l is the legnth and w is the width

2. Parallelogram: A = bh where b is the length of the base and h is the altitude

P = 2b + 2 (length of the slanting side)

3. Rhombus: A = ½ d1d2
P = 4s

4. Square: A = s2 where s is the length of the sides

P = 4s

5. Triangle: A = ½ bh where b is the length of the base and h is the altitude

P = a + b + c where a, b, and c are the length of the sides of the triangle
__
Equilateral triangle: A = s2 √3
4

5. Trapezoid: A = ½ h (b1+ b2) where b1 and b2 are length of the parallel sides

6. Circle: A = πr2 where r is the radius and π is the constant (approx. 3.14)
C = 2πr or C = πd where d is the diameter

7. Regular polygon: A = ½ a P where a is the apothem and P is the perimeter

P = n∙s n is the number of sides and s is the length of the sides

Exercises
1. If m
1 = 3x – 9, what the value of x?
486
 1

50˚ 30˚

2. If h = 12 and a = 9 then b = _____ ? h

a b

3. In triangle ABC, C is a right angle, AC = 40, BC = 30.

Find the altitude to the hypotenuse.
C

B
A
4. Find the area of an equilateral triangle with perimeter equal to 9 cm.
__
5. An equilateral triangle has an altitude of 5 √3long. Find its area.
cm

Note: To be given before the end of the first 2 hours—Geometry

Exercises

1. O is the center of the circle. Find the value of x.

x
140˚
O

2. Find the value of y.

80˚
30˚
487
3. Find the value of x.

(6x + 54) ˚

X2 (4x – 6)˚

4. What is the value of w?

180˚

5. In the figure below, if radius OX is 12 and the area of the right triangle OXY is 72, what is the area of the
shaded region?

X
O

Note: Figure not drawn to scale

Note: To be given before the end of the last 2 hours (Session for Geometry)

TRIGONOMETRY

A. Trigonometric Functions

Let P(x,y) be any point other than the origin on the terminal side of an angle θ in standard position. The
distance from the point to the origin is r
2
 x2  y2

The six trigonometric functions are defined as:

y
488
P(x,y)
r
θ
 y r y
sin   csc   tan  
r y x

x r x
cos   sec   cot  
r x y

Example:
The terminal side of an angle α goes through the point (5,12). Find the values of the six trigonometric
functions of angle α.

Finding r:
r2  x2  y2
r2  5 2  12 2
r2  25  144
r  169
2

r  13

12 13 12
sin   csc   tan  
13 12 5
5 13 5
cos   sec   cot  
13 5 12

B. Reciprocal Identities

Some of the functions are reciprocals of each other. Reciprocal identities hold for any angle θ that does
not lead to a zero denominator.
1 1
sin   csc  
csc  sin 
1 1
cos   sec  
sec  cos 
1 1
tan   cot  
cot  tan 

Example:

Find sec θ if cos θ is 6/7

489
 1
sec  
6
7

7
sec  
6

C. Function Values of Special Angles

θ sin θ cos θ
1 3
30°
2 2
2 2
45°
2 2
3 1
60°
2 2

D. Common Applications of Right Triangles

Angle of Elevation Horizontal

x x
Horizontal Angle of Depression

1. The angle of elevation is the angle made by the ray xy (above horizontal) and the ray with endpoint x as
shown in the figure above.
2. The angle of depression is the angle made by ray xy (below horizontal) and the ray with endpoint x as
shown in the figure above.

Example:

The angle of depression is measured from the top of a 43 ft tower to a reference point on the ground. Its value
is found to be 63°. How far is the base of the tower from the point on the ground?

63°
θ
43 ft

490

x
Solution:
x
tan 27  θ = 90 – 63
43
43 (tan 27 )  x θ = 27
x  21 .91 ft

3. In both air and sea navigation. The clockwise angle from north of the line of sight to a point of reference
is called the bearing of the point. There are two common ways to express bearing.

a. If a single angle is given it is understood that the bearing is measured in a clockwise direction from due
north.

33°
135°

b. The second way of expressing bearing starts with the north-south line and uses an acute angle to show the
direction, either east or west, from this line.

33° 30°

N 42° E
S 42° E

E. Circular Functions

(0,1)
A(1,0)
r=1
(-1,0) (1,0)
x

(0,-1)
491
 1. Consider a circle in a coordinate plane whose center is the origin (0, 0) and the radius is 1. This circle is
called the unit circle. The equation governing this circle is x  y  1 and every point in the unit
2 2

circle must satisfy this equation.

2. An arc running counterclockwise from point (1,0) is an arc of positive length while an arc running
clockwise from the same point is an arc of negative length.
3. A circular function is defined in terms of the arc length and the coordinates (x,y) in the terminal point
of the arc as it moves around the unit circle

Domain: R For sine and cosine functions only

Range: {( x , y ) |  1  r  1}

y 1
cos   x tan   ( x  0) sec   ( x  0)
x x
x 1
sin   y cot   ( y  0) csc   ( y  0)
y y

4. Behavior of Sine and Cosine Functions

Special numbers for sine and cosine functions

θ A(0) sinθ cosθ

0 (1,0) 0 1
π/2 (0,1) 1 0
π (-1,0) 0 -1
3π/2 (0,-1) -1 0
2π (1,0) 0 1

Signs of Circular Functions

Quadrants sin   y cos   x y x 1 1

tan   cot   csc   sec  
x y y x
I + + + + + +
II + - - - + -
III - - + + - -
IV - + - - - +

5. Conversion of Radians to Degrees and Vice Versa

A rotation of 360° (one revolution) is equal to 2  radians therefore half a revolution is equal to  radians.

492
radians deg rees

 180 

Example:

2
Convert radians to degrees
3
2
3  deg rees
 180 
2 deg rees

3 180 
120   deg rees

6. Arc Length
The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius r by a central angle of measure θ radians is given by
the product of the radius and the radian measure of angle.

s  r

Example:
3
A circle has a radius of 19cm. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle measuring
8
radians.
s  r
 3 
s  19  
 8 
57 
s centimeter s
8

7. The measure of how fast the position of F is changing is called the linear velocity (v)

B
O

493
 s
v where S is the length of the arc cut by point R at time t
t

8. the measure of how fast angle FOB is changing is called angular velocity (ω)

  where θ is the measure of angle FOB at time t
t

Example:
Suppose point F is on a circle with radius of 8cm and ray OF is rotating with an angular velocity of π/10
radians per second.

a) find the angle generated by F in 5 seconds.


 
t
 

10 5

 
2

b) find the distance travelled by F along the circle in 5 seconds

s  r

s8
2
s  4 cm

c) find the linear velocity of F

s
v
t
4
v cm per second
5

F. Trigonometric Identities

Basic Identities Phytagorean Identities

sin      sin  sin 2    cos 2    1
cos     cos  1  tan 2    sec 2  
tan      tan  1  cot 2    csc 2  

Sum and Difference Identities

cos  A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B

494
 tan A  tan B
tan( A  B ) 
1  tan A tan B

Double Angle Identities Half Angle Identities

 1  cos 
sin 2  2 sin  cos  sin 
2 2
 1  cos 
cos 2  cos 2   sin 2  cos 
2 2
 1  cos 
= 1  2 sin  
2
tan
2 1  cos 
sin 
= 2 cos   1
2
=
1  cos 
2 tan  1  cos 
tan 2  =
1  tan 2  sin 
1  cos 2
sin 2  
2
1  cos 2
cos 2  
2

Proving identities:
One way of proving identities is to write equivalent expressions on one side of the equation until you
arrive at an expression that is identical to the other side of the equation. Another way is by replacing expressions
on both sides of the given equation with equivalent expressions until they are indentical.

Example:
Prove cotθ = cos θcscθ
 1 
= cos   
 sin  
cos 
=
sin 
= cotθ

G. Solving Oblique Triangles

Triangles that are not right triangles (oblique triangles) can also be solved using the trigonometric
functions

1. Law of Sines
For any triangle ABC in which a,b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite the angles with measures
A,B, and C respectively.

a b c
 
sin A sin B sin C

Example:

Solve triangle ABC, if  A  60  ,  B  50  and c = 65.

495
 60° 50°
65
 C  180   ( 60   50 )  70 
sin A sin C sin B sin C
 and 
a c b c
sin 60 sin 70 sin 50 sin 70
 
a 65 b 65
65 sin 60  a sin 70 65 sin 50  b sin 70
65 sin 60 65 sin 50
a b
sin 70 sin 70
59 .9  a 52 .99  b

2. Law of Cosines
For any triangle ABC in which a,b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite the angles with measures
A,B, and C respectively.

a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A
b 2  a 2  c 2  2 ac cos B
c 2  a 2  b 2  2 ab cos C

Example:

Find the length of side c for the given triangle.

B

c
15

C 60° A
14

496
 c 2  a 2  b 2  2 ab cos C
c 2  15 2  14 2  2(14 )(15 ) cos 60 
c 2  211
c  14 .53 units

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

   
 y  sin 1 x or y  arcsin x means x  sin y , for y in  , 
 2 2
 y  cos 1 x or y  arccos x means x  cos y , for y in 0,  
  
 y  tan 1 x or y  arctan x means x  tan y , for y in  , 
 2 2

Function Domain Range Quadrant

y  sin 1
x  1,1     I and IV
 2 , 2
 
y  cos 1 x  1,1 0,   I and II

y  tan 1 x  ,      I and IV

 , 
 2 2
y  cot 1 x  ,   0,   I and II

y  sec 1 x   ,1  1,   0,  , y 

 I and II
2
y  csc x 1
  ,1  1,       I and IV
 2 , 2 , y  0
 

Example:

1. Find y in the following:

1
a. y  sin 1
2
    1
y is the number in  ,  whose sine is
 2 2 2
1
sin y 
2

497
  1
sin 
6 2

y
6

 
 Since is in the range of the arcsin function we can conclude that y 
6 6

STATISTICS

A. Statistics is the study of techniques concerned with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Statistics is used to
a. Summarize and describe data (descriptive statistics)
b. Draw conclusions from the data (inferential statistics)

B. If for example, one is to gather data from a survey. All the data collected is referred to as population.
When only part of the data is collected it is referred to as sample.

C. Random sampling means selecting individuals entirely by chance. A random sample must be taken from
many places in the population, the more samples, the better the chances of getting the true picture of the
population.

D. Fundamental Counting Principle

When one event can occur in m different ways and another event can occur in n different ways, then together
the events can occur in m*n different ways provided that the second event is not in any way influenced by the first
event.

Example:
How many even numbers of two digits each can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9, if
repetition of digit is not allowed?

The units place can be filled by 2, 4, 6, and 8. This place can be filled 4 ways.
The tens place can be filled 8 ways because repetition is not allowed.
Therefore the number of even two digit numbers if repetition is not allowed is:

4 x 8 = 32

E. An arrangement of a group of objects in a definite order is called permutation.

The number of Permutations of n distinct elements taken r at a time, denoted n Pr is given by the formula:

n!
Pr  for 0  r  n
( n  r! )
n

Example:

498
How many different ways can 9 people be seated in a row of 4 chairs?

n!
Pr 
( n  r! )
n

9!
P4 
(9  4!)
9

= 3024 ways

The number of distinguishable permutations P of n elements taken n at a time with r1 like elements, r2 like
elements of another kind, and so on is given by the formula:

n!
P
r1 ! r2 ! r2 !...

Example:

How many permutations can be made using all the letters of the word institution?

12!
P
3!2!2!3!
= 3,326,400

The number of circular permutations of n objects where n is a natural number is (n – 1)!

Example:

In how many ways can 9 people be seated at a round table?

Number of ways = (9 – 1)! = 40,320

F. A group of objects or things, irrespective of their order is called a combination. A combination of n

elements of a set taken r at a time, denoted nCr is any r-element subset of the given set.

n!
Cr  for 0  r  n
r!( n  r )!
n

Example:

In how many ways can a committee of 6 be chosen from 10 people?

499
 10!
C6 
6!(10  6)!
10

10!
10 C6 
6! ( 4 )!
10  9  8  7
10 C6 
( 4)!
10 C 6  210

G. In sample space that contains equally likely outcomes that can be counted, the probability than an event
E will occur, P(E), is the ratio of the number of outcomes in the event to the number of outcomes in the
sample space.

P(E) = number of outcomes in the event

number of outcomes in the sample space

Example:

A die is rolled. Find the probability of each event.

a. P(getting 1) = 1/6
b. P(getting an even number) = 3/6 = ½
c. P(getting 1,2,3,4,5, or 6) = 6/6
d. P(getting an 8) = 0/6 = 0

H. A table showing the distribution of measures of the same kind is called a frequency distribution. The
frequency distribution can be used to organize date.

Example:
Construct a frequency distribution for the marks of 15 pupils in an algebra exam.

32 33 34 31 33 35 40 39 37 31 35 30 29 37 36

Interval Frequency
39-40 2
37-38 2
36-35 3
34-33 3
32-31 3
29-30 2

I. Measures of Central tendency

In a large population a great number of individuals cluster near the middle of the scale. The concentration
of cases near the middle helps us to describe and compare distributions easily.

_
a. Mean is the arithmetic average of the data. It is denoted as x .

500
 _ n
1
x
n
x i where n is the number of values, each x i is an individual value
i 1
b. Mode is the value of the measure that occurs most frequently.
c. Median is the value of the middle measure when the measures have been arranged in rank order.
If there is no middle value, we take the midway between the values of the middle two cases.

Example:

Find the mean median and mode for the following quiz scores.
5, 7, 10, 10, 7, 9, 5, 6, 7, 7, 4

_
5  7  10  10  7  9  5  6  7  7  4
x
11
_
x7

First arrange the scores into ascending order.

4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9, 10, 10
The median of the scores is 7

The value that occurs most frequently is 7 therefore the mode is 7.

J. Measures of Variation
Shows the variability or dispersion of the data.

a. The range of a set of data is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value. It
shows the distance of the scattering values away from the middle.

Example:

Given a set of scores in a Biology test 99, 95, 78, 61, 54, 87, 75.
The highest score is 99 and the lowest score is 54
The range of the set is 99 - 54 = 45

Variance (  )
2
b.
The greater the variance the more the scores vary from the mean.

n _
1
2 
n
 (x i  x) 2
i 1
_
Each value x i  x is called a deviation from the mean

Example:
_
Find the variance for the data set 10, 2 , 3, 9, 1 with x =5

_ _

x x- x ( x  x) 2
10 5 25
2 -3 9
3 -2 4
9 4 16

501
 1 -4 16

n _

 (x i  x ) 2  70
i 1

1
2  ( 70 )
5
2  14

c. Standard Deviation (  )

The standard deviation is the most frequently used measure of the spread of the set of data.

n _

 ( xi  x) 2
  i 1

In the preceding example the variance was computed to be 14. To get the standard deviation, we
take the square root of the variance which is the 14 . The standard deviation for the preceding
example is approximately 3.74.

K. When data is distributed in a bell shape or normal curve it is assumed that approximately 68% of the
values are within 1 standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95% are within 2 standard deviations
of the mean and about 99.8% are within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

L. A z – score is the number of standard deviations the value is from the mean. The sign of the z – score
tells its direction from the mean.

_
xx
z

Example:
_
What is the z-score for 90 when x = 60 and  =3
_
xx
z

90  60
z
3
z  10

 90 is 10 standard deviations above the mean.

Practice Test

Multiple Choices:

502
1. What is the average of A, B, C?
a. ABC/3 c. 3(A+B+C)/.3
b. (A+B+C)/3 d. ABC/A+B+C

2. Which of the following has the LEAST Numerical value?

a. 11/12 b. 6/8 c. 5/7 d. ¾

3. If 2 apples cost P25.00, how many apples can be purchased for P100.00?

a. 8 apples c. 2 dozens
b. ½ dozen d. 1 ½ dozens

4. If 2 tablespoons= 1 liquid oz., and 5 tablespoons = ¼ cup, then, how many liquid ounces are there
in one cup?
a. 4 ounces c. 16 ounces
b. 10 ounces d. 24 ounces

5. 2 is what percent of 5?
a. 25% b. 38% c. 40% d. 35%

6. Five (5) average office workers earn a total average monthly salary of P10, 000. If the average
monthly salaries of two of these workers total P 4,000, what is the average monthly income of
each of the remaining three workers?
a. P 6,000.00 c. P 2,500.00
b. P 2,000.00 d. P 4,000.00

7. Which of the following equation has the LEAST value?

a. 6+3x4 c. 6+4x3
b. 6x4+3 d. 6x3+4

8. 3.54 is multiplied by 10 to the fifth power, what would be the value?

a. 3.054 c. 305.40
b. 30.54 d. 354,000

9. If the short hand of the clock is at 4, what is the degree of its’ angle?
a. 90 b. 120 c. 130 d. 150

10. There are two numbers whose sum is 48. One of the numbers is greater by 6. What are the
numbers?
a. 23,24 b. 21,27 c. 22,26 d. 23,26

11. Add: 17 5/8 + 21 ¾ =?

a. 38 3/8 c. 39 4/8
b. 39 3/8 d. 38 4/8

12. My uncle’s weight is two times that my nephew. My aunt’s weight is half that of my nephew.
What is the total weight of the three? Which of the following formulae will apply for the correct
answer?
a. x3+2 1/2 c. (2x) + (x) + (1/2x)
b.
½ + 3x d. 2x + 1/2x2

503
13. 2 3/4 of P100 is equal to
a. 6/4 x 100 c. 11/4 + 100
b. 11/4 x 100 d. 6/4 +100

14. Which of the following fraction is > than 1/3?

a. 22/63 c. 4/11
b. 15/46 d. 33/98

15. In 1 ½ hours, the minute hand of a clock rotates through an angle of how many degrees?
a. 60 b. 90 c. 180 d. 540

16. When the fraction 2/3, 5/7, 8/11 and 9/13 are arranged in an ascending order, the result would
be?
a. 8/11, 5/7, 9/13, 2/3 c. 2/3, 8/11, 5/7, 9/13
b. 5/7, 8/11, 2/3, 9/13 d. 2/3, 9/13, 5/7, 8/11

17. ADD: 48.63+96.28+436.45+.2385 = ?

a. 581.60 c. 581.5990
b. 581.5985 d. 581.5986

18. 15 is 20% of what number?

a. 75 b. 78 c. 80 d. 70

19. 7 is 5 percent of what number?

a. 120 b. 125 c. 145 d. 140

20. The ratio of two numbers 5: 3 and their differences is 20. What are the numbers?
a. 50, 30 b. 55, 35 c. 40,60 d. 45, 65

21. The ratio of two numbers is 16: 33. The larger number is 264. What is the smaller number?
a. 131 b. 130 c. 129 d. 128

22. ¾ of 100 is equal to 5 times what number?

a. 10 b. 75 c. 25 d. 15

23. What is the smallest positive number which, when it is divided by 3, 4 or 5, will leave a remainder
of 2?
a. 42 b. 22 c. 62 d. 122

24. Which of the following number has the largest numerical value?
a. ( 3+3+3) to 3rd power c. ( 4x3x3) to 2nd power
b. ( 3x3) to 3rd power d. 3 cube + 3 square

25. Eight percent of 36 is 72% of what number?

a. 2.06 b. 2.88 c. 3.24 d. 4
26. Which of the following has the greatest value?
a. 6/10 b. 8/12 c. 17/24 d. 7/9

27. If 25% of 50% of 80 is 10, then ¼ of 5/10 of 80 is

a. 40 b. 20 c. 15 d. 10

504
28. What number is 35 more than 70?
a. 105 b. 135 c. 170 d. 185

29. The number is 15 less 7; when added to ten, what will the number be?
a. 28 b. 18 c. 17 d. 15

30. What is -2 + (-3.1) + (-.02)?

a. -.512 b. 5.012 c. 0.512 d. -5.12

31. What part of an hour elapses between 11:50 am and 12:14 pm ?

a. 2/5 b. 7/30 c. 17/30 d. 16

32. A motion was passed by a vote of 6 is to 4. What parts of votes cast were in favor of the motion?

a. 6/10 b. 6/4 c. 4/6 d. 4/10

33. If three miles is equivalent to 4.83 kilometers, then 11.27 kms is equivalent to how many miles?
a. 2 1/3 b. 7 1/3 c. 5 d. 7
34. Ever good Systems employ 115 people. During the low season, it laid off 20% of its employees.
By what percent must the company increase its’ manpower to return to full capacity?
a. 20 b. 22 c. 23 d. 25

35. Golen Bell Books offer 2004 World Almanac marked at P2, 450.00 less discount of 10% and 5
%. Another bookstore offers the same book but with a single discount of 15%. How much does
the buyer save by buying at the best price?
a. P12.25 c. P 12.00
b. P 12.50 d. P10.50

36. Lulu travels a distance of 20 kilometers at 60 kms. per hour (kph) and then returns over the same
route at 40 kph. What is his average rate for the round trip in kms. per hour?
a. 50kms b. 48 kph c. 47 kph d. 46 kph

37. Mr. Milby took his four children to the trade exhibit. The total cost of their admission tickets was
P 135.00 Mr. and Mrs. Alonzo and their six children had to pay P 220.00. What was the cost of
an adult ticket and that of a child’s ticket?
a. P 35.0 & P 25.00 c. P 24.00 & P 35.00
b. P 25.00 & P 35.00 d. P35.00 & P 28.00

38. Cass and uma both have part time jobs. Last week, Cass worked 8 hours and Uma, 5 hours and
both of them earned a total of P800.00. This week, Uma worked 12 hours and Cass, 4 hours and
they earned a total of P1, 250.00. How much is Cass’s hourly rate?
a. P 48.00 b.P49.50 c. P 44.08 d. P44.50

39. What is Uma hourly rate?

a. P89.90 b. P89.00 c. P88.75 d. P 89.47

40. If X is located on line segment AB and point Y is located on line segment CD, If AB = CD and
AX >CY, then :
a. XB > YD c. XB > YD
b. AX > XB d. AX > XB

505
41. If W > X, Y< Z and X > Z, then which of the following equation must be true?
a. W >X >Y> Z c. X >Z >Y >W
b. W> X >Z >Y d. Z < Y < X < W

42. The number of degrees through which the hour hand of a clock moves in two hours and 12
minutes is?
a. 66 degrees c. 126 degrees
b. 72 degrees d. 732 degrees

43. Emang is 15 years old. Veronica is one-third older. How many years ago was Veronica twice as
old as Emang.
a. 3 b. 5 c. 7.5 d. 10

44. A train running between Calamba and Magallanes arrives at its destination 10 minutes late when
it goes at 40 kms. per hour. And 16 minutes late when it goes at 30 kms. per hour. What is the
difference between the two towns?

a. 25 kms. b. 12 kms. c. 75 kms. d. 80 kms.

45. Jake is 67 years old. His son Jay is 29 years old. In how many years will Jay be exactly half his
father’s age?
a. 6 b. 7 c. 8 d. 9

PROBLEM SOLVING :

46. Jamie bought 55 copies of phil. History and paid a total of P 3,850.00. If she buys 3 copies more
of the same book, how much will she pay in all?
a. P4,060 b. P4,260 c. P4,160 d. P4,150

47. A manufacture finds that 150 pieces of pens are defective and unsuitable for sale. If the defective
pens are equivalent to three percent of the production, how many pens are being produced?
a. 5100 b. 4990 c. 5000 d. 5150

48. Trisha is paid P 380.00 per hour for the 1st hrs. She works in a day. For every hour thereafter,
she is paid P 475.00 per hour. If she works 4 more hours’ day for 3 days in a week, how much
does she earn per week?
a. P2,1000 b. P2,0900 c. P2,0950 d. P2,9990

49. Maxine owns 40% of the stock in Millennium Traders, Inc. Justine owns 15,000 shares. Aleah
owns all the shares not owned by Maxine or Justine. How many shares does Maxine own if Aleah
has 25 % more shares than Maxine?
a. 45,000 shares c. 60,000 shares
b. 50,000 shares d. 75,000 shares
c.
50. What would Aleah’ total number of shares in Millennium Traders Inc?
a. 75,500 c. 75,050
b. 75,600 d. 75,000

51. Two trains start from the same station at the time but travel in opposite directions. Their rate is
45 miles per hour and 65 miles per hour respectively. After how many hours will the train be 640
miles apart?

506
 a. 4 hrs. 40 mins c. 6 hrs
b. 5 hrs 48 mins d. 4 ½ hrs
52. C is the midpoint of line segment AE, B and D are in the line AE so that AB = BC and CD = DE.
What percent of AC is AD?
a. 33 % b. 50 % c. 133 % d. 150 %

53. Admission tickets to a college play cost P20 for students and P 50 for non-students. If 550 tickets
were sold and total receipts amounted to P 15,500. How many tickets of each type were sold?
a. 160 & 390 c.150 & 400
b. 100 & 450 d.170 & 380

54. Mang Jose, a gardener, can mow a lawn in 3 hrs. After 2 hrs., it rained and he stopped mowing
the lawn, in the afternoon, Aling Tina, completed the rest of the work in one hour and 30
minutes. How long would it take Aling Tina to mow the lawn by herself?
a. 2 hr. and 30 mins. c. 1 hr. and 45 mins.
b. 1 hr. and 22 mins. d. 2 hr. and 22 mins.

55. A couple wants to have only four children so spaced that the first is older than the second by 2
years, the second older than the third by three years, the third older than the fourth by 4 years.
If their plan is realized, how old will the eldest child be when the youngest is nine years old?
a. 18 yrs. Old c. 17 yrs. old
b. 16 yrs. Old d.15 yrs. Old

56. Write 3.4 % as a fraction.

a. 3.4 / 100 c. .34 / 100
b. 3.4 / 1000 d. .34 / 1000

57. Write ¾ % as a decimal.

a. .75 c. .0075
b. .075 d. .00075

58. The number missing in the series 6, 12, 20, 30, ? , 56, 72 is ?
a. 38 b. 42 c. 44 d. 48
\
59. If the following numbers are arranged in order from smallest to the largest, what will be the
correct order?
* 9 /13 * 13/9 * 70% * 1/.70
a. Bacd c. Cdab
b. Cbad d. Acdb

60. 3 is 6 % of a certain number. What is the number?

a. 53 b. 50 c. 48 d. 18

61. What is the average of 0.6, 6.6, 0.4, and 2.4?

a. 1 b. 10 c. 2 ½ d. 2

62. What is the sum of √12 + √27?

a. √29 b. 5√3 c. 3√5 d. 13√ 3

63. Find 65% of 75.

a. 4.87 b. 488c. 48.75 d. 487.50

507
64. P25.00 is 20% of what?
a. P 1,250 c. P 128.50
b. P 125.00 d. P 120.00

65. 12 is 125% of what number?

a. 9.6 b. 8 c. 9 d. 10

66. What percent of 16 is 40?

a. 2.5 % c. ¼
b. 2500 % d. 250%

67. 1 ¼ subtracted from its reciprocal is?

a. -9/20 c. 25
b. .45 d. 9/20

68. What is the ratio of ¼ to 3/5?

a. 1:3 b. 3:20 c. 5:12 d. 3:4

69. What is the difference between √150 and √54?

a. 3√6 b.16√6 c. 6√2 d. 2√6

70. One tenth is what part of three-fourths?

a. 3/40 b. 1/8 c. 2/15 d. 15/2

71. How many 1/8’s are there in 2 5/8?

a. 21 b. 22 c. 23 d. 24

72. A blue neon light blinks every 4 seconds. A red one blinks every 5 seconds, while a green one
blinks every 6 seconds. How many times will they blink together in one hour?
a. once b. 10 times c. 20 d. 60

73. Which of the following is divisible by 3, but not by 9?

a. 11,070 c. 45,072
b. 20,103 d. 19,386

74. The distance between two towns on a given map is 2 ¾ cm. If 1/2cm represents 6 km. What is
he distance between the two towns?
a. 18 km c. 36 km
b. 33 km d. 42 km

75. Margo paid P400 for a blouse. If the blouse was sold at 20% discount, what was its original
price?
a. P 80 b. P 480 c. P 500 d. P 540

76. Julius drove 193.5 kilometers did he travels in one hour? How long it will take him to travel
150.5 kilometers more?
a. 43 km & 3.5 hrs. c. 40 km & 7.3 hrs.
b. 54 km & 4 hrs. d. 42 km & 4 hrs.

508
77. Mr. Perez earned P27, 895 from mango plantation. He also earned 352,168 from his poultry
farm. How much did he earn in all?
a. P 379,953 c. P 379,963
b. P 380,063 d. P 479,063

78. Christine bought 8 kilos margarine. She used 2 1/3 kilos for baking cake and 1 ½ kilos for
spaghetti. How many kilos of margarine were left?
a. 5 5/5 kilos c. 5 1/6 kilos
b. 4 1/6 kilos d. 3 5/6 kilos

79. Mrs. Salas bought 6 meters of wire for P20. How much will 9 meters of wire cost?
a. P 15 b. P 20 c. P 25 d. P 30

80. Belen deposited P4, 000 in a bank with an interest of 7 ½% per Annum. How much is the
interest of her money after one year?
a. P 100 c. P 1000
b. P 300 d. P 3000

81. There are 40 pupils with only 20 textbooks in the science class of Mrs. Dela Cruz. What is the
pupil textbooks ratio?
a. 1:2 b. 2:1 c. 2:3 d. 20:40

82. On test 25 questions, Uma made 4 mistakes. What percent id he answer correctly?
a. 80% b. 84% c. 85% d. 82%
83. Mrs. Ponti borrowed P1, 500 at 10% interest per annum for 6 months. How much did she pay
back?
a. P 1,525 c. P 1,575
b. P 1,500 d. P 1,595

84. Which polygon has four equal sides?

a. Rhombus c. Scalene
b. Equilateral d. Isosceles

85. Which two numbers total the sum of 72 the difference being 12?
a. 32 and 40 c. 41 and 31
b. 30 and 42 d. 24 and 48

86. The ratio of the number of boys to the number of girls in a class is 2:3. If here are 40 students
in the class. How many boys are there?
a. 8 b. 16 c. 18 d. 24

87. Mrs. Paredez paid P94.50 for 3 ½ dozen of eggs. How much would two dozen of such eggs
cost?
a. 50.50 b. 54.00 c. 55.00 d. 56.00

88. Mark divides his day into leisure, sleep, and work in the ratio 1:2:3. How many hours does he
spend work.
a. 4 hr b. 8 hr c. 10 hr d. 12 hr

509
89. It takes 20 men to build a house or 60 days. How many men will be needed to build in 15 days?
a. 5 b. 80 c. 100 d. 120

90. Which of these is a correct proportion?

a. 3:5 = 5:10 c. 1 ½ :2 = 5:7
b. 7:10 = 15:18 d. 4:9 = 2:41/2

91. The area of rectangle is 17 cm2. Find its perimeter if its length is 13 cm
a. 9 cm b. 30 cm c. 44 cm d. 54 cm

92. What is the sum of the first five prime numbers?

a. 11 b. 18 c. 26 d. 28

93. In a sequence of start and stops an elevator travels from the first floor to the fifth floor and then
to the second floor. From there, the elevator travels to the fourth and then to the third floor. If
the floors are 3 meters apart how far has the elevator traveled?
a. 18 m b. 27 m c. 30 m d. 45 m

94. 14.3 is equal to

a. 0.143 x 100 c. 143 100
b. 14.3 x 100 d. 0.143 x 1000

95. Which of the following has the greatest value?

a. 0.351 b. 35/100 c. 3/10 d. 3/9

96. Which of the following numbers is greater than -3/2?

a. -4/3 b. -3 c. -7/4 d. -2

97. Simplify 1/3+2/5-2/6

a. 1/14 b. 1/5 c. 2/3 d. 2/5

98. Find the product of (2 ½) (5/7) (2/5)

a. 0 b. 5/44 c. 1 d. 5/7

99. Simplify [2(-3)2 –(-4)(-5) -2]

a. -4 b. 14 c. 28 d. 10

LET Reviewer- Science

510
 Lecture Notes
General Science

Definitions of Science

An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long period of time to explain the world we
live in.
Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as
obtained and tested through scientific method.

Scientific Method

1. Identifying the problem (Questioning)

2. Gathering Preliminary data
3. Formulating a hypothesis*
4. Testing of the hypothesis
5. Analysis and Interpretation of data
6. Drawing of Conclusion

Independent Variable – variable changed by the experimenter

Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment.

Experimental group – groups that receive treatment.

Control group – opposite of Experimental.

hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question is and it should stated in terms of the
variables defined.

Laws and Theories

*Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence that has been observed many times.

*Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis that has
been supported by repeated testing.

*Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that cannot be observed directly.

Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all observations
support them.

Measurements

511
 In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and simplicity.
The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given below:

Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol)

Mass Kilogram, kg

Length Meter, m

Time Second, s

Amount of Substance Mole, mol

Temperature Kelvin, K

Electric current Ampere, A

Luminous intensity Candela, cd

A. Reading Metric Measurements

No. of significant digits = no. of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5)

Example 1: The diagram below is a metric ruler used to measure the length of a pencil. How long is the
pencil?

8 cm 9 10

The smallest fraction of a centimeter in the metric ruler is 0.1 cm. This corresponds to the last
certain digit in any measurement. The pointer reads 9.0 cm. One uncertain digit should be added. In this
case it is 0.

Answer: Length of pencil = 9.00 cm

B. Converting Metric Units

Conversion of metric units is easily performed,

512
 Mega 106
Decimal
3 point
Kilo 10 moves to
the left
Deka 102
Decimal
Hector 101
point
moves to
Base unit 100 the right

Deci 10-1

Centi 10-2

Milli 10-3

Micro 10-6

Example 2: How many grams are there in 37.d centigrams?

To convert 37.5 cg to grams, count the number of steps from centi to base unit. Since it moves
upward, the movement of the decimal point is to the left.
Answer: 0.375 g

Major Regions of the Earth

1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth
2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface
3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth
4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found.
Rocks and Minerals

Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes. What is important to
remember about rocks is the way they were formed. The varying conditions for the rock formation
influence the characteristics that each rock develops,

Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and lava.

e.g. Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc.

Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks that have been
weathered and eroded.
e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale

Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure
e.g. marble (from limestone), slate(from shale)

* Rocks are made up of minerals which are either elements or compounds.

513
Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical alteration
of rocks at or near earth surface.

Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear away the
earth’s surface.

Lithification is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment into solid rock.

Weather and Climate

Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate

Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere

Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of time.

Gases found in the atmosphere:

a. Nitrogen – about 78%

- nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce nitrates, which are used by living things
for the manufacture of proteins
- is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay
b. Oxygen – 21%
-used for respiration

-for combustion processes

c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO2, O3)

Layers in the atmosphere

1. Troposphere – layer where life exists

- where different weather conditions prevail
- has lowest temperature
2. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a protective shield against UV rays.
- where jetstream is found
3. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere are burned.
4. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio communications
5. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites.
The uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere result in the movement of air called
winds.
Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the differences in the absorption and reflection
of thermal energy by different materials of Earth.

Ecology

1. Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment.
2. Ecological Factors
a. biotic – all living factors in the environment
b. abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms

514
 3. Population – a group of the same species living together
4. Community – all the different populations living together
5. Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment
6. Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate.
Solar System

The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars. The age
of a star is related to its temperature and its color. Bluish and white stars are the hottest and youngest
stars. The least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars.

Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud
composed of hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements.

Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the earth.

Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The earth and
other planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit.

Planets

- Mercury- Rocky, cratered surface; extremely thin atmosphere

- Venus-Thick cloud cover; green house effect
- Earth-liquid water, life
- Mars-polar ice caps, pink sky, dominant volcanoes
- Jupiter-Great red spots, thin ring; huge magnetosphere
- Saturn-many rings and ringlets, Titan only moon with substantial atmosphere
- Uranus-Rotates on side; worldwide ocean of superheated water
- Neptune- Unusual satellite rotation, 4 rings, great dark spot.
Asteroids - are objects that orbit the sun like planets. However they are smaller than the planets and so
they are sometimes called minor planet.

Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun.

Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia along with the bits of rock
and dust.

Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse, the sun
can’t be seen from earth because the moon covers it.

Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon.

515
 Biology
Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes.

A. Cells

This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know. All living systems are
composed of cells. They are the basic unit of structure and fuction in living things. Following is an
illustration and concept map of a cell and the different structures contained in it.

Cell wall/cell membrane

mitochondrion
Except for the
chloroplast

Cell nucleus ribosome

Except for the Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm
lysosome

protoplasm centriole

Microtubules and
microfilaments

Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells.

 Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it serves
as the control center in which individual functions of the other organelles are coordinated.
 Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests
provides rigidity for support to the cells and a characteristic shape for functionality and
structure. The cell membrane on the other hand is selectively permeable.
 Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the site
where ATPs are abundantly synthesized.
 Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic algae.
 Ribosome – this serves as the site of protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through which
materials are transported to the different parts of the cell.
 Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells

516
  Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices
 Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Structure Plants Animals

1. cell wall Present Absent

2. chloroplast Present Absent

3. centriole Absent Present

4. lysosome Absent Present

5. vacuole One/large Many/small

How did the concept of the cell come about?

The Cell Theory serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is anchored.
There are three elements to this theory;

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.

3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

Like any biological structure, the cell is composed of biomolecules that are intricately combined to
enable the cell to perform its metabolic functions.

a. Carbohydrates – immediate source of energy

- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: monosaccahrides
- e.g. sucrose (table sugar), maltose, amylase
b. Fats/Lipids – these molecules serve as another source of energy after carbohydrates
- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: fatty acids and a glycerol backbone
- e.g. waxes, oils, and cholesterol
c. Proteins – these molecules serve as sources of building materials.
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, S
- building blocks: amino acids
- e.g. amylase, actin and myosin
d. Nucleic Acids – these molecules include the RNA’s and the DNA’s
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, P
- building blocks: nucleotides

517
Cells according to complexity
Prokaryotic cells – have no membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of bacteria and
blue-green algae
Eukaryotic cells – have membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of protests, fungi,
plants, and animals.

Cell Transport

Passive Transport – does not require the expenditure of energy; moves particles through the
concentration gradient.

Active transport – requires the expenditure of energy; moves particles against the concentration
gradient.

Diffusion - this refers to the process in which molecules of solvent move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis – this refers to the diffusion of particles or molecules across selectively permeable membrane.

Cell Reproduction

This refers to the process by which cells divide to produce daughter cells. It involves either mitosis if
somatic or body cells are involves or meiosis if germ or sex cells are involved.

Mitosis - refers to the division of the somatic cells

- also referred to as equational dvision because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is equal to
the ploidy number of the dividing cell.
Meiosis - refers to the division of germ cells

- also referred to as reductional division because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is
only half that of the parent cell

B. Botany

Plants are autotrophic organisms capable of synthesizing their own food for growth and
maintenance through the process of photosynthesis. Their cells are eukaryotic (i.e. with a distinct nucleus
and other membrane-bound organelles) like fungal and animal cells, but are distinguished by the
presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids and large vacuoles. Plant cells may also contain non-living
inclusions called ergastic substances that are products of the cell’s metabolism, like crystals and starch.

Major plant cell types:

Three major plant cell types, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, make up the different
tissues of the plant. Although they assume various shapes, they are most easily distinguished by general
features and location in plant body.

518
 o Parenchyma cells are usually large, thin-walled and are extremely variable in shape.
o Collenchyma cells have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin
materials.
o Sclerenchyma cells have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy depositions of
lignified secondary substance laid down in a laminated pattern.

Tissues are aggregate of cells with similar structure and function. Some of the cells in the tissue
may even undergo further cell modification and change in function. Thus it is difficult to classify plant
tissues on the basis of a single criterion like function, origin or structure.

o Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and regions of active cell division. They
provide for growth and are found in the root tip.
o Permanent tissues
a. Epidermis –composed of tiny openings principally on the underside of the leaves that
regulate the exchange of water and gases called stomates.
b. Periderm – constitute the corky outer bark of trees.
c. Vascular tissues – composed of xylem and phloem; xylem functions for the transport of
water and minerals upward from the roots while phloem functions for the transport of food
materials.
Different Plant Parts

Root

It is typically underground organ of the plant axis that functions principally for anchorage and
absorption of water and minerals from the soil. The first formed root is the primary root. It develops
from the radicle of the seed embryo. Some root arises from other plant organs like stems and leaves
hence are described as adventitious. There are two general types of root system, the fibrous which is
found in monocotyledons, and the taproot, characteristic of dicotyledons.

Stem

The stem is readily recognized by the presence of nodes. Leaves are born on these nodes. The
intervening area between the two nodes is an internode.

Leaf

It is a flattened, green, lateral appendage that carries out the functions of photosynthesis and
transpiration. Chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color.

Flower

It is a modified branch representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm. It is generally

divided into four parts: the green sepals, brightly colored petals, the male structure stamen, and the
female structure known as pistil (carpel). Each of these has a collective term, respectively, the calyx,
corolla, andorecium and gymnoecium.

Fruit

519
 The fruit is the ripened ovary with functions to protect and disperse the seeds. It is the product
of the entire pistil and other floral parts that may be associated with it. Two processes precede fruit
development; pollination or the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma and fertilization or the
fusion of a sperm nucleus and an egg cell.

Photosynthesis and Transpiration

Photosynthesis and transpiration are physiological processes occurring in leaves. Photosynthesis

involves the trapping of the radiant energy and its conversion into chemical energy. It takes place in the
chloroplast of the leaves. Transpiration is the loss of water in vapor form through the stomates, minute
openings distributed on the surface of leaves. A stoma has a pair of epidermal cells called guard cells.
Water moving into the guard cells cause latter to be turgid thereby opening the stomal pore. When the
water moves out of the guard cells, these become flaccid and the stomal pore closes.

The numerous stomates of a leaf serve as entry point for a carbon dioxide (photosynthesis) and
the exit for water vapor (transpiration). If transpiration proceeds at a rate much faster that that of the
roots could absorb water from the soil, the plant tissues suffer from water deficit, causes plant to wilt.

General Equation:

Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O12 + 6 O2

Respiration

C6H12O12 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

- it is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules ingested
by organisms.

Plant Taxonomy

It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of plats. It is the most basic
and a unifying field of botany.

Classification is the arrangement of plants into categories that have similar characteristics. These
categories called taxa are arranged into hierarchy to form a classification system. The smallest taxonomic
unit is the species. Similar species form a genus and elated genera, a family. The most inclusive category,
the kingdom comprises all plants.

Nomenclature is the orderly assignment of names to taxa or categories in accordance with the
rules of International code of botanical nomenclature. A plant’s scientific name is a binomial, that is, it
is composed of a generic name (genus) and a specific epithet. The name of the person who proposed the
binomial completes the scientific name (Oryza sativa L.)

C. Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. Heredity is the transmission of traits from
generation to generation while variation deals with genetic differences between organisms. The process
mainly involved in heredity and variation is cell division.

520
 The cells in all organisms grow and reproduce by cell division. A unicellular bacterium, after
doubling in size, can reproduce by dividing into two cells. In multicellular organisms like man, increase
in size is attained by dividing its constituent cells.

Gene Segregation and Interaction

Dominant Allele - alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele – alternative trait whose expression is marked in the phenotype.

Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that recessive
alleles are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds.

Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype
and that no blending is achieved.

Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that are
not dominant enough to mask the expression of one another, are incompletely expressed in the
phenotype, hence a blended trait is achieved.

Mendel’s law may be separated into two rules: first, the law of Independent Segregation of Alleles and
second, the Law of Independent Assortment.

*Law of Independent Segregation states that the alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from each other
during meiosis.

*Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of the different genes separate cleanly from
each other and randomly combining during meiosis.

These laws can be illustrated using monohybrid and dihybrid cross:

a. Monohybrid Cross

One of the pairs of alternative characters in sweet peas studied by Mendel waqs round vs
wrinkled seed. These distinctive characters or traits are called phenotype while the gene or genetic
content coding for these traits is the genotype. In example below, both parents are homozygous so that
the round (P1) and wrinkled (P2) parents have the RR and rr genotypes, respectively. The gametes
produced after meiosis by P1 is R and by P2 is r so the progeny of the first filial generation (F1) have
heterozygous (Rr) genotypes. Since R is dominant over r, then the F1’s have round phenotype. This is
an example of complete dominance. R masks the expression of r. This is the dominant allele. The
allele that is masked ( r ) is the recessive.

Female Parent (P1) Male Parent (P2)

Phenotype: Round Wrinkled

Genotype RR rr

521
Gametes R r

Fertilization

F1 genotype: Rr

Phenotype; Round

To demonstrate that the F1’s are heterozygous, a testcross can be conducted wherein the F1
plants are crossed to the homozygous recessive parents (rr). The recessive parent contributes the gametes
( r ) while the other parent contributes R and r. Testcross results in 1 Rr (round): 1 rr (wrinkled) or 1:1
segregation ratio.

Rr x rr

Gametes r

R Rr (round)

r rr (wrinkled)

Genotypic Ratio: 1Rr : 1rr

Phenotypic Ratio: 1round : 1 wrinkled

b. Dihybrid Cross

The members of gene pairs located on different homologous chromosome segregate

independently of each other during meiosis.

Mendel studied two phenotypes, texture and color of seeds with two alternative traits; round and
yellow seeds vs. wrinkled and green seeds. He crossed pure breeding round, yellow seeded plants with
pure breeding wrinkled, green seeded plants. The F1 progenies were all yellow round seeded plants. The
F2’s gave 315 round, yellow: 101 wrinkled yellow; 108 round, green and 32 wrinkled, green plants.
Approximately 9:3:3:1.

The method used in getting the genotypic ratio among F2 progeny is called Punnett Square or
Checkerboard method.

522
Molecular Basis of Heredity

The first part dealt with the physical basis of heredity – the chromosomes. Chromosomes are
the carriers of the multitude of genes. Genes or hereditary units, on the other hand, are actually fragments
or portions of the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

A chromosome is made up of one very long DNA packaged with histones to fit inside a minute
nucleus of the cell. Eukaryotic cells with several chromosomes would, therefore, contain more than one
molecule of DNA. Prokaryotic cells and viruses generally possess one long molecule of DNA either
naked or associated with proteins but not as organized as compared to eukaryotic chromosomes. The
DNA has been tagged as the genetic material of all organisms with the exception of some viruses with
ribonucleic acid or RNA as their genetic material.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA as the genetic material is capable of transmitting biological information from a parent cell
to its daughter cells and, in a broader perspective, from one generation to another. The information stored
in its base sequence is copied accurately by replication. Replication is a process of faithfully copying a
DNA to produce two DNA molecules identical to the parent DNA. These DNA molecules are then
passed on to the daughter cells via the chromosomes during cell division.

The information stored in the DNA when expressed will result to a particular trait of an
individual. The trait is expressed through the action of proteins either directly or indirectly.

The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely: replication
(DNA synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis). The transfer of
information from cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by replication. On the other
hand, the transfers of information from the DNA to the proteins involve two processes: transcription and
translation. Generally, all organisms follow this mode of transfer except for some viruses that undergo
reverse transcription.

Transcription
Translation

DNA RNA PROTEIN

Reverse

Transcription

523
Mutation – changes in the genetic materials that are essentially heritable.

a. Deletion – refers to a segment of base pairs in the DNA that is spliced off.

b. Substitution – refers to a segment of the base pairs in the DNA that is replaced by a different series of
base pairs.

C. Translocation – refers to segments of base pairs that are differently positioned.

d. insertion – refers to base pairs that are added to segment of DNA.

Evolution – this process refers to the gradual change in populations through time.

D. Animal Development (30 minutes)

Animal Cells, Tissues and Tissue Organization

Animal tissues are generally classified into four categories: Epithelium, Connective Tissue,
Muscle and Nerve. These animal tissues make up all the organ systems of the body.

o Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the same
type covering an external or internal surface.

o Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and lymph),
CT proper, cartilage and bone.
o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called muscle
fibers or muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated. Striated or
skeletal muscle functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions for involuntary
contractions.
o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which
contains the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with other
nerve cells, or with other effector cells through a point of contact called synapse.
Animal Development

Animal development is a series of events that is controlled by the genetic information in the
nucleus and factors in the cytoplasm. It starts with fertilization and ends into the arrangement of cells
which gives the embryo its distinct form. Features which are unique to organism such as the shape of
the face, location and number of limbs and arrangement of brain parts are molded by cell movements in
response to the action of genes in the nucleus and molecules in the cytoplasm.

Stages of Development

a. Gametogenesis

Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pars of
chromosomes (22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally derived from
the father and the other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact with each other and
exchange segments during meiosis. This phenomenon provides combinations of parental traits hence
there is more viability in the characters of the offspring.

524
 Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo meiosis, a
sequence of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The resulting cells have
only half the number of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process prevents doubling of the
chromosomes during fertilization.

The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated cells.
The cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female germ cells
gradually increase in size as a result of growth.

b. Fertilization

The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the species. In
humans, each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote acquires 46
chromosomes. At this stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is established.

c. Cleavage

The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a period of
growth but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the blastomeres.
Each blastomere nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same cell, the zygote.
Cleavage ends with the formation of the multicellular organism.

d. Blastula

The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells below
the blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.

In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The
blastocyst has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The former
will become the embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed amnion and
chorion.

e. Gastrula

Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells are
translocated to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The neighbor cells
may act as inducers in the formation of structures. The different cell movements establish the third germ
layer, the mesoderm.

At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm, an
inner endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form one type
of organ- a brain or stomach.

The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous system. The
endoderm gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The mesoderm gives rise to

525
the organs of the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems, connective tissues
and linings of body cavities.

f. Neurula

Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form a layer
of columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the neural fold
which then fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts at the head
region and continues posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments, nerves and the adrenal
medulla.

g. Organ formation

The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source materials for
the development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated and do not show
any adult feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until the organ acquires its
unique characteristics and specific location.

h. Brain Formation

The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three regions-
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind brain). Later,
the prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The mesencephalon remains
undivided.

In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the
embryonic brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the
forebrain and the eyes become anterior to the nose.

i. Limb Formation

Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities. Later,
circular constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes develop when
cells at the most distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the thumbs move sideward.
The lower limb rotates 90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the center.

E. Ecosystem and Ecology

The branch of biology that pertains specifically to the relationship of an organism with that of
its environment is known as ecology. Ecology is a body of knowledge that covers the economy of nature.
It involves the study of overall relationship of an organism to its inorganic/organic environment, that is,
the physical world; and its relation and interaction with other organisms, both plants and animals alike.

The basic functional unit and the most important concept in ecology is the ecosystem, as it
includes both plants and animals and the physical environment, each of which influencing the other.

526
Ecosystem or ecological system may refer to biotic assemblage of plants, animals, microbes interacting
among them and with that of the physico-chemical environment.

Components of the Ecosystem and Trophic Levels

The ecosystem has two basic components – the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components. The biotic component is further subdivided into two units, namely, the autotrophs (self
nourishing/self feeding) and the heterotrophs (other feeding).

The autotrophs are usually chlorophyll-bearing organisms, that are able to harness solar energy.
In the presence of water and carbon dioxide, they convert this energy into (chemically-stored energy)
known as adenosine triphosphate or ATP. They assume the role as producers in an ecosystem. Plants are
the typical producers. However, in aquatic systems, algal communities or phytoplanktons may be the
producers.

Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are those that depend on the producers as food. They are
generally classified as consumers, although those that secure food directly from the producers are better
known as herbivores or primary consumers. A secondary consumer or carnivore, on the other hand,
derives its nourishment indirectly from the producers by devouring the herbivore. In some ecosystems,
tertiary consumers exist. Other heterotrophs include also the decomposers where organic matter is
reduced to simpler substances. Structurally therefore, the ecosystem can composite the following, that
is, the abiotic factors; the producers; the macroconsumer; and the decomposers.

The abiotic component, on the other hand covers climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic
factors.

Climate includes light, temperature, precipitation and wind. Light influences the biotic
components in many ways, as in photosynthesis, flowering seed dormancy, leaf senescence, nesting,
migration and hibernation. Light quality penetrating with increasing water depths also determines the
type of producers (i.e. green algae in shallow water and red algae at greater depths). Temperature affects
living organisms by influencing their metabolic processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in
different ecosystems depending on its availability.

Water as the universal solvent plays an important role in the ecosystem as it serves as a medium
for biochemical processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in terrestrial ecosystems depending
on its availability. In aquatic ecosystems, however, what plays important roles are salinity, ph,
temperature and dissolved oxygen.

The atmosphere is a major reservoir of nutrients important to life. Nutrient cycling in the
atmosphere is further facilitated by wind. The latter also accelerates evapo-transcription rate causing
damage to plant structures. However, it plays an important role in facilitating seed dispersal and in the
distribution of plants and animals.

Biome - is a geographical unit uniformly affected by a common prevailing climate havin a similar flora
and fauna.

Terrestrial biomes the world over include:

527
  Tropical rainforests – which have the highest species diversity
 Coniferous forests – which harbors the pine-trees
 Deserts – characterized by very low species diversity
 Grasslands – also variously called savannahs, steppes and scrubs
 Taigas and
 Tundras-characterized by permafrosts
Aquatic biomes on the other hand include:

 Marshlands
 Lakes
 Seas and oceans and
 Estuaries
Five Kingdoms

 Monera – prokaryotic; unicellular; includes the bacteria and the cyanobacteria.

 Protista – eukaryotic; unicellular/colonial; includes the flagellates, the ciliates, the sarcodines
and the algal systems.
 Fungi – eukaryotic; unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular (molds and mushrooms).
 Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular;
 Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates.
Ecological Relationships

a. Mutualism – “give and take” relationship

b. Commensalisms- a relationship where the commensal is benefited and the host is neither
benefited nor harmed
c. Parasitism – a relationship where the parasite is benefited and the host is harmed
d. Competition – neither organism in this relationship is benefited
e. Predation – a relation where the predator is benefited and the prey is harmed
Food Chain

Three components of a Food Chains

a. Producers – occupies the 1st trophic level; composed of plants and photosynthetic algae
b. Consumer
- herbivore – occupies the 2nd trophic level; 1º consumer
- carnivore – occupies the 3rd trophic level; 2º consumer
- omnivore – occupies either the 2nd or 3rd trophic levels.
c. Decomposer – the last component of a food chain

Energy Transfer - energy is transferred from one trophic level to another following the 10 % rule.

Food Web - it is a feeding relationship that is illustrative of a series of interlinking food chains.

Ecological Laws

Two ecological laws can demonstrate this relationship between organisms and their
environment. These include Liebig’s Law of Minimum and Shellford’s Law of Tolerance.

528
  Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “growth and survival of an organism is dependent
primarily on the nutrients that are least available. “A plant will grow and develop well
where a particular nutrient critical for growth and survival is found to be inadequate or
not available at all in that particular area. Take note that magnesium is an important
component for the production of chlorophyll, being the central atom of pigment.
 Shellford’s Law of Tolerance states that “the existence of the organism is within the
definable range of conditions.” This means that “ organisms then can live within a range
between too much and too little”. Thus an organism han an optimum range of conditions
(peak) curve and an intolerance zone, where number of organisms is at its lowest or
zero.

Chemistry
Chemistry- is a science that studies matter, its properties, structure and the changes it undergoes together
with the energy involved.

Branches of Chemistry

 Analytical Chemistry
 Physical Chemistry
 Inorganic Chemistry
 Organic Chemistry
 Biochemistry
Scientific method- a systematic approach/procedure in investigating nature; a combination of
observations, experimentation and formulation of laws, hypotheses and theories; an organized approach
to research

529
STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Observation or Data Gathering

Observations-things perceived by the senses; can be quantitative or qualitative

 Qualitative – consist of general observations about the system

 Quantitative – consist of numbers obtained by various measurements of the
system
Examples:

 Ice floats in water

 Vinegar is sour
 Body temperature is 39.0oC
 An object weighs 1.5 kg

Observation vs. Inference

Inference – interpretation of the observation

e.g. The clouds are dark. (observation)

It might rain. (inference)

2. Are the observations answerable by any natural law?

Law (natural law) - a pattern or consistency in observation of natural phenomena; a verbal or

mathematical statement which relates a series of observation

e.g. Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Thermodynamics

3. Defining a problem

4. Formulate a possible solution (Hypothesis Making)

530
Hypothesis- an educated guess to explain an observation; a tentative explanation of a natural law based
on observation

5. Experimentation

- Is the hypothesis really the answer to the problem?

6. Interpret results.

7. Generate a generalization.

Theory- a hypothesis that survived testing through experimentation; a model or a way of looking at
nature that can be used to explain and make further predictions about natural phenomena

Laboratory Rules and Techniques

 Do not return extra chemicals to the main supply unless so directed. To avoid waste, take from
the supply only the amount of material needed.
 Perform experiments with the apparatus at arm’s length from the body never directly under the
face.
 If you must smell a substance, hold the container at a distance and, with a cupped hand, waft
the fumes toward your nose.
 Never use cracked or broken equipment. It can complete its breaking.
 Never pour water into concentrated acid. Always add the acid to the water with stirring.
 Read the lower meniscus of a colorless liquid at eye level. Use the upper meniscus when the
liquid is colored.
 Never weigh hot substances.

Measurements in Chemistry

Rules on the Use of Significant Figures

NON- ZERO DIGITS All non-zero digits are significant

ZEROS IN MEASUREMENTS

There may be some confusion about the zero in a measurement. Rules will be used to determine
whether zeros are significant or not.

1. Trailing Zeros

Final zeros after a decimal point are always significant.

e.g. 25.330 g has 5 significant figures

2. Captive Zeros

Zeros that are found between any two non-zero digits are significant.

e.g 706.3 mm has 4 significant figures

531
3. Leading Zeros

a. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant.

e.g 0.786 g has 3 significant figures.

b. When there are no digits before a decimal point or when the digit before a decimal point is
zero, the zeros after the decimal point preceding other digits are not significant.

e.g. 0.000543 cm3 has 3 significant figures

4. Final Zeros in a whole number may or may not be significant.

To resolve this, use of exponential is recommended.

EXACT NUMBERS Any number that is exact such as the number 3 in the statement “there are three
feet in one yard” is said to have unlimited number of significant figures.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The sum or difference should have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point
as the factor with the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

e.g. 35.986

+ 675.8

567.3839

1279.1699  1279.2 (five significant figures)

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The result obtained by multiplication and/or division must have the same number of significant
figures as the factor with the least number of significant figures.

e.g (34.6)(3450.0)/345 =346.00  346 (three significant figures)

RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

When the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures, it must be rounded off
to the proper number of significant figures. The rules for rounding off is summarized as follows:

1. If the digit to be removed is less than 5, drop this digit and leave the remaining numbers unchanged.
Thus, 1.23 becomes 1.2 when rounded off to two significant figures.

2. If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater than 5, drop this digit and increase the preceding digit
by one. Thus, 3.46 becomes 3.5 when rounded off to two significant figures.

532
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy  refers to the nearness of a value to the true or actual value.

 measured by percentage error

Error – the difference between a measured value and the true (or most probable) value.

% error = /Average value – True value/ x 100%

True value

Higher % error, less accurate

Precision  indication of the agreement among different measurements of the same event.

 measured by deviation

Deviation – absolute value of the difference of the measured value from the average value

Deviation = /Measured value – Average value/

Higher deviation, less precise

MATTER

Matter- anything that has mass, takes up space (volume) and possesses inertia

Matter

Pure substances Mixture

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(Solution)
Pure Substance- homogeneous matter that cannot be separated into its components by physical means;
with fixed composition and distinct properties

Types of Pure Substances:

a. Elements- pure substance composed only of 1 type of atom; cannot be decomposed by ordinary means
into simpler substances (Ex. H, He, Au, W)

b. Compounds- two or more elements chemically combined in a definite and constant proportion (Ex.
KCl, CH3COOH, MgCl2)

Ionic Compounds

533
  Structural units are the cations and anions
 In the solid state, the ions do not move from their positions in the lattice but only vibrate in place
Properties of Ionic Compounds

Melting Point: High

Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting

Molten Conducting

Aqueous Conducting

Hardness: Very Hard

Malleability: Brittle

Covalent Molecular Substances

 Uncharged or neutral structural units (molecules) in the crystal lattice.

 The atoms in each molecule are held together by strong COVALENT BONDS.
Properties of Covalent Molecular Compounds

Melting Point: Low

Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting

Molten Non-conducting

Aqueous Non-conducting

Hardness: Soft

Malleability: Brittle

Covalent Network Substances

 The structural units that occupy the lattice points in the solid are ATOMS.
 The atoms are bound to each other by strong COVALENT BONDS.

Properties of Covalent Network Substances

Melting Point: Very high

Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting (except graphite)

Molten Non-conducting

Aqueous Insoluble

Hardness: Very Hard

534
 Malleability: Brittle

Mixture- combination of different substances in variable proportions; can be separated into its
components by physical methods of separation

Types of Mixtures:

a. Homogeneous- uniform composition and properties throughout a given sample, but composition and
properties may vary from one sample to another (e. g. solutions)

b. Heterogeneous- with non-uniform properties throughout a sample where components retain their
identity and phase boundaries exist (e.g. colloids, suspensions)

Other Classification of Matter

a. Physical States of Matter (Phases of Matter)

 SOLID – rigid, has definite volume and shape

 LIQUID – fluid ( has ability to flow), takes the shape of the portion of the container they occupy
 GAS – fluid, expands to fill up its container
b. Special forms based on arrangement of particles and the degree of cohesiveness

Crystalline solids; amorphous solids; liquid crystals

 Crystalline solids – high degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles
 Amorphous/non-crystalline solids – disordered arrangement of particles but with a high degree
of cohesiveness
 Liquid crystals – medium degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles;
allows a degree of ordered motion of particles

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Properties of Matter

Extensive/E Intensive/ Physical Chemical

xtrinsic Intrinsic

Extensive Properties properties that depend on the amount of material observed

e.g. mass, volume, texture

Intensive Properties properties that does not depend on the amount of material observed

e.g. density, odor, taste

535
Extrinsic Properties properties that can vary with different samples of the same material

e.g mass, volume, size

Intrinsic Properties properties which are inherent to the substance and do not change for different
samples of the same substance

e.g. density, boiling and melting points, odor, taste

Physical properties characteristics observed or measured without changing the identity or

composition of the material

Chemical Properties characteristics observed or measured only by changing the identity or

composition of the material; ability or inability of matter to undergo a change in its identity or
composition at given conditions

Changes in Matter

Changes in Matter

Physical Change Chemical Change

Phase Change
Synthesis Decomposition Single
Displacement

Solid Liquid Gas Double

Displacement

Physical Change changes in the phase or state of a substance but not its composition

e.g. changes in state (liquid  gas), shape or size (granules  powder)

Phase Change – determined by existing conditions of temperature and pressure

Sublimation Solid to Gas Deposition Gas to Solid

Melting Solid to Liquid Freezing Liquid to Solid

Evaporation Liquid to Gas Condensation Gas to Liquid

Chemical Change substances are converted into other substances

e.g. rusting of iron, burning of wood

Types of Chemical Reactions

536
1. SYNTHESIS / COMBINATION – formation of a bigger compound from simpler ones

A+B+C…D

2. DECOMPOSITION - A single compound is broken down to 2 or more simpler substances

- Solids require heat ()

AB+C+D+…

3. Single Displacement- Cation or anion is replaced by an uncombined element

AB + C  AC + B

4. Double Displacement – Metathesis Exchange of partners

AB + CD  AD + CB

Other types:

 Combustion - Reaction with O2 to form CO2, H2O, N2 and oxides of any other elements present
 Precipitation - Formation of a precipitate when a solution is added to another
Precipitate – an insoluble or slightly soluble solid that forms when 2 solutions are mixed.

Solubility Rules

1. All nitrates are soluble.

2. All acetates are soluble.
3. All NH4+ salts are soluble.
4. All salts of Group 1 are soluble.
5. All chlorides are soluble except chlorides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+.
6. All bromides are soluble except bromides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+.
7. All iodides are soluble except iodides of Hg2+, Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+
8. Most sulfates are soluble except Group 2, Pb2+ and Hg2+.
9. All phosphates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1.
10. All chromates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1.
 Neutralization - Reaction between an acid and a base forming water and salt

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

 Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) - “Father of Chemistry”

Established chemistry as a quantitative science
Studied combustion

“In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the starting materials (reactants) is equal to the total mass of
the materials produced (products).”

2. Law of Definite Proportion or Composition

537
  Joseph Proust (1754-1826)
Showed that copper carbonate always has the ff. proportion by mass:
5.3 parts Cu : 4 parts O : 1 part C
“Any sample of a pure chemical substance contains the same elements in the same definite proportion
by mass of its elements.”

3. Law of Multiple Proportion

 John Dalton (1766-1844)

“In different compounds of the same elements, the different masses of one element that combine with a
fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.”

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATOM

Greeks (400 BC)

o Matter was composed of 4 fundamental substances: FIRE, EARTH, WATER, AIR
Leucippus and Democritus (5th BC)
o First to propose that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called “atomos”
meaning indivisible
Lucretius and the Greeks (1 BC)
o What appears as a solid object may actually consist of small particles
o There must be some limit to the number of subdivisions which can be formed on any
bit of matter
o Matter can be resolved ultimately into a unit which is indivisible and indestructible
“ATOM” means cannot be cut/destroyed

- The Greeks were only concerned on the existence of the atom but not on its nature

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

John Dalton (1766-1844)

 In 1808, published the book “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” wherein he
presented the atomic theory in detail.
Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model

The atom is a tiny, hard, indestructible sphere.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1.
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms which are indestructible.
2.
All atoms in a given element are identical and have the same mass.
3.
Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4.
Reactions involve only the rearrangement of atoms; separation or union. When atoms combine
to form compounds, the ratio of the no. of combining atoms is fixed.
Thompson’s Raisin Bread/ Plum Pudding Model

Joseph John Thomson (1904)

 Studied cathode ray tubes

538
 The cathode rays are repelled by the negative pole of a magnetic field
 This suggests that the ray consists of a stream of negatively charged particles
 All atoms must contain electrons.

 An atom is a diffuse, spherical cloud of positive electrification with randomly embedded

negatively charged electrons.
 Thomson measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron:
e/m = -1.76 x 108 c/g

 He also showed that whatever metal is used as a cathode and whatever gas is present inside the
tube, the cathode ray consist of the same particles as shown by the same e/m ratio.
Importance of Thomson’s Experiment

 It correctly suggested that the atom consists of an arrangement of + and – charges.

 It postulated the presence of the electron in all matter
Robert Millikan (1909)
 Using oil drop experiments, he determined the charge of an electron:
-1.6 x 10-19 c
 Thus the mass of an electron is (using e/m ratio):
9.11 x 10-28 g

539
Rutherford’s Nuclear Atom Model (Alpha Scattering Experiment)

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) and Hans Geiger (1882-1945)

 Majority were undeflected
 Some were slightly deflected

Few bounced off

Explanations:

Most of the mass and all the (+) charges on an atom are
centered in a very small region called the nucleus.
The atom is mostly empty space.
The magnitude of (+) charge is different for different atoms.
Electrons move around the
(+) nucleus.

Eugene Goldstein (1850-1930)

 Goldstein, in 1886 identified the positively charged particle and named it proton

540
  He used cathode with holes and observed rays passing through the holes opposite in direction
to those of the cathode rays.

 The mass of this particle almost the same as the mass of

the H atom

 The charge is equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign to

that of the electron)

Bohr’s Solar System Model of the Atom

Neils Bohr (1885-1962)

 In 1913, tried to explain the line spectra of hydrogen
Features:

The electrons move about the nucleus in certain circular orbits.

Only certain orbits and energies are allowed.
The electron can remain in an orbit indefinitely.
In the presence of radiant energy, the electron may absorb E and
move to an orbit with higher E
Quantum or Wave-Mechanical Model

Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961),

Werner Heisenberg (1879-1976)
Features:

The energy of the electron is quantized.

The electron moves in 3-D space around the nucleus but not in an orbit of definite radius.
The position of the electron cannot be defined exactly, only the probability.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and the
momentum of a particle at a given time.
The Nature of Light

- Radiant energy that exhibits wavelike behavior and travels through

space at the speed of light in a vacuum. It has oscillating magnetic and
electric fields in planes perpendicular to each other.

Primary Characteristics of Wave

1. WAVELENGTH, λ

- distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave

541
2. FREQUENCY, 

- number of waves or cycles per second that pass a given point in space

Relationship of λ and 

λ  1/ν or λν = c

Where c= speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s)

Atomic Spectra

- The spectra produced by certain gaseous substances consist of only a limited number of colored
lines with dark spaces between them.

- This discontinuous spectra.

- Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum- a kind of atomic fingerprint.

Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

• Developed the first spectroscope and used it to identify elements.

Max Planck (1858-1947)

• Explained certain aspects of blackbody radiation

• Blackbody – any object that is a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber of radiation
• Sun and earth’s surface behave approximately as blackbodies
• Proposed that energy, like matter, is discontinuous.
• When the energy increases from one allowed value to the next, it increases by a tiny jump or
quantum.
• Matter could absorb or emit energy only in the whole number multiples of the quantity.
E=hv where E is energy

h is Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js

v is frequency

So, ΔE = n hv Where n is an integer (1,2,3…)

 Energy is “quantized” and can only occur in discrete units of size hv (packets of energy called
Quantum)
 Transfer of energy can only occur in whole quanta, thus, energy seems to have particulate
properties.
Albert Einsetein (1879-1955)

• Proposed that electromagnetic radiation is itself quantized

• Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed as a stream of particles called PHOTONS
Summary of the Works of Einstein and Plancks

• Energy is quantized. It can occur only in discrete units called quanta.

542
 • Electromagnetic radiation, which was previously thought to exhibit only wave properties, also
exhibit particulate properties, thus the dual nature of light.
If light has particulate properties, not just wave, does matter also have wave properties, not just
particulate?

Louis de Broglie (1892-1987)

• Small particles of matter may at times display wavelike properties.

• For a particle with velocity, v
m=h/λv

Then λ = h / mv

Thus, we can calculate the wavelength for a particle.

• All matter exhibits both particulate and wave properties.

• Large pieces of matter predominantly exhibit particulate properties because their λ is so small
that it is not observable.
• Very small pieces of matter such as photons exhibit predominantly wave properties.
• Those with intermediate mass, such as electrons, show clearly both particulate and wave
properties.

MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOM

ALLOTROPE – elements with different forms (composed of one type of element)

ISOTOPES – elements with different mass number due to the difference in the number of neutrons

ISOBARS – different elements with the same mass number but different atomic number

Atom and the subatomic particles

 The diameter of an atom is in the order of 10-8 cm

 The nucleus is roughly 10-13 cm in diameter (1/100,000 diameter of the atom)
 The charge of the nucleus is a unique character of the atoms of an element
 The charge is positive
Particles within the nucleus

PROTON

 Eugene Goldstein (1886)

 from Greek “protos” meaning “first”
 mass of p+ = 1.67 x 10-24 g
 charge = +1.60 x 10-19 c
 The no. of p+ is a unique property of an element
# of p+ = atomic #, Z

= nuclear charge

= # of e -s in a neutral atom

543
NEUTRON

 James Chadwick (1932)

 Protons cannot account for the total mass of the atom
 Has the same mass as the proton but has no charge
 Symbol: n0
 mass of p+ + mass of n0 = mass of atom (atomic mass)
# of p+ + # of n0 = mass #, A

A = Z + # of n0

ELECTRON

 Ernest Rutherford
 negatively charged
 in a neutral atom :
 # of e - = # of p+ = Z
Summary:

Particle Discovery Mass in grams Charge

Electron discovered by JJ Thomson; name given by George 9.11 x 10-28 -1

Stoney

Proton discovered by Rutherford in 1911, name given by 1.67 x 10-24 +1

Goldstein

Neutron discovered and named by James Chadwick, 1932 1.67 x 10-24 0

Symbol of the Atom

Atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus

Ex. The element N has 7 protons, so Z= 7.

Mass number, A, is the sum of the number of protons and

neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Ex. An atom with 5 protons and 5 neutrons has an atomic number of 5 and a mass number of 10

ISOTOPES

 Francis William Astron (1877-1945)

– observed using the mass spectrometer that neon has 3 isotopes
 The listed atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the
naturally occurring isotopes.
Atomic mass =  (% abundance)(isotopic mass)

544
For Ions

 (+) charge – cation

- Lost electrons equal to the charge

 (-) charge – anion

- Gained electrons equal to the charge

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

- proposed by Marie Curie (1867-1934)

Spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation in

order to form a more stable species.

Nuclear Equation

• The sum of the mass #’s (A) must be the same on both sides
• The sum of atomic #’s (Z) must be the same on both sides
Nuclide

• A nucleus with a specified mass # (A), # of p+ (Z) and # of n0

• Stable nuclide
• Radioactive nuclide

Stability of Nuclide

• ODD-EVEN RULE
• Even # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be stable
• Odd # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be unstable
• MAGIC NUMBER
• Isotopes with specific # of p+ or n0 are more stable than the rest:
• 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
• All nuclides with 84 or more protons are radioactive.
• e. g. Po, At ….

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

1. ALPHA DECAY OR EMISSION

• - particle:
• Heavy, travel short distances
• Usually emitted by a heavy nuclei
2. BETA DECAY OR EMISSION OR NEGATRON EMISSION

545
 •  particle (negatron)
• Usually when neutrons are in excess,
they are transformed into protons with
emission of beta particles.

3. POSITRON EMISSION

• Usually when p+ are in excess, these

are transformed into n0 with emission
of positron

4. ELECTRON CAPTURE OR K- CAPTURE

• Usually happens when p+ are in excess

(as in positron emission)
• Nuclear stability achieved by
capturing one of the inner e -s (lowest
E level or K- shell) converting a p+ to a n0
• X-rays emitted
5. GAMMA EMISSION ( – radiation is
emitted)

• high energy photons or radiation similar

to x-rays but shorter  , high , high
penetration
• no mass, A and Z of nucleus remain unchanged

NUCLEAR FISSION

• Heavy nucleus splits into 2 or more lighter nuclei

• Occurs when a heavy nucleus is struck with projectiles or bullets (nuclear particles)
NUCLEAR FUSION

• Nuclei of lighter elements are made to combine to form heavier nuclei

• Occurs at very high temp.
• More E released but difficult to harness
HALF-LIFE, t1/2

• Time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay
• Constant for every radioactive isotope
t1/2 = ln 2/ k k is the rate

ln (N/N0) = -kt N0 = initial amount or activity

546
 N = amount left or activity left after time t

THE ELUSIVE ELECTRON

Quantum Number – describes the orbital and the electron

ORBITAL is an energy state for an electron described by the three quantum numbers n, l and ml

- may hold two electrons with opposite spins

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

 Take positive, nonzero integral values: 1,2,3…

 Main energy level or principal shell
 As n increases:
orbital becomes larger, e- becomes farther from the nucleus

higher E- e- is less tightly bound to the nucleus

2. Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

 Values: 0 to n-1 for each value of n

 Sublevel or subshell
 Related to the shape of the orbital

Orbital Symbol
l Letter designation
- combination of n and l
0 s
- consists of a number (for n) and a letter (for l)
1 p
e.g. 3s  n = 3 ; l is s = 0
2 d
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
3 f
 Values: l to –l including zero
 Related to the orientation in space of the angular momentum associated with the orbital
Degenerate orbitals – orbitals having the same energies

547
 e.g. the three p-orbitals have the same energy

4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

 Values: +1/2, -1/2

 The value does not depend on any of the three
quantum numbers

Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli 1900 -1958)

- In a given atom, no 2 e-’s can have the same set of 4 q.nos.

Thus, an orbital can hold only 2 e-’s, and they must have opposite spins.

Electronic Configuration – describes the manner in which

electrons are arranged in an atom

Ground state electronic configuration- lowest

energy arrangement of electrons

Excited state- allowed arrangements of electrons

other than the ground state

Isoelectronic- same number of electrons

Rules to remember when writing ground state electronic configurations

¤ Aufbau Principle- the orbitals of an atom are filled in order of increasing energy
- According to the (n+l) rule. The lower the value of (n+l), the lower the energy of the
orbital. If the (n+l) values of two orbitals are the same, the one with lower n is filled
first.
¤ Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity- the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a set of degenerate
orbitals is where there is a maximum number of electrons of the same spin. Electrons occupy
degenerate orbitals singly before pairing.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The Elements

 there are 112 elements to date, 90 of which are naturally occurring

Early Classifications

1. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner’s Law of Triads (1817)

548
- In a triad , the combining weight of the central member is the average of its partners.

2. John Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865)

- When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass, every eighth element had similar properties.

Shortcomings:

 Some positions were forced just to maintain his proposition

 Some positions contained 2 elements
 There were no room for other elements which may be discovered
3. Julius Lothar Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curve and Periodic Table (1869)

 A periodic trend in properties is observed when elements are arranged in increasing atomic
weights.
4. Dmitri Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and Periodic Law (1869)

 Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights

 Predicted the discovery of 10 elements
The Modern Periodic Law

- The properties of the elements are functions of their atomic numbers

Groups

 Vertical rows
 Previous notation: IA – VIIIA, IB – VIII
 New IUPAC* notation: 1-18
*IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

 Elements belonging to the same group have similar (not identical) properties
Special names of some groups

 Group 1 – Alkali metals

 Group 2 – Alkaline earth metals
 Group 17 – Halogens
 Group 18 – Noble Gases
Periods

 Horizontal rows
 Properties of elements that belong to a period show a pattern or trend that is repeated in the next
period
 Numbered 1-7
Pattern in Ion Formation

 Most elements form ions (except noble gases)

 Group 1 : +1 Group 15 : -3
 Group 2 : +2 Group 16 : -2
 Group 13 : +3 Group 17 : -1
 Group 14 : do not readily form ions

549
Of the known elements, 11are gases at room temperature. four are liquids at 25°C, Hg, Br, Ga and Cs.
If Fr can be prepared in large quantities, it is expected to be a liquid.

Property Across a period (left to right) Down a group (top to bottom)

atomic size/radius Decreasing Increasing

ionization energy Increasing Decreasing

affinity for electrons Increasing (upto Group 17) Decreasing

Tendency to form Decreasing Increasing

Cation

Tendency to form Increasing (upto Group 17) Decreasing

Anion

Metallic Character Decreasing Increasing

Electronegativity Increasing Decreasing

Note: The size of the cation is smaller as compared to its neutral atom

The size of the anion is larger as compared to its neutral atom.

Atomic Size

► Covalent radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a single
covalent bond.
► Metallic radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms in contact in the crystalline solid
metal.
Ionization Energy

► Energy required to remove an e- from a gaseous atom or ion

X(g)  X+(g) + e-

Where the atom or ion is assumed to be in its ground state

Affinity for electrons

► Tendency of an atom or ion to attract additional e-

X(g) + e-  X- (g)

Electronegativity

550
 ► The attraction of an atom for shared electrons.
Note:

Metals react with oxygen gas forming a basic oxide in water.

Nonmetals react with oxygen gas forming an acidic oxide in water.

CHEMICAL LANGUAGE AND SHORTHAND

Chemical symbols

An element is represented by a symbol which may be one or two letters; the first is capitalized
and the second is in the lower case. The symbols may be derived from the Greek, German or Latin names
of the elements.

Binary Covalent Compounds

Binary covalent compounds are formed between two non-metals

A. Naming binary covalent compounds

1. Identify the elements present in the compound given by the chemical formula. The name of the more
metallic element is written first.

2. Change the suffix of the less metallic element to –ide.

3. Use the prefix corresponding to the number of atoms present in the compound.

Number Greek Prefix Number Greek Prefix

1 Mono- 6 Hexa-

2 Di- 7 Hepta-

3 Tri- 8 Octa-

4 Tetra- 9 Nona-

5 Penta 10 Deca-

The mono- prefix is frequently omitted, particularly for well-known substances. If no prefix is use, it
usually implies that no number of atoms of element is one. However, experts in nomenclature caution
that this can be dangerous and suggest that it is better to include the mono- prefix.

Some compounds are known only by their common names. The most common of this are:

Forrmula

H2O

551
 NH3

PH3

Name

Water

Ammonia

Phosphate

. Writing formulas of binary compounds

1. Represent each kind of element in a compound with the correct symbol of element.

2. Indicate by a subscript the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound.

3. Write the symbol of the more metallic element first. (H is an exception to this rule.)

IONIC COMPOUNDS

Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals are called ionic compounds.

A. Naming Ionic Compound

1. Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.
2. Unlike binary covalent compounds, PREFIXES ARE NOT USE to indicate the number of ions
present in the formula.

Note that for ionic compounds, the prefixes are not attached to the chemical name to denote the
number of atoms of the elements. The number of atoms is implied by the charges of the cation and
the anion. It is therefore important to know the charges of the common cations and anions.

3. Most transition metals can exist in more than one ionic form. Thus, it is important to know the
charge of the cations in their compounds.

Examples: Formula Stock system Old system

SnCl4 tin (IV) chloride stannic chloride

SnBr2 tin (II) bromide stannous bromide

The method of indicating the charge of the cation involves placing a Roman numeral equivalent to
the magnitude of the charge of the cation in parenthesis after the English name is called the Stock
System of Nomenclature.

Some ionic compounds form crystals that contain a certain proportion of water molecules apart from
the ions of the compound. Such compounds are called HYDRATES. Hydrates are named just like

552
 other ionic compounds except for the addition of the “hydrate” with a Greek prefix indicating the
number of water molecules per unit of the ionic compound.

Example: CuSO45H2O copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate or cupric sulfate pentahydrate

B. Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

1. Write the symbol of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the symbol of the negative ion
(anion).

2. Write the charge of each ion over the symbol of that ion. Usually, for the main group elements,
the group number usually gives the charge of the monoatomic ion. Remember that Group 1 elements
would have a charge of (+1); Group 2 (+2); Group 3 (+3); Group 16 (-2); Group 17 (-1); and Group
18 (0) unless indicated.

3. Choose a subscript that will make the net charge zero. The simplest procedure is to use the
absolute value of the charge of the anion as the subscript for the cation; and the absolute value of
the cation charge as the subscript for the anion (CROSS-OVER RULE). When both subscripts in
the formula can be divided by same number to simplify the formula, you should do so, unless you
know the actual molecule represented.

4. For hydrates, follow the same steps, then add a centered dot, followed by the number of water
molecules (indicated by the prefix) and the chemical formula of water.

ACIDS

A. Naming Binary Acids

Binary acids contain only two different elements- hydrogen and a nonmetal. Binary acids are
named as hydro ____ic acid, where the stem of the nonmetal is inserted in place of the line. Thus,

HF- hydrofluoric acid and HBr- hydrobromic acid

The names hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen bromide are also used for HF and HBr, respectively.
Both names are correct although the convention is that these compounds are named as acids when they
are present in aqueous solutions. Thus, HF in aqueous solution is hydrofluoric acid, but pure HF is
referred to as hydrogen fluoride.

B. Naming Oxyacids

Another type of acid is the oxyacids derived from the oxyanions. Since some elements form
more than one oxyanion, they also form more than one oxyacid. The name of the oxyacid is derived
from the name of the oxyanion with a change in the suffix using the following rules:

1. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ____ic acid.

Example SO42- sulfate H2SO4 sulfuric acid

553
 ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid

2. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ite, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ___ous acid.

Example SO32- sulfite H2SO3 sulfurous acid

ClO- hypochlorite HClO hypochlorous acid

Names and Symbols of Some Common Polyatomic Anions

Formula Name Formula Name

OH- Hydroxide NO3- Nitrate

O22- Peroxide NO2- Nitrite

CN- Cyanide CH3COO- Acetate

N3- Azide CrO42- Chromate

SO42- Sulfate Cr2O72- Dichromate

SO32- Sulfite MnO4- Permanganate

HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate or C2O42- Oxalate

bisulfate

HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite or SCN- Thiocyanate

bisulfite

PO43- Phosphate CO32- Carbonate

HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate or

bicarbonate
H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate

Some common oxyanions

Chlorine Bromine

ClO4- Perchlorate BrO4- Perbromate

ClO3- Chlorate BrO3- Bromate

ClO2- Chlorite BrO2- Bromite

ClO- Hypochlorite BrO- Hypobromite

554
STOICHIOMETRY

Chemical Reactions

• Processes in which substances are changed into one or more new substances
• Represented by chemical equations:
Reactants  Products

2H2 + 1 O2  2H2O

2 molecules + 1 molecule  2 molecules

2 moles + 1 mole  2 moles

4.04 g + 32.00 g  36.04 g

36.04 g reactants  36.04 g products

 FOLLOWS THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Balancing Chemical Equations

Some important points:

• Use correct chemical formulas

• Adjust only the coefficients, NOT the subscripts
• Balance elemental forms ( e.g. Ar, Cu, Na, O2, N2, I2, S8…) and H and O last.
• Use the simplest possible set of whole no. coefficients
Stoichiometry- The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction

Mole Method - The stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number
of moles of each substance.

Steps:

• Write correct chemical formulas and balance the equation.

• Convert the quantities into moles.
• Use the mole ratios to calculate moles of the required substance.
• Convert calculated moles to whatever units required.
Three types of calculation:

555
The Mole

In 1971, at the 14th meeting of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, scientists agreed to
adopt the mole as the unit of an amount of substance

The mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of substance that contains the same number of elementary
particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of C-12.

Ways of expressing the mole:

1. by number of particles (use Avogrado’s number, 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole)

2. by mass (use molar mass)

3. by volume (use molar volume, 22.4 L at STP)

Interconversions

÷ MM x 6.02 x 1023

Mass Mole No. of particles

x MM ÷ 6.02 x 1023

The molar mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. The molar mass is numerically equal to
the atomic mass (or atomic weight) of an atom or the formula mass of a molecule, a compound or a
polyatomic ion.

Formula and Composition

The percentage composition of a compound is a list of the percentages by weight of the elements in the
compound. The percentage by weight of an element in a compound is numerically equal to the number
of grams of the element that are present in 100 g of the compound

Ex. What is the percentage composition of quick lime, CaO?

Ans. 71.5% Ca, 28.5% O

556
Empirical Formula- is the formula with lowest possible whole number subscripts to represent the
composition of the compound. It can be determined from the % composition data.

Ex. Barium carbonate, a white powder used in paints, enamels and ceramic, has the following
composition: Ba, 69.58%; C, 6.090% and O, 24.03%. Determine its empirical formula

Ans. BaCO3

Molecular Formula- gives the actual composition or the actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule or one formula unit of the compound

Ex. Molecular formula of glucose: C6H12O6

Empirical Formula of glucose: CH2O

Stoichiometry of Reactions

Chemical Stoichiometry- is the quantitative relationship of the amounts of reactants used and amounts
of products formed in a reaction. This mass relationship is expressed in the balanced equation for the
reaction.

Percent yield- portion of the theoretical yield of product that is actually obtained in the reaction

%yield= (actual amt of product obtained/ theoretical amt) x 100

Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that would result if all the LR reacted.

- Maximum obtainable yield

Actual Yield - The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction

- Always less than theoretical yield

Limiting reactant- reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction. It also determines the amount
of products that can be formed.

Excess reactant- reactant that is not completely used up in a chemical reaction

TIES THAT CHEMISTRY BIND

Chemical Bonds- net forces of attractions that hold atoms together

Properties:

 Bond energy – amount of energy that must be supplied to separate the atoms that make a bond
 Bond length – distance between 2 nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms
 Bond order – number of bonds between atoms

557
Types of Chemical Bonds

a. covalent bond- pair of electrons that is shared by two atoms of nonmetals; represented by Lewis
structure or electron dot formula

Types of Covalent Bonds:

Single bond - two atoms held by one e- pair

Double bond – two atoms held by 2 e- pairs

Triple bond – two atoms held by 3 e- pairs

• Higher Bond order, shorter Bond length, higher Bond energy

Polar covalent bond – one atom is more electronegative than the other atom; unequal sharing of
electrons; the more electronegative atom is partially negative and the less electronegative atom is
partially positive.

Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of electrons

Coordinate Covalent Bond – the electrons being shared comes from a single atom

b. ionic bond or electrovalent bond– It is the transefer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, i.e., the
metal loses an electron while the nonmetal gains an electron converting them intro charged ions.

- attraction between cations and anions

c. metallic bond- the attraction between the cations in the lattice and the “sea of delocalized electrons”
moving within the lattice

Lewis Structure-one or a combination of Lewis symbols to represent a single atom (neutral or charged),
a molecule or a polyatomic ion.

- based on Octet Rule

Octet rule- the observed tendency of atoms of the main block elements to lose, gain or share electrons
in order to acquire an octet of electrons in their outermost main energy level It is more appropriately
called Noble Gas Rule

Electron Pairs could either be

 Lone pairs – pairs of electrons localized on an atom

 Bonding pairs – those found in the space between the atoms
Drawing Lewis Structures

1. Sum the valence electrons from all atoms (total # of e-’s)

Total electrons = sum of the valence electrons of all atoms – charge

558
2. Determine the central atom and draw the skeletal structure.

Cental atom is the most metallic atom or the least electronegative.

3. Use a pair of e-’s to form a bond between each pair of bound atoms.

4. Distribute remaining electrons to the terminal atoms to satisfy octet.

5. If there are still available electrons, put them on the central atom to satisfy octet.

6. If the central atom does not satisfy octet, move electron pair (lone pair) from the terminal atoms
towards the central atom to form multiple bonds.

STRICT FOLLOWERS of OCTET: C, N, O, F and H (2 electrons)

7. Check the Lewis structure. H and F are always terminal atoms and joined by a single bond.

HYPERVALENT ATOM – atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d-
orbitals.

RESONANCE - The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a particular molecule or ion.

- Can be written for molecules/ions having a double or a triple bond and single bond(s).

Resonance Structures- one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be
represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.

- The true structure is the average or the “hybrid” of the resonance structures.

FORMAL CHARGE- Used to evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures (different from resonance
structures)

= no. of valence electron in the free state – no. of nonbonding electrons – no. of bonds

GEOMETRY OR SHAPE OF MOLECULES

- the three-dimensional arrangements of atoms in a molecule

- governed by VSEPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

- The structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions

Steps for using VSEPR Theory

1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule/ion.

2. Count the e- pairs around the central atom and arrange them in the way that minimizes
repulsions.

559
 3. Determine the positions of the atoms from the ways the e- pairs are shared.
4. Name the molecule structure from the positions of the atoms.

Type of Molecule Geometry Polarity

AX2 Linear Nonpolar

AX3 Trigonal planar Nonpolar

AX2E Bent or V-shaped Polar

AX4 Tetrahedral Nonpolar

AX3E Trigonal pyramidal Polar

AX2E2 Bent or V-shaped Polar

AX5 Trigonal bipyramidal Nonpolar

AX4E See-saw –shaped Polar

AX3E2 T-shaped Polar

AX2E3 Linear Nonpolar

AX6 Octahedral Nonpolar

AX5E Square pyramidal Polar

AX4E2 Square planar Nonpolar

AX3E3 T-shaped Polar

AX2E4 Linear Nonpolar

* The polarity are always TRUE if the substituents are the same since the net dipole is zero. The dipole
moments cancel out.

X  number of substituents E  no. of lone pairs

Repulsion Order:

Lone Pair (LP) – LP repulsion > LP- bonding pair (BP) repulsion > BP- BP repulsion

*For the VSEPR model , molecules with multiple bonds, multiple bonds count as one effective e- pair

* When a molecule exhibits resonance, any one of the resonance structures can be used to predict the
geometry

560
Bond Polarity – results from a net dipole moment

Dipole moment – results from the

difference of electronegativity

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

 Interactions among molecules (not

within the molecules)
 Weaker than ionic or covalent bonding
 Explains the physical states of the molecules
Types:

1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (DDF)
3. Hydrogen Bonding

London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

 Relatively weak forces that exist among noble gas atoms and
non-polar molecules
 Atoms can develop a momentary non-symmetrical e-
distribution (instantaneous dipole)
 This atom can induce a similar dipole in the neighboring atom
Polarizability

 The ease with which a dipole can be induced in an atom or

molecule
 Increases with increasing no. of e-’s (increased MM).  results
to higher boiling point
 Increasing polarizability, stronger LDF
Dipole-dipole Forces

 Exhibited by polar molecules

 Stronger than LDF
 Only about 1% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds
 Molecules with dipole moments can attract each other electrostatically so that the positive and
negative ends are close to each other

561
Hydrogen Bonding

 Special type of dipole-dipole forces

 Exhibited by molecules with H-F, H-O or H-N bonds
 Occurs when an H atom is “sandwiched” between
F,O or N:

Strongest IMFA due to:

 Small size of the H atom – molecules can approach each other closely
 High electronegativity of F,O,N – H is pulled closely; highly polar bond

The structure of ice due to H-bonding is shown on the

left. There is hollow space making ice less dense than
water.

Nature of Liquids as Effects of IMFA

1. Surface Tension- Ability to resist an increase in surface

area

Stronger IMFA, higher surface tension

2.Viscosity – fluid’s resistance to flow

Stronger IMFA, higher viscosity

3. Vapor Pressure- Vapor exerted by a vapor at equilibrium with its liquid at a given temp.

Stronger IMFA, lower vapor pressure

4. Enthalpy of Vaporization, ∆Hvap- Energy that must be supplied to evaporate a liquid at 1 atm

Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hvap

5. Boiling Point- temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure

Stronger IMFA, higher boiling point

6. Freezing Point/ Melting Point- temperature at which the rate of liquid converting to solid equals the
rate of solid converting to the liquid

Stronger IMFA, higher FP/MP

562
7. Heat of Fusion, ∆Hfus- amount of heat required to melt a specified amount of solid at its MP

Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hfus

PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)

 Applied to gases:
1.Gases consist of large number of particles (molecules or atoms).
2.The gas particles are far apart. The volume therefore is negligible.
3.The particles are in constant, random and rapid motion. They move in all directions
4.At higher temp. the particles move faster. As the temp. of the gas increases, the ave. KE of the
particles also increases.
5. The particles are so far apart that the repulsion or attraction between them is negligible.
KMT extended to liquids

1. Liquids consist of large number of particles.

2. These particles are close together.
3. The particles are in constant motion. Their motion is more limited compared to that in gases
because of their nearness to each other but their can slip around one another.
4. The dependence between temperature and KE is the same as that in gases.
5. The particles experience attractive forces between them since they are closer to each other.
KMT extended to liquids

1. Solids like liquids and gases consist of large number of particles.

2. The particles are close together, as in liquids. The difference is that the molecules in a solid have
a very well-ordered arrangement.
3. The movement of particles consist mostly of vibration within a fixed point.
4. The dependence between temp. and KE is the same as that of gases and liquids.
5. The particles experience attractive forces between them. These forces are stronger compared to
that in liquids.
Factors Affecting Vaporization

1. Atmospheric pressure – the lower the pressure above the liquid, the faster the rate of
vaporization
2. Humidity – high humidity, slow rate of vaporization
3. Surface area – a large surface area provides more molecules the opportunity to escape
4. Motion of the atmosphere – vaporization occurs rapidly in moving air than in still air
Heating Curve

563
 At constant temperature, phase change
occurs and at this temperature, kinetic
energy is constant while potential energy
is increasing

At increasing temperature, kinetic energy

is increasing while potential energy is
constant.

PHASE DIAGRAM

 Triple point – all 3 states are

present

 Critical point:
 Critical temp. – temp.above
which the vapor cannot be liquefied
no matter what pressure is applied
 Critical pressure – pressure
required to produce liquefaction at
the critical temp.

Supercritical Fluid (SCF)

 Has the high density of a liquid but the low viscosity of a gas
 Molecules in SCF, being in much closer proximity than in ordinary gases, can exert strong
attractive forces on the molecules of a liquid or solid solute
GASES

Properties:

 Expansion
 Indefinite shape
 Compressibility
 Ease of mixing
 Low density
Jan Baptista van Helmont- coined the term “chaos” or “gas”

Evangelista Toricelli- showed that the air in the atmosphere exerts pressure; designed the first barometer

Properties of Gases (Measurable)

564
1. Pressure (P)- force per unit area

P= F/A SI unit: 1 Pa= 1 N/m2

Standard atmosphere : 1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr=101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar

2. Volume (V)- space occupied by the gas (unit: L, mL)

1 dm3 = 1L; 1 cm3 = 1 mL

3. Temperature (T)- expressed in K, °C or °F

K= °C + 273.15

Absolute zero temp= 0 K= -273.15°C  molecules stop moving

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): 0°C, 1 atm

Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP): 25°C, I bar

4. no. of moles of gas (n)

Gas Laws

1. Boyle’s Law- Robert Boyle

- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const temp is inversely proportional to the pressure

(V α 1/P)

 does not apply to liquids and solids

 applies only at moderate or low P and moderate or high T
P1V1 = P2V2

2. Charle’s Law- Jacques Charles (1746-1823)

- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const pressure is directly proportional to temp (V α T)

 Charles is the first person to fill a balloon with hydrogen gas (Made the first solo balloon flight)
V1 = V2

T1 T2

3. Avogadro’s Law- Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856)

- for a gas at const T and P, V is directly related to the no. of moles of gas (V α n)

Molar volume- one mole of any gas at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 L

565
 V1 = V2

n1 n2

4. Gay-Lussac’s law- the pressure occupied by a given mass of gas at const volume is directly
proportional to temp (P α T)

P1 = P2

T1 T2

5. Combined gas law

(PV)/T = k, hence (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2

6. Ideal Gas Law

PV= nRT

Where P = Pressure (atm)

V = Volume (L)

n = no. of moles (mol)

R = Universal gas constant= 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K

T = Temperature (K)

Daltons’s Law of Partial Pressures

 For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the pressures that
each gas would exert if it were alone.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + Pn

 Where P1, P2 and P3 are partial pressures of the gas each gas would exert if it were alone in the
container.

Graham’s Law of Effusion - Thomas Graham (1805-1869)

“ The rates of effusion of 2 different gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar
masses.”

Effusion -Escape of gas particles from their container through a tiny orifice or pinhole.

For 2 gases A and B:

Rate of effusion of A = √MMB

Rate of effusion of B √MMA

566
SOLUTIONS

-homogeneous solutions

Components:

• SOLUTE – substance being dissolved; present in smaller amount

• SOLVENT – the dissolving medium; present in larger amount
Solubility - The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given
temperature

Types of Solutions:

• DILUTE SOLUTION – relatively little solute present

• CONCENTRATED SOLUTION – relatively large amount of solute present

Types of Solutions based on amount of solute dissolved:

• UNSATURATED – contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SATURATED – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SUPERSATURATED – contains greater than the maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved
Concentration- The amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution

Ways of Expressing Solution Concentration

1. Molarity, M = moles of solute/ L of solution

2. Mass Percent or Weight Percent = (g solute/ g solution) x 100%
3. Mole Fraction, X = moles of a component/moles of solution
= moles solute/ (moles of solute + moles of solvent)

4. Molality, m = moles solute/ kg solvent

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

1. Structure effects

“Like dissolves like”

In general, substances that have similar IMFA have strong solute-solvent interactions and tend
to form solutions.”

2. Pressure

• Affects solutions containing gases

• Higher pressure, higher solubility of a gas in liquid
3. Temperature

For solid solute and liquid solvent:

567
 • For an endothermic dissolution: higher temperature, higher solubility
• For an exothermic dissolution: higher temperature, lower solubility
For gas solute and liquid solvent:

• Increasing temperature, lower solubility

Stoichiometry in solutions:

 Relate mole of reactant to mole of another reactant

 Relate mole of reactant to mole of product
 Relate mole of product to mole of another product
 makes use of balanced chemical equation

 always convert to mole since the balanced equation is in terms of mole.

DILUTION – procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one.

M1V1 = M2V2 where M – molarity and V- volume

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

- Solution properties that depend on the amount of solute present and not on the nature of the solute

1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

- The presence of a non-volatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent

2. Boiling Point ELevation

- The presence of a non-volatile solute increases the boiling point of a solution

BPsolution – BPsolvent = Kb m where Kb is the boiling point elevation constant

m is the molality

3. Freezing Point Depression

- The presence of a non-volatile solute decreases the freezing point of a solution

FPsolvent – FPsolution = Kf m where Kf is the freezing point depression constant

m is the molality

4. Osmotic Pressure

- Pressure required to stop osmosis

Osmosis - selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated one

568
 Semi-permeable membrane - - Allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage
of solute molecules

π = MRT Where π = osmotic pressure

M = molarity of solution

R = gas constant

T = Kelvin temp.

ACIDS AND BASES

Arrhenius Definition (Svante Arrhenius, 1859-1927)

 Acid - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [H+]

 Base - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [OH-]
Bronsted-Lowry Definition (J.N. Bronsted and T.M. Lowry, 1923)

 Acid – a proton donor

 Base - a proton acceptor
 Conjugate base – product formed when an acid loses a proton
 Conjugate acid- product formed when a base accepts a proton

Monoprotic acid – donates 1 mole H+ per mole of acid

Polyprotic acid – donates more than 1 mole H+ per mole of acid

Amphiprotic - Substance that can act either as a proton donor or proton acceptor

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

pH = -log [H3O+]

pOH = -log [OH-]

pH + pOH = 14

Strong Acids

 HCl HBr
 HI HClO4
 HNO3 H2SO4 (1st ionization only)
Strong Bases

 Hydroxides of Groups 1 and 2

Weak Acids and Bases – ionizes to small extent

The larger the Ka (ionization constant of acid), the stronger the acid, greater [H3O+]

The larger the Kb (ionization constant of base), the stronger the base, greater [OH-]

569
Lewis Definition (Gilbert Newton Lewis, 1875-1946)

 Base – a substance that can donate an e- pair

 Acid – a substance that can accept an e- pair
Titration

- a neutralization reaction
- a solution is gradually added to another solution until the solute of the first solution has
completely reacted with the solute of the second solution
Indicator – an organic compound that changes color depending on the pH

e.g. phenolphthalein colorless – acidic

faint pink – neutral

pink – basic

Equivalence Point- the point at which the solute of the first solution has completely reacted with the
solute of the other solution

Endpoint – approximates the equivalence point. It is very close to the equivalence point.

Standardization – it is the process of determining the concentration of a solution using a standard

solution. The solution has a known concentration.

Titrant- the solution usually placed on the buret. This is usually the solution of known concentration.

Analyte- the solution of unknown concentration usually placed in the Erlenmeyer flask.

BUFFERS

- A solution that resists drastic changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added.

Components:

 A weak acid and its conjugate base (in salt form) OR

 A weak base and its conjugate acid (in salt form)
pKa = - log Ka

pKb = - log Kb

Henderson-Hasselbach equation: pH = pKa + log [base]/[acid]

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

- The state in which the forward and backward reactions continue to occur but the concentrations of all
reactants and products remain constant with time.

Characteristics:

570
 1. Dynamic Situation – the forward and backward reactions continue to exist
2. Balance - the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction
3. Law of Mass Action – reactions in equilibrium can be expressed in a Definite Mathematical
Expression
For a general equation:

aA + bB cC + dD

Keq = [C]c [D]d / [A]a[B]b where Keq is the equilibrium constant

[ ] molar concentration

In the expression, only aqueous and gaseous substances are included. Solids and liquids are not included
since their concentrations are relatively constant.

Keq = Kc Kc is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in molar concentration

Kp = Kc (RT)ng Kp is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in their partial
pressures

R is the universal gas constant and T is the temperature in Celsius

ng is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous particles of

products and reactants

Keq > 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of products

-shift to the right

- very large Keq: reaction goes to completion

Keq < 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of reactants

-shift to the left

- reaction does not occur to a significant extent

Le Chateler’s Principle -Henry Louis Le Chatelier (1850-1936)

- If a change in conditions (a “stress”) is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position

will shift in a direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions.

Factors Affecting Equilibria

1. Change in concentration

- If a reactant or product is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift away
from the added component.
- If a reactant or product is removed, the system will shift toward the removed component.

571
2. Change in pressure

 affects only system involving gases

Three ways to change the pressure of gaseous systems at a given temperature:

a. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product at constant volume- same effect as change in
concentration

b. Add an inert gas (not involved in the reaction) at constant volume – increase in total pressure but
has no effect on concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products

c. Change the volume of the container – when the volume of the container holding a gaseous system
is reduced, the system responds by reducing its own volume. This is done by decreasing the total
no. of gaseous molecules in a system

3. Change in temperature

1. Keq value changes with temperature

2. Energy is treated as a reactant (endothermic) or product (exothermic)
3. If energy (heat) is added, the equilibrium will shift to the direction which consumes the added
energy
4. Catalyst

- Speeds up both the forward and backward reactions

- Equilibrium is achieved more rapidly but the equilibrium amounts are unchanged
- Therefore, has no effect on equilibria
CHEMICAL KINETICS

 The area of chemistry concerned with the speeds or rates at which a chemical reaction occurs
Collision Theory- Chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between reacting molecules.

 For a reaction to procede, reacting particles must collide effectively to enable outer shell
electrons to interact.

 Collisions to be effective, must be with enough energy to overcome repulsive forces between
electrons surrounding the nuclei of atoms.
Activation Energy (Ea)

 The threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction

Transition State or Activated Complex

 A temporary species formed by the reactant molecules as a result of the collision before they
form the product.

FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES

1. Concentration

572
 – higher concentration, higher reaction rate; more molecules, more collisions

2. Temperature

- Higher temperature, more collisions with high energy, higher reaction rate

3. Catalyst

- A substance that increases the reaction rate without itself being consumed.

- hastens the reaction by providing a path with lower activation energy thus less energy is needed for a
reaction to proceed

4. Pressure

- affects gaseous systems

- higher pressure, more collisions; higher reaction rate

THERMOCHEMISTRY

• Study of heat changes in chemical reactions

• Thermal energy transferred between 2 bodies that are at different temperatures
• Units: 1 calorie = 4.184 J
System  A specific part of the universe that is of interest

Surrounding  The rest of the universe outside the system

Exothermic Process : Q= (-)

- Heat is transferred from the system to the surroundings

Endothermic Process: Q = (+)

- Heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be
created nor destroyed.

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics - In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in the
entropy (disorder) of the universe

- The entropy of the universe is increasing

• SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – occurs without outside intervention (given the right conditions)
• NON-SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – can occur as long as they receive some sort of outside
assistance

573
 • G < 0 (negative) – SPONTANEOUS
• G > 0 (positive) – NON- SPONTANEOUS
• G = 0 (zero) – at equilibrium

G = H -TS

CALORIMETRY

- Measurement of heat changes

• CALORIMETER – a closed container used to measure heat changes

Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1oC.
• An intensive property
Heat Capacity (S)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a substance by 1oC
• An extensive property
• S = m Cp where m = mass
Amount of Heat, Q

Q = mCpT where m is mass and T is final temperature – initial temperature

If Q is positive, the process is endothermic.

If Q is negative, the process is exothermic.

Note: Qsys = - Qsurr

OXIDATION – REDUCTION (REDOX) REACTION

- Electron transfer reactions

HALF- REACTION

 Shows the electrons involved in a redox reaction

a. Oxidation half-reaction

 Half-reaction that involves loss of electrons

 REDUCING AGENT (Reductant) – donates e-’s
b. Reduction half-reaction

 Half-reaction that involves gain of electrons

 OXIDIZING AGENT (Oxidant) – accepts e-’s
Mnemonics:

LEORA –Loss of Electron, Oxidation, Reducing Agent

GEROA- Gain of Electron, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent

574
Disproportionation Reaction

- same substance on the reactant side is oxidized and reduced

Comproportionation Reaction

- same substance on the product side is oxidized and reduced

Oxidation State

- A concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in redox reaction according to certain rules.

RULES & CONVENTIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION STATES

Fundamental Rules:

1. The sum of the oxidation state for all atoms in the formula for an electrically neutral compound
is zero.

2. The oxidation state for any element in the free or uncombined state is zero.

3. The oxidation state for an ion is the same as its charge.

Special Convention

1. In all hydrogen compounds, the oxidation state for H is +1.

Exception: in hydrides where H is –1

2. In all oxygen compounds, the oxidation state for O is –2.

Exception: in peroxides where O is –1

3. In all halides, the oxidation state for the halogens is –1.

4. In all sulfides, the oxidation state for sulfur is –2.

5. In binary compounds, the element with the greatest attraction for electrons is assigned a negative
oxidation state equal to its charge in its ionic compound.

Electrochemistry

575
- Area of chemistry that deals with the
interconversion of electrical and chemical energy

Electrochemical Cell/ Voltaic Cell/ Galvanic

Cell

• The experimental apparatus for

generating electricity through the use of
a spontaneous redox reaction.
Parts:

Anode

• Electrode at which oxidation occurs

• Negative (-) terminal
• Electrons leave
Cathode

• Electrode at which reduction occurs

• Positive (+) terminal
• Electrons enters
What occurs?

• Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit.

• Oxidation occurs at the anode, anions flow toward the anode within the cell
• Reduction occurs at the cathode, cations flow toward the cathode within the cell
Anolyte – where anode is immersed

Cathoyte- where cathode is immersed

Salt Bridge – maintains the neutrality

External Wire- pathway for electron flow

Voltmeter

• Measures the cell potential

• Gives positive readings in volts

Cell Representation or Diagram

• Anode │ Reducing species (oxidized form) ║ oxidizing species (reduced form) │cathode
Where │- boundary between different phases (e.g. electrode and solution)

║- boundary between half-cell compartments (e.g. salt bridge)

576
Mnemonics: ABC  anode- bridge- cathode

CELL POTENTIAL / CELL VOLTAGE / ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf or E)

• The difference in electrical potential between the anode and the cathode
• Higher cell potential, higher energy given off by e-’s, strong tendency to generate electric
current
• 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb
• 1V = 1J/C
• Energy (J) = charge(C) x cell potential (V)
E0 cell  positive  spontaneous process

For reactions in which reactants and products are in their standard states,

Go = -nFEocell

Go Eocell Spontaneity

- + spontaneous

0 0 at equilibrium

+ - non-spontaneous

Note: Higher reduction potential higher tendency to undergo reduction

Higher oxidation potential higher tendency to undergo oxidation

Electrolytic Cell

• Electrical energy is used to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to occur

• ELECTROLYTIC CELL is the apparatus used.

1. Two electrodes share the same compartment

2. Has a single electrolyte
3. The conditions are usually far from the standard : gas pressures are rarely close to 1 atm and
solutions are not 1 M.
Battery withdraws e-’s from the anode and pushes them to the cathode.

Anode  where oxidation occurs; positive

Cathode  where reduction occurs; negative

Electron flows from anode to cathode

Anions go to the anode and cations go to cathode

E0cell is negative  non-spontaneous

CORROSION

577
 conversion of metal to its metal oxide

Rusting – corrosion of iron

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

- study of carbon and its compounds; chemistry of the hydrocarbons (compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives.
Hydrocarbons:

1. Alkane – CnH2n + 2

- all single bonds

2. Alkene – CnH2n

- double bond between carbon and hydrogen is present

3. Alkyne – CnH2n - 2

- triple bond between carbon and hydrogen is present

Aromatic  cyclic derivative

Aliphatic  open-chain

Oxygen Containing

1. Alcohol (R-OH)

2. Ethers (R-O-R)

3. Carboxylic Acids (RCOOH)

4. Esters (RCOOR)

5. Aldehydes (RCOH)

6. Ketone (RCOR)

Others:

1. alkyl halides (RX) where X is either F, Cl, Br, I

2. amines (RNH2)

3. amides (RCONH2)

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES

578
Alkanes are named by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system, which
uses a systematic set of rules. Many also have non-systematic common or trivial names that are still in
use.

Common Names

At a time when relatively few organic compounds were known, it was customary to name new
compounds at the whim of their discoverers. Urea was so named because it was isolated from urine.
Morphine, a painkiller, was named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Barbituric acid, a
tranquilizer, was named by its discoverer after his friend Barbara. These older names for organic
compounds are now called common or trivial names; many of these names are still widely used in the
chemical literature and in commerce.

In the common nomenclature, the total number of carbon atoms in an alkane, regardless of their
arrangement, determines the name. The first three alkanes are methane, ethane and propane.

For alkanes beyond propane, certain prefixes are used to differentiate the different structural isomers.

 The prefix normal or n- is used to indicate that all carbons are joined in a continuous chain.
 The prefix iso- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in
a (CH3)2CH- group
 The prefix neo- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in
(CH3)3C- group

THE IUPAC System

The system of nomenclature so devised is presently known as the IUPAC system.

Systematic names or organic compounds consist of three main parts:

Prefix – stem – suffix

The stem indicates the number of carbon atoms in the backbone or parent chain of the molecules. The
parent chain is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.

Backbone Stem Backbone Stem

C1 Met- C11 Undec-

C2 Eth- C12 Dodec-

C3 Prop C13 Tridec-

C4 But- C14 Tetradec-

C5 Pent- C15 Pentadec-

579
 C6 Hex- C16 Hexadec-

C7 Hept- C17 Heptadec-

C8 Oct- C18 Octadec-

C9 Non- C19 Nonadec-

C10 Dec- C20 Eicos-

The suffix identifies the type or class of the compound. For alkane, the suffix is –ane.

Attached to the backbone are the side-chains or substituents. The substituents present are indicated by
the prefix. In alkanes, the side-chains are called alkyl groups, which are derived from alkanes through
the removal of one hydrogen atom. They are named by changing –ane ending of the parent alkane to –
yl.

Steps:

1. Locate the parent chain

a. Find the longest continuous chain present in the molecule and use the name of that chain as
the parent name.

b. If there are two different chains of equal length, choose the one with the larger number of
branch points as the parent chain.

2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain so that the substituents are given the lowest position
numbers.

3. Identify the substituents and the position of the carbon atoms to which they are attached.

a. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them both the same number.

b. There must always be as many numbers in the name as there are substituents.

4. Write the name of the compound by first arranging all substituents in alphabetical order and
preceeding the name of each substituent by the position number and then adding the name of the parent
chain; use hyphens to separate the different prefixes and commas to separate numbers.

a. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent, indicate by prefixes di-, tri-,
tetra-, etc. However, do not use these prefixes for alphabetizing purposes.

5. Prefixes such as cyclo, neo- and iso- are included in alphabetizing substituents, while hyphenated
prefixes such as tert-, sec-, n- are ignored.

580
e.g.

2,6-dimethyloctane

For alkenes

The same as alkanes with some modifications:

a. The parent chain must contain the double bond.

b. The parent chain is named by changing the –ane ending of the corresponding alkane to –ene and
indicating the position of the double bond by the lowest number possible.

c. The carbons bearing the substituents are also given the lowest numbers possible, but the double bonds
takes precedence.

For alkynes

The rules are the same as for naming of alkenes, except that the ending –yne replaces –ene

Biochemistry

Polymers Building Blocks

Protein amino acids

Carbohydrates monosaccharides

Nucleic Acids nucleotides

Lipids fatty acids + glycerol

Saccharides – Sugars

Monosaccharide  one unit

Disaccharide  two units of monosaccharide

Glycogen  stored food in animals

Starch  stored food in plants

Cellulose  supporting framework of plants

Nucleotides

581
 Components

1. Nitrogenous Base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)

2. Sugar moiety

3. phosphate group

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

RNA – ribonucleic acid

Physics

A. Vector and Scalar

Scalar quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude only

Examples:

a) Mass d) Area
b) Time e) Distance
c) Temperature
Vector quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude and direction

Examples:

a) Force d) Acceleration
b) Velocity e) Displacement
c) Weight
 An arrow is used to represent a vector

Parts of the arrow

a) arrowhead – indicates the direction of the vector

b) length of the arrow – represents the magnitude of the vector
c) Tail – represents the origin of the vector
 Resultant vector – sum/difference of two or more vectors which will give the same effect as the
original vectors.
Process of finding the resultant vector

a) addition – if vectors have the same direction

Example: Kelly walks 2 meters to the east. After 10 seconds, he continued walking 3 meters to
the same direction. What is his displacement?

D = 2m + 3m = 5m to the east

Using an arrow,

582
 2m 3m or 5m

b) Subtraction – if vectors are acting on opposite directions. The resultant vector takes the direction
of the larger vector.
Example: A ball was tossed upward from the building and reached the height of 5m above the
building. It the moved downwards, traveling 10m until it hits the ground.

D = -10m + 5m = -5m

Using an arrow,

5m 10m or 15m

c) Pythagorean Theorem – if vectors are acting at a right angle with one another

Example: Marivic first walks 2km north before proceeding 1.5 km east.What is her
displacement?

D 2  1.5 
2 2

D = 2.5 km

Using an arrow,

1.5km

2km

2.5km

d) Component Method – if several vectors are acting on different directions, x and y component
are mathematically added to find the resultant vector.

583
 Example: An airplane flies in a northeasterly direction at 100kph at the same time that there is
a wind blowing at 20kph to the northwest. What is the resultant velocity of the plane?

X-components:

Vxplane = +Vplane cos 45о

= 70.71kph

Vxwind = -Vwind cos45 о

= -14.14kph

Y-components:

Vyplane = +Vplane sin45 о

= 70.71kph

Vywind = +Vwind sin 45 о

= 14.14kph

Resultant Velocity

Vx = Vxplane + Vxwind

= 70.71 – 14.14

= 56.57 kph

Vy = Vyplane + Vywind

= 70.71 + 14.14

= 84.85kph

B. Mechanics
Motion – change in position of an object relative to other objects that are considered at rest.

 Linear Motion
Distance vs. Displacement

Distance – total path length traveled by a body.

Displacement – change in position of an object. It represents the straight line path between the
starting and end points.

Example:

584
 a. Jen travels 5km to work and back. What is the distance she travels? What is the
displacement?
Distance = 5km + 5km

= 10km

Displacement = 5km – 5km

=0

*since there is no change in position, her displacement is zero

b. Rocky walks 20 km due north from his camp. Late in the afternoon, he walks back
11km south along the same path.

i. What is his total displacement from the camp?

ii. What is the total distance he traveled?

i. Displacement = 20km + (-11km)

= 9km due north

ii. Distance = 20km + 11km

= 31 km

Speed vs. Velocity

Speed – measure of how fast an object travels

o Average speed – ration of total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that
distance.

TotalDis tan ceTravelle d

AverageSpe ed 
ElapsedTim e

Example: It takes a school bus 1 hour to travel 20km. What is its average speed?

20 km km
AverageSpe ed   20
1hr hr

o Instantaneous speed – is the speed at particular instance in time

x x 2  x1
Instantaneous Speed  
t t 2  t1

Example: What is the speed of a car that covered 150km in two hours?

585
 x 150 km  0 km
Instantaneous Speed    75
t 2 hrs  0 hr

o Velocity – rate of motion with direction

displaceme nt
Velocity 
time

Example: Rocky drives a distance of 80km in 2 hours towards the north direction. What is
his velocity?

Given:

d = 80km

t = 2hrs

Find: v

Solution:

80 km
v
2 hrs

km
v  40 north
hrs

o Acceleration – rate of change of velocity

ChangeOfVe locity
Accelerati on 
time

km km
Example: A driver steadily increases his velocity from 30 to 60 in 2 hours. What
hr hr
is his acceleration?

km km
60  30
a hr hr  15 km
2 hrs hr 2

586
Graphs relating displacement, velocity and acceleration

x v a

t t t

Zero acceleration, Zero velocity

Where x = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time

587
 x v a

t t t

Zero acceleration, constant velocity

Where x = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time

x v a

t t t

constant acceleration, increasing velocity

Where x = displacement
v = velocity
a = acceleration
t = time

 Ideal linear motion

a) Uniform Motion – motion with constant velocity

Δx = vt

588
 Where

Δx = x – xo

v = velocity

t = time

Example: What is the displacement of a car moving at a constant velocity of 20m/s after 2
seconds?

Given:

v = 20m/s

t = 2s

Find: Δx

Solution:

Δx = vt

Δx = 20m/s (2s)

Δx = 40m

b) Uniform Accelerated Motion – motion with constant acceleration

V f
 V o  at

2
at
X  X o
V ot 
2

2 2
V f
 V o  2 aX

 x  ( V f  V o )t
2

Where:

Vf = final velocity

Vo = initial velocity

a = acceleration

t = time

589
 X = final position

Xo = initial position

ΔX = X – Xo,displacement

Example: A cyclist is moving with a velocity of 2m/s and accelerates to 4m/s after 2 seconds. What is
the acceleration of the cyclist?

Given:

Vf = 4m/s

Vo = 2m/s

t=2s

Find: a

Solution:

V f
 V o  at

a  (V f  V o)
t

a  (4m/s  2 m / s )
2s

a = 1 m/s2

c) Freefall - a good example of uniform accelerated motion

- one dimensional motion where the moving object is only under the influence of gravity

- gravitational acceleration is equal to -9.8m/s2

V f
 V o  gt

2
gt
Y Y o V ot 
2

2 2
V f
 V o  2 gY

590
  Y  ( V f  V o )t
2

Where:

Vf = final velocity

Vo = initial velocity

g = -9.8m/s2, gravitational acceleration

t = time

Y = final position

Yo = initial position

ΔY = Y – Yo, displacement

Example: A ball is dropped from a building without an initial velocity. Find the velocity of the ball after
5 seconds.

Given:

T=5s

Vo = 0

Find: Vf

Solution:

Vf = gt

= (-9.8m/s2) 5s

= -49m/s

Example: A mango falls from a tree. How far does it fall after 0.5 seconds?

Given:

t = 0.5 s

Vo = 0

Find: ΔY

Solution:

591
 2
gt
Y  V o t 
2

 
  9 .8 m  2


( 0 . 5 s )
s 
2

Y 
2

ΔY = -19.6 m

d) Projectile Motion – curved motion of an object that is projected into the air and acted upon by the
gravitational force of the earth

- a combination of uniform motion and freefall

Projectile – an object thrown into the air that is allowed to move freely and is influenced only by gravity

h
Vo

RANGE

Range – horizontal distance covered by a projectile

Time of flight – time in which the projectile is up in the air

Trajectory – curve traced by the path of the projectile

Maximum height, h – the vertical displacement traveled by the projectile in its trajectory

592
Conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight:

a) Neglect the effect of air resistance to the body

b) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other. Separate the displacement and
velocity to its x and y components.

Along the horizontal:

i) the x component of the velocity is constant throughout the flight

ii) the horizontal displacement x, follows uniform motion
iii) Formula along the horizontal is the same as uniform motion

Along the vertical:

i) the y component of the velocity acts as freefall and thus, only affected by the gravitational
acceleration
ii) The velocity’s sign is positive (+) for upward motion while for downward motion, it is
negative (-).
iii) Upon hitting the ground, its velocity is always equal to zero.
iv) The time required for the projectile to reach its maximum height from its firing point is
equal to the time that the projectile will reach the same height of its firing point from the
maximum height.
v) Formula along the vertical is the same as freefall
When vertical displacement is at its maximum height:

i) the x component of the velocity is constant

ii) the y component of the velocity is equal to zero
iii) the acceleration is still equal to g,-9.8m/s2
Example: A stone is thrown with an initial horizontal velocity of 10m/s from the top of a tower 200m
high. Where is the stone after 2s? When will it hit the ground? What is its speed just before it hits the
ground?

Given:

Vx = 10m/s

dy = 200m

t = 2s

Find: dx after 2s, t, Vf

Solution:

i) Δx = vt

593
 Δx = (10m/s)(2s)

Δx = 20m

2
gt
ii) Y Y o V ot 
2

Since there is no initial velocity along the vertical and the top of the building is the reference
point, Yo and Vyo is equal to zero.

2Y
t
g

2 (  200 m )
t
 9 .8 m 2
s
t = 6.38 s

iii) V f
 V o  gt

2
V f
 0  (  9 .8 m s )( 6.38 s )

V f
 62 .52 m / s

C. Newton’s Laws of Motion

- explains why objects move, and define the relationship between the external forces
acting on a body – as well as between two or more interacting bodies and the motion
that arises from the action of these forces.
1. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
“Every material continues to be at rest if it is at rest or in uniform motion if it is in
motion, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces acted upon it.”

Inertia – is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion

Mass – is a measure of an object’s inertia

Weight – force acted upon an object due to gravity

Force – a push or a pull (e.g. gravitational force, friction, normal forces, electromagnetic force,
etc.)

- a vector quantity with SI unit of Newton (N = kg-m/s2)

2. Second Law of Motion (Law of acceleration)

594
 “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the
object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.”

F
a
m

F = ma

* Force and mass have opposite effect on acceleration. The more massive the object, the less is
the acceleration. This means that acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. The greater force
will result to greater the acceleration. Force is directly proportional to the acceleration of an object.

Example: Neglecting friction, what constant force will give a mass of 50kg an acceleration of 5m/s 2?

Given:

m = 50kg

a = 5m/s2

Find: F

Solution:

F = ma

F = (50kg)( 5m/s2)

F = 250 kg-m/s2 or 250N

3) Third Law of Motion (Law of action-reaction)

“Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object, exerts an
equal and opposite force.”

Hence, if your hand exerts a force of 20N in a wall, the wall will also exert a force of 20N in
your hand

D. Momentum and Impulse

Momentum

Momentum is a physical quantity obtained when the mass of an object is multiplied to its
velocity. It has the same direction as the velocity. This means that an object with large mass and
velocity has high momentum. Accordingly, an object at rest has a momentum equal to zero.

595
 p = mv

Where:

p = momentum

m = mass

v = velocity

Example: A truck full of sand with a mass of 40,000kg travels east with a velocity of 50m/s.
What is the truck’s momentum?

Given:

m = 40,000kg

v = 50m/s

Find: p

Solution:

p = mv

p = (40000kg) (50m/s)

p = 2,000,000 kg-m/s

Impulse

Impulse is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the force. It is equal to the product
of force and time. It is also associated with the change of momentum.

J   mv

J  mv mv
   ma  F
t t t

J  Ft

Where:

J = impulse

F = Force

Δt = change in time

596
 m = mass

v = velocity

Example: A bat hits the baseball. The bat and the baseball remain in contact for 0.005 seconds.
The 0.1kg ball leaves the bat with a velocity of 100m/s. What is the average force of the bat on
the baseball?

Given:

t = 0.005s

m = 0.1kg

v = 100m/s

Find: F

Solution:

mv  mv 0
F 
t

( 0 .1x100 )  0
F 
0 .005

F  2000 N

Law of Conservation of Momentum

“The total momentum of a system remains constant if the net external forces acting on
the system are equal to zero.”

 before
mv   after mv

As stated, the total linear momentum of the system does not change. This means that if you add
all the momenta, you will get the same result even if the objects are colliding with each other

Collision – any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time

Two types of Collision

i) Elastic collision – after the collision, the objects is still separatd from each other
ii) Inelastic collision – after the collision, the objects move as one unit
External Forces – Forces exerted on any part of the system by any body outside the system

E. Work, Energy, Power

597
Work – the product of force and displacement

W  F   x cos 

Where:

W = work

F = force

Δx = displacement

NOTE: A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement

Example: A 100N block lies on a frictionless surface. A force of 20N was applied horizontally where
the block had moved 5m. Find the work done by the force and weight of the block.

Given:

Weight of the block = 100N

Force applied = 20N

Displacement = 5m

Find: Work by the force and weight

Solution:

i)W force
 F   x cos 

W force
 20 N  5m cos 0

W force
 100 Nm  100 Joules

ii) W weight
 F   x cos 

W weight
 100  0 cos 90

W weight
0

The work done by the weight is equal to zero since it is perpendicular to the displacement.

Energy – capacity to do work

598
 - a scalar quantity

Types of Mechanical Energy

a) Potential Energy – The energy stored on an object due to its position.

i) Gravitational Potential Energy

PE grav  mgh
Where:

PE = Potential Energy

m = mass

g = gravitational acceleration

h = height

ii) Elastic Potential – energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or
compressing
1
PE s  2 k  x
2

Where:

PE = Potential Energy

k = force constant of the spring

Δx = extension/compression of the spring

b) Kinetic Energy – energy of an object in motion

1 2
KE  2 m v
Where:

KE = Kinetic energy

m = mass

v = velocity

Practice Test

1. Which is not considered as adaptive mechanism of living things?

a. Modification of body parts to suit the environment.

599
b. Presence of specialized structures like thorns and fins.
c. Possession of camouflage features like color, pattern or shape.
d. Reproduction for the preservation of a certain species.

2. Biologists are at present involved in gene manipulation by altering the genes in nuclei. Which aims
seem to be the most important of such manipulation?
a. to cure ancient genetic diseases like cancer
b. to prolong life
c. to create new types of agricultural plants and animals
d. to make significant changes in man himself

3. Which chemical substance produced by the body regulates and coordinates the functions and
activities of bodily organ?
a. gene b. Deoxyribonucleic acid c. hormone d. enzyme

4. Which endocrine abnormality is characterized by dwarfness, low intelligence and sex immaturity?
a. myxedema b. cretinism c. tetany d. acromegaly

5. What is the present connotation of symbiosis?

a. a give and take relationship of organism
b. any type of relationship between two dissimilar organisms living together
c. a one- sided relationship between two species
d. neutral relationship that exist between two organisms

6. Living things are classified either as aerobic or anaerobic as they grow or metabolize in the presence
or absence of:
a. carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen
c. water
d. oxygen

7. What is the structural difference between plants and animals?

a. Plant cells have plastids but animal cells do not.
b. Plant cells have a stiff cell wall of cellulose but animal cells do not.
c. Animal cells have centriole but the cells of higher plants do not.
d. Plant cells have only a thin membrane but animals do not.

8. Only living things can respond to stimuli, to physical and chemical changes in their environment.
Such a characteristic is called:
a. metabolism
b. irritability
c. movement
d. specific organization

600
9. The preservation of specie is made possible through:
a. reproduction
b. adaptation
c. metabolism
d. growth

10. Which process involves in the movement of dissolved molecules (solute) through a differentially
permeable membrane?
a. diffusion
b. osmosis
c. Brownian movement
d. dialysis

11. Which refers to the earth’s entire zone of air, land and water which occupied by living things?
a. biosphere b. biome c. bioassay d. biomass

12. Which body organ is responsible for the removal of waste from the blood and body fluids?
a. liver
b. pancreas
c. kidney
d. large intestine

13. What is meant by excretion?

a. Elimination of waste and undigested food from the anus.
b. Removal from the cells and blood streams of substances which are no further use in the body.
c. Release from the cell of some substance that is utilized elsewhere in some bodily process.
d. Absorption of soluble food by the body cells.

14. The clotting of the blood is essentially the function of:

a. red blood cells b. white corpuscles
c. plasma d. hemoglobin

15. All living things have a tendency to maintain uniformity or stability in their internal environment
called:
a. anabolism b. metabolism c. epigenesist d. homeostasis

16. What is an ecosystem?

a. A basic unit that shows interaction between living things and their environment.
b. A recognizable unit which shows plant and animal distribution as influenced primarily by climate.
c. A fundamental unit that shows various types of relationship among organism.
d. A distinct unit that shows how physical factor can affect other abiotic components in the
environment.

17. Which plant structure transports organic nutrients both up and down the stem and roots?

601
a. xylem b. vascular bundle c. parenchyma d. phloem

18. Under what condition does a living organism live best or has the greatest chance of survival?
a. maximal b. minimal c. optimum d. standard

19. Which traps light energy from the sun for use in the photosynthesis?
a. carbon dioxide
b. water
c. chlorophyll
d. oxygen

20. Smoking cigarettes:

a. causes ulcer
b. decreases the vital capacity of the stomach
c. leads to emphysema and lung cancer
d. leads to abnormal life

21. Blood cells and plasma factors are important:

a. immune defense b. invaders c. external defenses d. internal
defenses
22. A spinal nerve is:

a.motor nerve
b. sensory nerve
c. neuron
d. mixed nerve

23. The anterior pituitary stimulates the:

a. motor coordination b. consciousness c. sense reception d. homeostasis

24. What do all methods of birth control have in common?

a. they all use some device
b. they are all expensive
c. they interrupt lovemaking
d. they prevent the egg from coming in contact with the sperm

25. Pregnancy begins:

a. upon successful implantation c. when the egg is fertilized
b. during the follicular phase d. when ovulation occurs

26. The fact that many insects are now immune to DDT is an example of:
a. natural selection b. genetic drift c. geographical isolation d. translocation

27. The nutrient glucose is useful to the body:

602
a. to prevent goiter c. active reabsorption
b. as a source of energy d. during the process of respiration

28. Radiant energy is covered into chemical energy during:

a. oxidation b. glycosis
c. respiration d. photosynthesis

29. Which of the following is not a form of vegetative reproduction?

a. regeneration
b. budding
c. spore formation
d. vegetation by runners

30. Nitrogenous waste is produced by the metabolism of:

a. fats b. carbohydrates c. proteins d. starches

31. Which of the following is a reflex act?

a. breathing b. blinking c. walking d. sleeping

32. In an ecosystem:
a. only energy is recycled c. both materials and energy are recycled
b. only materials are recycled d. neither materials nor energy is recycled

33. Distribution of plants is affected by:

a. type of soil
b. amount of light
c. amount of rainfall
d. A, B, and C are correct

34. Which decoction contains traces of iron to arrest hemorrhage?

a. corn silk b. ampalaya leaves flowers c. gumamela d. coconut milk

35. Hyperacidity can destroy the lining of the stomach. Which of the following substance can ease the
discomfort?

a. water therapy
b. milk of magnesia
c. starch solution
d. gelatin

36. Deficiency of carbohydrates is characterized by:

a. sluggishness
b. pallor
c. obesity

603
 d. bone deformation

37. Salt as a preservative causes:

a. cell shrinkage b. ionization c. hydrolysis d. hydration

38. What do you call the practical or industrial application based on scientific principles?
a. scientific method b. technology c. theory d.
experimentation

39. What is the principal cause of earthquakes?

a. faulting
b. landslides
c. nuclear explosions
d. volcanic erupt

40. Purification of metals can be done best by:

a. filtration
b. flotation
c. aeration
d. electrolysis

LET Reviewer- Social Science

Lecture Notes

Peace Education, Human Education & Global Education

To address present critical issues, there is a need to revise our teacher education curriculum to make it
truly integrated and holistic in content and approach. To do so, we need to identify 3 important areas of
concerns:

 Peace Education – This area affirms personal and global responsibilities for the promotion of
peace, cooperation, disarmament, justice and non-violent resolution of conflict.
 Human Rights Education – Promotes understanding of Human Rights concepts and values to
enable learners to comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human rights
violation.
 Global Education – Involves learning about those problems and issues which cut across national
boundaries and about the interconnectedness of system – cultural, ecological, economic,
political, and technological. It also includes citizenship education.

Objectives of Peace Education

604
 1. Knowledge
a. Peace – students should investigate different concepts and examples of peace on a
variety of levels from personal to global.
b. Conflict and Violence – students should study the problems of violence
c. Some Peaceful Alternatives
 disarmament
 non-violent conflict resolution
 development based on justice
 human rights respect
 human solidarity
 environmental care
d. Ethical and Practical Rationale – students should study the ethical and practical basis
for the above-cited peaceful alternatives in order to provide added motivation for
learning.
2. Attitudes/Values
a. Self-respect
b. Respect for others
c. Respect for human life/nonviolence
d. Global concern
e. Ecological concern
f. Cooperation
g. Openness/Tolerance
h. Social Responsibility
i. Positive Vision
3. Skills
a. Reflection
b. Critical Thinking
c. Decision-making
d. Imagination
e. Communication
f. Conflict Resolution
g. Group Building

Principles and Concept About Peace

“Since wars begin in the minds of men and women, it is in the minds of woman and men that the defense
of peace must be constructed.”

Love

 self-worth/self-esteem
 positive self-criticism
 deep sense of responsibility
 fidelity/loyalty
 sense of reconciliation
 gentleness
 trust and respect
 openness
 concern for others
 sense of sacrifice

605
  courage
 endurance
Compassion

 kindness
 sensitivity to others needs
 nurturing
 moral strength/fortitude
 goodwill
 supportiveness
Harmony

 mutual trusts and understanding

 cooperation/collaboration
 sense of belongingness/cultural worth
 effective communication
 sense of reconciliation
Tolerance

mutual respect


respect for personal and cultural differences (unity in diversity)



 genuine acceptance and accommodation

 peaceful conflict resolution
 acceptance and appreciation of diversity of cultures
 respect for minority groups and foreigners
 sense of humor, courtesy/cordiality, open-mindedness
Caring and Sharing

love


concern


 generosity
Interdependence

 sense of interconnectedness with others and with creation

 globalization/nationalization and internationalism
 sense of subsidiarity
 non-violence
 active participation
 global understanding/mutual respect among nations
 creative and collective responsibility and cooperation
 transformational leadership
 commitment to the future
Empathy

 appreciation of the other

 awareness
 concern
Spirituality

 inner peace
 belief in one’s material and spiritual development

606
  reverence and respect for life
 commitment to genuine human development
 confidence in human spirit
 freedom of thought, conscience and belief

Human Rights Education

Human rights is defined as the supreme, inherent and alienable right to life, dignity, and self
development. It is concerned with issues on both areas of civil and political rights and economic, social
and cultural rights founded on internationally accepted human rights obligations to which the Philippines
government is a state party. (Educator’s Human Rights Handbook, Commission on Human Rights).

The Fundamental Principles Underlying The Human Rights Standards

Universality – that human rights should be enjoyed by everyone without discrimination as to sex, age,
language, religion, or race. Wherever a person is, whether in a rich or poor country, in a tribe, and
whoever the person is, a king, queen or pauper, man or woman, old and young s/he can claim such rights.

Inviolability – that human rights as an irreducible element of one’s humanity cannot be abrogated or
violated unless determined by law and “solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect
for the rights of other an of meeting the just requirements of the general welfare, morality, and public
order in a democratic society.”

Interdependence – a person’s well being cannot be enjoyed in a piece meal. Human dignity cannot be
taken in increments. This means that certain rights cannot be sacrified in favor of other rights because
taken together, these rights make human beings whole.

The Different Groups of Rights

According to Nature

a. Civil Rights – are those rights when the law will enforce at the private individuals for the purpose
of securing to them the enjoyment of their means of happiness. Examples are right to life,
liberty, and security, freedom to travel, right to due process.
b. Political Rights – are those rights which enable us to participate in running the affairs of the
government either directly or indirectly. Examples are the right to vote, right to information on
matters of public concern and the right initiative, freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly.
c. Economic and Social Rights – are those which the law confers by law upon the people to enable
them to achieve social and economic development, thereby ensuring them their well being,
happiness and financial security. Example: are the right to property, education, and promotion
of social justice.

607
 d. Cultural Rights – are those rights that ensure the well being of the individual and foster the
preservation, enrichment and dynamic evolution of national culture based on the principle of
unity in diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression.

According to Recipient

Individual Rights – are those being accorded to individuals

Collective/Group Rights – are those of the society, those that can be enjoyed only in company with
others.

According to Source

Natural Rights – are rights believed to be based on reason or given by Supreme Being. They existed
long before they were recognized by law. Examples of which are right to life, right to property, right to
justice, right to freedom, right to peace

Legal Rights – are rights recognized by laws. Examples of which are right to habeas corpus, right to be
presumed innocent until proven guilty, right to bail, etc.

According to Implementation

Immediate – are those rights the States can readily implement because these are dependent on the States’
political will such as civil and political rights.

Progressive/Incremental – are those rights whose implementation is dependent on availability of the

states’ resources and thus can only be enjoyed gradually. Such rights are the social, economic and
cultural rights.

Human Rights are Guaranteed By:

National Human Rights Mechanism:

1. Legislation – international human rights laws still have to be translated and incorporated into
the national laws of States parties. This can be done either through (1) amending and
supplementing national laws to suit international laws and (2) promulgating new legal
documents.
2. Education and Campaign – much of human rights violations occur because of lack of human
rights awareness among the people. Educating state agents such as the police, government
officials and public servants is crucial only as an immediate measure to prevent violations of
human rights. However, dissemination of human rights in the grassroots and educating the
people especially the marginalized is a major requirement for human rights protection and
promotion.
3. National Programs of Action – human rights are not juts a compilation of laws, these are a
framework for governance, a national vision that must be pursued. Human rights should guide
government leaders in formulating policies and programs. The everyday conduct of
government activities should be guided by the principles of human rights.

608
Global Education

“Global education involves learning about those problems and issues that cut across national
boundaries, and about the interconnectedness of systems—ecological, cultural, economic, political and
technological. Global education involves perspective taking—seeing things through the eyes and minds
of others—and it means the realization that while individuals and groups may view life differently, they
also have common needs and wants.”

Global Education involves the:

 Study the systems (economic, political, ecological, technological)

 Study of human values (universal and diverse)
 Study of persistent problems (war and peace, human rights, environmental issues)
 Study of global history (development of global systems and human values)

Issues Relevant to Global Education

Children’s Rights

 The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable
standards and obligation which spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere –
without discrimination.

Disasters

 Reducing human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disasters
comes from preparedness and mitigation through policies, education and strategic and rapid
responses.
Education

 Investing in education systems helps build human capital and ensures that people can participate
more fully in society.
Environment

 As the world’s population grows there is more and more pressure on the environment to produce
enough food and energy without consuming the resources faster than they can be replaced.
Food Security

 Providing for the physical, social and economic access by all people at all times to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life.
Governance

 Effective governance means competent management of a country’s resources in a way that is

fair, open, accountable and responsive to people’s needs.

609
HIV/AIDS

 The HIV/AIDS pandemic represents one of the greatest challenges facing developing countries.
Health

 Improving the basic health and the quality of health service delivery and addressing the health
effects of natural disasters and emergencies are the means of improving the health of people.
Human Rights

 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets forth the human rights and fundamental
freedoms of all men and women in all nations, everywhere in the world.
Infrastructure

 The development and maintenance of essential public services and systems is an important
ingredient for sustained economic growth and poverty reduction.
Micro credit

 Small scale business development is an important means of helping individuals out of poverty.
Peace building

 The support structures and processes which strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a
relapse into conflict.
Poverty Alleviation

 The Complex web that keeps people poor is being addressed through economic growth and
improving governance, education and health.
Refugees

 Forced to flee their homes because of persecution refugees are a significant group who need
international protection as they seek a durable solution to their plight.

Rice

 Highlighting the importance of rice as a primary food and income source in many developing
countries.
Rural Development

 The majority of the world’s poor live in rural areas, and are disproportionately dependent on
natural resources for their livelihoods, especially resources such as forests and fisheries.
Volunteering

 Many people give their time and skills without pay to make a contribution to assist others.
Water

 Water is the source of life – vital for health, food and ecoomic development.
Women

 Improving the status of women is not just a women’s issue, but a goal that requires the active
participation of both men and women.

610
Global Citizenship

A Global Citizen is Someone Who:

 is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen;
 respects and values diversity;
 has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally,
technologically, and environmentally;
 is outraged by social injustice;
 participates in and contributes to the community at a range of levels from local to global;
 is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place;
 takes responsibility for their actions.
The Key Elements of Global Citizenship

Knowlegde and Understanding

Social justice and equity  understanding of global debates

Diversity  deeper understanding of different

cultures and societies
Globalization and interdependence  complexity of global issues

Sustainable development  understanding of key issues of Agenda

21
 lifestyles for a sustainable world
Peace and conflict  complexity of conflict issues and
conflict resolution

Skills

Critical thinking  handling contentious and complex

issues
Ability to argue effectively  political literacy
 participating in the relevant political
processes
Ability to challenge injustice and inequalities  campaigning for a more just and
equitable world
Respect for people and things  following a personal lifestyle for a
sustainable world
Co-operation and conflict resolution  negotiation
 conflict resolution

611
Values and Attitudes

Sense of identity and self-esteem  open-mindedness

Empathy and sense of common humanity  sense of individual and collective

responsibility
Commitment to social justice and equity  commitment to the eradication of
poverty
Valuing and respecting diversity  valuing all people as equal and different

Concern for the environment and commitment  commitment to sustainable

to sustainable development development

Belief that people can make a difference  willingness to work towards a more
equitable future

Economics

 The study that deals with how scarce resources are allocated to maximize the unlimited wants
that indibiduals and societies want to fulfill.
 The study of how individuals and societies choose to use the scarce resources that nature and
previous generations have provided.
 The study of how societies choose to use scarce productive resources that have alternatives uses
to produce commodities of various kinds, and to distribute them among different groups.
 Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and
means which have alternative uses (Lionel Robbins, 1935).
 Economics or political economy is an “inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of
nations” (Adam Smith, 1976).
 Economics is the science of production. Production is a social force insofar as it channels human
activity into useful ends (Karl Marx, 1848).

Elements of an Economic System

1. Resources – which include land, labor and capital

2. Outputs – which can either be consumption goods
3. Capital goods – items which are used to produce other goods and services in the future, rather
than being consumed today
4. Processes of production
5. Processes of distribution
Branches

a. Macroeconomics – the branch of economics that examines the economic behavior of aggregates
– income, employment, output, and so on – on a national scale.

612
 b. Microeconomics – the branch of economics that examines the functioning of individual
industries and the behavior of individual decision-making units, that is, business firms and
households.
Methods of Economics

a. Positive economics – an approach to economics that seeks to understand behavior and the
operations of systems without making judgment. It describes what exists and how it works.
b. Normative economics – an approach to economics that analyzes outcomes of economic
behavior, evaluates them as good or bad, and may prescribe courses of action. Also called
“policy economics”.
Economics is important to the:

a. Individual – as a consumer who wants to maximize satisfaction and minimize expenditure.

b. Businessmen – as a producer who wants to maximize profits and minimize costs.
c. Government – in providing a high standard of living for the people.
Basic Economic Problems

1. What to produce?
2. How to produce?
3. For whom to produce?
4. How much to produce?
5. How much more to produce?
Economic Systems

1. Capitalist System – an economy in which individual people and firms pursue their own self-
interest with any central directions or regulations. This is also known as laissez-faire economy,
free enterprise, price mechanism, or free market economy.
2. Command Economy – an economy in which a central authority or agency draws up a plan that
establishes what will be produced and when, and makes rules for distribution.
3. Mixed Economy – it is a regulated market economy. In reality, all economies are, to some
extent, mixed. It is just a matter of degree of intervention.
Factors of Production

1. Land (Natural Resources) – includes all resources found in the sea and on land. Raw materials,
landscapes, ports (natural harbor), climatic conditions, geographical location.
2. Labor (Human Factor) – any kind of work, either mental o manual in nature, which has the sole
purpose of receiving rewards.
3. Capital (Man-Made) – wealth uesd for production
4. Entrepreneur (Management) – usually the organizer in a company

Price System

 Is the mechanism by which producers and consumers transmit information about production to
one another. It is referred to as the basic coordination and communication system of a market
economy because it helps producers make production decisions and whereby keeps the economy
balance.
Market

613
  A set of arrangements by which buyers and sellers of a good are in contact to trade that good.
Demand

 The amount of a good buyers want to purchase at different prices.

 behavior of buyers
Quantity Demanded

The amount (number of units) of a product that a households would buy in a given period it if
could buy all it wanted at the current market price.
Demand Schedule

 A table showing how the quantity demanded of some product during a specified period of time
changes as the price of that product changes, holding all other determinants of quantity
demandes constant.

Demand Curve

 A graphical depiction of a demand schedule. It shows how the quantity demanded of some
product during a specified period of time will change as the price of that product changes,
holding all other determinants of quantity demanded constant.
Shortage

 Excess demand
Law of Demand

 The lower the price, the higher the quantity demanded of a particular commodity.
Factors Affecting Demand

Price Factor

1. Price of the product itself

Non-Price Factors

1. Fashion, taste, and climate

2. Changes in income
3. Changes in population
4. Changes in the price of related goods
5. Advertisements
6. Introduction of new products
7. Social and economic conditions
8. Festive seasons
9. Speculation

Supply

 The amount of a good sellers want to sell at different prices.

614
  behavior of sellers
Quantity Supplied

 The amount of a particular product that firm would be willing and able to offer for sale at a
particular price during a given time period.
Supply Curve

 A graph illustrating how much of a product a firm will supply at a different price.
Surplus

 Excess supply
Law of Supply

 The positive relationship between price and quantity supplied: An increase in market price will
lead to an increase in quantity supplied, and a decrease in market price will lead to a decrease in
quantity supplied.
Factors Affecting Supply

Price Factor

1. Price of the good itself

Non-Price Factors

1. Climatic Conditions

2. Cost of Production
3. Technological Advancements
4. Government Policies (e.g. tax, subsidies)
5. Time Period
6. Price of Related Goods (Competitive Supply, Joint Supply)
Equilibrium Price

 The price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are equal.
Market Structures

1. Perfectly Competitive Markets has the following characteristics:

a. There are many buyers in the market
b. There are many sellers in the market
c. Goods are homogeneous and not differentiated
d. There must be free entry to and exit from the market
e. Both consumers and the producers have perfect knowlegde about the market situation
f. There is mobility of factors of production
g. No transport cost
h. There is independence in decision making
i. There is no preferential treatment
2. Monopoly has the following characteristics:
a. There is only one single seller but two types of monopoly (Natural and Private
Monopoly)
b. Many buyers are available
c. There are barriers to entry
d. The product does not have close substitutes

615
 e. An important assumption is that monopolist can only control price or quantity but not
both
3. Monopolistic Competition has the following characteristics:
a. There are many buyers
b. There are many sellers but not as many as in perfect competition
c. Products are differentiated
d. There is ease of entry and exit, but not as easy as in perfect competition
e. Non-price competition exist (ex., advertisements, sales promotion, etc.)
f. No perfect knowledge is assumed
g. One producer can lower the price without affecting other firms.
4. Oligopoly has the following characteristics:
a. There are many buyers in the market
b. There are few sellers in the market
c. Products sold can either be homogenous or differentiated
d. Barries to entry exist but these are not as restrictive as monopoly
e. There is interdependency in pricing and output in relation to other firms
f. Price can be determined through:
 price leadership
 dominant firm
 cartel
 collusion
Opportunity Cost

 The value of the next best alternative that the decision forces the decision-maker to forgo.
Rational decision making, be it in industry, government, or households, must be based on
opportunity cost calculations.
Economic Goods

 Things of value that you can see, touch, and show to others.
Economic Services

 Intangible things that have value but often cannot be seen, touched or shown to others.
Taxation

 It is an inherent power of the state to impose and collect revenues to defray the necessary
expenses of the government.
 It is a compulsory contribution imposed by a public authority irrespective of the amount of
services rendered to the payer in return.
 It is a compulsory levy on private individuals and organizations by the government to raise
revenue to finance expenditures on public goods and services.
Purpose of Taxation

1. To collect revenue for the government

2. To redistribute income
3. To combat inflation
4. To correct an adverse balance of payments
5. To check consumption of goods which are considered undesirable
6. To protect local/infant industries
7. To influence population trends
8. To improve unfavorable terms of trade
9. To reallocate resources

616
 10. To create a sense of identity

The Four “R” s

 Taxation has four main purposes or effects:

o Revenue –
 Taxes raise money to spend on roads, schools and hospitals, and on more
indirect government functions like market regulation or justice systems. This
is the most widely known function.
o Redistribution
 This means transferring wealth from the richer sections of society to poorer
sections.
o Repricing
 Taxes are levied to address externalities: tobacco is taxed, for example, to
discourage smoking.
o Representation
Theory

 Taxation is a necessity and indispensable, for without taxes government cannot function and
exist.
Basis

 It is found in the reciprocal duties of protection and support between the state and its inhabitants.
Sources and Origin of Taxation

1. The Constitution
2. Statutes or Presidential Decrees
3. Bureau of Internal Revenue regulations
4. Judicial Decisions
5. Provincial, City, Municipal and Barrio Ordinances
6. Observance of International Agreements
7. Administrative Rulings and Opinions
Objects of Taxation

1. Persons – whether natural or judicial

2. Property of any kind
3. Transactions, interest and privileges
Limitations on the Powers of Taxation

1. Inherent Limitations
a. The tax must be for public purpose
b. No improper delegation of legislative power to tax
c. Exemption of government entities
d. Territorial jurisdiction
e. Observance of International Law

2. Constitutional Limitations
a. Equal protection of the law

617
 b. Uniformity rule
c. Observance of due process of law
d. Non-impairment of obligation of contracts
e. Non-imprisonment for non-payment of poll tax
f. Non-impairment of religious freedom
g. No appropriation for religious purposes
h. Property tax exemption
i. Non-impairment of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in tax cases

Classification of Taxes

1. Progressive Income Tax – the higher the income, the higher the tax rate.
2. Proportional Tax – the tax rate is constant and unaffected by the level of income.
3. Regressive Tax – the higher the income, the lower the tax rate.
Types of Taxes

A. Direct Taxes
1. The burden cannot be shifted to the third party
2. Direct taxes are based on income and wealth
3. In most cases, direct taxes are progressive in nature
4. Direct taxes are compulsory in nature
Examples:

 income tax
 residence tax
 real state tax
 immigration tax
 estate/gift/inheritance tax
B. Indirect Taxes
1. The tax burden can be shifted to the third party
2. Indirect taxes are based on expenditures and consumption
3. All indirect taxes are regressive in nature
4. Indirect taxes are optional in the sense that they can be avoided
Examples:

 sales tax
 import tax
 VAT/EVAT
Characteristics of a Sound Tax System

 Efficiency – must generate revenues greater than the amount of money the government must
spend to collect taxes.
 Equity – individuals and groups belonging to the same income bracket must be taxed equally
while those belonging to different income groups must be taxed differently.
 Convenience – to set up measures and procedures that will make it more convenient for
taxpayers to pay.
 Stability – tax system must not bet too ofetn or it will encourage taxpayers to withhold tax
payments until a more preferred system is put in place.

618
Agrarian Reform Program

What is Agrarian Reform?

 Agrarian Reform is the redistribution of lands to farmers and regular farmworkers who are
landless, irrespective of tenurial arrangements. Agrarian reform is not just the transfer of lands,
it includes a package of support services: economic and physical infrastructure support services,
(credit, extension, irrigation, roads and bridges, marketing facilities) and human resource and
institutional development or social infrastructure building and strengthening.

What is a the legal basis for CARP?

 The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) was passed in 1988 under the
administration of President Corazon C. Aquino.
 The legal basis for CARP is Republic Act 6657 otherwise known as Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Law (CARL) signed by Aquino on June 10, 1988. It is an act instituting a CARP to
promote social justice and industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation,
and for other purposes.

What does CARP cover?

 CARP covers all alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for
agriculture, all lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits, all other lands owned
by the Government devoted to or suitable for agriculture, and all private lands devoted to or
suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can be raised
thereon.

Cooperatives

What is a Cooperative?

 A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons with a common bond of interest, who
have voluntarily joined together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end, making
equitable to contribution to the capital required and accepting a fair share of the risks and
benefits of the undertaking in accordance with universally accepted cooperative principle.
 By forming a cooperative you pool money, human resources and talent to build capital and work
together to produce more goods and raise incomes.
 Through cooperatives, you can look for the other sources of loans at low interest rates of
borrowing form informal lenders or users.

What are the Principles of Cooperativism?

 The cooperative principles were reformulated by he International Cooperative Alliance in

Vienna in 1966 during its 23 Congress:
o Voluntarism

619
  Each member of a cooperative becomes a member voluntarily and is not
restricted by social, political or religious discrimination.
o Democracy
 Coops are democratic organizations with officers and managers elected or
appointed in a manner agreed on by members. Each member, no matter the
amount of his share, is entitled to one vote.
o Limitation of Share Capital Interest
 Interest on a member share capital is limited so that no person-especially those
with money—can have an overwhelming equity in the coop.
o Sharing all location of cooperatives surplus or savings
 Mandates distribution of surplus equitably so that no member, gains at the
expense of another.
o Provision for the education and training of cooperatives members, officers and
employees, and of the general public in the principles and techniques of cooperation
o Promotion of cooperation between cooperatives at local, national and international
levels.
o Concern for community by working for its sustainable development through policies
approved by the cooperative members.

Kinds of Cooperative

 Credit Cooperative
o Promotes thrift and savings among its members and creates funds in order to grant loans
for productivity.
 Consumer Cooperative
o The primary purpose is to procure and distribute commodities to member and non-
members.
 Producers Cooperative
o Undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial.

 Service Cooperative
o Engages in medical, and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance, housing,
labor, electric lights and power, communication and other services.
 Multi-Purpose Cooperative
o Combines two (2) or more of the business activities of these different types of
cooperatives
The Categories of Cooperatives According to Membership and Territory:

In terms of membership:

1. Primary – the members of which are natural person of legal age;

2. Secondary – the members of which are primeries;
3. Tertiary – the member of which are secondaries upward to one or more apex
organizations. Cooperatives whose members are cooperatives are called federations
or unions.
In terms of territory, cooperatives are categorized according to areas of operation which may not be
coincide with the political subdivision of the country.

The General Steps in Forming a Cooperative

620
Six Steps in Setting Up A Cooperative:

1. Get Organized.

 You must have at least 15 members. At once determine the common problems you would want
to solved and the basic needs you would want provided for through a cooperative.
2. Prepare a general statement called an economic survey.

 This will help you measure your cooperatives chances of success.

3. Draft the cooperatives by-laws.

 The by-laws contain the rules and regulation governing the operation of the cooperative.
4. Draft the articles of cooperation.

 Indicate the name of the cooperative, its members, terms of existence and other pertinent
description about your cooperative.
5. Secure bond of your accountable officers, normally the treasurer, or the treasurer and

the manager.

 The amount of the bond is to be decided upon by the Board of Directors, based on the initial
network of the cooperatives which includes the paid-up capital, membership fees and other
assets of the cooperatives at time of registration.

6. Register your cooperative with the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA), you
must submit four copies each of the Economic Survey, By-Laws, and Articles of
Cooperation and Bond of Accountable Officer(s).

Members of a Primary Cooperative

 If you are a Filipino of legal age, you can ba a coop member if you meet the qualifications
prescribed by the coop’s by laws.
 The board of directors act on application for membership.
 A member may exercise his rights only after having paid the fees for membership and acquired
shares in the cooperative.

Two Kinds of Membership in the Cooperative

Two Kinds of Members:

1. Regular Member – entitled to all the rights and privileged of membership as stated in the
Cooperative Code and the coops by-laws.
2. Associate Member – has no right to vote and to be voted upon and is entitled to such rights and
privileged provided by the cooperatives by laws.
New Cooperative Law

 Cooperative Code of the Philippines (RA 6938)

621
  Cooperative Development Authority (RA 6939)
 Executive Order 95 and 96 were issued by Pres. Fidel Ramos in June 1993, providng for
implementation guidelines for some of he provisions of he two vs.cited.
Cooperatives Values

 self-help
 self-responsibility
 democracy
 equality
 solidarity
 equity
 honesty
 openness
 social responsibility
 caring for others
Sociology

 The scientific and systematic study of society, including patterns of social relations, social
stratification, social interaction, and culture.
 The science of society and he social interactions taking place in that society.
 The study of human society: its origin, growth, structure, function, customs, traditions, group
life and institutions.
 Sociology is considered a branch of the social sciences.
Importance

 To obtain factual information about our society and the different aspects of our social life.
 To enable us to see the connection between our own personal experiences and the social forces
in the bigger social world which influence our life
Auguste Comte

 The term “sociologie” was first used in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes
(1748-1836) in an unpublished manuscript.
 The term was used again and popularized by the French thinker Auguste Comte in 1838.
 Comte had earlier used the term ‘social physics’, but that term had been appropriated by others,
notably Adolphe Quetelet.
 Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind—including history, psychology, and economics.
 His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had
passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and
that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills.
 Sociology was to be ‘queen of the positive sciences’. Thus, Comte has come to be viewed as
the “Father of Sociology”.
Sociological Scholars

 These scholars greatly influenced the founding of sociology:

o Auguste Comte
o Emile Durkheim – Social Facts (material and non-material) are to be studied
empirically, not philosphically, mechanical (social) solidarity and organic solidarity
society
o Karl Marx – Dialectical Materialism and Economic Determinism

622
 o George Herbert Mead – interrelatedness of humans and society (social self)
o Vilfredo Pareto
o Robert E. Park
o Georg Simmel
o Ferdinand Tonnies – Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft
o Max Weber – Bureaucratization as ideal type of Verstehen
Scope and Topics of Sociology

 Sociologist study society and social action by examining the groups and social institutions
people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations.
 They also study the social interactions of people and groups, trace the origin and growth of
social processes, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members and vice
versa.
 Sociologist research macro-structures and processes that organize or affect society, such as, but
not limited to, race or ethnicity, gender, globalization, and social class stratification.
 They study institutions such as the family and social processes that represent deviation from, or
the breakdown of, social structures, including crime and divorce. And, they research micro-
processes suchas intepersonal interactions and the socialization of individuals.
 Sociologists are also concerned with the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a
person’s daily life.
 Sociologists study the many dimensions of society.

Three Basic Theoretical Approaches:

 The structural-functional approach

 The social-conflict approach
 The symbolic-interaction approach
Sociological Paradigm

 Specific ‘points of view’ used by social scientists in social research.

 Sociological paradigms are particular paradigms that emply the sociological perspective and the
sociological imagination.
 A sociological paradigm usually refers to the briad schools of thought in sociology that
encompass multiple theories from the same perspective. These include:
o Conflict Paradigm – focuses on the ability of some groups to dominate others, or
resistance to such domination, including Marxism.
 Feminism – focuses on how male dominance of society has shaped social life.
o Functionalism – also known as a social system paradigm, examines what functions the
various elements of a social system perform in regard to the entire system.
o Interactionism – believes that meaning is produced through the interactions of
individuals.
o Darwinism Paradigms – also known as the evolutionary paradigm, sees a progressive
evolution in social life.
o Positivism Paradigm – Social Positivist believe that social processes should be studied
in terms of cause and effect using the scientific method.

623
Sociological Research

 The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the social world in its many forms.
 Quantitative methods and qualitative methods are two main types of sociological research
methods.
 Sociologists often use quantitative methods—such as social statistics or network analysis—to
investigate the structure of a social process or describe patterns in social relationships.
 Sociologists also often use qualitative method—such as focused interviews, group discussions
and ethnographic methods—to investigate social processes.
 Sociologists also use applied research method such as evaluation research and assessment.
Society and Culture

Society

 A system of interacting individuals and interrelate groups sharing a common culture and
territory
 A group of people living together in a social system of long established relationship, recognizing
and following a certain way of life

Two Types of Society

 Non-industrial
 Industr
Social Structure

 The patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized collectivities
Forms of Social Structure

 Primary group structures – families, friendship groups and work groups

 Purposely organized structures – voluntary organizations and associations
 Territorial structures – city, community, neighborhood
 Latent structures – sex or racial categories
Social Groups & Social Organizations

Social Groups

 Primary group – family and friendship group considered the building blocks of the larger society
 Secondary group – groups where interaction among members are impersonal, business like.
Focus of the group is on development of skills and specialized know how.
Gemeinschaft & Gessellschaft (Ferdinand Toennies)

Gemeinschaft

 A community of intimate private and exclusive living and familialism. Maybe likend to our
tribal goup, fishing villages, agricultural village
Gessellschaft

 Large secondary group where there is division of labor, specialization, functional

interdependence

624
In-group and Out-group

 Based on sense of belonging. These are not actual groups but a kind of relationship exist in the
mined. The used of “we” (in-group) and “they” (out-group) defines this grouping.
Informal and Formal Groups

 Based on form of organization

 Informal group – arises spontaneously our of interaction
 Formal group – also called social organization
Formal organizations are necessary in industrialized complex societies. Goals of formal organizations
are for:

 profit
 the spiritual needs of people
 education
 workers benefits
 service to the poor
Bureaucracy

 The administrative machinery of a formal organization or social organization which is aimed to

enable members to meet their goals.
Socialization

 Process through which a person acquires the skills and behavios necessary for social living.
Elements of Socialization
1. Child’s culture
2. Biological inheritance
3. Child’s interaction

Family – Most important socializing agent

School – Transmitter of culture

Language – An important tool in socialization

Social Order – Means by which people fill their expected role

Status
 The position a person occupies in society by virtue of age, birth, marriage, occupation or
achievement
Ascribed status

 Position assigned to the individual

Achieved status

 Acquired through competition

Agencies of Socialization

 Family
 Peer group

625
  Church
 School
 Mass media
 Work place
Social Interaction

 Refers to the various actions and interactions of individual in a social situation.

Social Process

 Cooperation – people work together for a common good

o Assimilation – blending/fusing two cultures
o Acculturation – adaptation of culture upon contact
o Amalgamation – brought about by intermarriage
 Competition and Conflict
Culture

From the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning “to cultivate”
Refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such acitivities
significance and importance.
 Cultures can be “understood as systems of symbols and meaning that even their creators contest,
that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one
another”.
 Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that are passed down from generation to generation.
 “the way of life for an entire society”
Components of Culture

 Non-material culture
o Social Norms – rules or expectation that define what is acceptable or required in a social
situation
 folkways – commonly known as customs, traditions and conventions of society
 mores – “a way of behaving,” “a custom as determined by usage or practice
and not by law”
 laws – formalized norms enacted by people who are vested by political and
legal authorities designated by the government
o Values – abstract standards that persist overtime and serve as guides to what is right
and proper for people in society
o Knowlegde – the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true. This could
be natural, supernatural, and magic knowlegde.
 Material culture (products of technology)
o Artifacts: simple tools to computer
Culture Within A Society

 Large societies often have subcultures, or groups of people with distinct sets of behavior and
beliefs that differentiate them from a larger culture of which they are a part.
 The subculture may be distinctive because of the age of its members, or by their race, ethnicity,
class, or gender.
 The qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be aesthetic, religious, occupational,
political, sexual, or a combination of these factors.
Cultures By Region

626
  Regional cultures of the world occur both by nation and ethnic group and more broadly, by
larger regional variations.
 Similarities in culture often occur in geographically nearby peoples.
 Many regional cultures has been influenced by contact with others, such as by colonization,
trade, migration, mass media, and religion.
 Culture is dynamic and changes over time. In doing so, cultures absorb external influences and
adjust to changing environments and technologies. Thus, culture is dependent on
communication.
 Local cultures change rapidly with new communications and transportation technologies that
allow for greater movement of people and ideas between cultures.
Cultural Bias

 Cultural bias is when someone is biased due to his or her culture.

 Cultural bias can also relate to a bias that a culture possesses. For instance, a bias against women
could be held by a culture who degrades women.
Ethnocentrism

 The tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture.
 Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important
and/or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups.

Cultural Universal

 Is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures on the planet.
 Examples of elements that may be considered cultural universal are gender, roles, the incest
taboo, religious and healing ritual, mythology, marriage, language, art, music, cooking, games
and jokes.
 The principal cultural universal are:
o Food
o Water
o Clothing
o Shelter
o Social organization
o Family
o Communication
o Recreation
o Arts
o Environment
o History
o Spirituality

Filipino Society & Culture

Development of the Filipino Culture

 Asian or Oriental Culture

o Malayan as the indigenous core with strains of Aeta, Indonesian, Hindu, Arab and
Chinese culture

627
  Western or Occidental Culture
o Spanish – strongly manifested in our religious and cultural orientation
o American – manifested in Filipino political orientation
Pre-Spanish Settlements

 The social unit was the barangay, from the Malay term balangay, meaning a boat.
 The barangay were generally small. Most villages boasted of only thirty to one hundred houses.
 Most communities were coastal, near-coastal or riverrine in orientation. This was because the
principal sources of protein came from the seas and the rivers, the people relying more on fishing
than on hunting for sustenance.
 Dealing with traders meant coming in contact with Chinese, Arabian and Indian civilizations.
Thus, the coastal communities in Manila, Cebu, Jolo, and Butuan attained a higher cultural level.
 Most of the members of a community were related to one another by blood or marriage. Besides
kinship, common economic interests and shared rituals formed the bases for community
cohesion.
 The barangay was a social rather than a political unit, each one a separate entity with only
informal contacts with the other villages.
Social Hierarchy in Luzon

 Based on Spanish records, William Henry Scott concluded that there were three social classes
in pre-Spanish Luzon and Visayas.
o Maginoo – highest among all classes
 This was composed of datus and their families
 Datu – polotical and economic leader
 Babaylanes – a Visayan term for spiritual leader, katalonan was the Tagalog
counterpart
o Maharlika – next to the maginoo class
 This class was composed of warriors who served as protectors of the barangay
from its enemies.
 The Maharlika did not pay taxes but they were obliged to accompany the datu
in times of war.
o Timawa – free person
 During the Spanish period, being timawa meant being free to be exploited and
enslaved by the Spaniards.
 Composed the main bulk of the population.
o Slaves – lowest class
 aliping namamahay – lived in their own houses and was called only by the
datu to help in building a house or in farming.
 aliping saguiguilid – lived in the datu’s house because of a large debt he had
incurred.

Social Classes in the Visayas

 Datu – highest class

o Composed of the political leader, his family and those who belonged to their class.
 Timawa – belonged to the second class and were known as free people.
 Oripun – lowest class. They could be bought and sold.

Culture And Civilization of Ancient Societies

628
  Ancient Filipino civilization was reflected in the political system, economy, religion and belief
system, system of writing and traditions.
o Politics – the political leader in the barangay level was the datu.
o Religion – the ancient Filipinos’ religion was called animism. They believed that gods
and goddesses inhabit in nature. This religion is also called anitoism.
 Bathala (Tagalog)
 Laon (Visayans)
 Kabunian (Ibalois)
o Economy – the artifacts excavated by the archeologists proved that the external trade
was alive.
 Agriculture – Kaingin system – burning of one part of the forest in order to clear
the area to be used for planting.
o System of writing – the ancient system of writing was called baybayin. Composed of
14 consonants and three vowels.
o Residence – houses were built in places where there was steady supply of food.
 Bahay-kubo – made from nipa and bamboo and had good ventilation.

o Belief in After Life – early Filipino believed in the after-life. The afterlife was believed
to be a continuation of life on earth, thus valuables were also buried alongside the dead.
 Manunggul Jar – reflection of this belief

Deviance and Social Control

Deviance

 The process by which those who violate group norms are identified as norm violators
 People are often said to have a disorder because their behavior deviates from what their society
considers acceptable. What constitutes normality varies somewhat from one culture to another,
but all cultures have—such norms. When people violate these standards and expectations, they
may be labeled mentally ill (Thomas Szasz)
Deviants

People who diverges from group norms while deviates are those who display divergent behavior
but are not identified as norm violates.
Component of Deviant Behavior

 Act or unit of action

 Actor who exhibits the behavior
 Social situation
 Audience of definers of the act

Social Control

 Refers to all those attitudes and behaviors originating in the social environment that have the
effects or directing or restricting the attitude and behavior of an individual or group.

Theories on the Causes of Deviance

629
  Anomie Theory – groups with fewer opportunities to achieve success goals will have greater
motivation to violate norms and higher rates of deviance.
 Subculture Theory – the greater motivation to violate norm will result in different patterns of
deviance depending upon the availability of illegitimate opportunities in the neighborhood.
 Differential Association Theory – specific direction of a person’s motivation and action
depends upon frequency and intensity of interaction with others.
 Labeling Theory – assumes that most people commit deviant acts at one time to another
Social Mobility

 Refers to movement up or down in social status. This usually involves a change in occupation.
This process may be speeded by:
o Revising one’s standard of living
o Cultivating class-typed modes of behavior
o Manipulating associational membership
o A strategic marriage
Social Stratification

 Exists when there is a hierarchy of position with differences in wealth, power and prestige and
when there is intergenerational transmission of advantage or disadvantage stemming from one’s
location in the hierarchy.
o Caste system – made upon religiously sanctioned and hierarchically ranked groupings
in which membership is fixed at birth and is permanent. This is found in India where
the rank order are: (1) Brahmans; (2) Ksashtriya; (3) Vaishyas; (4) Sudras. Untouchable
is considered outcasts.
o Social Class System – composed of economic groups that are cased upon similarities
in occupation, income and wealth. Social mobility is allowed in this system.
o Race and Ethnicity – both passed on from parents to child but race refers to the genetic
transmission of physical characteristics and ethnicity refers to socialization into distinct
cultural patterns.
Nature of formal organization

 It is a deliberately constructed social unit with explicitly coordinated activities designed to

contribute toward the attainment of a stated goal.
o Bureaucracy – where there is a clearly ordered hierarchy of positions or officers; a
defined sphere of competence; activities are recorded; positions are filled on the basis
of expertise; operation is based upon a system of general rules; and relationship among
people within a bureaucratic organization is impersonal.
Institutions

 Cluster of norms associated with important social activities.

o Family – basic social unit which is the source of intimate social relationship and the
most effective agent of transmitting culture.
o Economic Institutions – is the actual organization and utilization of natural and human
resources by a given society at a given time in accordance with their cultural patterns.
o Religion – is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power.
o Political Institutions
o Educational Institutions

Values Education, Ethics, & Moral Education

630
Values

 Expressions of the ultimate ends, goals or purposes of social action. They are society’s moral
imperatives that deals with what ought to be.
 “A thing has a value when it is perceived as good and desirable.” (DECS)
 Values are made up of assumptions and beliefs, which our culture endorses as appropriate bases
for responses to events, facts, and states. It is our assumptions and beliefs that influence us to
see things the way we do (F. Landa Jocano, Filipino Value System).
 …there is no negative Filipino values. There are only wrong uses of the values. That is why we
label as crime the misuse of values or the violation of value principles, particularly the legal
ones (F. Landa Jocano)
 Values are the reason why we see and do things the way we do. They are “the guiding principles
in our lives with respect to the personal and the social ends we desire—such as salvation or
peace—and with respect to moral conduct and personal competence—such as honesty and
imagination” (Kouzes and Posner, 1993).

Forces that Shape Contemporary Filipino Values

Foundation of the Filipinos Oriental Nature

 Aeta, Indonesian, Malayan, Hindu, Arabian, Chinese Interpersonal and social relationship
revolve around blood ties, marriage and ritual kinship
Filipinos’ Occidentalism

Spanish influence is manifested in our religious, political, economic, educational life and even
in our language, dress and diet.
o Emphasis on spiritual aspect had shaped out attitude towards divorce, birth control,
fiestas and ceremonies.
o Gambling and our aversion to manual labor could be traced to Spain’s inferior regard
for us
 Americanization of Filipinos
o Manifested in our political and social outlook. With the introduction of a democratic
system of government we become aware of our rights and privileges. The
popularization of education gave us the opportunity for social mobility.
 Japanese Occupation
DECS Values Education Program (1988)

 This program drew inspiration from 1986 EDSA Revolution and the 1987 Constitution where
the vision of a “just and humane society” was emphasized. This vision calls for a shared culture
and commonly held values such as “truth, justice, love, equality, and peace.”

Philosophy of Values Education Program

 Rational understanding of the Filipino as a human being in society and his or her role in shaping
society and the environment. The task of education is to help this human being (Filipino)
develop his or her human potential so he or she can contribute to the growth of Philippine culture
and must be able to harness human and non-human resources to attain a just and humane society.
Core Value

631
  Human dignity (the human person is of infinite value)
Theories of Values Formation

 Psycho-Analytic Theory (Sigmund Freud, 1856-1939)

o Suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. The
unconscious is that part of the personality about which a person is unaware. It contains
infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs that are hidden, because of their disturbing
nature, from conscious awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible
for a good part of our everyday behavior. Accoring to Freud, one’s personality has three
aspects:
 The id – is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates
according to the pleasure principle.
 The ego – is the decision-making component of personality that operates
according to the reality principle.
 The superego – is the moral component of personality that incorporates social
standards about what represents right and wrong.
 Behaviorist View (John B. Watson, 1878-1958)
o Behaviorism is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology
should study only observable behavior.
o Behavior refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. Watson
asserted that psychologist could study anything that people do or say—shopping,
playing chess, eating, complimenting a friend—but they could not study scientifically
the thoughts, wishes, and feelings that might accompany these behaviors.
 Social-Cognitive Learning Theorist (Albert Bandura)
o “Most human behavior is learned by observation through modeling” (Albert Bandura)
o Observational learning occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the
observation of others, who are called models. This process has been investigated
extensively by Albert Bandura. Bandura does not see observational learning as entirely
separate from classical and operant conditioning.
o Bandura maintains that people’s characteristic patterns of behavior are shaped by the
models that they’re exposed to. In observational learning, a model is a person whose
behavior is observed by another. At one time or another, everyone serve as a model for
others. Bandura’s key point is that many response tendencies are the product of
imitation.
 Confluent Theory – Tracks of Consciousness (Brian Hall)
o Acquisition of value is dependent upon and could be limited by one’s level of
consciousness (the older one gets, the higher level of consciousness and the wider the
range of needs and value options).

 Psycho-Social/Epigenetic Theory (Eric Erikson)

o Erikson concluded that events in early childhood leave a permanent stamp on adult
personality.
o Erikson partitioned the life span into eight stages, each characterized by a psychosocial
crisis involving transitions in important social relationships.
o According to Erikson, personality is shaped by how individuals deal with these
psychosocial crises. Each crisis is a potential turning point that can yield different
outcomes.
o Erikson described the stages in terms of these alternative outcomes, which represent
personality traits that people display over the remainder of their lives.

632
 o Erikson’s Stage Theory
 Erikson’s theory of personality development posits that people evolve through
eight stages over the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychosocial crisis
that involves confronting a fundamental question, such as “Who am I and where
am I going?” The stages are described in terms of alternative traits that are
potential outcomes from the crises. Development is enhanced when a crisis is
resolved in favor of the healthier alternative.
 Person-Centered Theory (Self-Theory) – (Carl Rogers, 1902-1987)
o “It seems to me that at bottom each person is asking, “Who am I, really? How can I get
in touch with this real self, underlying all my surface behavior? How can I become
myself?”
o Rogers (1951) argue that human behavior is governed primarily by each individual’s
sense of self, or “self-concept”—which animals presumably lack.
o Rogers viewed personality structure in terms of just one construct. He called this
construct the self, although it’s more widely known today as the self-concept. A self-
concept is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical
behavior.
o Both he and Maslow (1954) maintained that to fully understand people’s behavior,
psychologist must take into account the fundamental human drive toward personal
growth. They asserted that people have a basic need to continue to evolve as human
beings and to fulfill their potentials.
 Humanistic Theory – Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory
 Maslow proposed that human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs—
a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs
must be met before less basic needs are aroused.
 Maslow argued that humans have an innate drive toward personal growth—that
is, evolution toward a higher state of being. Thus, he described the needs in the
uppermost reaches of his hierarchy as growth needs. These include the needs
for knowlegde, understanding, order, and aesthetic beauty. Foremost among
them is the need for self actualization, which is the need to fulfill one’s
potential.
 Maslow summarized this concept with a simple statement: “What a man can
be, he must be.”
 According to Maslow, people will be frustrated if they are unable to fully utilize
their talents or pursue their true interests.
 Cognitive Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)
o There exist a structural bases written each person that determine the process of
perceiving value. This series of progression depends on the person’s interaction with
the environment. Moral reasoning is related to moral behavior.
o Kohlberg’s stages of moral development describe the young child as being in the
“Premoral Stage” (up to about eight years), which basically means that “the child
believes that evil behavior is likely to be punished and good behavior is based on
obedience or avoidance of evil implicit in disobedience.”
Ethics & Moral Education

Ethics

 Comes from the Greek word ethos, “usage,” “character,” “custom,” “disposition,” “manners”
 The analysis of concepts such as “ought,” “should,” “duty,” “moral rules,” “right,” “wrong,”
“obligation,” “responsibility,” etc.

633
  The inquiry into the nature of morality or moral acts.
 The search for the morally good life.

Imperatives of Ethics

1. Existence of God or a Supreme Being

2. Existence of human freedom

3. Immortality of the soul

Philippine History

Terms from the Philippine Revolution

Cavite Mutiny

 Filipino soldiers in the fort of San Felipe in Cavite rose in mutiny under the leadership of
Sergeant La Madrid. The cause was the abolition of some privileges of the Filipinos.
GOMBURZA were arrested and killed because of the suspicion that they were involved in the
said mutiny.
El Filibusterismo

 Rizal’s second novel, published in 1891 in Belgium, with the financial support of Valentin
Ventura, who lent him the money to print the book. Rizal dedicated this book to GOMBURZA,
the three martyr-priests. This is a political novel in which Rizal predicted the coming of the
revolution.
Insulares

 Spaniards born in the Philippines.

Kalayaan

 Newspaper of the Katipunan, which first came out on January 1896, with Emilio Jacinto as
editor.
Katipunan

 The secret revolutionary movement founded by Andres Bonifacio on July 7, 1892 in Tondo,
Manila. It means KATAASTAASAN KAGALANG-GALANG NA KATIPUNAN NANG
MGA ANAK NG BAYAN. It laid down three fundamental objectives: Political, Moral and
Civic. The political aim consisted in working for the separation of the Philippines from Spain.
The moral objective focused on the teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals and
attacking obscurantism, religious, fanatism, and weaknesses of character. The civic aim
revolved around the principle of self-help and the defense of the poor and the oppressed.
La Liga Filipina

 Founded by Rizal on July 3, 1892, in Tondo, Manila, its aims were:

o to unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogenous body;
o mutual protection in every want and necessity;
o defense against all violence and injustice;
o encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and

634
 o study and application of reforms.

La Solidaridad

 Organ of the Reform Movement in Spain, with Graciano Lopez-Jaena as its first editor. Its first
issue came out on February 15, 1889. Its aim was to gather, to collect liberal ideas which were
daily exposed tin the camp of politics, in the field of science, arts, letters, commerce, agriculture,
and industry. Known as Sol to the propagandists, it became the mouthpiece of the Filipinos in
Spain.
Magdalo

 One faction of the Katipunan in Cavite, led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, with headquarters in
Kawit, Cavite.
Magdiwang

 The other Katipunan faction in Cavite, led by Mariano Alvarez, with headquarters in Noveleta,
Cavite.
Noli Me Tangere

 Rizal’s masterpiece, published in 1887. This is a sociohistorical novel based on facts that Rizal
gathered while in the Philippines. It is a novel, but not fiction. The novel gained popularity
immediately, but the Spaniards authorities, especially the friars whom Rizal ridiculed in the
novel, prohibited its reading.
Pact of Biak-na-Bato

 Agreement made between the Filipinos and the Spaniards, mediated by Pedro Paterno, wherein
Aguinaldo and his companions would go into voluntary exile in Hong Kong while Governor
Gen. Primo de Rivera would pay cash money to the rebels.
Palabra de Honor

 Word of honor, or keeping one’s promises.

Peninsulares

 The Spanish-born residents of the Philippines.

Spolarium

 The most famous painting of Juan Luna.

The True Decalogue

 A political tract written by Apolinario Mabini which became the bible of the Filipino rebels.
Thomasites

 American teachers who came to the Philippines in 1901 to teach English to the Filipinos. The
first batch of these teachers arrived aboard the American ship Thomas, hence, they were called
Thomasites.
The Philippine National Heroes

635
Dr. Jose Rizal – The National Hero

Andres Bonifacio – The Great Plebian and Father of the Katipunan.

General Gregorio del Pilar – Hero of the Battle of Tirad Pass.

General Emilio Aguinaldo – President of the First Philippine Republic.

Apolinario Mabini – Sublime Paralytic and Brains of the Revolution.

GOMBURZA – Martyred Priests of 1872.

Trece Martirez – 13 Martyrs from Cavite.

Emilio Jacinto – Brains of the Katipunan.

General Antonio Luna – Cofounder of La Independencia.

Melchora Aquino – (Tandang Sora) Mother of Balintawak.

Graciano Lopez-Jaena – Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda

Movement.

Panday Pira – First Filipino Cannon-maker.

Mariano Ponce – Propagandist, Historian, Diplomat and Managing

Editor of La Solidaridad.

Gregoria de Jesus – Lakambini of Katipunan and wife of Andres

Bonifacio.

Fernando Ma. Guerrero – Poet of the Revolution.

Felipe Agoncillo – Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine

Republic.

Rafael Palma – Cofounder of La Independencia and First UP

President.

Juan Luna – Greatest Filipino Painter.

Marcelo H. del Pilar – Greatest Journalist and Moving Spirit of the

Propaganda Movement.

Leona Florentino – First Filipino Poetess (Ilocos Sur).

636
Pedro Paterno – Peace of the Revolution.

Isabelo delos Reyes – Founder of Philippine Socialism.

Artemio Ricarte – Revolutionary General, known as Viborra.

Jose Palma – Wrote the Spanish Lyrics of he Philippine National

Anthem.

Lakandola – Chief of Tondo, Friendly to the Spaniards.

Rajah Soliman – The Last Rajah of Manila.

Leonor Rivera – Cousin and Fiancee of Jose Rizal.

Marcela Mariño Agoncillo – Maker of the First Filipino Flag.

Galicano Apacible – One of the Founders of Katipunan.

Jose Ma. Panganiban – Bicolandia’s Greatest Contribution to the Historic

Campaign for Reforms.

Diego Silang – Leader of the Ilocano Revolt.

Maria Josefa Gabriela Silang – Continued the Fight After her Husband’s Death.

Lapu-Lapu – Chieftain of Mactan Who Killed Magellan. First

Filipino Hero.

Francisco Dagohoy – Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol.

Epifanio delos Santos – A Man of Many Talents; the Former Highway 54 is

Now Named After him (EDSA).

Francisco Balagtas Baltazar– Prince of Tagalog Poets.

Teresa Magbanua – First Woman Fighter in Panay. Visayan Joan of

Arc.

Trinidad Tecson – Motherof Biak-na-Bato.

Agueda Esteban – Wife of Artemio Ricarte who carried secret

messages about Spanish troops.

Marina Dizon – Daughter of One of the Trece Martirez.

637
Gen. Francisco Makabulos – Leader of the Revolt in Tarlac.

Julian Felipe – Composer of the Philippine National Anthem.

Practice Test

Part 1

1. All of the following constitute the meaning of political science except:

a. A basic knowledge and understanding of the state.
b. It is primarily concerned with the association of human beings into a political community.
c. Common knowledge every events taking place in the society.
d. It deals with the relationship among men and groups which are subject to the control by the
state.
2. It refers to the community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.
a. Sovereignty
b. Nation
c. Citizenship
d. State
3. It refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.
a. Government
b. Sovereignty
c. Constitution
d. Laws
4. What are the four elements of state?
a. people, territory, sovereignty, government
b. people, constitution, territory, government
c. government, law, peace, territory
d. constitution, people, land, independence
5. What theory asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact
among the people to form a society and organize government for their common good?
a. Necessity Theory
b. Devine Right Theory
c. Social Contact Theory
d. Social Compact Theory
6. Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit of the people.
a. The statement is a general truth.
b. The statement is just an assumption.
c. The statement is a fallacy.
d. There is no basis for judgment.
7. What are the forms of government in which the political power is exercised by a few privilege class.

638
 a. Oligarchy and Aristocracy
b. Aristocracy and Monarchy
c. Theocracy and Fascism
d. Democracy and Tyranny
8. The pre-colonial Philippines has no established government. Its villages and settlements were
called barangays.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.
9. There were four social classes of people in the pre-colonialbarangays. They were the nobles,
freemen, serfs, and the slaves.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.
10. What are the two known written codes during the pre-Spanish era in the Philippines?
a. Maragtas and Kalantiaw Codes
b. Sumakwil and Sulayman Codes
c. Panay and Subanon Codes
d. Hammurabi and Ur Nammu Codes
11. Under the Spanish colonial government, who directly governed the Philippines?
a. The Governor-General
b. The Viceroy of Mexico
c. The Royal Audiencia
d. The King of Spain
12. What is the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines?
a. Manila
b. Davao
c. Cebu
d. Iloilo
13.The government which Spain established in the Philippines was defective. It was a government for
the Spaniards and not for the Filipinos.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect
14. What was the secret society founded in 1896 that precipitated the glorious revolution against the
Spaniards.
a. The Katipunan
b. The Kalahi
c. The Biak naBato Republic
d. The Ilustrado
15. Arranged the sequence of governments during the revolutionary era:
1. The Dictatorial Government
2. The Revolutionary Government
3.The Biak-na-Bato Republic
4. The First Philippine Republic
a. 2 3 1 4
b. 3 1 2 4
c. 4 1 3 2

639
 d. 1 2 3 4
16. Arranged according to its establishment during the American Regime:
1. The Commonwealth Government
2. The Military Government
3. The Civil Government
a. 1 2 3
b. 2 3 1
c. 3 2 1
d. 2 1 3
17. What was the civil government established during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines?
a. The Japanese Imperial Government
b. The Philippine Republic
c. The Puppet Government of Japan
d. The Philippine Executive Commission
18. The Constitution used by the Philippine government from the commonwealth period until 1973.
a. The Malolos Constitution
b. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution
c. The 1935 Constitution
d. The 1901 Constitution
19. What kind of government was installed under the 1973 Constitution under the Marcos regime?
a. Modified Presidential system
b. Modified Parliamentary system
c. Military system
d. Bicameral system
20. A de facto government acquires a de jure status when it gains wide acceptance from the people and
recognition from the community of nations.
a. The statement is true and valid.
b. The statement is an assumption.
c. The statement is a fallacy.
d. The statement is doubtful.
21. It is defined as written instrument by which the fundamental powers of the government are
established, limited and defined and by which these powers are distributed among the several
departments or branches for their and useful exercise for the benefit of the people.
a. Laws
b. Statutes
c. Constitution
d. Ordinances
22. There is no Constitution that is entirely written or unwritten.
a. The statement is true and correct.
b. The statement is incorrect.
c. The statement is partially correct.
d. There is no basis to conclude.
23. Requisites of a good written constitution.
a. Brief
b. Broad
c. Definite
d. All of the given options
24. Who has the authority to interpret the constitution?
a. Private individual
b. Courts
c. Legislative and Executive departments of the government

640
 d. All of the given options
25. “We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God , in order to build a just
and humane society and establish a government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote
our common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the
blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and the regime of truth, justice,
freedom, equality and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.”
What part of Constitution is this?
a. General Provision
b. Amendments
c. Preamble
d. National Patrimony

Part II
1. The problem of scarcity _____.
a. arises only in poor countries.
b. exists because the price of goods is too high.
c. exists because of limited resources.
d. will eventually be solve by better planning.
2. “If an individual is to maximize the utility received from the consumption, he or she should spend
all available income…” This statement assumes ________.
a. that saving is impossible.
b. that the individual is not satiated in all goods.
c. that no goods are “inferior.”
d. both A and B.
3. An individual’s demand curve
a. represents the various quantities that the consumer is willing to purchase of a good at various
price levels.
b. is derived from an individual’s indifference curve map.
c. will shift if preferences, price of other goods, or income change.
d. all of the above.
4. What is a firm?
a. A president, some vice presidents, and some employees
b. Any organization that wants to make a profit.
c. Any accumulation of productive assets.
d. Any organization that turns inputs into outputs
5. If more and more labor is employed while keeping all other inputs constant, the marginal physical
productivity of labor _____.
a. will eventually increase.
b. will eventually decrease.
c. will eventually remain constant.
d. cannot tell from the information provided.
6. In general, microeconomic theory assumes that the firms attempt to maximize the difference
between ______.
a. total revenue and accounting costs.
b. price and marginal cost.
c. total revenues and economic costs.
d. economic costs and average cost.
7. In a competitive market, efficient allocation of resources is characterized by ________.
a. a price greater than the marginal cost of production.
b. the possibility of further mutually beneficial transactions.

641
 c. the largest possible sum of consumer and producer surplus.\
d. a value of consumer surplus equal to that of producer surplus.
8. Price controls _______.
a. are always popular with consumers because they lower prices.
b. create shortages.
c. increase producer surplus because firms can now sell a greater quantity of a good at a lower
price.
d. are necessary to preserve equity.
9. The excess burden of tax is ____.
a. The amount of which the price of a good increases
b. The loss of consumer and producer surplus that is not transferred elsewhere.
c. The amount y which a person’s after-tax income decrease as a result of the new tax.
d. The welfare costs to firms forced to leave the market due to an inward shift of the demand
curve.
10. In the opening of the free trade, if world prices of a good are less than domestic prices of that same
good, _________.
a. domestic consumers will experience a loss of surplus.
b. domestic prices will drop to the world price level.
c. all domestic producers of that good will try to find another market because they can’t compete
with foreign producers.
d. domestic producers will increase the quantity supplied in order to crowd out the foreign
produced goods.
11. It states that as the price of the commodities increase the amount of goods the consumer is willing
to purchase decrease and as the price of the commodities decrease the willingness of the consumer to
buy increases and other factor remain constant.
a. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility
b. Law of Gravity
c. Law of Supply
d. Law of Demand
12. A deliberate attempt to recognize and transform existing agrarian system with the intention of
improving the distribution of agricultural incomes and thus fostering rural development.
a. Millennium Development Plan c. Water Reform
b. Land Reform d. Development Goals
13. What is the process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to
bring about rising levels of national output and income?
a. Economic growth c. Economic development
b. Industry d. Employment
14. A system whereby the determination of exchange rate is left solely to the market forces.
a. Foreign exchange liberalization
b. Import liberalization
c. Terms of trade
d. Foreign investment
15. All are possible results when a high population growth rate continues in the Third World except
a. growth of slums
b. spread of diseases due to poverty and poor sanitation
c. not enough schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, etc.
d. increased Gross National Product
16. Which of the following is the nature of power of taxation?
a. It is inherent in sovereignty.
b. It is legislative in nature.
c. It is subject to constitutional and inherent limitations.

642
 d. All of the above
17. A kind of tax based on the rate of which decreases as the tax base or bracket increases.
a. Progressive c. Regressive
b. Graduated d. Proportional
18. Agrarian reform program, Philippine experience is a success.
a. The statement is generally true.
b. The statement is doubtful.
c. The statement is untrue.
d. There is no basis to conclude.
19. It is also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL)
a. Presidential Decree # 2
b. Presidential Decree # 27
c. Republic Act 6657
d. Republic Act 5766
20. The Cooperatives Development Program of the government is designed primarily to support the
agrarian reform program. It aims to achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from
pernicious institutional restraints and practices.
a. Only the first statement is true and correct.
b. Only the second statement is true and correct.
c. Both statements are true and correct.
d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.

ANSWER KEY

English
1B 11B 21A 31B 41B 51A 61B 71B 81D 91D
2A 12C 22B 32B 42B 52B 62A 72C 82C 92D
3B 13A 23B 33C 43C 53B 63C 73B 83A 93B
4C 14B 24A 34D 44B 54B 64B 74C 84B 94B
5A 15C 25B 35A 45A 55B 65C 75B 85B 95D
6B 16A 26D 36B 46B 56D 66A 76C 86A 96C
7A 17B 27A 37B 47B 57B 67B 77B 87C 97C
8B 18B 28B 38C 48B 58C 68B 78D 88A 98B
9B 19B 29B 39A 49A 59C 69B 79C 89C 99A
10C 20B 30B 40C 50B 60B 70C 80C 90B 100C

FILIPINO-Part 1

1A 6D 11B 16B 21B 26B 31A 36D 41C 46D 51B

2B 7C 12B 17D 22A 27A 32C 37A 42A 47C 52D
3C 8A 13A 18A 23A 28A 33D 38B 43D 48B 53A
4D 9D 14D 19B 24B 29D 34B 39C 44B 49B 54B
5D 10A 15D 20C 25C 30A 35C 40A 45D 50C 55B
Filipino-Part II

1A 6B 11C 16A 21A 26B 31C 36C 41A 46C 51B

2C 7C 12A 17A 22B 27A 32B 37D 42B 47C 52B
3A 8A 13C 18D 23C 28D 33D 38A 43C 48B 53C
4A 9D 14A 19C 24D 29C 34C 39A 44B 49B 54C

643
 5B 10C 15A 20B 25C 30B 35B 40C 45B 50C 55A
Filipino- Part III

1I 4C 7A 10F 13J 16E 19H 22na 25pa 28na

2E 5B 8G 11F 14A 17C 20G 23na 26na 29pa
3J 6D 9H 12I 15D 18H 21pa 24na 27na 30pa
Filipino- Part IV

1K 6C 11J 16d 21D 26A 31ng 36daw 41may 46kilawa

2G 7J 12I 17F 22B 27B 32nang 37din 42mayroon 47dalhan
3A 8B 13A 18C 23A 28C 33ng 38rin 43maka-nora 48dalhin
4D 9I 14H 19G 24D 29C 34raw 39may 44maka- 49walisan
bansa
5D 10H 15b 20E 25B 30A 35roon 40mayroon 45ika-17 50walisin
Mathematics

1B 11B 21A 31B 41B 51A 61B 71B 81D 91D

2A 12C 22B 32B 42B 52B 62A 72C 82C 92D
3B 13A 23B 33C 43C 53B 63C 73B 83A 93B
4C 14B 24A 34D 44B 54B 64B 74C 84B 94B
5A 15C 25B 35A 45D 55B 65C 75B 85B 95D
6B 16A 26B 36B 46B 56D 66C 76C 86A 96C
7A 17B 27A 37B 47B 57B 67B 77B 87C 97C
8B 18B 28B 38C 48B 58C 68B 78D 88A 98B
9B 19B 29B 39A 49A 59C 69B 79C 89C 99A
10C 20B 30B 40C 50B 60B 70C 80C 90B 100C
Science

1D 5A 9A 13A 17D 21A 25C 29A 33D 37A

2C 6D 10D 14C 18C 22D 26A 30C 34B 38B
3C 7A 11A 15D 19C 23B 27B 31B 35B 39A
4B 8B 12C 16A 20C 24D 27D 32C 36A 40D
Social Science Part 1

1C 6A 11D 16B 21C

2D 7A 12C 17D 22A
3A 8C 13C 18C 23D
4A 9C 14A 19B 24D
5C 10A 15B 20A 25C
Social Science Part 11

1C 6C 11D 16D
2D 7C 12B 17C
3D 8B 13A 18C
4D 9B 14A 19C
5B 10B 15D 20C

644