Standard-gauge

railway

A standard-gauge railway is a railway with

a track gauge of 1,435 mm (4 ft 81⁄2 in).
The standard gauge is also called
Stephenson gauge after George
Stephenson, International gauge, UIC
gauge, uniform gauge, normal gauge and
European gauge in the EU and
Russia.[1][2][3][4][5] It is the most widely used
railway track gauge across the world with
approximately 55% of the lines in the world
using it. All high-speed rail lines, except
those in Russia, Finland, Uzbekistan and
Australia, utilise standard gauge. The
distance between the inside edges of the
rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in
the United States, where it is still defined in
Imperial and US customary units as
approximately 4 ft 81⁄2 in.

History
As railways developed and expanded, one
of the key issues was the track gauge (the
distance, or width, between the inner sides
of the rails) to be used. The result was the
adoption throughout a large part of the
world of a "standard gauge" of 1435 mm
(4 ft 81⁄2 in), allowing inter-connectivity
and inter-operability.

Origins

A popular legend that has been around

since at least 1937[6] traces the origin of
the 1435 mm (4 ft 81⁄2 in) gauge even
further back than the coalfields of
northern England, pointing to the evidence
of rutted roads marked by chariot wheels
dating from the Roman Empire.[a][7] It is
curious that the Roman pace or passus
was 4.855 ft or 1435 mm; a thousand such
was one Roman mile. Snopes categorized
this legend as "false", but commented that
"it is perhaps more fairly labelled as 'True,
but for trivial and unremarkable
reasons' ".[8] The historical tendency to
place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles
approximately 5 feet (1,500 mm) apart
probably derives from the width needed to
fit a carthorse in between the shafts.[8] In
addition, while road-traveling vehicles are
typically measured from the outermost
portions of the wheel rims (and there is
some evidence that the first railroads were
measured in this way as well), it became
apparent that for vehicles travelling on
rails it was better to have the wheel
flanges located inside the rails, and thus
the distance measured on the inside of the
wheels (and, by extension, the inside faces
of the rail heads) was the important one.

There was never a standard gauge for

horse railways, but there were rough
groupings: in the north of England none
was less than 4 ft (1,219 mm).[9] Wylam
colliery's system, built before 1763, was
5 ft (1,524 mm), as was John Blenkinsop's
Middleton Railway; the old 4 ft (1,219 mm)
plateway was relaid to 5 ft (1,524 mm) so
that Blenkinsop's engine could be used.[10]
Others were 4 ft 4 in (1,321 mm) (in
Beamish) or 4 ft 71⁄2 in (Bigges Main and
Kenton and Coxlodge).[10][11]

The English railway pioneer George

Stephenson spent much of his early
engineering career working for the coal
mines of County Durham. He favoured
4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) for wagonways in
Northumberland and Durham, and used it
on his Killingworth line.[10] The Hetton and
Springwell wagonways also used this
gauge.

Stephenson's Stockton and Darlington

railway (S&DR) was built primarily to
transport coal from mines near Shildon to
the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial
gauge of 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) was set to
accommodate the existing gauge of
hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron
wagons[12] that were already in use on the
wagonways in the mines. The railway used
this gauge for 15 years before a change
was made to the 4 ft 81⁄2 in gauge.[10][13]
The historic Mount Washington Cog
Railway, the world's first mountain-
climbing rack railway, is still in operation in
the 21st century, and has used the earlier
4 ft 8 in gauge since its inauguration in
1868.
George Stephenson used the 4 ft 81⁄2 in
gauge (including a belated extra 1⁄2 in
(12.7 mm) of free movement to reduce
binding on curves[14]) for the Liverpool and
Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826
and opened 30 September 1830. The
success of this project led to Stephenson
and his son Robert being employed to
engineer several other larger railway
projects. Thus the 4 ft 81⁄2 gauge became
widespread and dominant in Britain.
Robert was reported to have said that if he
had had a second chance to choose a
standard gauge, he would have chosen
one wider than 1,435 mm
(4 ft 81⁄2 in).[15][16] "I would take a few
inches more, but a very few".[17]

During the "gauge war" with the Great

Western Railway, standard gauge was
called narrow gauge, in contrast to the
Great Western's 7 ft 1⁄4 in broad gauge.
The modern use of the term "narrow
gauge" for gauges less than standard did
not arise for many years, until the first
such locomotive-hauled passenger railway,
the Ffestiniog Railway was built.

Adoption
In 1845, in the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, a Royal Commission on
Railway Gauges reported in favour of a
standard gauge. The subsequent Gauge
Act ruled that new passenger-carrying
railways in Great Britain should be built to
a standard gauge of 1,435 mm
(4 ft 81⁄2 in), and those in Ireland to a new
standard gauge of 5 ft 3 in (1,600 mm). In
Great Britain, Stephenson's gauge was
chosen on the grounds that existing lines
of this gauge were eight times longer than
those of the rival 7 ft (2,134 mm) (later
7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm)) gauge adopted
principally by the Great Western Railway. It
allowed the broad-gauge companies in
Great Britain to continue with their tracks
and expand their networks within the
"Limits of Deviation" and the exceptions
defined in the Act. After an intervening
period of mixed-gauge operation (tracks
were laid with three rails), the Great
Western Railway finally converted its entire
network to standard gauge in 1892. In
North East England, some early lines in
colliery (coal mining) areas were 4 ft 8 in
(1,422 mm), while in Scotland some early
lines were 4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm). All these
lines had been widened to standard gauge
by 1846. The British gauges converged
starting from 1846 as the advantages of
equipment interchange became
increasingly apparent. By 1890s, the entire
network was converted to standard gauge.

The Royal Commission made no comment

about small lines narrower than standard
gauge (to be called "narrow gauge"), such
as the Ffestiniog Railway. Thus it
permitted a future multiplicity of narrow
gauges in the UK. It also made no
comments about future gauges in British
colonies, which allowed various gauges to
be adopted across the colonies.

Parts of the United States, mainly in the

Northeast, adopted the same gauge,
because some early trains were purchased
from Britain. The American gauges
converged, as the advantages of
equipment interchange became
increasingly apparent. Notably, all the 5 ft
(1,524 mm) broad gauge track in the South
was converted to standard gauge over the
course of two days beginning on 31 May
1886.[18] See Track gauge in the United
States.

In continental Europe, France and Belgium

adopted a 1500 mm gauge from axis to
axis of rail for their early railways.[19] The
gauge between the interior edges of the
rails (the measurement adopted from
1844) differed slightly between countries,
and even between networks within a
country (for example, 1440 to 1445 mm in
France).

The first tracks in Austria and in the

Netherlands had other gauges (1100 mm
in Austria for the Donau Moldau line), but
for interoperability reasons (the first rail
service between Paris and Berlin began in
1849, first Chaix timetable) Germany
adopted standard gauges, as did most
other European countries.

The modern method of measuring rail

gauge was agreed in the first Berne rail
convention of 1882, according to the
"Revue générale des chemins de fer, July
1928".

Early railways by gauge

Non-standard gauge

Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway,

authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used
4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm).
Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised
1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 61⁄2
(1,384 mm).
the Eastern Counties Railway,
authorised on 4 July 1836, used 5 ft
(1,524 mm)[20]
the London and Blackwall Railway,
authorised on 28 July 1836, used 5 ft 1⁄2
in (1,537 mm).[21][22][23]
the Dundee and Arbroath Railway,
incorporated on 19 May 1836 and
opened October 1838, used 5 ft 6 in
(1,676 mm) until standardised in 1847.
the Arbroath and Forfar Railway,
incorporated on 19 May 1836 and
opened November 1838, used 5 ft 6 in.
the Northern and Eastern Railway,
authorised on 4 July 1836, used 5 ft
(1,524 mm) gauge.[24]
Aberdeen Railway, opened 1848, used
5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) until standardised.
Almost standard gauge

the Killingworth colliery railway, used

4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).[25]
the Hetton colliery railway, opened 1822,
used 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).[25]
the Stockton and Darlington Railway,
authorised 1821, opened 1825, used
4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm).
the Manchester and Leeds Railway,
authorised on 4 July 1836, used 4 ft 9 in
(1,448 mm).[26]
The 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm) railways
were intended to take 4 ft 81⁄2 in
(1,435 mm) gauge vehicles and
allow a (second) running tolerance.
the Chester and Birkenhead Railway,
authorised on 12 July 1837, used
4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).[27]
the London and Brighton Railway,
authorised on 15 July 1837, used
4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).[28]
the Grand Junction Railway, authorised
1833, opened 1837, connected to LMR.
the Manchester and Birmingham
Railway, authorised on 30 June 1837,
used 4 ft 9 in (1,448 mm).[29]
the trams in Dresden, authorised in 1872
as horsecars, used 1,440 mm
(4 ft 811⁄16 in) gauge vehicles.
Converted to 600 V DC electric trams in
 1893, they now use 1,450 mm
(4 ft 93⁄32 in); both gauges are within the
tolerance for standard gauge.
the trams in Nuremberg nominally used
1,432 mm (4 ft 83⁄8 in) during much of
their existence, but have since been
converted to standard gauge in name as
well as fact

Standard gauge

the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,

authorised 1824, opened 1830.
the Saint-Étienne–Lyon railway,
authorised 1826, opened 1833 ( all the
early french railways including Saint-
Etienne Andrezieux, authorized 1823,
opened 1827 had a french Gauge of
1500 mm from rail axis to rail axis,
compatible with early standard gauge
tolerances)
the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway,
authorised 1829, opened 1834, isolated
from LMR.
the Grand Junction Railway, authorised
1833, opened 1837, connected to LMR.
the London and Birmingham Railway,
authorised 1833, opened 1838,
connected to LMR.
the Manchester and Birmingham
Railway, authorised 1837, opened 1840,
 connected to LMR.
the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway,
authorised 1836, opened 1840,
connected to LMR.
the London and Southampton Railway,
authorised 1834, opened 1840.
the London and Brighton Railway,
authorised 1837, opened 1841.
the South Eastern Railway, authorised
1836, opened 1844.

Dual gauge

Cheltenham and Great Western Union

Railway, authorised 1836, opened 1840,
 dual gauge 1843 1,435 mm (4ft 81⁄2 in)
and 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm).

Modern almost-standard
gauge railways
1,445 mm (4 ft 87⁄8 in) gauge is in use
on several urban rail transit systems in
Europe:
Trams in Italy
Trams in Dresden, Germany
Part of the Madrid Metro
The MTR in Hong Kong uses 1,432 mm
(4 ft 83⁄8 in) gauge on lines owned by
the MTR Corporation. However, lines
formerly operated (but which continue
to be owned) by the Kowloon-Canton
Railway Corporation, including the Light
Rail network, use 1,435 mm (4ft 81⁄2 in)
gauge.
The Washington Metro uses 4 ft 81⁄4
(1,429 mm), 1⁄4 inch (6.4 mm) narrower
than standard gauge.
The Mount Washington Cog Railway, the
world's oldest mountain-climbing rack-
and-pinion railway, uses a 4 ft 8 in
(1,422 mm) gauge.
The Toronto Transit Commission uses
1,495 mm (4 ft 107⁄8 in) gauge on its
streetcar and subway lines. However,
 the Eglinton Crosstown Line will use
1,435 mm (4ft 81⁄2 in) gauge.

Legislation
United Kingdom: Regulating the Gauge
of Railways Act 1846

Installations
Country/territory Railway Notes

Albania National rail network 339 km (211 mi)[30]

National rail network

Algeria Algiers Metro, Algiers tramway, Constantine 3,973 km (2,469 mi)[31]

tramway, Oran tramway, Oran Metro

General Urquiza Railway (except for Ferrocarril Other major lines are mostly
Económico Correntino, which used 600 mm or 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad
1 ft 115⁄8 in before its closing) gauge, with the exception of
Argentina
Buenos Aires Underground the 1,000 mm (3 ft 33⁄8 in)
Metrotranvía Mendoza metre gauge General
Tren de la Costa Belgrano Railway.

Victoria (Australia) built the

first railways to the Irish
broad gauge. New South
Wales then built to the
standard gauge, so trains had
Pacific National, Pilbara Railways, Sydney to stop on the border and
Australia
Metro, Melbourne trams, Gold Coast tram passengers transferred,
which was only rectified in
the 1960s. Queensland still
runs on a narrow gauge but
there is a standard gauge line
from NSW to Brisbane.

The Semmering railway has

Austria Österreichische Bundesbahnen UNESCO World Heritage Site
status.

To be used for rapid transit systems: Dhaka

Bangladesh
Metro Rail

Belgium NMBS/SNCB, Brussels Metro and tramway

Željeznice Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine and

Bosnia and
Željeznice Republike Srpske,
Herzegovina
Sarajevo tramways

Brazil Estrada de Ferro do Amapá;[32] from 194 km (121 mi)

 Uruguaiana to the border with Argentina and
from Santana do Livramento to the border
with Uruguay (both mixed gauge 1,435 mm
and 1,000 mm or 3 ft 33⁄8 in metre gauge);
remaining tracks at Jaguarão, Rio Grande do
Sul (currently inoperable); Rio de Janeiro Light
Rail; São Paulo Metro lines 4 and 5; Salvador
Metro

National Railway Infrastructure Company

(NRIC),
Bulgaria Bulgarian State Railways (BDZ),
Sofia Underground,[33]
part of Sofia Tramway system[34]

49,422 km (30,709 mi)
The Toronto Transit
National rail network (including commuter rail
Commission uses
Canada operators like GO Transit, West Coast Express,
4 ft 107⁄8 in (1,495 mm)
AMT and Union Pearson Express).
gauge on its streetcar and
subway lines.

China National rail network 103,144 km (64,091 mi)

Croatia Hrvatske Željeznice

Metro de Medellín, Tren del Cerrejón, Metro de

Colombia
Bogotá

Cuba Ferrocarriles de Cuba

České dráhy,
Prague metro,
all tram systems in the country (Liberec has
Czech Republic
dual gauge 1,000/1,435 mm, with one meter-
gauge interurban line to Jablonec nad Nisou),
funicular in Prague

Denmark Banedanmark and Copenhagen Metro

Djibouti Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway

Egypt Egyptian National Railways

Ethiopia Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway; Addis Ababa Other standard gauge lines
Light Rail under construction.

France SNCF, RATP (on RER lines)

Deutsche Bahn, numerous local public

Germany 43,468 km
transport providers

Hellenic Railways Organisation (operated by All modern Greek network,

Greece
TrainOSE) except in the Peloponnese

Other MTR lines use

MTR (former KCR network – East Rail Line,
Hong Kong 1,432 mm (4 ft 83⁄8 in)
West Rail Line, Ma On Shan Line, Light Rail)
instead of 4 ft 81⁄2 in[35][36][37]

MÁV, GySEV,
Budapest metro, HÉV (Suburban railway),
Hungary Tram systems in Budapest, Debrecen,
Miskolc, Szeged,
Budapest Cog-wheel Railway

Only used for rapid transit and tram:

Bangalore Metro, Chennai Metro, Delhi Metro Indian nation-wide rail
(Phase 2 onwards), Gurgaon Metro, system (Indian Railways)
Hyderabad Metro, Jaipur Metro, Kochi Metro, uses 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in)
India Kolkata Metro (Line 2 onwards), Lucknow broad gauge. Any future
Metro, Mumbai Metro, Navi Mumbai Metro additions to this system
and Trams in Kolkata. All of the under- would also be in broad
construction and future rapid transit systems gauge.
would be in standard gauge.

Rest of the country uses

Indonesia Railways in Aceh Province and Sulawesi
1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in).

Iran Islamic Republic of Iran Railways

Iraq Iraqi Republic Railways

Ireland Railway Procurement Agency Luas in Dublin

Israel Railways, CTS, operating the Jerusalem

Israel
Light Rail

Italy Ferrovie dello Stato

Japan Shinkansen, JR Hokkaido Naebo Works (see 4,251 km (2,641 mi), all

 Train on Train), Keisei Line, Keikyu Line, Tokyo electrified
Metro (Ginza and Marunouchi lines), Toei
Subway (Asakusa and Oedo lines), Kintetsu
Railway (Osaka, Nara, Nagoya, Yamada, Kyoto,
and Keihanna lines and their associated
branches), Keihan Railway, Hankyu Railway,
Hanshin Railway, Kyoto Municipal Subway,
Kobe Municipal Subway, Osaka Municipal
Subway (including the Kita-Osaka Kyuko
Railway), Fukuoka City Subway (Nanakuma
Line), Sendai Subway (Tozai Line), Nagoya
Municipal Subway (Higashiyama, Meijō, and
Meikō lines), Nose Electric Railway, Yokohama
Municipal Subway (Blue and Green lines)

Kenya Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway Inaugurated May 31, 2017

All lines out of service and

Lebanon
essentially dismantled

Libya Network under construction

First phase, from Kaunas to

the Polish border, completed
Lithuania Rail Baltica in 2015. Second phase, from
Kaunas north to Talinn,
Estonia, is in planning stage.

Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer

Luxembourg
Luxembourgeois

Macedonia Macedonian Railways

RapidKL (Kelana Jaya Line, Ampang Line, MRT

Sungai Buloh-Kajang Line, MRT Sungai Buloh-
Serdang-Putrajaya Line), KLIA Ekspres, MRL
Malaysia
East Coast Rail Link (under construction),
Kuala Lumpur–Singapore High Speed Rail
(planned)

Mexico[38]

Monaco
Montenegro Željeznice Crne Gore 3

Morocco Rail transport in Morocco

Nederlandse Spoorwegen and regional

Netherlands
railways.

Lagos–Kano Standard Gauge Railway; Lagos Under construction; Abuja to

Nigeria
Rail Mass Transit Kaduna section operational.

North Korea Railways of the DPRK.

Norwegian National Rail Administration, Rail

Norway
transport in Norway

Regauged from 5 ft

Panama Panama Railway; Panama Metro
(1,524 mm) in 2001

36 km out of Asunción (used

as a tourist steam line), plus
5 km from Encarnación to the
border with Argentina,
carrying mainly exported soy;
the rest of the 441-km line
awaits its fate, while
Ferrocarril Presidente Don Carlos Antonio
redevelopment plans come
Paraguay López, now Ferrocarril de Paraguay S.A.
and go with regularity. The
(FEPASA)
section from west of
Encarnación to north of San
Salvador, plus the entire San
Salvador–Abaí branch, have
been dismantled by the
railway itself and sold for
scrap to raise funds.

Peru Railroad Development Corporation,[39]

Ferrocarril Central Andino (Callao–Lima–La
Oroya–Huancayo and La Oroya–Cerro del
Pasco lines), Ferrocarril del sur de Peru
(operated by Peru Rail) Matarani–Arequipa–
Puno and Puno–Cuzco, Ilo–Moquegua mining
railroad, Tacna–Arica (Chile) international line,
 (operated by Tacna province), Lima electric
suburban railway

Manila LRT Lines 1 and 2, and Manila MRT

Philippines
Line 3.

Polskie Koleje Państwowe, Warsaw Metro,

Poland most tramway systems throughout the
country

All other railways use

Planned high-speed lines, Braga and Oporto
1,668 mm (5 ft 521⁄32 in)
(Guindais) funiculars, Lisbon Metro, Oporto
(broad gauge); some use
Portugal Metro (partly adapted from former 1,000 mm
1,000 mm (3 ft 33⁄8 in)
(3 ft 33⁄8 in) metre gauge; tracks), Metro
metre gauge; Decauville uses
Transportes do Sul light rail in Almada.
500 mm (193⁄4 in) gauge.

Căile Ferate Române, Bucharest Metro,

Tram systems in Botoşani, Brăila, Bucharest,
Romania
Cluj-Napoca, Craiova, Galaţi, Oradea, Ploieşti
and Timișoara

Rostov-on-Don tramway, lines connecting

Russia
Kaliningrad with Poland

Saudi Arabia Rail transport in Saudi Arabia

Serbia Serbian Railways

MRT, Kuala Lumpur–Singapore High Speed

Singapore
Rail (planned)

Železnice Slovenskej republiky, Košice

Slovakia
tramway system

Slovenia Slovenske železnice

Rest of country uses

South Africa Gautrain in Gauteng Province
1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in)

South Korea KRNA

Spain AVE high-speed rail lines from Madrid to All other railways use
Seville, Málaga, Saragossa, Barcelona (- 1,668 mm (5 ft 521⁄32 in)
Perthus), Toledo, Huesca, and Valladolid, (broad gauge) and/or
Barcelona Metro (L2, L3, L4, and L5 lines),
 Barcelona FGC (lines L6 and L7), and Metro 1,000 mm (3 ft 33⁄8 in)
Vallès (lines S1, S2, S5, and S55). metre gauge).

Swedish Transport Administration,

Storstockholms Lokaltrafik (Stockholm metro,
Sweden
commuter and light rail lines), tram networks
in Gothenburg and Norrköping

Swiss Federal Railways, BLS, Rigi Railways

Switzerland
(rack railway)

Syria Chemins de Fer Syriens

Taipei Rapid Transit System, Taiwan High

Taiwan
Speed Rail, and Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit

BTS Skytrain, MRT, and Suvarnabhumi Airport

Thailand
Link

Tunisia Northern part of the network

Turkish State Railways (also operates Some tram networks use

Turkey Marmaray), metro networks, and tram 1,000 mm (3 ft 33⁄8 in)
networks metre gauge.

United Arab
Rail transport in the United Arab Emirates
Emirates

Entire rail network in Great Britain (but not

United Kingdom
Ireland) since standardisation by the
(Great Britain)
Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846

The Washington Metro uses

4 ft 81⁄4 in (1,429 mm)
gauge, which is 6 mm
(0.24 in) narrower than
Modern national railroad network; see Track
United States standard gauge.
gauge in the United States
The Bay Area Rapid Transit
system uses 5 ft 6 in Indian
gauge.

Uruguay National rail network

Vietnam North of Hanoi[40] Includes dual gauge

 (standard/metre) to the
Chinese border.

Non-rail use
Several states in the United States had
laws requiring road vehicles to have a
consistent gauge to allow them to follow
ruts in the road. These gauges were
similar to railway standard gauge.[41]

See also
Standard Gauge (toy trains)
List of track gauges
List of tram track gauges
Track gauge
Notes
a. The gaps in the pedestrian crossings in
Pompeii could give credence or otherwise
to this statement, but no relevant studies
appear to have been made.

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Bibliography
Allen, Geoffrey Freeman (1987). Jane's
World Railways, 1987–88. Jane's
Information. ISBN 978-0-71060848-2.
Baxter, Bertran (1966). Stone Blocks and
Iron Rails (Tramroads). Industrial
Archaeology of the British Isles. Newton
Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-715340-
04-2. OCLC 643482298 .
Jones, Robin (2013). The Rocket Men.
Mortons Media. ISBN 978-1-90912827-
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Jones, Stephen K (2009). Brunel in South
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Stroud: The History Press. pp. 64–65.
ISBN 978-0-75244912-8.
Pomeranz, Kenneth; Topik, Steven
(1999). The World that Trade Created:
Society, Culture, and World Economy,
1400 to the Present. Armonk, NY: M.E.
Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0250-4.
Puffert, Douglas J (2009). Tracks across
Continents, Paths through History: The
Economic Dynamics of Standardization in
Railway Gauge. University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68509-0.
Setti, João Bosco (2008). Brazilian
Railroads . Rio de Janeiro: Memória do
 Trem. ISBN 978-85-8609409-5 – via
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External links
A learned text of standardisation of
gauge
 "The Sydney Morning Herald" . The
Sydney Morning Herald. 23 May 1892.
p. 4. Retrieved 14 August 2011 – via
National Library of Australia., a
discussion of gauge in Australia circa
1892
"Standard Railway Gauge" . Townsville
Bulletin. 5 October 1937. p. 12. Retrieved
19 March 2014 – via National Library of
Australia., a discussion of the Roman
gauge origin theory.

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