The Theory of Strategy
The Theory of Strategy
The Theory of Strategy
B. H. LIDDELL HART1
Having drawn our conclusions from an analysis of history it seems advantageous
to construct on the fresh foundation a new dwelling‐house for strategic thought.
Let us first be clear as to what is strategy. Clausewitz, in his monumental work,
On War, defined it as ‘the art of the employment of battles as a means to gain the
object of war. In other words strategy forms the plan of the war, maps out the
proposed course of the different campaigns which compose the war, and regulates the
battles to be fought in each.’2
One defect of this definition is that it intrudes on the sphere of policy, or the
higher conduct of the war, which must necessarily be the responsibility of the
government and not of the military leaders it employs as its agents in the executive
control of operations. Another defect is that it narrows the meaning of ‘strategy’ to the
pure utilization of battle, thus conveying the idea that battle is the only means to the
strategical end. It was an easy step for Clausewitz's less profound disciples to confuse
the means with the end, and to reach the conclusion that in war every other
consideration should be subordinated to the aim of fighting a decisive battle.
Relation to Policy
To break down the distinction between strategy and policy would not matter
much if the two functions were normally combined in the same person, as with a
Frederick or a Napoleon. But as such autocratic soldier‐rulers have been rare in modern
times and became temporarily extinct in the nineteenth century, the effect was
insidiously harmful. For it encouraged soldiers to make the preposterous claim that
policy should be subservient to their conduct of operations, and, especially in
democratic countries, it drew the statesman on to overstep the definite border of his
sphere and interfere with his military employees in the actual use of their tools.
Moltke reached a clearer, and wiser, definition in terming strategy 'the practical
adaptation of the means placed at a general's disposal to the attainment of the object in
view'.
This definition fixes the responsibility of a military commander to the
government by which he is employed. His responsibility is that of applying most
1
B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, 2d ed. (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 333‐346.
2
Liddell Hart uses the English style of single quotation marks for citing quotations vs. the
American use of double quotation marks. He also places the final period on the outside of the quoted
matter vs. the American practice of including periods and commas within the quotation marks.
profitably to the interest of the higher war policy the force allotted to him within the
theatre of operations assigned to him. If he considers that the force allotted is
inadequate for the task indicated he is justified in pointing this out, and if his opinion is
overruled he can refuse or resign the command; but he exceeds his rightful sphere if he
attempts to dictate to the government what measure of force should be placed at his
disposal.
On the other hand, the government, which formulates war policy, and has to
adapt it to conditions which often change as a war progresses, can rightly intervene in
the strategy of a campaign not merely by replacing a commander in whom it has lost
confidence, but by modifying his object according to the needs of its war policy. While it
should not interfere with him in the handling of his tools, it should indicate clearly the
nature of his task. Thus strategy has not necessarily the simple object of seeking to
overthrow the enemy's military power. When a government appreciates that the
enemy has the military superiority, either in general or in a particular theatre, it may
wisely enjoin a strategy of limited aim.
It may desire to wait until the balance of force can be changed by the
intervention of allies or by the transfer of forces from another theatre. It may desire to
wait, or even to limit its military effort permanently, while economic or naval action
decides the issue. It may calculate that the overthrow of the enemy's military power is a
task definitely beyond its capacity, or not worth the effort‐‐and that the object of its war
policy can be assured by seizing territory which it can either retain or use as bargaining
counters when peace is negotiated.
Such a policy has more support from history than military opinion hitherto has
recognized, and is less inherently a policy of weakness than some apologists imply. It is,
indeed, bound up with the history of the British Empire, and repeatedly proved a
lifebuoy
to Britain's allies as well as of permanent benefit to herself. However unconsciously
followed, there is ground for inquiry whether this 'conservative' military policy does not
deserve to be accorded a place in the theory of the conduct of war.
The more usual reason for adopting a strategy of limited aim is that of awaiting a
change in the balance of force‐‐a change often sought and achieved by draining the
enemy's force, weakening him by pricks instead of risking blows. The essential
condition of such a strategy is that the drain on him should be disproportionately
greater than on oneself. The object may be sought by raiding his supplies; by local
attacks which annihilate or inflict disproportionate loss on parts of his force; by luring
him into unprofitable attacks; by causing an excessively wide distribution of his force;
and, not least, by exhausting his moral and physical energy.
This closer definition sheds light on the question, previously raised, of a general's
independence in carrying out his own strategy inside his theatre of operations. For if
the government has decided upon a limited aim or 'Fabian' grand strategy the general
who, even within his strategic sphere, seeks to overthrow the enemy’s military power
may do more harm than good to the government's war policy. Usually, a war policy of
limited aim imposes a strategy of limited aim, and a decisive aim should only be adopted
with the approval of the government which alone can decide whether it is 'worth the
candle'.
We can now arrive at a shorter definition of strategy as‐‐'the art of distributing
and applying military means to fulfil (sic) the ends of policy'. For strategy is concerned
not merely with the movement of forces‐‐as its role is often defined‐‐but with the
effect. When the application of the military instrument merges into actual fighting, the
dispositions for and control of such direct action are termed 'tactics'. The two
categories, although convenient for discussion, can never be truly divided into separate
compartments because each not only influences but merges into the other.
Higher, or Grand Strategy
As tactics is an application of strategy on a lower plane, so strategy is an
application on a lower plane of 'grand strategy'. While practically synonymous with the
policy which guides the conduct of war, as distinct from the more fundamental policy
which should govern its object, the term 'grand strategy' serves to bring out the sense of
'policy in execution'. For the role of grand strategy‐‐higher strategy‐‐is to co‐ordinate
and direct all the resources of a nation, or band of nations, towards the attainment of
the political object of the war‐‐the goal defined by fundamental policy.
Grand strategy should both calculate and develop the economic resources and
man‐power of nations in order to sustain the fighting services. Also the moral
resources‐‐for to foster the people's willing spirit is often as important as to possess the
more concrete forms of power. Grand strategy, too, should regulate the distribution of
power between the several services, and between the services and industry. Moreover,
fighting power is but one of the instruments of grand strategy‐‐which should take
account of and apply the power of financial pressure, of diplomatic pressure, of
commercial pressure, and, not least of ethical pressure, to weaken the opponent's will.
A good cause is a sword as well as armour. Likewise, chivalry in war can be a most
effective weapon in weakening the opponent's will to resist, as well as augmenting
moral strength.
Furthermore, while the horizon of strategy is bounded by the war, grand
strategy looks beyond the war to the subsequent peace. It should not only combine the
various instruments, but so regulate their use as to avoid damage to the future state of
peace for
its security and prosperity. The sorry state of peace, for both sides, that has followed
most wars can be traced to the fact that, unlike strategy, the realm of grand strategy is
for the most part terra incognita‐‐still awaiting exploration, and understanding.
Pure, or Military, Strategy
Having cleared the ground, we can build up our conception of strategy on its
proper plane and original basis‐‐that of 'the art of the general'.
Strategy depends for success, first and most, on a sound calculation and co‐
ordination of the end and the means. The end must be proportioned to the total means,
and the means used in gaining each intermediate end which contributes to the ultimate
must be proportioned to the value and needs of that intermediate end whether it be to
gain an objective or to fulfil (sic) a contributory purpose. An excess may be as harmful as a
deficiency.
A true adjustment would establish a perfect economy of force, in the deeper
sense of that oft‐distorted military term. But, because of the nature and uncertainty of
war, an uncertainty increased by lack of scientific study, even the greatest military
ability could not achieve a true adjustment, and success lies in the closest
approximation to truth.
This relativity is inherent because, however far our knowledge of the science of
war be extended, it will depend on art for its application. Art can not only bring the end
nearer to the means, but by giving a higher value to the means, enable the end to be
extended.
This complicates calculation, because no man can exactly calculate the capacity
of human genius and stupidity, nor the incapacity of will.
Elements and Conditions
In strategy, however, calculation is simpler and a closer approximation to truth
possible than in tactics. For in war the chief incalculable is the human will, which
manifests itself in resistance, which in turn lies in the province of tactics. Strategy has
not to overcome resistance, except from nature. Its purpose is to diminish the possibility
of resistance, and it seeks to fulfil this purpose by exploiting the elements of movement
and surprise.
Movement lies in the physical sphere, and depends on a calculation of the
conditions of time, topography, and transport capacity. (By transport capacity is meant
both the means by which, and the measure in which, force can be moved and
maintained.)
Surprise lies in the psychological sphere and depends on a calculation, far more
difficult than in the physical sphere, of the manifold conditions, varying in each case,
which are likely to affect the will of the opponent.
Although strategy may aim more at exploiting movement than at exploiting
surprise, or conversely, the two elements react on each other. Movement generates
surprise, and surprise gives impetus to movement. For a movement which is
accelerated or changes its direction inevitably carries with it a degree of surprise, even
though it be unconcealed; while surprise smoothes the path of movement by hindering
the enemy's counter‐measures and counter‐movements.
As regards the relation of strategy to tactics, while in execution the borderline is
often shadowy, and it is difficult to decide exactly where a strategical movement ends
and a tactical movement begins, yet in conception the two are distinct. Tactics lies in
and fills the province of fighting. Strategy not only stops on the frontier, but has for its
purpose the reduction of fighting to the slenderest possible proportions.
Aim of Strategy
This statement may be disputed by those who conceive the destruction of the
enemy's armed force as the only sound aim in war, who hold that the only goal of
strategy is battle, and who are obsessed with the Clausewitzian saying that 'blood is the
price of victory'. Yet if one should concede this point and meet its advocates on their
own ground, the statement would remain unshaken. For even if a decisive battle be the
goal, the aim of strategy must be to bring about this battle under the most
advantageous circumstances. And the more advantageous the circumstances, the less,
proportionately, will be the fighting.
The perfection of strategy would be, therefore, to produce a decision without
any serious fighting. History, as we have seen, provides examples where strategy,
helped by favorable conditions, has virtually produced such a result‐‐among the
examples being Caesar's Ilerda campaign, Cromwell's Preston campaign, Napoleon's
UIm campaign, Moltke's encirclement of MacMahon's army at Sedan in 1870, and
Allenby's 1918 encirclement of the Turks in the hills of Samaria. The most striking and
catastrophic of recent examples was the way that, in 1940, the Germans cut off and
trapped the Allies' left wing in Belgium, following Guderian's surprise break‐through in
the centre at Sedan, and thereby ensured the general collapse of the Allied armies on
the Continent.
While these were cases where the destruction of the enemy's armed forces was
economically achieved through their disarming by surrender, such 'destruction' may not
be essential for a decision, and for the fulfilment (sic) of the war‐aim. In the case of a
state that is seeking, not conquest, but the maintenance of its security, the aim is
fulfilled if the threat be removed‐‐if the enemy is led to abandon his purpose.
The defeat which Belisarius incurred at Sura through giving rein to his troops'
desire for a 'decisive victory' ‐‐after the Persians had already given up their attempted
invasion of Syria‐‐was a clear example of unnecessary effort and risk. By contrast, the
way that he defeated their more dangerous later invasion and cleared them out of Syria,
is perhaps the most striking example on record of achieving a decision‐‐in the real sense,
of fulfilling the national object‐‐by pure strategy. For in this case, the psychological
action
was so effective that the enemy surrendered his purpose without any physical action at
all being required.
While such bloodless victories have been exceptional, their rarity enhances
rather than detracts from their value‐‐as an indication of latent potentialities, in strategy
and grand strategy. Despite many centuries' experience of war, we have hardly begun
to explore the field of psychological warfare.
From deep study of war, Clausewitz was led to the conclusion that‐‐'All military
action is permeated by intelligent forces and their effects.' Nevertheless, nations at war
have always striven, or been driven by their passions, to disregard the implications of
such a conclusion. Instead of applying intelligence, they have chosen to batter their
heads against the nearest wall.
It rests normally with the government, responsible for the grand strategy of a
war, to decide whether strategy should make its contribution by achieving a military
decision or otherwise. Just as the military means is only one of the means to the end of
grand strategy‐‐one of the instruments in the surgeon's case‐‐so battle is only one of the
means to the end of strategy. If the conditions are suitable, it is usually the quickest in
effect, but if the conditions are unfavorable it is folly to use it.
Let us assume that a strategist is empowered to seek a military decision. His
responsibility is to seek it under the most advantageous circumstances in order to
produce the most profitable result. Hence his true aim is not so much to seek battle as
to seek a strategic situation so advantageous that if it does not of itself produce the
decision, its
continuation by a battle is sure to achieve this. In other words, dislocation is the aim of
strategy; its sequel may be either the enemy's dissolution or his easier disruption in
battle. Dissolution may involve some partial measure of fighting, but this has not the
character of a battle.
Action of Strategy
How is the strategic dislocation produced? In the physical, or 'logistical', sphere
it is the result of a move which (a) upsets the enemy's dispositions and, by compelling a
sudden 'change of front', dislocates the distribution and organization of his forces;
(b) separates his forces; (c)endangers his supplies; (d) menaces the route or routes by
which he could retreat in case of need and reestablish himself in his base or homeland.
A dislocation may be produced by one of these effects, but is more often the
consequence of several. Differentiation, indeed, is difficult because a move directed
towards the enemy's rear tends to combine these effects. Their respective influence,
however, varies and has varied throughout history according to the size of armies and
the complexity of their organization. With armies which 'live on the country', drawing
their supplies locally by plunder or requisition, the line of communication has negligible
importance. Even in a higher stage of military development, the smaller a force the less
dependent it is on the line of communication for supplies. The larger an army, and the
more complex its organization, the more prompt and serious in effect is a menace to its
line of communication.
Where armies have not been so dependent, strategy has been correspondingly
handicapped, and the tactical issue of battle has played a greater part. Nevertheless,
even thus handicapped, able strategists have frequently gained a decisive advantage
previous to battle by menacing the enemy's line of retreat, the equilibrium of his
dispositions, or his local supplies.
To be effective, such a menace must usually be applied at a point closer, in time
and space, to the enemy's army than a menace to his communications; and thus in early
warfare it is often difficult to distinguish between the strategical and tactical manoeuvre
(sic).
In the psychological sphere, dislocation is the result of the impression on the
commander's mind of the physical effects which we have listed. The impression is
strongly accentuated if his realization of his being at a disadvantage is sudden, and if he
feels that he is unable to counter the enemy's move. Psychological dislocation
fundamentally springs from this sense of being trapped.
This is the reason why it has most frequently followed a physical move on to the
enemy's rear. An army, like a man, cannot properly defend its back from a blow without
turning round to use its arms in the new direction. 'Turning' temporarily unbalances an
army as it does a man, and with the former the period of instability is inevitably much
longer. In consequence, the brain is much more sensitive to any menace to its back.
In contrast, to move directly on an opponent consolidates his balance, physical
and psychological, and by consolidating it increases his resisting power. For in the case
of an army it rolls the enemy back towards their reserves, supplies, and reinforcements,
so that as the original front is driven back and worn thin, new layers are added to the
back. At the most, it imposes a strain rather than producing a shock.
Thus a move round the enemy's front against his rear has the aim not only of
avoiding resistance on its way but in its issue. In the profoundest sense, it takes the line
of least resistance. The equivalent in the psychological sphere is the line of least
expectation. They are the two faces of the same coin, and to appreciate this is to
widen our understanding of strategy. For if we merely take what obviously appears the
line of least resistance, its obviousness will appeal to the opponent also; and this line
may no longer be that of least resistance.
In studying the physical aspect we must never lose sight of the psychological,
and only when both are combined is the strategy truly an indirect approach, calculated
to dislocate the opponent's balance.
The mere action of marching indirectly towards the enemy and on to the rear of
his dispositions does not constitute a strategic indirect approach. Strategic art is not so
simple. Such an approach may start by being indirect in relation to the enemy's front,
but by the very directness of its progress towards his rear may allow him to change his
dispositions, so that it soon becomes a direct approach to his new front.
Because of the risk that the enemy may achieve such a change of front, it is
usually necessary for the dislocating move to be preceded by a move, or moves, which
can best be defined by the term 'distract' in its literal sense of 'to draw asunder'. The
purpose of this 'distraction' is to deprive the enemy of his freedom of action, and it
should operate in both the physical and psychological spheres. In the physical, it should
cause a distension of his forces or their diversion to unprofitable ends, so that they are
too widely distributed, and too committed elsewhere, to have the power of interfering
with one's own decisively intended move. In the psychological sphere, the same effect
is sought by playing upon the fears of, and by deceiving, the opposing command.
'Stonewall' Jackson aptly expressed this in his strategical motto‐‐'Mystify, mislead, and
surprise'. For to mystify and to mislead constitutes 'distraction', while surprise is the
essential cause of 'dislocation'. It is through the 'distraction' of the commander's mind
that the distraction of his forces follows. The loss of his freedom of action is the sequel
to the loss of his freedom of conception.
A more profound appreciation of how the psychological permeates and
dominates the physical sphere has an indirect value. For it warns us of the fallacy and
shallowness of attempting to analyse (sic) and theorize about strategy in terms of
mathematics. To treat it quantitatively, as if the issue turned merely on a superior
concentration of force at a selected place, is as faulty as to treat it geometrically: as a
matter of lines and angles.
Even more remote from truth‐‐because in practice it usually leads to a dead end‐
‐is the tendency of text‐books to treat war as mainly a matter of concentrating superior
force. In his celebrated definition of economy of force Foch termed this‐‐'The art of
pouring out all one's resources at a given moment on one spot; of making use there of
all troops, and, to make such a thing possible, of making those troops permanently
communicate with each other, instead of dividing them and attaching to each fraction
some fixed and invariable function; its second part, a result having been attained, is the
art of again so disposing the troops as to converge upon, and act against, a new single
objective.'
It would have been more exact, and more lucid, to say that an army should
always be so distributed that its parts can aid each other and combine to produce the
maximum possible concentration of force at one place, while the minimum force
necessary is used
elsewhere to prepare the success of the concentration.
To concentrate all is an unrealizable ideal, and dangerous even as a hyperbole.
Moreover, in practice the 'minimum necessary' may form a far larger proportion of the
total than the 'maximum possible'. It would even be true to say that the larger the force
that is effectively used for distraction of the enemy, the greater is the chance of the
concentration succeeding in its aim. For otherwise it may strike an object too solid to be
shattered.
Superior weight at the intended decisive point does not suffice unless that point
cannot be reinforced in time by the opponent. It rarely suffices unless that point is not
merely weaker numerically but has been weakened morally. Napoleon suffered some
of his worst checks because he neglected this guarantee‐‐and the need for distraction
has grown with the delaying power of weapons.
Basis of Strategy
A deeper truth to which Foch and other disciples of Clausewitz did not penetrate
fully is that in war every problem, and every principle, is a duality. Like a coin, it has two
faces. Hence the need for a well‐calculated compromise as a means to reconciliation.
This is the inevitable consequence of the fact that war is a two‐party affair, so imposing
the need that while hitting one must guard. Its corollary is that, in order to hit with
effect, the enemy must be taken off his guard. Effective concentration can only be
obtained when the opposing forces are dispersed; and, usually, in order to ensure this,
one's own forces must be widely distributed. Thus, by an outward paradox, true
concentration is the product of dispersion.
A further consequence of the two‐party condition is that to ensure reaching an
objective one should have alternative objectives. Herein lies a vital contrast to the
single‐minded nineteenth century doctrine of Foch and his fellows‐‐a contrast of the
practical to the theoretical. For if the enemy is certain as to your point of aim he has the
best possible chance of guarding himself—and blunting your weapon. If, on the other
hand, you take a line that threatens alternative objectives, you distract his mind and
forces. This, moreover, is the most economic method of distraction, for it allows you to
keep the largest proportion of your force available on your real line of operation‐‐thus
reconciling the greatest possible concentration with the necessity of dispersion.
The absence of an alternative is contrary to the very nature of war. It sins
against the light which Bourcet shed in the eighteenth century by his most penetrating
dictum that 'every plan of campaign ought to have several branches and to have been
so well
thought out that one or other of the said branches cannot fail of success'. This was the
light that his military heir, the young Napoleon Bonaparte, followed in seeking always,
as he said, to 'faire son thème en deux façons'. Seventy years later Sherman was to re‐
learn
the lesson from experience, by reflection, and to coin his famous maxim about 'putting
the enemy on the horns of a dilemma'. In any problem where an opposing force exists,
and cannot be regulated, one must foresee and provide for alternative courses.
Adaptability is the law which governs survival in war as in life‐‐war being but a
concentrated form of the human struggle against environment.
To be practical, any plan must take account of the enemy's power to frustrate it;
the best chance of overcoming such obstruction is to have a plan that can be easily
varied to fit the circumstances met; to keep such adaptability, while still keeping the
initiative, the best way is to operate along a line which offers alternative objectives. For
thereby you put your opponent on the horns of a dilemma, which goes far to assure the
gaining of at least one objective‐‐whichever is least guarded‐‐and may enable you to
gain one after the other.
In the tactical field, where the enemy's dispositions are likely to be based on the
nature of the ground, it may be more difficult to find a choice of dilemma‐‐producing
objectives than it is in the strategical field, where the enemy will have obvious industrial
and railway centres to cover. But you can gain a similar advantage by adapting your line
of effort to the degree of resistance that is met, and exploiting any weakness that is
found. A plan, like a tree, must have branches‐‐if it is to bear fruit. A plan with a single
aim is apt to prove a barren pole.
Cutting Communications
In the planning of any stroke at the enemy's communications, either by
manoeuvre round his flank or by rapid penetration of a breach in his front, the question
will arise as to the most effective point of aim‐‐whether it should be directed against the
immediate rear of the opposing force, or further back.
When studying this question at the time that experimental mechanized forces
were first created, and their strategic use was under consideration, I sought guidance on
it by an analysis of cavalry raids carried out in the past, especially in the more recent
wars since railways came into use. While such cavalry raids had more limited
potentialities than a deep strategic penetration of mechanized forces seemed to me to
promise, this difference emphasized rather than detracted from the significance of the
evidence which they provided. Making the necessary adjustment, the following
deductions could be drawn:
In general, the nearer to the force that the cut is made, the more immediate the
effect; the nearer to the base, the greater the effect. In either case, the effect
becomes much greater and more quickly felt if made against a force that is in
motion, and in course of carrying out an operation, than against a force that is
stationary.
In deciding the direction of a mobile stroke, much depends on the strategic position and
supply conditions of the enemy forces, i.e. the number of their lines of supply, the
possibility of adopting alternative lines of supply, the amount of supplies likely to be
accumulated in advanced depots close behind their front. After these factors have been
considered, they should be reconsidered in the light of the accessibility of the various
possible objectives, i.e. the distance, the natural obstacles, and the opposition likely to
be met. In general, the longer the distance that has to be covered, the greater the ratio
of natural obstacles, but the less the ratio of opposition.
Thus, unless the natural obstacles are very severe, or the enemy has unusual
independence of supplies from base, more success and more effect is to be expected
from cutting his communications as far back as possible.
A further consideration is that while a stroke close in rear of the enemy force
may have more effect on the minds of the enemy troops, a stroke far back tends to have
more effect on the mind of the enemy commander.
Cavalry raids in the past had often forfeited their effect by lack of care in carrying
out the demolition side of their task. As a result the prospective value of mobile raids
on communications had been unduly discounted. It should be realized, too, that the
flow of supplies may be interrupted not only by demolitions on the route, but by actual
or threatened interception of trains and lorry convoys. This form of interruption was
increased in potentiality by the development of mechanized forces—because of their
flexibility and power of cross‐country manoeuvre.
These deductions were confirmed by the experience of the Second World War‐‐
above all by the catastrophically paralyzing effect, physically and psychologically, that
was produced when Guderian's panzer forces, racing far ahead of the main German
armies, severed the Allied armies' communications where these crossed the far back
line of the Somme, at Amiens and Abbeville.
The Method of Advance
Until the end of the eighteenth century, a physically concentrated advance, both
strategic (to the battlefield) and tactical (on the battlefield) was the rule. Then
Napoleon, exploiting Bourcet's ideas and the new divisional system, introduced a
distributed strategic advance‐‐the army moving in independent fractions. But the
tactical advance was still, in general, a concentrated one.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, with the development of fire
weapons, the tactical advance became dispersed, i.e. in particles, to diminish the effect
of fire. But the strategic advance had again become concentrated‐‐this was due partly
to the influence of railways and the growth of masses, partly to the misunderstanding of
the Napoleonic method.
A revival of the distributed strategic advance was required in order to revive the
art and effect of strategy. Moreover, new conditions‐‐air power and motor power‐‐
point to its further development into a dispersed strategic advance. The danger of air
attack, the aim of mystification, and the need of drawing full value from mechanized
mobility, suggest that advancing forces should not only be distributed as widely as is
compatible with combined action, but be dispersed as much as is compatible with
cohesion. This becomes essential in face of atomic weapons. The development of radio
is a timely aid towards reconciling dispersion with control.
Instead of the simple idea of a concentrated stroke by a concentrated force, we
should choose according to circumstance between these variants:
(i) Dispersed advance with concentrated single aim, i.e. against one objective.
(ii) Dispersed advance with concentrated serial aim, i.e. against successive
objectives.
(These will each demand preliminary moves to distract the enemy's attention and
forces, unless the possibility of taking alternative objectives enables us to rely on such
distracting effect being produced already by the enemy's perplexity.)
(iii) Dispersed advance with distributed aim, i.e. against a
number of objectives simultaneously.
(Under the new conditions of warfare, the cumulative effect of partial success, or even
mere threat, at a number of points may be greater than the effect of complete success
at one point.)
The effectiveness of armies depends on the development of such new methods‐‐
methods which aim at permeating and dominating areas rather than capturing lines; at
the practicable object of paralyzing (sic) the enemy's action rather than the theoretical
object of crushing his forces. Fluidity of force may succeed where concentration of
force merely entails a perilous rigidity.