ABPG1103
ABPG1103
ABPG1103
ABPG1103
Introduction to Psychology
Topic 1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is Psychology? 2
1.1.1 Subfields of Psychology 4
1.2 The Evolution of Psychology 7
1.2.1 Modern Perspective of Psychology 9
1.3 Psychology as Science 11
1.4 Ethics of Psychological Research 13
Summary 15
Key Terms 15
References 15
Topic 4 Consciousness 72
4.1 What is Consciousness? 73
4.1.1 Altered States of Consciousness 76
4.2 Sleep 77
4.2.1 Stages of Sleep 81
4.3 Dreams 83
4.4 Hypnosis 84
4.5 Drugs 85
4.5.1 Drug Addiction 87
Summary 88
Key Terms 88
References 88
Topic 5 Learning 90
5.1 What is Learning? 90
5.1.1 Classical Conditioning 91
5.1.2 Operant Conditioning 94
5.2 Cognitive Learning 100
5.3 Observational Learning 101
Summary 103
Key Terms 103
References 104
INTRODUCTION
ABPG1103 Introduction to Psychology is one of the courses offered by Faculty of
Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Psychology
programme. This module aims to introduce the general knowledge and basic
concepts in psychology and explain psychology as a study of human science.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
STUDY
STUDY ACTIVITIES
HOURS
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussions
Study the module 60
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the key areas of study in psychology;
2. Explain the subfields of psychology;
3. Discuss the basic concepts in psychology;
4. Compare different theories and approaches of psychology; and
5. Apply the scientific method in psychology.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 12 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 3 explores sensation and perception. It explains how we use our senses
(e.g. sight, smell, taste, touch, sound) to perceive the world around us.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2009). Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Huffman, K. (2006). Living psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2008). Psychology: An introduction. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
Take a moment to think about how you would define psychology based on what
you know about psychology. When I tell people that I am a psychologist, I have
often received a response like „Can you read my mind?‰ So, let us clear things up
here a bit.
Psychologists do not read minds. However, they are deeply interested in the
study of the human mind, behaviour, feelings and thoughts. I have no doubts
that studying psychology leads to a better understanding of yourself and the
people around you. So, perhaps I understand why some people are intimidated
by this special „power‰ to understand human behaviour that psychologists are
thought to possess.
My point is that the field of psychology is a powerful force in our world today.
Everybody can find some practical use for the knowledge gained from
psychology. So think of your time here as an investment for your life and future
relationships.
ACTIVITY 1.1
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. What is the definition of psychology?
2. What are the goals of psychology?
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. What kind of work do educational psychologists do?
2. What is the difference between a clinical psychologist and a
psychiatrist?
3. Explain cognitive psychology in your own words.
During the early 1800s, scientific research into biology, chemistry, physics and
physiology was already enthusiastically pursued. However, it was not until 1879
that Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory; and psychology as
a science officially began. As interest in this new field grew, psychologists started
Table 1.1 gives a brief explanation of the important events that took place in the
history of psychology.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
(a) Psychoanalytic
Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind and early childhood
experiences to explain behaviour patterns and treat psychological
problems. The founder of the psychoanalytic perspective is Sigmund Freud.
(b) Behaviouristic
Focuses on how behaviours are learned and reinforced. It is also concerned
with changing behaviour through conditioning. John Watson and B.F.
Skinner are two of the main proponents of this approach.
(c) Humanistic
Focuses on peopleÊs feelings and realising human potential. It also
emphasises the role of motivation on thought and behaviour. Prominent
names known from this approach are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
(d) Cognitive
Focuses on mental processes such as thinking, feeling, learning,
remembering, making decisions and solving problems. Cognitive
psychologists are interested in how people process information, that is,
how they perceive, interpret and store it. This perspective is influenced by
psychologists like Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura.
(e) Biological
The emphasis is on behaviour as a result of chemical and biological
processes within the brain and nervous system. Issues concerning the effect
of hormonal changes, brain damage and drugs are central to this
perspective. Brain activity is directly observed by using tools such as MRI
scans and PET scans.
(f) Evolutionary
Focuses on the evolutionary origins of behaviour patterns and mental
processes, and examines the adaptive value they have and the functions
they serve. Issues such as mate selection, jealousy and altruism (helping
behaviours) are explored together with theories of how these patterns of
behaviours evolved.
Psychologists, like all other scientists, methodically collect their data, then piece
it together little by little until they reach a conclusion. Psychologists must follow
systematic, scientific procedures when conducting research. These procedures
are referred to as research methodology (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2003).
Thus, like all scientists, psychologists use the scientific method to describe,
understand, predict, and eventually to achieve some measure of control over
what they study.
Table 1.2 explains the advantages and disadvantages of the basic methods of
scientific research used in the various fields of psychology.
observed effects may result from variables other than the ones used in the experiment.
For example, imagine that one study finds that stress is positively correlated with
heart disease. However, stress is definitely not the only factor that causes heart disease.
Therefore, the results may be influenced by the other factors/variables not taken into
consideration in the experiment (Davis and Palladino, 2000).
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. List some of the main points that support psychology as a science.
2. What are some of the criticisms of psychological research?
There are numerous cases in which psychological research has exploited the
rights of participants; for example, John WatsonÊs Little Albert experiment (see
Figure 1.6). In this experiment, Watson used classical conditioning to develop a
fear of furry little white rabbits in ÂLittle AlbertÊ, a one year old baby boy.
Imagine poor Albert having to grow up with a fear of furry little white rabbits.
The reason deception is used in psychological research is because revealing the true
nature or objective of the experiment would cause participants to behave differently.
This is also known as the observer effect. When the subject is aware of being
observed, the subject might alter behaviours or act unnaturally. Hence, using
deception in research is acceptable, however, researchers are expected to follow strict
guidelines, which include debriefing participants at the end of the experiment.
ACTIVITY 1.3
1. In your opinion, was MilgramÊs experiment ethical? Give reasons
for your answer.
2. What do you think about using animals in psychological research?
Is it ethical? Discuss.
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Feltham, C., & Horton, I. (2006). The sage handbook of counselling and
psychotherapy (2nd ed.). London: Sage publications.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T .F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in action (4th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology themes & variations (5th ed.). Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning.
INTRODUCTION
Before we proceed with the discussion on biological psychology, let us ponder on
the scenario below.
What is your opinion of this scenario? You may answer that AzzyrÊs state of
mind was a result of too much stress from thinking depressing thoughts.
However, what is the internal aspect that may have caused AzzyrÊs thinking to
change from one state to another? What could have happened in his brain to
result in such changes in his thinking? We will discuss this matter further in the
next sub-topic.
Have you ever wondered why twin siblings, as shown in Figure 2.1, can behave
differently despite living in the same house? In your opinion, is it genetic or
environmental factors that influence their behaviours?
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. What are the psychological processes and the underlying
physiological events? Discuss.
2. In your opinion, why is biological psychology an important field
in psychology and how is it different from other fields of
psychology? Discuss.
What is a neuron? A neuron is a nerve cell that makes up our nervous system.
The main function of the neuron is to transmit information throughout the body.
These highly specialised nerve cells are responsible for communicating
information in both chemical and electrical forms. Neurons or nerve cells are
found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. You can refer to Figure 2.3.
(a) Nucleus
The nucleus, as shown in Figure 2.5, is a membrane-bound structure that
consists of the cell's hereditary information and controls the growth and
reproduction of cells. It is commonly the most prominent organelle in the cell.
(c) Dendrites
Dendrites, as shown in Figure 2.7, often look likes branches or spikes
extending out from the cell body. It is primarily the surfaces of the
dendrites that receive chemical messages from other neurons.
(d) Axon
Axon, as shown in Figure 2.8, is a single, thin and long tube-looking
extension that carries the information to be transmitted to other neurons.
Longer axons are usually covered with a myelin sheath, a series of fatty
cells which are wrapped around an axon many times. These myelin axons
transmit information much faster than other neurons.
(f) Synapse
The synapse is the point of connection between two neurons or between a
neuron and a muscle or gland, as shown in Figure 2.10. Electrochemical
communication between neurons takes place at these junctions.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Do you know that there are an estimated 100 billion neurons in our
nervous system? Some experts believe that some trillion neurons are
responsible for a single action. Discuss.
Axons convey information from the cell body and dendrites receive information.
The point where the cells meet to relay information (between axon and dendrite)
is a synapse. The information is sent from the axon of the sending cell to the
dendrite of the receiving cell by transmission of chemical molecules called
neurotransmitters. A neurotransmitter, which is a chemical that is released from
a nerve cell, transmits an impulse from a nerve cell to another nerve, muscle,
organ, or other tissue.
There are two main divisions of the nervous system, as shown in Figure 2.13.
Peripheral
Description
Nervous System
The peripheral nerves that transmit information to our skin and
Somatic Nervous muscles are called the somatic nervous system. They are
System responsible for voluntary movements such as dancing, writing and
jumping.
The autonomic nervous system controls our internal organs such as
Autonomic our heart, lungs and kidneys. The term autonomic refers to
Nervous System involuntary and automatic. This means that it is partly automatic.
We are unaware of these activities although they are controlled by
our brain and spinal cord.
The autonomic nervous system is also divided into two parts, as shown in Table 2.2.
Autonomic
Description
Nervous System
Sympathetic The sympathetic nervous system is controlled by a chain of
Nervous System neurons lying outside our spinal cord. It increases our heart rate
and breathing rate which prepares our body for fight or flight
activities. In other words, this division is responsible for managing
stressful emergency situations (fight or flight response).
Parasympathetic The parasympathetic nervous system is controlled by neurons at
Nervous System the top and bottom levels of our spinal cord. It decreases our heart
rate, increases digestive activities and promotes activities we do
while resting. In other words, this division is responsible for
calming the body after the emergency situation is resolved.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
effect on our emotions? How do you remember the way to your grandmaÊs
house? Where do dreams come from? Your brain is responsible for these things
and a lot more.
Our brain is, in fact, the big boss of our body. It runs the show and controls just
about everything that we do. How do you define the brain? The brain is a part of
the central nervous system that includes all the higher nervous centres, enclosed
within the skull and connected to the spinal cord. The brain has many different
parts that work together.
There are three main parts of the brain, namely the cerebrum, the cerebellum and
the brain stem, as shown in Figure 2.15.
(a) Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain and associated with
higher brain functions such as thought and action. It makes up 85% of the
brain weight. The cerebrum is divided into two symmetrical halves − the
left hemisphere and the right hemisphere, as shown in Table 2.3.
Cerebrum Description
It controls the right part of the body and is accountable for
Left hemisphere analytical thinking, speech, and mathematical and logical
reasoning. The left half controls the right side of the human body.
It controls the left part of the body and is responsible for creative
Right thinking such as music, drawing, and emotional expression. The
hemisphere right half controls the left side of the human body.
Figure 2.16 shows the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
(b) Cerebellum
The cerebellum is smaller than the cerebrum at 1/8 of its size. It is involved
in the coordination of voluntary motor movement, balance and equilibrium
and muscle tone. It is located towards the back of the brain and just above
the brain stem.
Figure 2.17 shows the cerebellum and brain stem of the brain.
(a) Forebrain
The forebrain is the largest division and consists of the cerebrum, thalamus
and hypothalamus. Refer to Figure 2.19 for the position of the thalamus and
hypothalamus in the forebrain. The cerebral cortex is divided into four
lobes, as shown in Figure 2.20.
Table 2.4 shows the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, thalamus and
hypothalamus.
Table 2.4: The Cerebral Cortex ă Four Lobes
Forebrain Description
Associated with reasoning, planning, parts of
Frontal lobe
speech, movement, emotions and problem solving.
Associated with orientation, recognition and
Cerebral Parietal lobe
perception of stimuli.
cortex
Occipital lobe Associated with visual processing.
Associated with perception and recognition of
Temporal lobe
auditory stimuli, memory and speech.
The thalamus is known as the final relay station for perceptual data
before it is passed on to the cerebral cortex. It receives input from diverse
Thalamus
brain areas, primarily including all the senses except olfaction. It is also
responsible for regulating motor control, as shown in Figure 2.20.
The hypothalamus is an important control centre for the sex drive,
Hypothala pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body temperature and
mus other visceral functions, as shown in Figure 2.20.
The forebrain also contains a limbic system, as shown in Figure 2.21, which is
directly linked to the experience of emotions. What is a limbic system?
The limbic system is a complex set of structures that lies on both sides of the
thalamus, just under the cerebrum. It includes the hypothalamus, the
hippocampus, the amygdala, the pituitary gland and several other nearby areas
(refer to Table 2.5). It appears to be primarily responsible for our emotional life,
and has a lot to do with the formation of memories.
Pituitary gland Is very small and only about the size of a pea. It plays an
important role to produce and release various types of
hormones into our body, for example, a hormone that controls
the amount of sugars and water in our body.
(b) Midbrain
The midbrain is the smallest division and it makes connections with the
other two divisions and alerts the forebrain to incoming sensations.
(c) Hindbrain
The hindbrain is made up of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. It is
involved in sleeping, waking, body movements and the control of vital
reflexes such as the heart rate and blood pressure.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
For example, the left side of each retina sees the right side of the world and is
then routed to the left hemisphere. The right side of each retina sees the left side
of the world and then goes to the right hemisphere.
About 95% of us have our left hemisphere controlling our ability to speak, while
our right is mute. Though controlling the muscles of the other side of the body,
the two hemispheres can easily communicate and coordinate if the corpus
callosum is intact.
However, if the corpus callosum is not intact (injured or severed), there will be a
problem in communication between the two hemispheres, resulting in a split
brain phenomenon.
messages throughout the nervous system via the bloodstream. In other words, it
is a set of glands that produce hormones and release them into our blood. The
endocrine system produces hormone chemicals that circulate through the blood
and affect the functioning or growth of other parts of the body.
Our hormones are actually similar to neurotransmitters. They both affect our
nervous system. What is the difference between neurotransmitters and the
endocrine system? See Table 2.6.
The pituitary gland (see Figure 2.23) is the master gland and main producer of
hormones, and controls the rest of the endocrine system that affects emotions, sexual
desire and energy levels. For example, Oxytocin is a hormone that is associated with
the feeling of nursing among new mothers, and stimulates cuddling.
The endocrine system consists of the adrenal (Figure 2.24), gonad (Figure 2.25),
pancreas (Figure 2.26), parathyroid (Figure 2.27), thyroid (Figure 2.28), pineal
(Figure 2.29) and pituitary glands. The following diagram shows the
relationships between these various organs (refer to Table 2.7).
2.5 GENETIC
In this subtopic, we will discuss further the genetic and psychological
explanation.
Our cells contain chromosomes (refer Figure 2.31) which are strands
of hereditary material. Chromosomes are long pieces of DNA found
in the centre (nucleus) of cells. The DNA is the chemical that holds the
genes. It is considered the building blocks of the human body. Genes
are responsible for controlling the chemical reactions that direct an
individualÊs development.
The male sperm penetrates the female egg cell and it becomes a
zygote through the process of conception. Each zygote has 23 pairs of
chromosomes which are rod-shaped structures that contain the basic
hereditary information. In other words, chromosomes are responsible
for the characteristics of individuals.
the child. You will be female if you have two X chromosomes ÂXXÊ.
You are male if you have one X and one Y chromosome ÂXYÊ. Only
males have the Y chromosome. This means that the sperm from the
male determines the sex of the baby.
Figure 2.32 shows the transfer of the XY gene that determines the sex
of the baby.
(b) Genes
We know that everyone has two of each gene − one received from the father
and another one from the mother. If the pair is the same, it is called
Homozygous. If the pair is different it is called Heterozygous for that
particular trait. See Table 2.8 for the examples of homozygous and
heterozygous.
Genes Description
Homozygous Homozygous means the two alleles for a gene match. It means
that you have identical alleles for a trait (like one dominant allele
from each of your parents for a certain trait). Example: BB or bb.
Heterozygous Heterozygous means the two alleles for a gene are different. It
means that you have different alleles for a trait (like one
dominant allele from your father and one recessive allele from
your mother for a certain trait). Example: Bb.
Our genes are divided into two types: dominant and recessive genes. A
dominant gene will show the effects even if you are heterozygous for the
gene. A recessive gene will only show its effects if you are homozygous for
the gene.
What is the difference between dominant and recessive genes? Let us look
at Table 2.9.
Refer to Figure 2.33 for a clearer picture of recessive and dominant genes.
ACTIVITY 2.3
If you can curl your tongue but your brother cannot, are you
homozygous or heterozygous for the tongue-curling gene? Are you
able to tell? Discuss.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
In conclusion, our genes control to a certain extent all our behaviours and mental
processes. This includes intelligence, personality and attitudes. However, our
environment and the adjustments that we make in our environment can reduce
the determinants of our genes. For example, phenylketonuria is an inherited
condition that can lead to mental retardation, but with strict diet alterations
during the first two years of life, the risk of mental retardation can be greatly
reduced.
ACTIVITY 3.4
1. There are many genetic disorders that are passed on from parents to
their children. Can you provide some examples?
2. What can be done to reduce the probability of having children with
genetic disorders? Discuss.
Ć All behaviours can be traced back to the activity of neurons, which carry
information from one cell to another. Communication between neurons is
chemical: neurotransmitters cross the synapse, attach to receptor sites and
inhibit or excite the receiving cell.
Ć The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) which includes the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems.
Ć The human brain has two hemispheres: left and right. The brain is also
divided into four lobes − occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal lobes and
each has basic functions. The brain also has association areas which can cause
impairment if damaged.
Ć We also learned how our genes affect behaviour through dominant and
recessive genes. The genetic factor plays a strong role in our behaviour as
well as our physical appearance.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered how we become aware of the world around us? How
do we receive information about the world? It is through our five senses (sight,
sound, smell, taste and touch). Sensation is the entering of raw data from our
senses into our brain. Perception is the interpretation of this raw data. With the
help of our sensory organs such as our skin and our eyes, we are able to receive
information about the world around us.
Have you ever been in a situation where you are straining your eyes to look at
something far away, and as you move towards the object, you finally reach a
point where you can just detect it enough to be able to perceive what it is? Well,
the point of time when you can just detect the presence of or difference in the
object in your focus (stimulus) is called threshold. Threshold is a concept central
to the study of sensation and perception. You will learn more about threshold
later in this topic.
For example: How loud does your mobile phone have to ring in order for
you to hear it in a quiet room?
For example: What pitch difference (high versus low tones) does your
mobile phone need in order for you to differentiate which phone is ringing?
ACTIVITY 3.1
Figure 3.2 illustrates our visual system. Let me summarise briefly. Light enters
our eyes through the cornea and passes through the iris. The lens projects the
image onto the retina. The photoreceptor cells in the retina capture the light
(energy) and transform it into electrical impulses. The optic nerve carries this
information in the form of electrical impulses to the visual cortex to be
interpreted. The result is visual perception.
(a) Cornea
Transparent film that acts as a protective cover over the front part of our
eyes. The lens and the cornea act together to refract light.
(b) Iris
Coloured part of our eye which guards the amount of light that enters our
eyes by controlling the size of the pupil.
(c) Pupil
The „black spot‰ at the centre of the iris that allows light into the eye. It
looks black to us because tissues inside the eye absorb most of the light
entering the pupil.
(d) Retina
The inner surface of the eye where images of the visual world are reflected.
Rods Cones
Plentiful and found in the retina. Concentrated mainly in the fovea.
Activation occurs at a lower Activation occurs at a higher
threshold. threshold.
Have lower sharpness. Have higher sharpness.
Do not process colour. Process colour.
(ii) Fovea
The pit in the retina located at the centre of the macula, which allows
us to see the objects in our direct focus in great detail. This is because
the greatest density of cones is located in the fovea.
Now that we know the fundamental parts of the eye and its functions, let me
explain briefly how our eye works.
Light first enters our eyes through the cornea. Then, the light passes through our
pupil. When there is too much light or bright light, the muscles in our iris
contract in order to make the pupil smaller, thus preventing our eyes from
getting damaged (Tovee, 2008). On the other hand, when there is too little light
or dim light, the muscles in the iris are relaxed to make the pupil larger, and thus
allow more light into our eyes so that we can see better.
The light then moves through the lens, and is reflected on the retina. The image
that is reflected by the lens onto the retina is much like a mirror image in the
sense that it is upside down. Please refer to Figure 3.3 for a picture illustration.
The lens changes its shape in order to focus on objects that are far or close. When
we want to focus on an object that is close to us, the muscles in the lens contract
to make the lens rounder. On the other hand, when we want to focus on an object
that is far away, the muscles in the lens relax, and the lens is flattened out. Any
image that passes through the lens will be in sharpest focus at the fovea. The
words that you are reading now are focused on the fovea, while the rest of what
you see is focused on other parts of the retina (Morris & Maisto, 2001).
ACTIVITY 3.2
Hair cells (auditory receptor cells) are delicate and fragile, and we only have
16,000 of them compared to the 100 million receptor cells in our eyes. Sounds that
are too loud can easily damage our hair cells, resulting in loss of hearing.
Prolonged exposure to sound waves above 85 decibels can result in loss of
hearing (Myers, 2002).
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. List the main functions of the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
2. Describe auditory perception.
It is very rare that all the sounds we hear come from the same source. Most of the
time, the sounds we hear come from multiple sources, and the sound waves
coming from these sources are mixed together in the air to create a complex
wave. How do we make sense of these sounds? Our auditory system separates
the sound we have selected to hear from the sound in the background. How does
it do this? First, it groups together the sounds from multiple sources that occur at
the same time. Then, it follows the sequence of sounds from the sound you have
selected to hear. In order to decide which sounds come from which source, our
auditory system uses two rules: onset times and harmonicity (see Figure 3.5).
In order to follow a sequence of sounds from the same source, the auditory
system looks for sounds that are similar. If the sounds have similar frequencies
and locations, they tend to be grouped together (law of similarity). If a sound is
briefly interrupted by a second sound (for example, talking interrupted by a dog
barking), we perceive the first sound as being continuous (law of continuity). If a
brief gap in the sound is filled with a second more intense sound, then we
perceive the first sound as being continuous even if it is not (law of closure).
Imagine you are trying to have a conversation with somebody over loud music
or at a noisy place. It is only natural that the person you are talking to does not
hear everything that you are saying, and vice versa. However, somehow people
rarely pay much attention to the words they may have missed hearing due to the
loud sounds in the environment. This phenomenon is called phonemic
restoration. Phonemic restoration takes place when people use top-down
processing to fill in missing phonemes or words. For example, at a noisy hawker
stall, your colleague says to you, „You should take some time off to (noise) --lax.‰
If the sound „re‰ is drowned by noise, you would still most likely think that you
heard the full word „relax‰. Why? Bottom-up processing provides us with all the
possible words in the English language that end with ÂlaxÊ. Then, top-down
processing takes over and helps us select the word „relax‰ as the appropriate
word for the context given. If both bottom-up processing and top-down
processing happen quickly enough, then you may not even realise the sound ÂreÊ
is missing. Your perceptual process fills in the sounds for you.
information about how our body (especially our head) is oriented in the world in
connection to gravity (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).
The vestibular system is located in the inner ear and consists of three canals
called the semicircular canals and the utricle. Each semicircular canal is filled
with fluid that moves when we move our heads. When the fluids in the canals
move, hair cells located in the canal bend. When hair cells bend, they are
stimulated and proceed to send information about movement to the brain (Davis
& Palladino, 2000). For example, if you were to turn your head quickly now, the
pressure changes in the fluid-filled cochlea would stimulate the hair cells by
bending them as the fluid moves up and down like waves in the cochlea. The
three canals called the semicircular canals provide us with information about
movement. For example, they tell us which direction our head is moving when
we nod or turn our heads. Essentially, the semicircular canals are responsible for
providing information about the speed and direction of body movement.
The utricle is a fluid-filled chamber in our inner ear that functions the same way
as the semicircular canals and is also responsible for detecting gravity. Basically,
the utricle provides information about gravitation, up and down movements,
and forward and backward movements (Morris & Maisto, 2001).
If you were to lose your vestibular sense, you would feel quite disorientated and
dizzy initially but would quickly adapt by relying more heavily on your sense of
sight. Motion sickness happens when the signals from the visual system
contradict those from the vestibular system. You may feel nauseated while
reading in a moving bus because you are looking at something that is not moving
ă the book ă but your vestibular system tells you that you are moving. There is a
conflict between the senses, and this upsets our system (Gerrig & Zimbardo,
2008).
To consciously experience the vestibular system now, try this simple experiment:
first, try to read while moving your head. You should still be able to read without
much problem. Now try and move your book while reading. You should
experience some difficulty reading now. Why? Because moving our head
activates our vestibular system but we can still adapt and orientate ourselves to
stabilise our perception of the world somewhat (Davis & Palladino, 2000).
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Table 3.2 shows the functions and location of the important component
parts of our olfactory system.
Parts of the
Functions Location
Olfactory System
Olfactory receptors Detecting odour molecules On the olfactory epithelium in
the nasal cavity.
Olfactory bulb Conveys messages from the Just below the frontal lobe and
nose to the brain. just above the receptors.
Limbic system Olfaction, emotion and In the brain, just below the
memory. thalamus.
Figure 3.7 shows the three basic steps involved in the olfaction process.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
The olfactory receptors are not located in the nose as you might think; they are
located in an area of tissue about one inch in each nasal hole. We have
approximately 10 million olfactory receptors. Each receptor contains about six to
12 hair-like structures at the tip of the cell called cilia. The olfactory receptors are
continuously replaced (Davis & Palladino, 2000). Unlike our sense of taste, there
In the year 2004, the Nobel Prize in Physiology went to Linda Buck and Richard
Axel for their research on the olfactory system which has given us a better
understanding of the system. Buck and Axel (1991) found that each olfactory
receptor cell contains only one kind of receptor. Each type of receptor can detect
certain molecules, some with more intensity than others. Olfactory receptors
respond to the sub-molecular characteristics of chemicals. For example, one type
of receptor may respond to any chemical that contains a hydrocarbon chain of a
specific pattern (Wilson, 2007). Essentially, receptors respond to many different
odours with the condition that they share a specific characteristic. Then, the brain
(olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex) receives information about the pattern or
combination of receptors that are stimulated at any given time and interprets that
pattern with regards to old patterns that have been experienced before and other
relevant information. What we perceive as smell is the interpreted pattern
(Wilson, 2007).
We use our sense of smell to determine whether food is fresh or stale and safe to
eat. We can use our sense of smell to track down where a certain smell is coming
from although it may not be as intense or sensitive as the sense of smell of a dog.
Dogs have about 200 million smell receptors while we only have 10 million. For
example, you may smell coffee as you are leaving the LRT station, and follow
your nose to lead you to the coffee. An interesting fact about the neurons in the
olfactory system is that they, unlike neurons from other sensory systems, tend to
be replaced only after being damaged. Unlike other sensory systems, messages
are not sent through the thalamus (Santrock, 2005).
Our sense of smell is also affected by the temperature of the food. Hot food tends
to release more aromas. Our sense of smell enhances our sense of taste. The
stimuli for smell are airborne molecules that can dissolve in water or fat
(Sternberg, 2001).
Like our other senses, our sense of smell also goes through adaptation. For
example, when you wear perfume, you may only smell it initially but after a few
hours you are not able to smell your own perfume although people around you
can still smell it (Zimbardo, Weber & Johnson, 2003).
ACTIVITY 3.3
We receive a lot of information about our surroundings through our skin. The
skin consists of a large amount of nerve receptors spread around the entire
surface of our body that send sensory data to our brain to be interpreted. There
are various specialised receptors cells that respond to different types of contact
with the skin. For example, some receptor cells respond best when something is
rubbed against the skin while others respond best when minimal pressure is
placed against the skin by small objects (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).
There are also different receptor cells that respond to warmth and coldness. The
skinÊs sensitivity to pressure is different all over the body. We have the most
receptor cells on our fingertips and on our tongue. Our back, legs and stomach are
some of the less sensitive areas. The sensory feedback we get from the receptor
cells on our tongue and fingertips enables effective eating and touching which are
among the most important functions of the skin (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2008).
SELF-CHECK 3.4
Figure 3.8 is a microscopic picture of the skin. The epidermis refers to the outer
layer of the skin. The dermis refers to the inner layer of skin. The receptors cells
found on our skin are generally referred to as somatosensory receptors. The
receptors responsible for touch or pressure are referred to as mechanoreceptors.
The receptors that are sources of information about temperature are called
thermoreceptors (Davis & Palladino, 2000).
Table 3.3 shows examples of somatosensory receptors located from the outer
layer of skin (epidermis) to the deeper layer of skin (dermis).
SELF-CHECK 3.5
If you look closely at the surface of your tongue, you will notice that it has a
rather bumpy appearance. What you are looking at is called papillae. There are
four kinds of papillae. Table 3.4 shows the types of papillae, their characteristics
and location on the tongue.
The only type of papillae that does not have taste buds is the filiform papillae. If
you were to put some salt right at the centre of your tongue, you would not taste
anything. All other papillae contain clusters of taste receptor cells known as taste
buds (onion shaped cells). Although most of our taste buds are located on the
tongue, there are also taste buds located on the roof of your mouth, inside your
cheeks and at the back of your throat (Davis & Palladino, 2000). Our tongue
contains around 10,000 taste buds, and each taste bud contains around 50
receptor cells. At the tip of each receptor are short hair-like structures called
microvilli, which when stimulated, send electrical impulses to the brain
(Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2003). Just as light is the stimulus for vision, molecules
that dissolve in liquid or substances that dissolve in saliva are the stimuli for
taste. The nerves that carry information about taste also transmit messages about
the temperature and texture of food, swallowing and chewing. Figure 3.9
illustrates our taste bud.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
How do we develop taste preferences? Why does someone hate spinach but love
chocolate? Many scientists believe that the food we eat in our early years has a
direct link with our taste preferences and eating habits now. Scientists have also
found a strong relation between the food our mothers ate when we were still in
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
68 TOPIC 3 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
the womb, and our taste preferences now (Drewnowski, 1997). As we discussed
earlier, infants have a stronger sense of taste compared to other senses. Our sense
of taste is one of the first ways we learn about the world around us. This is why
infants typically stuff everything they see into their mouths.
Humans generally have a very diverse sense of taste preferences, thanks largely
to the role of globalisation. It is now easier than ever to explore different tastes
from all over the world. According to evolutionary psychology, our sense of taste
tells us to avoid unfamiliar food (Smith & Margolskee, 2001). However, since we
no longer need to forage for food and we can buy it from the supermarkets, we
take it for granted that what we get from the supermarkets is safe for
consumption. Therefore, without that worry in mind, we have become explorers
of a vast myriad of tastes. If you think about it, one of the first reasons our
ancestors set sail and started exploring the world was because of the demand for
flavour which led to the spice trade.
Our taste preferences are basically determined by several factors such as genes,
environment, experience and age (Drewnowski, 1997). Genes give us a
predetermined sense of taste. For example, if both your parents are Indian, then
there is a very high likelihood that you will also have a predetermined taste
preference for spicy food. Our environment also plays an important role by
opening up new taste experiences for us. For example, even though you may
have genes that give you a predetermined taste preference for spicy food, you
may likely develop taste preferences for European food as well if you grew up in
Europe. As for the age factor, babies innately prefer sweet food and reject bitter
food. Then as they grow older, they start exploring different tastes.
Our preferences for certain food are also affected by their colour (Drewnowski,
1997). For example, blue orange juice does not taste as good as orange orange
juice. You can try this out yourself at home; just add some green food colouring
to a glass of milk and try drinking it. This is because for thousands of years,
humans have relied on their visual sense to identify food which is good to eat.
For example, the colour of a fruit tells us whether it is ripe. Much of the foods
that we consume today have added colouring. For example, yellow colouring is
often added to margarine which is actually a pale yellow colour to make it
„taste‰ better.
The food industry today has exploited the knowledge and technology available
to produce food that tastes undeniably good but with very low nutritional value
at a low cost. One example is food that is mass produced such as processed food
and fast food. The flavour industry has become a success story by creating
flavours that are addictive and literally mouth-watering. It has been found that
the combination of fat, salt and sugar with thousands of other chemicals added to
fast food make it taste and smell simply irresistible to most. Food technologists
have even tampered with the texture of our food. For example, the vegetables at
McDonalds contain different chemicals to make them crispy and fresh-tasting.
The typical strawberry flavour which can be found in a whole range of food
products today consists of over 50 different chemicals so skilfully chosen and
combined that they imitate the taste of real strawberries (Schlosser, 2002).
If you open your fridge and take a look at the labels on the food products, you
will find that the list of ingredients will either contain artificial flavour and/or
natural flavour. Natural flavour does not in any case mean that it contains fewer
chemicals and is healthier for you. It only means that it has been produced using
different methods (Schlosser, 2002). There are many other ingredients that are not
written on that label and many others that we are simply ignorant of. Maybe
there is a need to worry about the food that you get from the supermarket as it
does not seem to be that safe to consume after all.
ACTIVITY 3.4
There are two main factors that enable us to see and perceive the world
around us: light and the visual system.
Our visual system consists of three main parts: eyes, visual pathways and
visual centres of the brain. Our eyes capture light; the visual pathways (created
mainly by the optic nerve and optic chiasm) carry information from the eye to
the brain; and the visual centres of the brain interpret the information.
The auditory system consists of the ear and parts of the brain. The ear can be
divided into three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
Apart from hearing, our ears are also responsible for creating balance and
providing us with a sense of orientation in our environment.
The five basic taste qualities are: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami.
Our sense of taste interacts very closely with our sense of smell.
The functions of the skin are to protect you from surface injuries, hold in
body fluids and regulate body temperature.
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Drewnowski, A. (1997). Taste preferences and food intake. Annual Review of
Nutrition, 17, 237-253.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R.J. & Zimbardo, P.G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Myers, D. G. (2002). Exploring psychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth
Publishers.
Schlosser, E. (2002). Fast food nation. Penguin Books.
Sekuler, R., & Blake, R. (1994). Perception (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Smith, D.V. & Margolskee, R.F. (2001). Making sense of taste. Scientific American
Magazine (March 2001 ed). Retrieved October 6, 2009, from
www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=making-sense-of-taste
&page=5
Wenner, M. (2008). Like the taste of chalk? YouÊre in luck ă humans may be able
to taste calcium. Scientific American Magazine (August 2008 ed).
Retrieved October 6, 2009, from www.scientificamerican.com/
article.cfm?id=osteoporosis-calcium-taste-chalk
INTRODUCTION
Let us ponder the joke shown in Figure 4.1. Do you know what consciousness is?
Let us read through the explanation given.
Our consciousness seems to have a mind of its own. For example, instead of
focusing on a specific task like watching a movie, our mind wanders from the
external world to the internal world. We start to daydream and so on. William
James made the observation that our waking consciousness is seldom fixed on
any one event for a period of time. Instead, it seems to flow from one event to
another, from past to present and from the external world to the internal world.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Give three examples of the states of consciousness that you
experience everyday.
There are different levels of consciousness (as shown in Figure 4.2). For example,
a person in a coma has a very low level of awareness compared to a person who
is dreaming.
Through the ages, people have looked for ways to alter their consciousness. Some
of the more popular methods include taking drugs, meditation, fasting, chanting
and going into a trance. Why are people so interested in altering their
consciousness? See Figure 4.4.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
4.2 SLEEP
Have you ever wondered why some people like waking up early in the morning,
while others like to sleep till noon? Let us discuss biological rhythms next to find
out more.
Flying across several time zones can disrupt your circadian rhythms. After a long
flight, our sleep patterns are disrupted and we experience what is known as jet
lag. We may feel tired, irritable and sluggish for the first few days following the
flight. Similarly, people who work on shifts experience the same problem.
How do scientists study sleep and dreaming? They use the electroencephalogram
(EEG) where electrodes are attached to the scalp to measure brain wave activity.
Why do we sleep? There are two main theories, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Occasionally, all of us face some problems with our sleeping patterns. There are
nights when we just cannot seem to fall asleep. If you have experienced this for a
period of time, you would have realised how it can impair your normal
functioning throughout the day. You may not be able to concentrate properly
and may make careless mistakes in your work and so on. People who suffer from
sleep disorders have similar disturbances in their sleep patterns.
There are two sleep disorder patterns, which are shown in Figure 4.7.
(a) Insomnia
Is a sleep disorder characterised by the difficulty in falling asleep or
remaining asleep throughout the night. Insomnia may be caused by
stressful life events and may be temporary, or they may be more persistent
when caused by deeper psychological problems such as depression.
Insomnia patients often resort to taking sleeping pills to help them sleep.
However, sleeping pills lose their effectiveness after a while, and also have
negative side-effects including memory loss and anxiety.
(b) Apnea
Is another sleeping disorder characterised by difficulty in breathing during
the night and feelings of exhaustion during the day. People suffering from
apnea typically feel exhausted during the day because they are disturbed
by breathing difficulties at night. They are stirred to a state of arousal close
to waking consciousness hundreds of times a night when the level of
carbon dioxide in the blood increases to a certain point.
People with insomnia and apnea both suffer from lack of sleep and often crave
for more. However, too much sleep can also disturb normal functioning. People
suffering from narcolepsy may sleep off without warning in the middle of a
conversation or meal. They often experience a sudden loss of muscle tone
following moments of emotional excitement such as anger or sexual arousal. One
symptom of narcolepsy is when you immediately enter the dreaming stage after
you fall asleep. Narcolepsy is caused by a defect in the central nervous system.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
ACTIVITY 4.1
Describe the different stages of sleep.
4.3 DREAMS
People have long speculated about dreams. What are dreams and how do you
define them? Dreams are mental experiences that we go through during REM
sleep. What do people dream about? People mostly dream about themselves
instead of public or current events. Although dreams seem to come from a world
of their own, there is often an obvious and observable link between our dreams
and our waking life (Weiten, 2001). For example, we often dream about events
and people in our life. Sigmund Freud made this observation a long time ago. He
said that contents from our waking life often spill into our world of dreams.
Freud termed it day residue.
Experiments have shown that the content of your dreams can be affected by
external stimuli experienced while you are dreaming. In one experiment, subjects
were sprayed with water while they were in the REM stage of sleep (Kalat, 1990).
Some subjects woke up at this point, while others continued to sleep and were
woken up by the experiment facilitator a short time later. Forty-two per cent of
the subjects had dreams related to water such as floods, rain and rivers. The
integration of external stimuli into dreams shows that there is a link between
dreams and waking life.
Why do we dream? Sigmund Freud believed that we seek to fulfil our unmet
needs and desires from waking life through wishful thinking in dreams. Hence,
for Freud, the main purpose of dreams is wish fulfilment (Kalat, 1990). For
example, if your sexual desires are not met in waking life, you may dream about
sex more often.
Hobson and McCarley (1995) argue that dreams are a product of explosions of
brain activity. Their activation-synthesis model suggests that dreams are the side
effects of the brain activity produced during REM sleep. According to this model,
neurons firing in the brain send random signals to the cerebral cortex. The cortex
constructs a dream to make sense of the signals. The main criticism of the
activation-synthesis model is that it cannot be used to explain dreams that occur
outside of REM sleep and the content of dreams is more meaningful than what
this model suggests.
All these theories about dreams are just that ă theories. There is not enough solid
evidence to back up these theories, and none of them have been properly tested
due to the subjective nature of dreams, which makes it difficult to test the
theories empirically. Hence, the purpose of dreams remains a mystery.
ACTIVITY 4.2
4.4 HYPNOSIS
Everyone experiences sleep and dreams but not all people have experienced
hypnosis. How do you define hypnosis? Hypnosis involves deliberate efforts to
temporarily alter consciousness. Hypnosis is often used in psychoanalytic
therapy to bring back past memories (unconscious memories or thoughts) into
consciousness again. Hypnosis is also often used to overcome addictions such as
smoking and gambling through the power of suggestion.
Gradually, most subjects give in and become hypnotised. However, not everyone
can be hypnotised. Different personality traits and the subjectÊs own beliefs about
hypnosis may be the reasons why some people are easily hypnotised and others
are not.
The EEG patterns of people in hypnosis cannot be distinguished from the EEG
patterns of normal waking states. This has led some theorists to believe that
hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness. According to Barber (1979),
ACTIVITY 4.3
4.5 DRUGS
Besides hypnosis, meditation is also often used to alter consciousness. Another
way is through drugs. This is often called recreational drug use. Let us discuss
the types of drugs that are most commonly used for recreational purposes.
(a) Opiates
Opiates are drugs that are derived from opium. Opium is derived from the
poppy plant. The main drugs in this category are heroin, morphine, and
codeine (cough mixture).
Essentially, opiates numb you and make you sleep. Morphine is often used
clinically to relieve severe and agonising pain. Heroin provides an escape
and relief from the pain and suffering in life. However, it is also one of the
most dangerous and addictive drugs. English rock band Pink Floyd
describes the experience of taking heroin in one of their songs called
Comfortably Numb.
(b) Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are drugs that induce hallucinations or distortions in
sensory and perceptual experience. The main hallucinogens are LSD,
mescaline and psilocybin (magic mushrooms). Hallucinogens typically
increase sensory awareness and lead to a distorted sense of time. Some
people who have used hallucinogens have described them as a spiritual
experience and others a nightmare.
(c) Cannabis
Cannabis is the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish and THC
(Tetrahydrocannibinol) are derived. THC is the active chemical ingredient
ACTIVITY 4.4
SELF-CHECK 4.4
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M. ,& Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in Action (4th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Kalat, J. W. (1990). Introduction to psychology (2nd ed.). Wadsworth, Inc.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Orne, M. T. (1951). The mechanisms of hypnotic age regression: An experimental
study. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, pg. 213-225.
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology Themes & Variations (5th ed.). Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning.
INTRODUCTION
From the day we are born till the day we die, we never stop learning. First, we
learn how to crawl, and then walk. Hopefully by the time we die, we should
have learnt how to live and love.
In this topic, we will explore several kinds of learning. One type is learning to
associate one event with another. Learning involves the formation of concepts,
theories, ideas and other mental abstractions.
There are many ways in which we have been conditioned without us even being
aware of it. Who conditions us? Our parents, teachers, the media and society. We
have been conditioned by the media to consume just like how dogs are trained to
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 5 LEARNING 91
sit and „shake hands‰. We have been conditioned to associate material things
with success and happiness. Some of us realise that we have been conditioned
and work on de-conditioning ourselves as we learn what works best for us.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Describe some examples of the things that you have learnt
through conditioning.
2. Define learning in your own words.
3. Learning might consist of changes in immediate behaviour or
potential behaviour. What does this mean?
On repeated occasions, he sounded a bell just before feeding the dogs. After
some time, the dogs began salivating as soon as the bell rang. It was as if they
had learnt that the bell was a signal that they were going to be fed. If you have
any pets at home, you would have noticed that as well.
There are four basic elements in classical conditioning, as shown in Figure 5.1:
(a) The unconditioned stimulus (UCS);
(b) The unconditioned response (UCR);
(c) The conditioned stimulus (CS); and
(d) The conditioned response (CR).
The conditioned stimulus (CS) is an event that is repeatedly paired with the US.
In PavlovÊs experiment, the ringing of the bell was the CS. The learnt reaction ă
salivating at the sound of the bell ă is the conditioned response (CR).
Let us look at the basic principles of classical conditioning as shown in Table 5.1.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. What are the two steps that should be taken in order to make it
easier to establish a classically conditioned response?
2. Explain in your own words how you would condition your pets
or children.
3. Other than in commercial advertising, how else is classical
conditioning put into practical use? Discuss.
There are three basic principles of operant conditioning, as shown in Figure 5.4.
(b) Punishment
Punishment refers to any event which decreases the probability of
behaviour occurring again. Punishment is different from negative
reinforcement. Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour by removing
something unpleasant from the environment. In contrast, punishment adds
something unpleasant to the environment to weaken behaviour. For
example, if you were to receive a heavy fine for littering, the behaviour of
littering would be weakened the next time. However, as we can observe
from real life, punishment does not always work. Why? In order for
punishment to be effective, it has to be swift ă meaning punishment should
not be delayed and it should be put into action immediately after the
unwanted behaviour has taken place.
Punishment should also be consistent. If you punish your child for hitting
his sister, but not for hitting the dog, then he is most likely to do it again. In
some cases, even the mere threat of punishment is enough to remove
unwanted behaviour. This is called avoidance training. How effective is
punishment? Punishment does not encourage people to unlearn behaviours
or teach them how to behave better. Rather, if the threat of punishment is
removed, the negative behaviour is likely to occur again. Furthermore,
punishment also induces negative feelings which can hinder the learning of
(Morris & Maisto, 2001). For example, ThorndikeÊs cat voluntarily attempted
to open the box door. This is called operant behaviour because it involves
operating on the environment.
Ć Consequence
Consequences which increase the chances that a behaviour will be repeated
are called reinforcers. For example, ThorndikeÊs cat gained freedom and food
for escaping from the puzzle box. In contrast, consequences which decrease
the chances that a behaviour will be repeated are called punishers.
Similarities Differences
Both involve learning through association. In CC, it is a learnt association between one
stimulus and another (e.g. food and a bell).
In both cases, the responses are under the In OC, it is a learnt association between
control of stimuli in the environment. some action and a consequence.
Neither CC nor OC responses will last In CC, the responses are automatically
forever if they are not periodically triggered.
renewed.
In both CC and OC, new behaviours can In OC, the responses are voluntary.
build on previously established ones.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Köhler believed there was more to learning than simply responding to stimuli in
a trial and error fashion. In fact, the trial and error strategy cannot be used to
solve complex problems. He was interested in studying the role of insight in
learning. Insight is a sudden flash of understanding that occurs when you are
trying to solve a problem (Weiten, 2001). For example, imagine you have spent
days trying to find a solution to a problem. Then one day, all of a sudden you
understand how to solve the problem.
not solve this problem by using the trial and error strategy like ThorndikeÊs cat,
but rather seemed to think about the problem for a period of weeks. Then, in a
flash of insight, the chimpanzee picked up the bamboo sticks and connected
them by inserting one end into the hollow end of another. With this extension,
the chimpanzee was able to reach the banana.
Edward Tolman went on to say that in order for learning to occur, the response
does not necessarily have to be reinforced, contrary to what most learning
theorists/behaviourists believed at that time. He found that a significant amount
of learning consists of latent learning, as he called it. Latent learning occurs in the
absence of any reward and the knowledge learnt remains hidden until some day
in the future when it can be finally retrieved and used.
In short, cognitive learning is the basis for many modern educational approaches
such as constructivism and problem-based learning.
This is the difference between learning and performance. We can learn without
any change in external behaviour that shows that we have learnt. However,
whether or not we perform depends on our motivation.
The kind of consequences associated with the observed behaviour (the rewards
or punishments) is an important motivation for acting. These consequences
(rewards or punishments) do not necessarily have to happen to the observer.
They may simply occur to the other people the observer is watching. This is
called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment because the
consequences are not directly experienced by the observer; rather they are
experienced through other people. For example, if you see your father drinking
alcohol and enjoying himself, you are experiencing vicarious reinforcement of
drinking and you are much more likely to imitate it.
One of the pioneers of social learning theory is Albert Bandura, who refers to his
perspective as social cognitive theory. Bandura (1986) demonstrated in his
experiment that people can learn behaviour without being reinforced directly for
it, and that learning a behaviour and performing it are not the same thing. Three
groups of preschool children watched a film in which an adult starts hitting a
doll after it refuses to obey him. The film ended differently for the children in
each of the three groups. Those in the model-rewarded condition saw the adult
who had hit the doll being rewarded with lots of goodies and praise by a second
adult (vicarious reinforcement). Those in the model-punished condition saw the
second adult scolding and beating the adult who had hit the doll (vicarious
punishment). Finally, those in the no-consequences condition saw nothing
happen to the model as a result of his aggressive behaviour. Immediately after
watching the film, the children were escorted into another room where they
found the same doll. Each child played alone for 10 minutes while being
observed behind a one-way mirror. Much of the behaviour the children
displayed was what had been reinforced on the adult in the film.
This study teaches us an important lesson regarding how we should not provide
a model of aggression for children to follow unintentionally. Imagine you want
your child to stop hitting his sibling. You might resort to hitting the child as
punishment in order to discourage this kind of behaviour. However, hitting the
child also shows that hitting is an effective method of getting your way.
Therefore, hitting not only provides a model of aggression; it also provides
vicarious reinforcement. Both you and your child will be happier if the
punishment for hitting was not a similar form of aggression, and if the child is
also rewarded for showing kindness to others.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. According to observational learning theory, why are we selective
in our imitation? List three reasons.
2. Use the principles of observational learning to explain why
physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour.
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in action (4th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Chapter 5: Learning
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology themes & variations (5th ed.). Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning.
INTRODUCTION
It is a fact that memory is very crucial in our daily life. Just imagine living
without any ability to recall or remember anything. What will happen to us? It is,
therefore, important for us to have memory so that we can remember everyday
things such as names and faces of people, phone numbers, passwords, spellings,
appointments, where we keep our things, etc. I am sure our life would be chaotic
and disorderly if we were to lose our memory. Thus, in this topic we will discuss
the basic concept of memory, the process of memory, the stage model of memory
and types of memory. We will also look into the reasons why we are forgetful
and the ways we can improve our memory.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Before we discuss any further, search for information on the concept
and definition of memory. Then discuss it with your coursemates in
your tutorial.
Generally, when we talk about memory, people tend to relate it to our mental
ability to remember something and how we can retain information over a period
of time (refer to Figure 6.1). You can gauge how good your memory is by how
well you are able to store, recall, search or retrieve past events, experiences, and
certain information or knowledge acquired previously. Our memory also enables
us to remember the good and bad experiences in our life.
The study of memory began in the mid-19th century. German psychologist and
philosopher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850ă1909) applied scientific methods in the
study of memory and discovered an important relationship between the time
spent for learning and relearning. Then, he discovered the level of retention
(information) and called it the saving method. He was well-known as the pioneer
who started scientific memory research by observing his own capacity for
memorising lists of nonsensical syllables. Table 6.1 describes the definition of
memory.
Source Definition
Medical Dictionary Memory is the process of recovering information about past
events or knowledge. For example, I am still able to recall some
of my childhood experiences as well as some good and bad
experiences during primary and secondary school days.
Henry Gleitman, Alan Defined memory as the way we record the events of our lives
J. Fridlund, & Daniel and also information. This means memory is the process of
Reinsberg (2000) retention where storage and retrieval of information take place.
They also compared memory to a storehouse where thousands
of items are kept.
When we discuss about the process of memory, it concerns how humans put
information into memory (encoding), maintain the coded information (storage),
and search or get the stored information back into consciousness (retrieval). As
such, a human mind is like a computer system because we use our mental ability
to make sure of the smooth processing of information. There are several stages or
processes which enable our memory to retain or store and also trace back the
information.
(c) Retrieval
It refers to the process of how we recall the information in our storage
(memory) and pulling it into consciousness. Gleitman, et al (2000), stated
that retrieval refers to our efforts to supply information from memory. For
example, can you remember the title of the psychology textbook you used
last semester? If you can, it means you have successfully recalled the
information from your memory into your conscious mind.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Discuss the process of memory with your classmates and share your
view with the others.
The most common and basic model of memory is Memory Stage Model by
Atkinson and ShriffinÊs (1968). This model explains the basic structure and
function of memory and outlines three distinct stages of memory, as shown in
Figure 6.3.
The types of memory are different in terms of capacity, duration and function.
Let us now study the stages in greater detail.
(a) Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is sometimes also known as iconic memory. Sensory
memory preserves incoming sensory information (in its original sensory
form) for only a few seconds. This means that sensory memory holds very
brief storage of information. For example, „I see an advertisement board
with some attractive wordings but I cannot remember all the wordings
once I pass it‰.
Sensory storage implies that something perceptual takes place. In this
context, sensory storage refers to images (it can also be vision) or more
precisely, after-images. Although the actual stimulus may have
disappeared, we may still perceive it for a few seconds. Sometimes it may
be a case of you saying „I have seen it before it but I just canÊt remember
where I have seen it!‰.
(b) Short-term Memory
Short-term memory has a limited duration of memory where you can retain
the information for about only 20 seconds. Short-term memory has a
limited capacity too. For example, you may be able to recall a few things at
a time and then, you may not be able to recall them after that. Another
example, you want to call your friend and refer to your business card folder
to get the phone number. After looking at the number, you make the call
but immediately after that, you forget the number, right?
Kalad (2002) stated that long-term and short-term memories are different terms
of memory. These different retention intervals are bridged by different memory
systems. According to him, short-term memory is sometimes also known as
working memory. Working memory holds information for short intervals.
For instance, you work as a cashier at a hypermarket. You can remember the total
amount which has to be paid by your customer at that moment but when the
next customer comes along you would have already forgotten the previous one.
Based on the above explanation, we can thus conclude that short-term and long-
term memories are different in terms of capacity and duration. If we want to
enhance our information from short-term memory to long-term memory, the
information stored must remain in working memory for a short period.
According to Waugh and Norman (1965), the means for maintaining the
information is by using the technique of rehearsal.
Memory
Retriever Capacity Duration Rehearsal
Stage Model
Sensory Retriever not Almost zero Only lasts for a Rehearsal not
Memory required memory few seconds involved
capacity
Short-term Retriever not Limited memory Not more than Rehearsal could
Memory involved 20 seconds be involved only
one or two times
Long-term Need retriever Very huge Can last for a Heavily
Memory such as a hint to capacity lifetime involved
recall rehearsal
6.4 FORGETTING
Forgetting means our memory is failing and we are not able to retain
information. In other words, we have lost or cannot retrieve the stored
information. For example, many of us find that we can hardly remember what
we have learnt in the past or even yesterdayÊs class. We often fail to memorise or
recall important facts. As such, we would like to understand why such
circumstances occur in our daily life. Nine of the reasons are shown in Figure 6.5.
(c) No Attention
Do you agree that you are most likely to forget everything if you do not pay
attention at that moment? For example, if we sometimes just give a little bit
of attention to certain things, we can, of course, only remember certain
parts.
(e) Cue-dependent
It means our memory cannot easily retrieve information when the cue does
not match the cue present during encoding time. For example, you can
recognise your new classmate „Ali‰ in school but you are not able to
recognise him in the hypermarket. Have you experienced such a situation?
ACTIVITY 6.3
Are you someone who is always forgetful? Why? Discuss the reasons
with your classmates.
(a) Rehearsal
One of the important techniques to improve our memory is through
rehearsal. Rehearsal means we repeat the data again and again in our
conscious mind. This method will increase the probability of the data being
transferred to long-term storage (Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund, &
Daniel Reinsberg, 2000).
ACTIVITY 6.4
Identify five techniques which can help you improve your memory
capacity. Then, discuss them in your tutorial class.
In this topic, we have discussed the basic concept of memory, the process of
memory, the memory stage model and eight types of memory.
This topic also described the nine reasons why people always forget.
Finally, this topic elaborated on the nine techniques of how we can improve
our memory in a very systematic and effective way.
Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A. J., & Reinsberg, D. (2000). Basics of psychology (5th
ed.). New York, America: Infobase Publishing.
Kalad, J. W. (2002). Introduction to psychology (6th ed.). America: Thomson
Learning, Inc.
Medical dictionary. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from www.medicinenet.
com/script/main/hp.asp.
Pastorino, E. & Portillo, S. D. (2009). What is psychology? (2nd ed.). America:
Thomson Learning, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will explore the cognitive abilities associated with thinking.
Along the way, we will discover that we actually think in both pictures and
words. We will learn how concepts are formed and why they are so important.
We will also explore and discuss the complexity of human language. Finally, we
will discuss intelligence ă its definitions and methods of measurement.
7.1 THINKING
Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving
and using knowledge (Davis & Palladino, 2000). Now we know that using
language, thinking and reasoning are examples of cognitive abilities. Have you
ever wondered how we gather information about the world around us? There
are several ways ă sensation and perception, learning and memory, and thinking.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 7 THINKING, INTELLIGENCE AND LANGUAGE 121
When we think, we are actually mentally processing the information that has
been previously gathered and stored by forming ideas, reasoning, solving
problems, drawing conclusions, making decisions, expressing our thoughts, and
understanding the thoughts of others (Huffman, Vernoy & Vernoy, 1997).
The two systems are very much interconnected. For example, we can convert
verbal information such as a description of a beautiful woman into either a
visual, tactile, olfactory or auditory mental image.
for us. Often, when words seem to complicate issues, a simple image or sketch
can bring clarity.
The following link shows a YouTube video of a standard lecture that has been
illustrated by sketches: www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7AWnfFRc7g. Images also
allow us to use concrete forms to represent complex and abstract ideas. For example,
newspapers often use pie charts and graphs to illustrate results of survey polls.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
7.1.2 Concepts
Imagine suddenly finding yourself in a foreign land. Although the people are
friendly, you find it very difficult to communicate as they speak in a strange
language. You are surrounded by objects and items that you have never seen
before in your life. How would you manage in this strange, unfamiliar
environment? For the first few days, you would probably be totally disorientated
and lost. However, after a week or two, you would find that you are slowly
learning the names and uses of those once very strange objects. You are slowly
adapting. How did you manage to adapt so quickly?
The main reason that you managed to adapt so quickly is because of your ability to
form and use concepts. When we see a new object, we relate it to our existing
conceptual structure and categorise it accordingly. We tend to mentally group
together objects or events which have similar characteristics when we form concepts.
(c) Hierarchies
Specific concepts are grouped as subcategories within broader concepts.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Why do you think that the ability to form concepts is so important?
Discuss this with your classmates.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
How do we learn new concepts? Describe and explain the three ways.
There are three main stages of problem solving as can be seen in Figure 7.1:
There are three main barriers that prevent us from effectively solving
problems:
(i) Problem-solving set occurs when you apply only methods that have
worked in the past rather than trying new and creative ones.
(ii) Functional fixedness occurs when you are unable to recognise original
or new uses for an object because you are so familiar with its common
use (Weiten, 2001).
(iii) Confirmation bias is the preference for information that confirms our
pre-existing positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discounting
contradictory evidence.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
7.1.4 Creativity
You do not necessarily have to be an artist or a musician to be considered
creative. In fact, everyone is creative in their own way and in some aspect of life.
Creativity refers to a unique way of solving problems which combines new or
unusual elements in ways that are practical, useful and meaningful to the culture
(Gardner, 1988).
Creative thinking is connected with the following abilities as shown in Figure 7.2:
There are two major types of thinking: convergent and divergent thinking as can
be seen in Figure 7.3.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Give one example each for convergent thinking and divergent
thinking.
2. List down the ways in which one can be creative.
7.2 INTELLIGENCE
The definition of intelligence has been the subject of much debate in the past
century. Take a minute or two to think about what being intelligent means to
you. Is it a general mental ability or is it made up of different abilities?
SELF-CHECK 7.4
How would you define intelligence?
Intelligence Description
Intrapersonal The ability to understand yourself and use this ability to
reach your highest potential and recognising self-defeating
emotions. This will increase success in almost all careers.
Bodily/kinaesthetic Body movement, such as dancing, gymnastics or figure
skating and is usually shown by dancers, ski instructors and
athletes.
Linguistic It involves language such as speaking, reading a book and
writing a story. Possible careers are novelist, journalist and
teacher.
Logical/mathematical Problem solving or scientific analysis, such as following a
logical proof or solving a mathematical problem. Possible
careers include mathematican, scientist and engineer.
Spatial It involves mental maps, such as figuring out how to draw a
floor plan; people with this kind of intelligence can work as
engineers, architects and pilots.
Naturalistic Being attuned to nature, such as noticing seasonal patterns.
Possible careers are biologist and naturalist.
Musical It refers to musical skills such as singing or playing musical
instruments and possible careers related to this intelligence
are singer, musician and composer.
Interpersonal Possess good social skills such as managing a group of
people. People with this kind of intelligence can become a
salesperson, manager and teacher.
SELF-CHECK 7.5
1. How are the early theories of intelligence different from the
modern ones?
2. Explain SternbergÊs triarchic theory in your own words.
3. List and describe the eight kinds of intelligences in GardnerÊs
theory of multiple intelligences.
SELF-CHECK 7.6
7.3 LANGUAGE
Language facilitates our thinking. It is through language that we communicate
our thoughts, ideas and feelings. Our cognitive processes such as language and
thought share a complex interaction with one another.
Many psychologists believe that language influences the way we think and
approach problems. In many cases, our vocabulary determines how we perceive
the world around us. For example, the Eskimos have over 20 words for the word
„snow‰ because it is important to be able to identify different types of snow in
their culture and way of life. Other psychologists argue that while it may be
easier to express a particular idea in one language than in another, language does
not determine how or what we think, but is merely a reflection of our thinking.
(c) Generative
A restricted number of symbols can be combined in an infinite variety of
ways to generate an endless range of original messages.
(d) Structured
Sentences must be structured in a restricted number of ways.
ACTIVITY 7.3
There are three main stages of problem solving: preparation, production and
evaluation.
Algorithms Heuristics
Cognition Hypothesis-testing theory
Convergent thinking Morphemes
Divergent thinking Phonemes
Dual-coding hypothesis Problem solving set
Functional fixedness Prototype theory
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in action (4th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology Themes & Variations (5th ed.). Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning.
8 Psychology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define developmental psychology;
2. Explain the issues in studying human development;
3. Explain the three major developmental theories;
4. Evaluate your own personality development; and
5. Compare the three main concerns during middle adulthood
according to EriksonÊs theory of personality development.
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 8, we will learn about developmental psychology by starting off with
the definition and the issues in the study of human development. We will also
discuss prenatal, infancy and childhood development as well as adolescence,
adulthood and late adulthood.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
ACTIVITY 8.1
What would happen if a little boy was raised by a pack of wolves in
the middle of the jungle? How would he develop? Would he think the
same way as we would? How would he communicate with others?
Would he be intelligent? If so, in what ways would he be intelligent?
Would he feel the same emotions? What about his social behaviour?
Discuss with your classmates.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Describe one way in which you think your own development has
been unique in comparison with the common patterns of human
development.
2. Find a partner to debate the nature versus nurture issue.
Figure 8.1 illustrates the critical periods of prenatal development. The dark area
on the bars shows the most sensitive periods for various organs and structures.
During this time, these organs and structures are most vulnerable to damage.
The light part on the bars shows continued development of these organs and
structures; however they are now less sensitive and less vulnerable to damage.
Generally, organs and structures are most vulnerable to damage during the
embryonic stage when they are undergoing rapid development (Weiten, 2001).
Do you know that almost anything the mother eats, drinks or inhales can be
transmitted through the placenta to the foetus? The same goes for drinking
alcohol, smoking or taking drugs during pregnancy which can seriously harm
the development of the foetus. It can result in mental and physical retardation
and defects. Drinking large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy can result in
the newborns being born with foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), a condition
characterised by deformities in the face and heart, stunted growth and cognitive
impairments.
Even over-the-counter drugs such as aspirin can cause bleeding in the foetus. It is
very important for the mother to eat a well-balanced diet and to avoid any kind
of harmful substances such as alcohol, cigarettes and drugs during pregnancy.
Also, if the mother develops an infection such as rubella (German measles),
syphilis or HIV, the foetus can be easily infected too.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Explain briefly in your own words what happens during the
prenatal period.
2. Describe the important developments which take place during
the three stages of prenatal development.
At birth, the senses of smell, taste, hearing and touch are well developed while
visual perception is the least developed.
Newborns have not yet developed a full personality like most of us but they do
show individual differences in temperament. Some cry more, others are highly
responsive to their surroundings while still others are inactive no matter the
surroundings. The infantÊs temperament remains relatively stable over time.
Studies have shown that „shy‰ infants continue to be „shy‰ children more often
than not. Essentially, both biological and environmental factors contribute to this
stability in behaviour (Morris & Maisto, 2001).
Figure 8.2 shows the physical changes in growth and body proportions that take place
from birth to adulthood. As babies and toddlers, our heads are disproportionately
larger than our bodies. However, as we grow older, our heads become smaller in
proportion to our body. This is because the brain grows faster than any other part of
the body during prenatal development and the first two years of life.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
SELF-CHECK 8.4
SELF-CHECK 8.5
Table 8.4 shows EriksonÊs theory of personality development which suggests that
people evolve through eight stages during their lifespan. Each stage is marked by a
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 145
Source: www.myuccedu.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/08/ericksone28099s-
psychosocial-stages.jpg
SELF-CHECK 8.6
ACTIVITY 8.3
Evaluate your personality development by asking yourself the critical
questions at each stage of EriksonÊs theory of personality
development.
8.5 ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Some of
the most obvious physical changes that take place during adolescence are a
sudden growth spurt (rapid increase in height and weight) and puberty (sexual
maturation). Table 8.5 shows the major physical changes that take place during
puberty and the average age it begins for boys and girls.
Table 8.5: Physical and Sexual Development in Adolescent Boys and Girls
The age at which one goes through the changes of puberty is different for each
individual. Some develop earlier, others later. Early sexual maturation among
boys has psychological advantages. According to one study, boys who mature
earlier are more likely to excel in sports and gain respect from their peers for
doing so (Conger & Peterson, 1991). On the other hand, boys who mature later
develop a stronger sense of identity in early adulthood, perhaps because they do
not feel any immediate pressure to „grow up‰. For girls, early maturation may be
a blessing to some and a curse to others. A girl who matures earlier will perhaps
be admired by other girls, but is also more likely to be viewed as a sex object by
boys, which could bring about feelings of embarrassment and shame.
SELF-CHECK 8.7
8.6 ADULTHOOD
As we progress through adulthood, we constantly ask ourselves questions such
as „How am I doing for my age?‰ These questions are often influenced by our
social clocks. A social clock is a personÊs idea of a developmental schedule which
points out what he or she should have accomplished by a certain age or point in
life. For example, if you believe you should have children by the time you are 31,
that belief creates a mark on your social clock. Important events and life changes
that come too early or too late according to oneÊs social clock tend to cause a lot
of stress.
During middle adulthood, some adults may experience midlife crisis. The
individual experiencing midlife crisis feels painfully unfulfilled, and may make
dramatic and radical changes in career, personal relationships or lifestyle. Studies
have indicated, however, that midlife crisis is not typical. Most people do not
make such sudden and dramatic changes in their lives. Instead, most adults go
through midlife transition.
During this stage of midlife transition, people tend to take charge of their lives
again. When we are confronted with the first signs of aging, we suddenly realise
that time is running out. We realise that we may never accomplish all that we
dreamed of doing and begin to question how meaningful our past
accomplishments have been. As a result, some people start to rethink their life
priorities and values, creating new goals based on their new understandings.
Another important change that takes place during this time is the decline in the
function of our reproductive organs. Women will go through a stage called
menopause. The amount of estrogens (female hormone) produced by the ovaries
decreases, and the breasts, genital tissues, and uterus begin to shrink.
Menstruation becomes irregular and completely stops at around the age of 50.
The hormonal changes which take place during menopause may cause certain
symptoms such as mood swings, „hot flashes‰, and thinning of the bones.
However, these symptoms can be avoided by hormone replacement therapy.
Men, on the other hand, experience a much more subtle and mild decline in this
case. In fact, men can be sexually active and reproduce even as they mature into
late adulthood. However, a gradual but mild decline in the production of
testosterone (male hormone) is evident in men between ages 48 and 70.
What causes aging? One explanation is that our body simply wears out through
repeated use just like a machine eventually wears out. Toxins that we are
exposed to and chemicals that accumulate as inevitable by-products of the bodyÊs
activities contribute to this wearing-out process.
Finally, we begin to face the end of life. How well do most elderly people cope
with the end of life? Psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (1969) interviewed over 200
people who were facing the end of life to understand the psychological aspects of
dying. Table 8.6 describes the five stages people facing death go through.
Stages Description
Denial The individual refuses to believe that he/she is dying, and seeks other
more acceptable opinions.
Anger The individual accepts the reality of the situation, but is very angry that it
has to happen to them and not to somebody else.
Bargaining The individual desperately tries to buy time by negotiating with doctors,
family members and God.
Depression When bargaining fails and time is running out, the individual may
suddenly become depressed.
Acceptance The individual is tired and weak, and enters a state of „quiet
expectation‰, submitting to fate.
SELF-CHECK 8.8
1. Explain in your own words the term „social clock‰.
2. According to Erikson, what is the main concern during middle
adulthood?
The prenatal period refers to the time between conception and birth.
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R. J. & Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in action (4th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach
to socialization. In D.A. Goslin, Handbook of socialization theory and
research. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology themes & variations (5th ed.). Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning.
INTRODUCTION
The term „motivation‰ is always an interesting topic to many people. Perhaps,
many people think studying about motivation can help them to succeed in life.
As such, we like to read motivational books or sign up for courses to improve
ourselves. Sometimes, we always say that we need motivation to work or to help
us move ahead. Do you really know what motivation is all about? In order to
better understand the meaning of motivation, we will discuss the definition of
motivation, the sources of motivation and theories of motivation. We will also
explore human needs issues such as hunger, sexual drives and losing weight, as
well as the need for achievement and employee motivation.
ACTIVITY 9.1
According to Kalat (2002), motivation comes from the word „motion‰. It literally
refers to something that „moves‰ a person. He suggested that motivation is what
activates and directs behaviour. For instance, why is Ali able to do his homework
quickly on a particular day without being forced to by his mother? He is usually
not keen to do his homework. In this instance, we are interested to know the
reason for the change in behaviour. Did he receive a reward or praise from his
teacher, etc? Is motivation a motion or something that „moves‰ a person?
According to Austin and Vancouver, (1996) cited from Kalat (2002), there are
several characteristics of motivated behaviour, one of which is that it is goal
directed. Motivated individuals continue working until they reach their goals,
and, if necessary, set up sub goals to achieve their final goals. Our motivation
becomes stronger when we have a clear mission and vision.
Other characteristics of motivated behaviour may vary from time to time and
differ from person to person. For example, someone could be highly motivated
today but not tomorrow. How people are motivated or not is very much
influenced by both internal (biological) and external (social) factors. If they
persist until they reach a goal, then such behaviour is motivated, not reflexive.
Therefore, motivation is to inspire, instigate and encourage a person to do their
best (Susan Velez).
In our daily life, sources of human motivation can be divided into two categories:
(a) Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation comes from the inner-self. It is related to human instincts
and drives. This physiological need originates from inside our bodies and
motivates us to behave in certain ways. According to Kalat (2002), intrinsic
motivation is a motivation to do an act for its own sake. For example, I did
well in my examination because of my commitment and self-confidence.
(b) Extrinsic Motivation
On the other hand, human behaviour could be influenced by external
factors. Kalat (2002) explained that extrinsic motivation is based on the
reinforcements and punishments that the act may bring. For example,
someone may work harder to enjoy the reward given and will try his best
to avoid punishment.
The above discussion shows the two different sources of motivation. While
intrinsic motivation always comes from our internal state, extrinsic motivation
motivates us in ways that may be unrelated to our internal state. For instance, I
do something because I enjoy it or feel proud (intrinsic) or because of the good
pay (extrinsic). These two sources of motivation help us to understand why
someone behaves differently from what is observed every day.
ACTIVITY 9.2
These theories may explain how we motivate ourselves to find ways to fulfil our
needs. Let us learn each theory in detail.
cited from Pastorino & Doyle-portillo (2009). We can thus conclude that
drives can help us survive by creating what psychologists call a drive state
to ensure we are motivated to meet our biological needs.
All these theories show that there are many ways to look at motivation and they
can help us better understand how human behaviour is motivated. It is always
either intrinsic or extrinsic. However, none of these theories seems to fully
explain all aspects of human motivation. Instead, we recognise that each of these
theories has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, a combination of
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 9 MOTIVATION 157
different theories can explain how human motivation takes place. Nevertheless,
motivation drives our behaviour and moves us into action.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Primary drives begin in the body when the brain recognises that we lack
some biological need. The brain recognises needs based on the feedback that
it receives from the body's systems and organs. One type of feedback system
is the negative feedback loop. Negative feedback loops are information
systems in the body that monitor the level of a bodily process and adjust it
up and down accordingly. A good analogy for a negative feedback loop is a
thermostat. In your home, you set the thermostat at a desired level, and the
thermostat monitors the air temperature and compares it to that set level. If
the room gets too cold, the heater is turned on. If the room gets too warm, the
heater is turned off. Many primary drives in the body work in the same
fashion (Pastorino & Doyle-portillo, 2009).
looking for a better lifestyle and social status. According to Pastorino &
Doyle-portillo (2009), secondary drives are presumed to have developed
through learning and experiences. Therefore, many people try their best in
their jobs because they are motivated by extrinsic rewards such as a higher
salary or promotion. This means that secondary needs come from external
factors.
„When our stomachs become empty, the walls of the stomach contract and these
contractions appear to stimulate hunger. Additionally, the stomach appears to
release a hormone called ghrelin that sends strong hunger signals to the brain
(Wu & Krai, 2004). Just as the stomach signals hunger, it may also play a role in
telling our brain when it is time to stop eating. When we eat, our stomach's walls
must distend to expand the volume of the stomach and allow room for the food
we eat. When we have eaten enough and our stomachs are full, this distention of
the stomach is one source of feedback that signals to our brains that it is time to
stop eating (J. A. Deutsch, 1990).‰
Based on Kalat (2002), our hunger works on a negative feedback loop system like
a thermostat because our brain turns our hunger on and off in order to maintain
homeostasis in our bodies. Everyone has to work hard to obtain enough food for
survival. Sometimes people have to fight with each other due to shortage of food.
This is what we call hunger motivation.
According to Bartoli, there are four theories of hunger motivation. Read further
to find out how hunger motivation occurs:
(a) Hypothalamic Theory
Two structures within the hypothalamus relate to the initiation and
cessation of eating:
(i) The lateral hypothalamus (starts eating); and
(ii) The ventromedial hypothalamus (stops eating).
To conclude, hunger is a partly homeostatic drive that keeps fuel available for the
body. There is a certain mechanism in our brain to monitor how much fuel is
available when supplies begin to drop. Then, the brain triggers behaviour that
leads us to eat. While eating, how does our brain know how much fuel is
available and how much more we should eat? Therefore, the homeostatic system
plays a crucial role in alerting us to eat or not to eat.
On the other hand, how do people choose their food? We always hear people
saying they like this food or dislike that food. They will probably tell you that
most of their choices are largely based on learning what to eat and what not to
eat. Sometimes, we are told by our parents or friends what is good to eat. Then,
we will try the food ourselves and decide if we like or dislike it.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Explain how hunger motivation takes place. Discuss your answer in
your tutorial class.
Are you satisfied with your own weight? In the United States, almost everyone
says „no.‰ Women, in particular, are usually dissatisfied with their own
appearance. The percentage of women expressing dissatisfaction has increased
gradually over the decades. Research has shown that on the average women
report lower self-esteem than men. This same opinion applies to weight and
body appearance. Unattractive men are unlikely to say they are satisfied with
their appearance and even attractive women say they are dissatisfied with their
appearance (Feingold & Mazzella, 1998) cited from Kalat (2002).
How then do they cope and what should they do? The following are some of the
effective measures that they can consider:
(a) Seek professional help and advice.
(b) Most therapists recommend starting with the simplest methods such as
exercise. If those methods fail, then they can consider trying more intensive
methods (Friedman & Brownell, 1996),
(c) Increase exercise as part of the lose weight strategy.
(d) Set realistic exercise goals.
(e) Reduce overeating habits.
(f) Seek counselling to overcome their psychological problems in addition to
their weight problem.
(g) Seek medical help and get treatment.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Share your experience with your classmates on how you take care of
your weight in your daily life.
Do you agree that sexual behaviour is complex? Whether people are happy or
dissatisfied with their sex life depends on various factors such as the spousal
relationship, stress, health, sexual desire, lifestyle, etc. It is also influenced by the
levels of sexual hormones for example, testosterone in males; and estrogens in
females as produced by the gonads. Sexual hormone production in the gonads is,
in turn, controlled by hormones produced in the pituitary gland.
Masters & Johnson (1966) identified four physiological stages in sexual arousal.
They are:
(a) Excitement: initial arousal of genital areas.
(b) Plateau: continued excitement, increasing rates of breathing and pulse, and
increasing blood pressure.
However, in real life sexual situations, many people are unable to complete the
four stages of arousal. This is called sexual dysfunction or disorder. Some men
cannot produce or maintain an erection. This is because they have premature
ejaculations-- advancing from excitement to orgasm sooner than they or their
partners wish. It is believed that there are many men and women who stay at the
plateau stage without experiencing orgasm. Some sexual disorders can be traced
to physiological causes but they are usually unknown. Hence, medical advice
should be sought.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
According to him, the most basic human needs are the physiological ones, such
as food, drink, sleep, and oxygen. Maslow explained that these basic needs
ordinarily take priority over all other needs. For example, people who are
hungry must look for food and will definitely not take time out to do something
else until they have satisfied their hunger need. Once people have satisfied all
their physiological needs will they seek to satisfy their next stage of need, which
is the need for safety, such as security from attack, and avoidance of pain. When
those needs are satisfied, they will proceed to the need for love and belonging
such as making friends and socialising with the community. Then, they may
come to the need for self-esteem, such as gaining prestige and a feeling of
accomplishment. At the apex of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the need for self-
actualisation. This indicates that a particular individual has achieved his full
human potential.
There are five elements in MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs theory, which are:
(a) Physiological needs;
(b) Safety needs;
(c) Belongingness needs;
(d) Self-esteem needs; and
(e) Self-actualisation needs.
To summarise MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs, human needs start from the basic to
higher needs. For example, if you are thirsty, you will want to drink something
to satisfy that basic need. If you fulfil all your basic needs, you will move on to
your psychological needs and then to your self-fulfilment needs. However, some
people do sacrifice their comfort, security, and even health to strive for artistic,
athletic, or other accomplishments. Therefore, you may criticise as well as reject
Maslow's view on human hierarchical needs. What is your view?
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
164 TOPIC 9 MOTIVATION
ACTIVITY 9.5
ERG refers to three categories of need: existence (E), relatedness (R) and growth
(G). Alderfer further argues that human needs can be classified into three groups
of needs as shown in Figure 9.3:
ACTIVITY 9.6
How can ERG be applied in your life? Discuss with your coursemates.
It is common that many people like easy tasks but some prefer to have a
challenging job instead. All this depends on their level of fear of failure or
whether they are looking forward to more challenging tasks before success.
People who are afraid to fail are reluctant to try. However, those who have a
strong achievement need will try harder and harder or just take the risk.
Let us examine McClellandÊs theory which classifies human needs into three types:
(a) Need for Achievement
This need refers to the drive to excel; to achieve in relation to a set of
standards; and to strive for success. McClelland found that high achievers
differentiated themselves from others because they have a strong desire to
do things better.
ACTIVITY 9.7
production, but the competition will give the employer an idea of who the most
productive ones are.
ACTIVITY 9.8
In your opinion, what can employers do to motivate their employees,
and what are the factors responsible for employee dissatisfaction?
Discuss your answer in the online forum.
(a) Theory X
Based on this theory, employees under this category are lazy and like to get
away with doing as little as they can. Thus, the manager needs to control
and monitor them.
(b) Theory Y
Type Y employees really want to do their best in their work. Theory Y
believes that people will work hard and perform well when empowered to
make appropriate decisions. Therefore, they need less supervision.
Whenever we talk about employee motivation, we cannot deny that almost all
workers are primarily motivated by the need for money. So, if management
wants its workforce to perform better, then it has to pay more. It is a very
powerful way of motivating the employees, donÊt you agree?
9.10.3 Theory Z
There is yet another perspective on employee motivation. Theory Z was
developed by William Ouchi' in the 1980s and is also known as the „Japanese
Management‰ culture. This theory became popular during the Asian economic
boom. Theory Z focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by
providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the employee,
both on and off the job. For Ouchi, Theory Z management promotes stable
employment, high productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.
Theory Z tends to promote partnerships and group work. Promoting Theory Z
and the Japanese word „Wa‰ helped to contribute to the success of the Japanese
economy.
Ouchi also wrote a book called Theory Z - How American Business Can Meet the
Japanese Challenge (1981). In this book, he explained how American companies
can meet the Japanese challenge with a highly effective management style that
promises to transform business in the 1980s. The secret to Japanese success,
according to Ouchi, is not technology but a special way of managing people.
„This is a managing style that focuses on a strong company philosophy, a distinct
corporate culture, long-range staff development, and consensus decision-
making.‰ (Ouchi, 1981).
SELF-CHECK 9.3
What is important in the Goal Setting Theory is that the goals must be realistic
and specific as well as difficult. If possible, feedback should be obtained on the
action and not the person. Finally, the Goal Setting Theory is very result oriented.
It is applicable to the marketing department or sales persons.
In other words, people want to feel that there is a fair balance between inputs and
outputs. In fact, fairness is measured by comparing one's own balance or ratio and
inputs and outputs, with the ratio enjoyed or endured by relevant („referent‰)
others. The Equity Theory reminds us that people see themselves in the way they are
treated in terms of their surrounding environment, team, system, etc.
Vroom introduced three variables in the Expectancy Theory which are: valence
(V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). As cited in http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Expectancy_theory, these three elements are defined as follows:
(a) Effort refers to performance expectancy (E>P expectancy).
(b) Performance refers to outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).
(c) Our assessment of the probability of our efforts will lead to the required
performance level (E>P expectancy). Then, our assessment of the
probability of our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes
(P>O expectancy).
ACTIVITY 9.9
Based on two motivational theories that you are familiar with, share
how they can be applied in your work place.
There are two types of human needs - primary and secondary needs.
INTRODUCTION
Essentially, social psychologyÊs emphasis is mainly on understanding the causes
of social behaviour ă on identifying the factors that shape our feelings, thoughts
and behaviour in social situations (Baron & Byrne, 2000). For example, some of
the questions that will be answered in this topic are: Why do human beings act so
aggressively and violently towards each other? Why are we attracted to certain
people and not others? What motivates us to help others? These questions and
mores form the core of social psychology. As we discuss the various topics
within social psychology, you will become aware of the deep, yet hidden
influence that socialisation has on our social behaviour.
10.1.1 Conformity
Imagine that you have volunteered to participate in a psychology experiment on
perception. You find yourself in a room with six other participants. First, all of
you are shown a card containing three lines labelled A, B and C, and are asked to
choose the line that is the closest in length to line X (please refer to Figure 10.1).
You are then asked one by one to say your answers out loud. At first everyone
agrees on the correct answer. However, on the third trial (third card), the first
participant responds with an obviously incorrect answer. You know that line A is
correct, but she says line B. When the second, third, fourth and fifth participants
also say line B, you really start to wonder whether you are wrong and maybe
they are right. What do you think you would do at this point in the experiment?
Would you stick to your initial answer, line A, or would you go along with the
group, conform, and say line B as well?
In the original version of this experiment conducted by Solomon Asch (1951), six
participants were actually actors or helpers of the experimenter who were asked
to answer incorrectly on the third trial. The actual purpose of the experiment was
to investigate the degree of conformity, or changing oneÊs behaviour as a result of
real or imagined group pressure.
More than one-third of AschÊs participants conformed and agreed with the
groupÊs obviously wrong answer. Why would so many people conform? To the
spectator, conformity is often difficult to understand, and even the person who
conforms has a tough time explaining his/her behaviour. It is possible to
understand conformity better by exploring three factors:
(a) Normative Social Influence
Have you ever asked a friend what he/she is wearing to a party or watched
what other people are doing at the party so that you too can follow? Such
behaviour reflects your desire to conform and the power of normative
social influence. Norms are societyÊs definition of how we should behave.
Normative social influence refers to conformity to group pressure out of a
need for approval and acceptance by the group.
(b) Informational Social Influence
Have you ever purchased anything simply because of a friendÊs
recommendation? In this case, you conformed not to gain their approval,
but rather because you assume that they have more information than you.
Informational social influence refers to conformity to group pressure out of
a need for direction and information. Many governments realise the
importance of information in social influence and generally maintain strict
control over the information that is available to the masses.
(c) Reference Groups
We have a tendency to conform to people we admire and like. This is why
millions of dollars are paid to celebrities to endorse certain products
because advertisers realise the power of reference groups (Davis &
Palladino, 2000).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
ACTIVITY 10.1
Give your own example of normative social influence.
10.1.2 Obedience
Obedience can be defined as a type of social influence in which an individual
follows direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority.
Imagine you have volunteered to participate in a psychology experiment on the
effects of punishment on learning. You are randomly assigned to either the role
of teacher or learner.
Your role is teacher. As a teacher, you are instructed by the experimenter to give
electric shocks to the learner when the wrong answer is given. The electric shocks
start with 15 volts and go up to 450 volts which is extremely painful, but causes
no permanent damage to the recipient. Do you think you would follow the
experimenterÊs instructions and give electric shocks right up to 450 volts?
Do you know what factors influence obedience? Researchers have found that
there are a few factors that lead people to absolute obedience:
(a) Holding the authority figures responsible instead of themselves;
(b) Accepting that the behaviour they are engaged in is routine;
(c) Avoiding being rude to or offending authority figures; and
(d) The tendency to obey simple commands first and then feeling obliged to
follow more difficult commands later ă a process called entrapment or foot-
in-the-door phenomenon.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. Describe the inner conflict experienced by the participants in
MilgramÊs experiment.
2. What is the difference between conformity and obedience?
ACTIVITY 10.2
In a group, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of social
influence.
10.2.1 Attitudes
An attitude can be defined as a learnt predisposition to respond cognitively,
affectively and behaviourally to a particular object. The object can be anything
from a book to people, death and politics. We are not born with attitudes, rather
they are learned. Essentially, we form our attitudes through direct experience
(e.g. reading a book) and through indirect observation (e.g. listening to our
parents talk about politics).
We have a strong need to feel that our attitudes are in sync with each other, and our
attitudes and behaviour are consistent. When this harmony is disturbed, we feel
troubled and are provoked to change either our attitude, beliefs or behaviour in
order to restore the harmony. This concept is known as cognitive dissonance theory.
Imagine you have a desire to go to France for a holiday, but you come to realise
that you cannot afford it, so you tell yourself that French people are arrogant and
it is not worth the money anyway to go to a country full of snobbish people. This
example follows a pattern: you desire something, find it unattainable, then
reduce your dissonance by changing your attitude towards it.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. Define attitude.
2. Explain cognitive dissonance theory in your own words.
10.2.2 Attribution
As we try to understand the world around us, we often look for explanations for
peopleÊs behaviour. What are the reasons for the high level of obedience in
MilgramÊs experiment? When we offer an explanation for behaviour, we attribute
it to something. There are a few criteria for attribution.
When consistency, consensus and distinctiveness are all high, we tend to make
external attributions. Whereas, when consensus and distinctiveness are low,
while consistency is high, we tend to make internal attributions. However, how
do we make such attributions when we lack time and information? Most of the
time, we rely on mental shortcuts.
One common mental shortcut that is used is called the fundamental attribution
error. Essentially, people are more likely to attribute behaviour internally rather
than externally. This is simply because human factors are more noticeable
(salient) than situational factors. Saliency bias helps to explain why people often
blame homeless people for their position. The danger with adopting a saliency
bias is the tendency to „blame the victim‰. Very often, when people are
victimised by poverty, robbery or rape, they are questioned about why they got
themselves into such a situation. We „blame the victim‰ for his/her misfortune
as it helps us maintain our belief of a just world, where bad things only happen
to bad people (Baron & Byrne, 2000).
On the other hand, when we explain our own behaviour, we choose internal
attributions for our successes and external attributions for our failures. This is
known as self-serving bias.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
10.3 PREJUDICE
Prejudice can be defined as a negative attitude, emotional response towards a
particular group and its individual members. Prejudice, like other attitudes,
influences our processing of social information (Huffman, Vernoy & Vernoy,
1997). There are examples of prejudice all around us. Why do we sometimes see
advertisements for a room to rent only available to a certain race? This is
obviously prejudice on the part of the advertiser, in not giving another person
the chance simply because of race.
Sources Description
Socialisation Prejudices are often passed down from parents to their
children. The media may also portray some groups in a
brighter light than others, which brings about prejudices.
For example, the media may only portray fair-skinned
people in their advertisements, leading people to believe
that dark skin is undesirable, thus leading to a prejudice
against dark-skinned people.
Conforming behaviours Sometimes we are pressured into forming prejudices or
being discriminative fearing that we may lose the support of
important people in our lives if we act otherwise. For
example, we may be prejudiced and discriminative against
Jews because we face pressure by members of our group,
and fear possible social rejection if we are to act otherwise.
Direct intergroup conflict Researchers have found that prejudice and discrimination
(competition as a source increase when groups are in direct competition with each
of prejudice) other for economic benefits, or other valued commodities
and opportunities. For example, in the history of Malaysia,
our biggest racial conflict happened on May 13, 1969 due to
a sharp division of wealth between the Chinese, who were
perceived to control a large portion of the Malaysian
economy, and the Malays, who were perceived to be poorer.
Social categorisation People have strong tendencies to divide the world into two
(us-versus-them effect) categories ă us and them; and perceive their group to be
superior to other competing groups. Each group sees itself
as different and better than its rivals, and prejudice and
discrimination arise out of this clash of social perceptions.
SELF-CHECK 10.5
ACTIVITY 10.3
Think about the sources of prejudice and discrimination in our country
and list them down to see if they fit into any of the categories of sources
of prejudice and discrimination mentioned above.
are very different from us. This is because we have a tendency to seek out
people whose qualities we admire, but personally lack.
SELF-CHECK 10.6
1. Why are we attracted to some people and not others?
2. Why do we sometimes like people who are similar to us, and
sometimes people who are very different from us?
10.5 AGGRESSION
Aggression refers to the intentional infliction of some form of harm on others.
First, we will explore several theoretical perspectives on aggression. Next, we
will discuss some important determinants of aggression.
Why do human beings act so aggressively and violently towards each other?
Instinct theories suggest that human aggression stems from innate tendencies to
be violent towards each other. This view was supported by Sigmund Freud
among others. Freud believed that aggression stems mainly from a powerful
death wish possessed by everyone. According to him, this instinct is first aimed
at self-destruction, but is soon redirected towards others.
A similar view was proposed by Konrad Lorenz, a Nobel Prize winning scientist.
Lorenz suggested that aggression stems mainly from an inherited fighting
instinct that human beings share with many other species. The assumption is that
this instinct developed during the course of evolution because it helped ensure
that only the strongest individuals will pass on their genes to the next generation.
If you have ever watched any documentaries on wildlife, you would know that
in order for a male to mate with another female, he first has to fight with other
males and show that he is the strongest. However, while competition for mates
and territory is typical in the animal kingdom, the role of such factors in human
aggression is seriously questionable. Human aggression stems from a very large
number of different factors. Hence, the suggestion that human aggression stems
primarily from innate tendencies seems inappropriate (Baron & Byrne, 2000).
Drive theories suggest that human aggression stems from external conditions
that provoke the intent to harm others. The frustration-aggression hypothesis is
one of the more popular drive theories. According to this theory, frustration can
arouse a strong motive to harm others. Most social psychologists, however, reject
this view and consider it to be false.
Variables which fall into the second category include individual differences such
as personality traits which make it more likely for aggression to occur such as
high irritability. The personÊs beliefs and attitudes about violence (perhaps
he/she believes it is normal and acceptable behaviour to be aggressive), values
about violence (perhaps violence shows courage or masculinity and is a good
thing). Finally, having specific skills related to aggression such as having
experience in fights and knowing how to use weapons.
ACTIVITY 10.4
1. Why do human beings act so aggressively and violently towards
each other? Discuss with your classmates. Explain based on all the
theories of aggression listed above.
2. Give an example of a time when you acted aggressively and try to
explain why you acted that way.
The major inspiration for investigating prosocial behaviour was the real-life
murder of Kitty Genovese of New York in 1964. For more than 30 minutes, 38
people watched a murderer stalk and stab a woman, but did not call the police.
Only 20 minutes after the whole incident was over and she was dead, the first call
to the police was recorded. The caller was a man who did not want to „get
involved‰. Why is it that people did not help? Was it simply because they were
heartless and unkind? The truth is by not helping, you can avoid a lot of potential
problems for yourself. Also, the bystander effect occurs when there are a lot of
people that could possibly come to the rescue. Most of the time, however, nobody
comes to the rescue because everybody assumes that somebody else will do it.
When faced with an emergency, a bystander must go through five crucial steps
involving decisions that either inhibit or enhance the likelihood of a prosocial
response. According to Baron & Byrne (2000), a bystander must:
(a) Notice the emergency;
(b) Correctly interpret what is occurring;
(c) Assume responsibility for providing help;
(d) Have the necessary skills and knowledge to help; and
(e) Decide to provide assistance.
There is no concrete answer to this question, but researchers have found that
empathy is the key to helping behaviour. Empathy refers to our ability to feel
what the other person is feeling. For example, when we see another person
suffering, we also feel the pain, and try to help them. According to the empathy-
altruism hypothesis, if we feel empathy for others, we will help them regardless
of what we can gain for ourselves out of it. When you do not feel empathy, then
you start weighing out the benefits of helping against the cost of helping.
SELF-CHECK 10.7
What are the factors that determine whether we will decide to help
another person or not?
ACTIVITY 10.5
Try to think of a time when you could have provided help, but did
not. What made you decide not to help?
Ć Attribution is the way people understand the causes of things happening and
the causes of people's behaviour, including their own. It may be correct or
incorrect, and can form the basis of misunderstandings.
Ć People tend to veer towards prejudice because it allows them to boost their
own self-image while holding prejudiced views saves them considerable
cognitive (mental) effort.
Ć Instinct theories, drive theories and modern theories of aggression are some
of the theories of aggression.
Ć A prosocial act can be defined as an act that benefits another person, but has
no direct benefit for the person helping.
Baron, R. A., & Byrne, D. (2000). Social psychology (9th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M. S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (1997). Psychology in action (4th ed.). John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever tried a personality test in a magazine? I believe, almost all of us,
especially the ladies, have done so. Why do you think personality tests and
quizzes are so popular? Perhaps all of us have a natural instinct to find out more
about ourselves and what make us special. We also want to know how our
personality is different from that of our partnerÊs or friendÊs.
In this topic, we will learn about personality. We will first learn the meaning of
personality, and then, explore several psychodynamic perspectives. We will also
learn about personality theories and different methods of personality assessment.
Imagine that both you and your colleague are at a party. Both of you do not
know anybody at the party except the host, who is busy with the other guests.
Your colleague takes the opportunity to meet new people and start conversations
with the other guests. On the other hand, you sit in a corner and pretend to be
busy reading a magazine. Does the situation influence your behaviour or is your
behaviour a reflection of your personality?
Many psychologists are interested in finding out how people usually respond to
situational demands. Personality psychologists, on the other hand, are more
interested in why you are different from the next person. In summary, this axiom
says it all - „there are few differences between people, but what differences there
are really matter.‰
SELF-CHECK 11.1
(a) Id
Id, which operates according to the pleasure principle ă tries to obtain
immediate pleasure and to avoid pain. The id seeks to gratify any instinct
or desire as soon as it arises. However, since the id is totally unconscious
and is not in touch with the real world, it has only two ways of obtaining
gratification:
(i) Through reflex actions such as sneezing to relieve unpleasant
sensations immediately; and
(ii) Through engaging in fantasy and wish fulfilment. This is when you
imagine a situation that partially satisfies your instinct and relieves
the uncomfortable feeling. You are engaging in wish fulfilment when
your boss insults you in front of your colleagues, and then you start
plotting what you are going to say or do next to get even with him.
(b) Ego
Ego controls all thinking and reasoning activities. Ego operates by the
reality principle. The ego tries to delay gratification through reasoning
intelligently so that it can satisfy the idÊs desires safely and effectively.
(c) Superego
Superego is the conscience or the moral standard that an individual
develops through socialisation (interaction with parents and society).
Superego compares the egoÊs actions with an ego ideal, and then rewards or
punishes the ego accordingly.
The id, ego and superego work together ă the ego satisfies the desires of the id in
a reasonable, safe manner, and the superego approves or disapproves by acting
as our moral conscience.
The id, ego and superego also operate at different levels of consciousness
(conscious, preconscious and unconscious). Figure 11.1 demonstrates the level of
consciousness at which the respective personality structures operate.
Table 11.1 summarises and emphasises the main points used to describe the
personality structures.
Personality
Description Development Principle Conflict
Structure
Id Totally unconscious. Present at Pleasure Irrational ă
Primary process: birth. principle acting
wishing, fantasising Innate. according to
in order to gain what feels
immediate good doing.
gratification.
Reflex action.
Ego Operates partly Develops Reality Rational ă the
consciously, pre- from between principle goal is to
consciously and birth and two delay
unconsciously. weeks. gratification
Secondary process: through
thinking, reasoning, reasoning
problem solving, intelligently
judgment, so that it can
perception, learning. satisfy the idÊs
desires safely
and
effectively.
Superego Operates at the Totally Morality Irrational ă
conscious, learned. principle demands
preconscious and Demands perfection.
unconscious levels. perfection.
End product of
socialisation.
SELF-CHECK 11.2
ACTIVITY 11.1
Think about something you really want. Then, describe the role of id,
ego and superego in satisfying your wants. Share your answer with
your coursemates.
At the oral stage, the infant derives pleasure from the mouth through sucking,
drinking, and eating. An infant who is not fed enough (neglected) or is overly fed
(over-protected) may experience oral fixation during adulthood.
Individuals who are orally fixated may develop two possible types of
personalities:
(a) Oral receptive personality: individuals seek to reduce tension by
overeating, smoking, drinking, or biting nails. They tend to be needy and
overly dependent on others.
(b) Oral aggressive personality: individuals have a tendency to be hostile and
verbally abusive.
At the anal stage, the child begins toilet training and seeks pleasure from the
erogenous zone of the anus. The successful completion of this stage depends on
the interaction of the parent with the child during toilet training. If the parent
praises the child and rewards him/her for going to the toilet at the right time and
then right way, then the stage is completed successfully.
However, if the parent punishes the child and uses harsh demands during toilet
training, it can lead to anal fixation:
(a) Anal retentive personality: stingy, compulsively tidy and orderly, stubborn,
perfectionist.
(b) Anal expulsive personality: lack of self control, messy, careless.
During the phallic stage, the source of pleasure is focused at the genitals. At the
end of the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus complex while girls
experience the Electra complex.
Focus of Psychic
Stage Age Key Development Fixation
Energy (Libido)
Oral 0 to 1 Mouth, tongue, lips Weaning off breast Smoking,
feeding overeating
Anal 1 to 3 Anus Toilet training Orderliness,
messiness
Phallic 3 to 6 Genitals Resolving Deviancy, sexual
Oedipus/Electra dysfunction
complex
Latency 6 to 12 None Developing defence None
mechanisms
Genital 12+ Reaching full - -
sexual maturity
Horney coined the term fear of success to emphasise a gender difference in reaction
to competition and achievement situations. She argued that many women felt that
they would lose their friends if they became successful. Therefore, many women
carried a fear of success with them unconsciously. In contrast, she suggested that
men believed they could gain friends by being successful. The importance of culture
in influencing behaviour is emphasised in HorneyÊs perspective.
balance in which the unconscious was given an equal role which complemented
consciousness.
Jung believed there was more to the unconscious than what Freud had suggested.
Jung observed that there were extraordinarily similar experiences and behaviours
that all of us display across time and culture. He believed these experiences and
behaviours are influenced by the collective unconscious. The collective
unconscious is a collection of our experiences and knowledge as a species.
Let us explore some of the experiences that exhibit the effects of the collective
unconscious. One example is the amazing similarities of spiritual experiences of
people all over the world no matter what religion they belong to. Parallels in
dreams, mythologies, folklores, and literature also show the effects of the collective
unconscious. Have you ever had a dream where you were falling down or flying?
In fact, people all over the world have experienced this same dream.
Another archetype is called the shadow. The shadow is the dark side of our
personality which is unconscious. Finally, the self archetype is the part of us that
connects to the universe and is a part of the universe. It is the unifying whole that
brings together consciousness and unconsciousness.
SELF-CHECK 11.3
1. How is HorneyÊs interpretation of penis envy different from that
of FreudÊs?
2. What are the main differences in ideas between Jung and Freud?
3. Give your own example of how the collective unconscious has
influenced your behaviour and experiences.
4. What are archetypes? Explain in your own words some examples
of archetypes.
personality. According to this view, your preferences or likes and dislikes that
help define your personality are the result of the process of emotional
conditioning. Remember classical conditioning in Topic 5?
For example, linking a neutral stimulus to a pleasant event creates a like; and
linking a stimulus to an unpleasant event creates a dislike. We have different
patterns of likes and dislikes which play a part in each of our unique
personalities. Hence, emotional conditioning can play a major role in creating the
uniqueness of oneÊs personality.
SELF-CHECK 11.4
ACTIVITY 11.2
Julian Rotter also developed influential theories such as social learning theory
and locus of control. According to social learning theory, your internal
expectancies and values guide your behaviour. Our behaviour is the outcome of
the interaction between cognition (how we think), learning and past experiences
(reinforcement, punishment, and modelling). We evaluate situations according to
certain internal expectancies such as personal preferences, and this evaluation
affects our behaviour.
For example, you may like mathematics if you are good at it and you expect to
receive good grades for the subject. On the other hand, you may dislike biology
because it involves a lot of reading and you do not usually perform well in the
tests. The way in which we interpret situations determines how we will behave
in a given situation.
How do our internal expectancies affect our behaviour? There are two main
expectancies which we use to evaluate situations:
(b) Self-efficacy
It is the expectancy that your efforts will be successful. If you have a low
sense of self-efficacy, then you are most likely to feel incapable of achieving
your goals.
SELF-CHECK 11.5
In you own words explain how internal expectancies affect our
behaviour.
ACTIVITY 11.3
Self actualisation refers to the need of all humans to realise their full potential as
individuals and to become everything they are capable of becoming. Abraham
Maslow came up with the concept of self actualisation and portrayed it as the
highest level in his hierarchy of needs pyramid. At the lowest level of MaslowÊs
hierarchy of needs pyramid are our most basic and physiological needs such as
food, sex, sleep and shelter. The need for self actualisation is right at the top of
the pyramid. It is only after we have satisfied our basic needs and other needs
that we reach the top of the pyramid. Figure 11.4 shows MaslowÊs hierarchy of
needs pyramid.
Actualising tendency is the drive of all humans to fulfil their biological potential
and to become the best that they can be. This concept is found in Carl RogerÊs
humanistic psychology. According to Carl Rogers, a fully functioning person is
an individual whose self-concept closely resembles his or her innate capacities or
potential. Such people make decisions based on what they want to do, and will
not conform to other peopleÊs expectations of them. When people lose sight of
their innate potential and capacities, they feel anxious, insecure and constricted.
They are unlikely to experience real satisfaction in their lives because their lives
are directed towards other peopleÊs expectations of them. At some point they
may realise that they do not really know who they are and what they want.
SELF-CHECK 11.6
Explain how actualising tendency can affect behaviour and
personality.
ACTIVITY 11.4
1. Jim Morrison, a rock legend from the 70s band, The Doors died of
an apparent heart attack after continuous abuse of drugs and
alcohol. Some say that MorrisonÊs death and self-destructive
behaviour were caused by pressure from the music industry and
neglect from his parents. Others argue that Jim Morrison brought
his own death upon himself by his self-destructive behaviour.
Which of these views do you think is more humanistic? Please
elaborate on the reasons for your answer and post it in the forum.
2. Are you a fully functioning person? Please elaborate on the reasons
for your answer.
The assumption that some traits are more basic than others is common among
many approaches to personality. It is believed that a small number of primary
traits determine most other traits. For example, a personÊs tendency to be irritable,
restless and impulsive might all be derived from a basic tendency to be excitable.
Gordon Allport (1937) believed the best way to understand personality was to study
an individual and then arrange his or her unique personality traits into a hierarchy,
with the most important and pervasive traits at the top and the least important at the
bottom. Cardinal traits are at the very top of AllportÊs hierarchy. Allport believed
just one or two cardinal traits shape the lives of certain rare personalities, for
example, Mother TeresaÊs humanitarianism and Adolf HitlerÊs hatred.
However, few people possess such dominant and pervasive traits. In contrast,
central traits are certain tendencies that are highly characteristic of an individual.
These are traits that are easily identified by others (e.g. shy, quiet and friendly).
Finally, secondary traits are not as important or effective as descriptions of
personality (e.g. outdoor/nature kind of person, socially conscious).
Factor analysis was also used by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa (1987) to
develop the five factor model of personality. McCrae and Costa suggest that
personality traits are derived from five higher-order traits. These traits are now
known as the „Big Five‰: extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Table 11.3 describes the Big Five.
SELF-CHECK 11.7
Researchers have found that biological differences in people (e.g. brain structures
and hormone levels) often translate into differences in behaviour (Burger, 2008).
Even new-born babies have certain „characteristics‰ which set them apart from
their peers. If you have not noticed before, some babies tend to be more irritable
and cry more, while others are quiet and contented.
Researchers are convinced that these „characteristics‰ are present at birth, and
not caused by other factors such as how the baby is cared for and so on.
Furthermore, they argue that these general „characteristics‰ are stable and
constant throughout the lifespan of an individual. This does not mean that some
people are born shy and others outgoing. Rather, it means that one person is born
with a greater disposition to certain characteristics such as shyness than the other
person.
ACTIVITY 11.5
Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state that all of us are familiar with. We are
often anxious when asked to give a speech to a room full of people or worry
what others will think of us. When was the last time you felt anxious? What was
the reason? Most of the time, our anxiety is a result of our fear of receiving
negative evaluation and facing real, possible or imagined rejection. Psychologists
suggest that because of our universal human need to belong and to be part of a
group, anxiety is inevitable. Thus, psychologists have concluded that the main
cause of anxiety is social exclusion.
For example, many people are anxious about growing old. They are anxious that
other people will not find them attractive anymore and thus, fear rejection in a
sense. However, psychologists say that without this terrible anxiety, the human
species would not have survived. The explanation goes like this ă primitive
people who lived in groups were most likely to survive compared to if they lived
alone in isolation. Therefore, anything that motivates people to avoid behaviours
that might lead to social exclusion would help them survive. If you think about
it, most of the behaviours that lead to social exclusion are usually the ones that
lead to the destruction of harmony in society. For example, adultery and various
forms of aggression such as murder and rape.
SELF-CHECK 11.8
1. How does evolutionary personality theory help explain why we
developed certain personality traits?
2. Can evolutionary theory also be used to explain other personality
traits (excluding anxiety)? Please give an example and describe
how this personality trait evolved.
Objective tests often consist of multiple-choice questions asking how you would
behave in a variety of situations. Projective tests use ambiguous, unstructured
stimuli such as inkblots, which can be perceived in many ways. One of the more
popular projective tests is the Rorschach test (refer to Figure 11.5). The idea
behind the Rorschach test came from the notion that differences in perception are
related to differences in personality. What do you see when you look at the
inkblot in Figure 11.5? Your response is supposed to reflect the unconscious parts
of your personality that you project onto the ambiguous stimuli.
Determinants of Methods of
Theories and Key Concepts
Personality Assessment
Trait Allport Heredity and Objective
(cardinal, central, environment (self-report)
secondary traits) combine to create inventories
personality traits. (e.g. MMPI),
Cattell
observation
(16 source traits)
Eysenck
(introversion-
extroversion, stability-
instability, psychoticism)
Costa and Mcrae
(„Big Five‰: openness,
conscientiousness,
extraversion,
agreeableness,
neuroticism)
Psychoanalytic Freud Unconscious Interviews &
(unconscious, id, ego, conflicts between id, projective tests
superego defence ego, & superego (e.g. Rorschach,
mechanisms, Oedipus lead to defence TAT)
complex, Electra complex) mechanisms.
Adler
(inferiority complex)
Jung
(collective unconscious,
archetypes)
Horney (basic anxiety)
Learning Watson Personality Observation,
(stimulus-response) develops from interviews
interaction with the
Skinner
environment.
(stimulus-response)
Determinants of Methods of
Theories and Key Concepts
Personality Assessment
Humanistic Rogers Personality is the Interviews,
(self-concept, self- outcome of your objective
esteem, unconditional subjective (self-report)
positive regard) experience of reality inventories
Maslow
(self-actualisation)
Social-cognitive Bandura Personality is the Observation,
(self-efficacy, reciprocal outcome of an objective, (self-
determinism) interaction between report) inventories
cognition (thinking)
Rotter
and environment.
(locus of control)
Biological Zuckerman Brain structures, Observation,
neurochemistry, and objective
Tellegen et al.
genetics greatly (self-report)
Kagan et al. influence inventories, animal
personality. studies, biological
methods of
research
Source: Huffman, Vernoy and Vernoy (1997)
SELF-CHECK 11.9
Freud suggested that personality is formed around three structures: id, ego,
and superego. The id, ego and superego work together ă the ego satisfies the
desires of the id in a reasonable, safe manner, and the superego approves or
disapproves by acting as our moral conscience.
The main concern of trait theories is firstly discovering how people differ
(which key traits best describe them), and then measuring how much they
differ.
INTRODUCTION
Psychological disorders come in various „shapes and sizes‰. Some are severe and
obviously noticeable, while other disorders are more mild and discreet. The field
of psychology that is concerned with psychological disorders is called abnormal
psychology. In this field, one of the most difficult challenges is to define
abnormal behaviour. We will explore this issue and also the various
psychological disorders that people all around the world fall victim to.
Figure 1.1 shows a man eating a shoe. Is this behaviour normal? Psychologists
would say no, as the behaviour prevents the man from functioning normally in
everyday life in regard to his work, social interaction and personal care.
The DSM IV-TR or the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual is the standard
abnormal psychology and psychiatry reference book in America. It consists of a
list of disorders together with detailed descriptions on what constitutes a
disorder. It also provides the symptoms and other general information that will
aid psychologists and psychiatrists in diagnosing a particular disorder.
Criteria Description
Deviance People whose behaviour deviates from social norms are often said to
have a disorder. When people go against these socially accepted
behaviours, they are usually labelled abnormal. For example, initially,
homosexuality was considered to be abnormal behaviour by
psychologists. However these days, it is no longer considered to be
abnormal behaviour as homosexuality has gained acceptance in many
countries around the world.
Maladaptive People are judged as abnormal when their behaviour prevents them
behaviour from functioning normally in their everyday lives. For example, alcohol
and drug use in itself is not abnormal, but when the use of these drugs
begins to interfere with a personÊs social or occupational functioning, a
substance abuse disorder is clearly present.
Personal The diagnosis of a psychological disorder is often based on an
distress individualÊs description of their subjective pain and suffering or personal
distress. This is usually the case with people suffering from depression
and anxiety.
As you can see, the diagnosis of physical illnesses is very different from that of
mental illnesses because judgments about mental illnesses often reflect current
cultural values, social trends, political forces as well as scientific knowledge.
SELF-CHECK 12.1
ACTIVITY 12.1
Based on your expectations and socialisation, evaluate the behaviour
expressed in Figure 12.1. Is this behaviour normal or abnormal?
Make a list of several criteria which will enable one to distinguish
fairly clearly abnormal behaviour from normal behaviour.
We have come a long way, but we are definitely not there yet when it comes to
treating people with abnormal behaviours, psychological disorders or mental
illnesses. In fact, the mistreatment of people with mental illnesses in Malaysia is
very disheartening for a developing, modern country such as ours. The primary
reason for the sometimes abusive and almost cruel treatment of mentally ill
people throughout history has been the lack of understanding of the nature and
causes of psychological disorders (Morris & Maisto, 2001). We certainly need a
new model for abnormal behaviour.
Model Description
Biological Psychological disorders are caused by a physiological malfunction in
the brain and nervous system. For example, people suffering from
depression are believed to have abnormally functioning endocrine
glands which release less endorphins or „happy hormones‰.
Psychoanalytic Developed by Sigmund Freud, this model postulates that
psychological disorders are caused by unconscious conflicts which
can usually be traced to childhood. For example, a person who lacks
empathy towards others and behaves in antisocial and violent ways
may be unconsciously expressing anger towards her father for being
abusive and violent during her childhood.
Cognitive- Psychological disorders are learned just like any other maladaptive
behavioural behaviour is learned. For example, a person who experiences a
traumatic event such as drowning may develop anxious responses or
phobia towards similar situations and related events.
ACTIVITY 12.2
Construct a new model for abnormality which will improve the way
mentally ill people are currently treated and perceived. You may
brainstorm ideas with a partner if you like.
There are four major types of anxiety disorders as shown in Table 12.3.
Disorder Description
Generalised Noticeable by a chronic, high level of anxiety that is not linked to any
anxiety specific threat.
Constant worry about past mistakes and future problems.
Frequent worry about minor issues related to family, money, work
and illnesses.
Physical symptoms such as muscle tension, dizziness and heart
palpitations are common with high levels of anxiety.
Phobic Noticeable by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation
that presents no realistic danger.
Tends to interfere with everyday life. For example, Becky has a rather
unusual fear of rain which prevents her from going out of the house
when it is raining.
People can develop phobic reactions to almost anything. People
suffering from phobic disorders realise that their fears are irrational, but
are still not able to remain calm when confronted by a phobic object.
Even looking at a picture of the object is enough to trigger anxiety.
Panic Marked by regular attacks of overwhelming anxiety that usually
happens suddenly and unexpectedly.
Usually accompanied by physical symptoms of anxiety. After having
a few panic attacks, victims usually become very worried about when
their next attack will happen so much so they are afraid to leave their
house. This condition is called agoraphobia.
Table 12.4: Factors that Play a Role in the Occurrence of Anxiety Disorders
Factor Description
Heredity There is clear evidence that anxiety disorders run in the family and
can be passed down through genes. Twin studies show that identical
twins are more likely to both suffer from an anxiety disorder
compared to siblings.
Brain chemistry Anxiety disorders may be caused by a chemical imbalance in the
brain. As a result, medication is often prescribed to relieve the person
suffering from the anxiety disorder.
Personality People with certain personalities are more prone to suffer from
anxiety disorder. For example, people who have low self esteem or
poor coping skills may have a greater disposition towards anxiety
disorders.
Life experiences People with certain life experiences such as long-term exposure to
abuse and violence, or poverty are more susceptible to anxiety
disorders.
SELF-CHECK 12.2
Syndrome Description
Dissociative A sudden loss of memory for important personal information that
amnesia is usually not easily forgotten. For example, memory loss may
occur for a single traumatic event such as a car accident, or for an
extensive period of time after the event. Common cases of amnesia
have been reported after people have experienced rape, abuse and
disasters.
Dissociative fugue Permanent loss of memory and sense of personal identity. People
with this disorder forget their name, family, and where they live.
However, they remember other things unrelated to their personal
identity such as how to ride a bicycle or how to calculate.
Dissociative Two or more very different personalities exist together in one
Identity Disorder person. This disorder was formerly known as multiple personality
(DID) disorder. Each personality is complete with its own name,
memories and physical gestures. The multiple personalities are
usually unaware of each otherÊs existence and very different from
each other. For example a shy, introverted person may develop an
assertive, extroverted alternate personality. Although many books
and movies frequently portray DID, the condition in reality, is
quite rare.
SELF-CHECK 12.3
1. Describe the common symptoms of somatoform disorders.
2. What is the difference between somatoform and dissociative
disorders?
ACTIVITY 12.3
SELF-CHECK 12.4
12.5 SCHIZOPHRENIA
The literal meaning of schizophrenia is split mind. Schizophrenia is often
confused with dissociative identity disorder; however, they are completely
different, and the former is much more common than the latter. Schizophrenia
disorders are characterised by hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech,
and worsening of adaptive behaviour. Mood disorders and schizophrenia share
some of the same symptoms. However, disturbed thought is the root of
schizophrenia, while disturbed emotion is the root of mood disorders.
(c) Hallucinations
Essentially, hallucinations are distortions in perception. Auditory
hallucinations are most common in schizophrenics.
Types Description
Paranoid Characterised by delusions of persecution and delusions of grandeur.
It is a common type of schizophrenia in which people come to believe
that other people are always out to get them. They are usually
suspicious of people and sometimes believe they are being watched.
To make sense of this „persecution‰, they often develop delusions of
grandeur.
Catatonic Characterised by significant motor (movement) disturbances such as
rigid muscles. Victims may develop catatonic stupor which is when
they remain almost like a statue without moving and may seem
unaware of their environment and surroundings for long periods of
time. Others may go into a state of catatonic excitement in which they
become extremely active, illogical, and all over the place.
Disorganised Noticeable by a significant worsening of adaptive behaviour.
Common symptoms include social withdrawal and emotional
indifference. Meaningless chatter and giggling are also common.
Delusions often revolve around physical functions such as thinking
that your blood is going to turn solid, or that your heart is going to
literally explode.
Undifferentiated People who cannot be placed into any of the three previous
categories, but who are clearly schizophrenic are said to have
undifferentiated schizophrenia. People who suffer from this disorder
have a mixture of schizophrenic symptoms. This type of
schizophrenia is quite common.
Causes Description
Genetics Schizophrenia may be passed down by genes. A mother with
schizophrenia is likely to pass down the genes to her child ă
meaning that the child has a greater disposition towards
schizophrenia and may develop it in his/her adolescent years.
Infections Viral infections present in utero or in childhood may cause
schizophrenia later on in life.
Substance abuse The use of strong drugs or substance abuse can trigger
schizophrenia. The excessive release of dopamine when using
amphetamines is believed to be responsible for many symptoms of
schizophrenia.
Life experiences Stressful life events such as social exclusion in childhood,
psychological adversity, discrimination, sexual abuse, and other
traumas can trigger schizophrenia.
SELF-CHECK 12.5
1. What is the difference between schizophrenia and dissociative
identity disorder?
2. Describe the common symptoms of schizophrenia.
ACTIVITY 12.4
SELF-CHECK 12.6
Agoraphobia Hallucinations
Anxiety disorders Hypochondriasis
Bipolar disorder Major depressive disorder
Catatonic schizophrenia Personality disorders
Delusions Schizophrenia
Delusions of grandeur Somatoform disorders
Dissociative disorders
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OR
Thank you.