SBSC1103 PDF

Faculty of Science and Technology
SBSC1103
Basic Science
SBSC1103
BASIC SCIENCE
Prof Dr Latifah Abdol Latif
Suhaila Abdul Hamid
Santhanadas Thangapragasam
P Rajesh Kumar
Dr Mohd Shihabuddin Ahmad Noorden
Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Prof Dr Latifah Abdol Latif

Suhaila Abdul Hamid
Santhanadas Thangapragasam
P Rajesh Kumar
Dr Mohd Shihabuddin Ahmad Noorden
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Moderator: P Rajesh Kumar

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2012

Second Edition, August 2015 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2015, SBSC1103

Copyright reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xv
Topic 1 Physical Quantities and Motion 1

1.1 Physical Quantities and System of Units 2
1.2 Conversion of Units 3
1.3 Uncertainty in Measurement 4
1.4 Differentiating Vector and Scalar Quantities 5
1.4.1 Representing a Vector 6
1.4.2 Resolving a Vector into its Components 6
1.5 Kinematics 8
1.5.1 Displacement 8
1.5.2 Average Speed and Velocity 9
1.5.3 Acceleration 10
1.6 Linear Motion with Constant Acceleration 12
1.7 Inertia and Mass 14
1.8 Force 14
1.9 NewtonÊs First and Second Laws 15
1.10 Friction 17
1.11 NewtonÊs Third Law 19
1.12 Equilibrium 21
Summary 23
Key Terms 24
Topic 2 Work, Energy and Power 25

2.1 Work 25
2.2 Energy 29
2.3 Kinetic Energy 29
2.4 Gravitational Potential Energy 30
2.5 Power 31
2.6 Law of Conservation of Energy 33
2.7 Momentum 37
2.8 Law of Conservation of Momentum 37
Summary 40
Key Terms 41
iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Heat and Temperature 42

3.1 The Temperature Scale and Thermometers 43
3.1.1 Heat and Temperature 43
3.1.2 Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law
of Thermodynamics 43
3.1.3 Temperature Scale 44
3.1.4 Thermometers 47
3.2 Specific Heat and Latent Heat 52
3.2.1 Specific Heat 52
3.2.2 Phase Transitions 54
3.2.3 Latent Heat 56
3.2.4 Latent Heat of Fusion and Vapourisation 56
Summary 59
Key Terms 60
Topic 4 The Three States of Matter 61

4.1 States of Matter 62
4.2 Gases 63
4.2.1 Characteristics of Gases 63
4.2.2 The Gas Laws 64
4.2.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory 71
4.3 Liquids 72
4.3.1 Intermolecular Forces 72
4.3.2 Changes of State 75
4.4 Solids 78
4.4.1 Categories of Solids Based on the Solid Packing 78
4.4.2 Ionic Solids 82
4.4.3 Molecular Solids 82
4.4.4 Covalent Solids 82
4.4.5 Metallic Solids 83
Summary 84
Key Terms 84
Topic 5 Periodic Properties of the Elements 85

5.1 Development of the Periodic Table 86
5.1.1 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 88
5.2 Variations in Atomic Characteristics 90
5.2.1 Electron Shells in Atoms-Shielding Effect 90
5.2.2 Sizes of Atoms 92
5.2.3 Ionisation Energy 95
5.2.4 Electron Affinities 96
5.2.5 Electro negativity 97
5.3 Variation in Physical Properties 98
TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
5.4 Variations in Chemical Properties 100

5.4.1 Chemical Properties of Metals 100
5.4.2 Chemical Properties of Non-metals 101
Summary 102
Key Terms 102
Topic 6 Stoichiometry 103

6.1 Basic Concepts 104
6.1.1 What is Stoichiometry? 104
6.1.2 Balanced Chemical Equations 104
6.1.3 Atomic and Molecular Weights 106
6.1.4 The Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant 107
6.1.5 Stoichiometry Problems 109
6.1.6 Limiting Reagent 112
6.2 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 117
6.2.1 Molarity 117
6.2.2 Dilution 120
6.3 Stoichiometry of Titration and Gravimetry 122
6.3.1 Titrations 122
6.3.2 Gravimetry 124
Summary 126
Key Terms 127
Topic 7 Hydrocarbons 128

7.1 Hydrocarbons 129
7.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 129
7.2.1 Nomenclature of Alkanes 130
7.2.2 Typical Alkanes Reactions 137
7.3 Alkenes, Alkadienes and Cycloalkenes 139
7.3.1 IUPAC Nomenclature 140
7.3.2 Typical Alkenes Reaction 142
7.4 Alkynes 145
7.4.1 Typical Alkyne Reactions 146
7.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 147
7.5.1 Benzene 148
7.5.2 Nomenclature of Arenes 150
7.5.3 Typical Aromatic Hydrocarbon Reactions 151
Summary 154
Key Terms 154
vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 Macromolecules 155

8.1 Carbohydrates 156
8.2 Lipids 159
8.2.1 Fatty Acids 161
8.2.2 Classification of Lipids 161
8.3 Proteins 162
8.3.1 Amino Acids 163
8.3.2 Structure of Proteins 165
8.4 Polymers 165
8.4.1 What are Polymers? 166
8.4.2 Synthesis of Polymers 167
8.4.3 Structure of Polymers 170
Summary 171
Key Terms 172
Topic 9 Microbiology: Introduction and Fundamental 173

9.1 Why Study Microbiology? 174
9.2 Classification of Microorganisms 175
9.3 Bacteria 177
9.3.1 The Cells of Bacteria 177
9.3.2 Bacterial Growth 179
9.3.3 Classification of Bacteria 180
9.3.4 The Effects of Bacteria 183
9.4 Algae 184
9.4.1 Characteristics of Algae 185
9.5 Protozoa 186
9.5.1 Characteristics of Protozoa 186
9.5.2 Classification of Protozoa 186
9.6 Fungi 188
9.6.1 Characteristics of Fungi 188
9.6.2 Classification of Fungi 189
9.6.3 Importance of Fungi 192
9.7 Viruses 192
9.7.1 Why Study Virology? 192
9.7.2 Component of Viruses 193
9.7.3 Virus Replication 193
9.7.4 Shapes and Sizes 196
Summary 197
Key Terms 198
References 198
TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 10 Microbiology: Applications 200

10.1 Food Microbiology 201
10.1.1 Microorganisms as Food Source and in 201
Food Production
10.1.2 Food Spoilage 203
10.1.3 Foodborne Diseases 205
10.1.4 Food Preservation 206
10.2 Environmental Microbiology 207
10.2.1 Roles of Microorganisms in the Environment 207
10.2.2 Microorganisms in Air 208
10.2.3 Microorganisms in Soil 209
10.2.4 Microorganisms in Water 211
10.2.5 Bioremediation 213
10.3 Industrial Microbiology 214
10.3.1 Important Properties of an Industrial 214
Microorganism
10.3.2 Products of Industrial Microbiology 214
10.4 Pharmaceutical Microbiology 216
10.4.1 Drug Safety 216
10.4.2 Antimicrobial Activity and Disinfection 216
10.4.3 Microbiological Testing of Pharmaceutical Products 217
10.4.4 Contamination Control 217
10.5 Medical Microbiology 217
10.5.1 Causes of Diseases 217
10.5.2 Diagnosis 218
10.5.3 Treatment 219
10.6 Genetic Engineering 219
10.6.1 Techniques of Genetic Engineering 219
10.6.2 Applications of Genetic Engineering 222
Summary 223
Key Terms 224
References 225
xxvi X COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
COURSE GUIDE
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend to
complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material, as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
SBSC1103 Basic Science is one of the courses offered by the Faculty of Science
and Technology at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth three
credit hours and should be covered over 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to undergraduate learners who need to acquire fundamental
knowledge in basic science.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements, and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Allocation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial 2
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 4 tutorial sessions 8
Online participation 15
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify the seven fundamental quantities and the units associated with them;
2. Describe Newton’s laws;
3. Apply the Laws of Conservation of Energy and Momentum;
4. Explain the three states of matter and their properties;
5. Describe the physical and periodic properties of elements in the periodic table;
6. Write the chemical formulae of the different classes of hydrocarbons based on
their general formulae; and
7. Name the chemical formulae according to IUPAC nomenclature.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces physical quantities in science and the SI system of units.

We will learn the basic properties of vectors and how they are different from
scalars. We will also study kinematics and Newton’s Laws of Motion.
COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 2 covers two important concepts in basic physics: work and energy.
We will also be discussing the two most fundamental laws in science: the Law of
Conservation of Energy and the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
Topic 3 discusses the basic concepts of temperature and its measurement. The
concepts of phase transition, specific heat, and latent heat will also be covered.
Topic 4 outlines some of the important fundamental concepts required to

understand the three states of matter in chemistry. Some basic parameters,
theories and laws which can be used to explain the vast difference in properties of
the three states of matter, will be discussed here.
Topic 5 introduces the periodic table. We will relate the electron configurations of
elements with their arrangement in the periodic table. We will also discuss the
periodic properties of ionisation energy, electron affinity, and electro negativity of
each element in the table.
Topic 6 discusses the basic concepts of atomic weight, molecular weight, formula
weight, mole, Avogadro’s number, molar mass, molarity, and dilution. We will
also be learning quantitative aspects of chemical formulae and reactions.
Topic 7 discusses the chemical formulae, structural formulae, IUPAC names,

physical properties, and some typical reactions of hydrocarbons.
Topic 8 deals with identifying and classifying the different types of natural
polymers.
Topic 9 introduces the definition of microbiology. This topic focuses on basic

research microbiology, primarily on the classification and studies of
microorganisms.
Topic 10 discusses the applied microbiology that deals with the application of
microorganisms, and the knowledge of them. This topic also describes the
different types of applied microbiology.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesis and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents, or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations, such as, in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed, and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
COURSE GUIDE  xv
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no prerequisite knowledge required for this course.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Brady, J. E., & Senese, F. (2009). Chemistry, matter and its changes (5th ed.).
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hein, M., & Arena, S. (2010). Introduction to chemistry (13th ed.). International
Student Version: John Wiley & Sons.
Serway, R. A., & Vuille, C. (2012). College physics (9th ed.). Boston, MA:
CENGAGE Learning.
Walker, J., S. (2009). Physics (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising
e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.
xxvi X COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
Topic  Physical
1 Quantities and
Motion
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the seven fundamental quantities and the units associated with
them;
2. Use the metric prefixes;
3. Differentiate a vector quantity from a scalar quantity;
4. Resolve a vector into its components;
5. Exercise the kinematic equations; and
6. Apply Newton’s laws.
 INTRODUCTION
What is science? Science is a process of studying and understanding nature. The
behaviour of nature and its phenomena is best described by scientific theories and
physical laws that are supported by experiments. The beauty of science lies in the
simplicity of the theories and their usefulness. Using these theories, scientists
have been able to develop many useful applications, from integrated chips, to
iPads and smart phones in our homes, to fibre optics devices in
telecommunications, to lasers used in eye surgery, to curing life-threatening
diseases and medical imaging, to satellites used in weather forecasting, and to
“live” television broadcasts. Needless to say, these and a host of other applications
of science have contributed to the technical advancement of our society. Also, as
science is an ongoing human endeavour that is constantly evolving, the
knowledge generated by science can be used to develop new technologies.
2  TOPIC 1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MOTION
The building blocks of science are physical quantities in which the laws of science
can be expressed. We will begin this topic by studying physical quantities and the
SI system of units. We will also cover kinematics and Newton’s laws.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Name two theories or scientific laws that were discovered through the
study of nature.
1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SYSTEM OF

UNITS
In science, experiments involve measurements of different quantities. Scientists
spend a lot of effort in ensuring that the measurements made are as accurate as
possible. Quantities that can be measured directly are known as physical
quantities. Every physical quantity has a magnitude or value, and the unit it is
measured in. For example, if you happen to be 1.67m tall, then “1.67” represents
the magnitude of your height, and “m” the unit.
Every physical quantity that we measure can be expressed in various ways. For
example, you can measure your height in feet, inches, or in metres. However, in
order to make meaningful comparisons, a standard system of units needs to be
defined. For this purpose, in 1960, scientists around the world agreed to adopt the
SI system of units, which is based on the metric system.
Table 1.1 displays the seven fundamental or base quantities in science in SI.
All other quantities that are needed are derived from these seven quantities,
andare called derived quantities. Examples of derived quantities are displacement,
velocity, and force.
Table 1.1: The Fundamental Quantities
TOPIC 1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MOTION  3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Besides displacement, velocity, and force, list three other derived
quantities that you know.
An advantage of the metric system is that it is a decimal or base-10 system. Thus

it is possible to write very large or very small numbers in multiples of 10. Table
1.2 shows some common multiples and their corresponding prefixes.
For example, 1,000m can be written as 1 103 m or as 1km. Similarly, you can
express 0.000006s as 6 106 s or 6 s .
Table 1.2: Some Common Prefixes Used in Physics
1.2 CONVERSION OF UNITS

In science, because different units in the SI system can express the same quantity,
we sometimes need to convert the units of a quantity from one unit to another. For
example, we may often need to convert m to mm, or m2 to cm2, or litre to m3.
How do we convert 2m2 to cm2? Before we can perform this conversion, we must
know the relationship between the units. Since 1m = 100cm, then
1m2 = 1002cm2. With this information, 2m2 = 2 × 1002cm2 = 2 × 104cm2.
Example 1.1
(a) Convert 3mm3 to m 3.
Solution
Since 1m = 1000mm, 1mm = 0.001m, then 1mm3 = 1 × 10-9m3.

So, 3mm3 = 3 × 10-9m3.

3
(b) In chemistry, we often measure volume in litres. Convert 0.1 litre to m .
Solution
Since 1L = 1 × 10-3m3, then 0.1 L = 0.1 × 1 × 10-3m3 = 1 × 10-4m3.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. A CD has a diameter of approximately 10cm. What is its area in m2?

(Ans: 0.0314m2)
2. The width and length of a room are 9ft and 12ft, respectively. If the
height of the room is 20ft, find the volume of the room in cubic
metres (m3).
(1ft=30.5cm)
(Ans: 76129.7m3)
1.3 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

In order to make accurate observations in science, one needs to make
measurements. A measurement is a way of providing valuable information about
the physical property of the object that is being measured. For instance, it might
tell us how light or heavy the object is, or how short it is. By measuring, we are
able to quantify that property by assigning a number to it. In science,
measurements are always made using apparatus like thermometers, rulers,
burettes, stopwatches, and others.
Any measurement is only accurate up to a certain degree, depending on the

apparatus used and the constraints of the person making the measurement. Any
quantity measured has an uncertainty or error in the value obtained.
For example, say that you measured the length of a copper rod and found it to be
16.54cm. What can you say about this measurement? We are certain of the initial
numerals, i.e., 16.5cm. However, the last digit, i.e. 4, is uncertain. We can say that
the accuracy of the measurement is only up to 0.01cm. The uncertainty or the
error in the measurement can be expressed by writing the length of the rod as
(16.54 ± 0.01)cm.
Uncertainties in measurements can result from:

(a) The measuring apparatus – It can suffer from errors due to ageing, or when
used under different conditions from which it was calibrated.
(b) The observer – Limitations or physical constraints on the part of the
observer making the measurement.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
How can we reduce uncertainties when taking measurements?
1.4 DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR AND SCALAR

QUANTITIES
We can classify all physical quantities as either scalars or vectors. A scalar
quantity can be described completely by just stating its magnitude. It has no
direction. For example, if you say that the temperature of an object is 30°C, then
this information completely specifies the temperature of the object; no direction is
required. Other examples of scalars are mass, time, and length.
In contrast, a vector quantity is described completely by its magnitude and

direction. For example, your friend wants to go to a certain place and asks for
your help. It would be insufficient for you to just give the distance of the place,
say 5km, from where your friend lives. You also need to state the direction,
whether the place is 5km north, south, or east from where your friend is.
Examples of vectors in science are velocity, acceleration, displacement, and force.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Are the following vectors or scalars?
(a) The number of pages in this module.
(b) The average speed registered by a Ferrari over 20 laps at the
Sepang F1 race circuit.
1.4.1 Representing a Vector

A vector can be represented geometrically by a straight line drawn parallel to the
required direction, with an arrow indicating its direction. The magnitude of the
vector is proportional to the length of the line.
We represent a vector quantity by a single boldface type, such as A. Alternatively,

we
 can also indicate a vector quantity by placing an arrow above the letter as in
A . To indicate the magnitude of vector A, the absolute value sign, A , can be
used, or the quantity can be written as A.
Two vectors, A and B, are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction (see Figure 1.1). A negative vector –C, is one having the same
magnitude as C but in the opposite direction (see Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1: Equal vectors Figure 1.2: Negative vector
1.4.2 Resolving a Vector into Its Components

A vector A in two dimensions will have two components. This is shown in
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Vector components in two dimensions
Let us call the two components Ax and Ay. They lie along the x and y axes
respectively.
The magnitudes of these components are:

A x  A cos 
Eq.1.1
A y  A sin 
with A being the magnitude of A and  the angle made by A with the horizontal
axis.
The magnitude of A can be found using Pythagoras’ theorem:
A  A 2x  A 2y Eq.1.2
EXERCISE 1.2
The velocity v of a particle has components

v x  2 ms 1 , v y  3 ms 1
Find the magnitude of the vector.
Answer:
v  22  32  13 ms 1
1.5 KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of the motion of objects along a straight line without
considering the causes of motion. There are four basic parameters in kinematics;
they are time, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
1.5.1 Displacement
When an object moves, it travels from one point to another point. The distance
between the two points is called displacement. Displacement is a vector, so it
also gives the direction.
Figure 1.4: Example of displacement
From Figure 1.4, if a car, initially at position xi, moves to a final position xf, then
the magnitude of the displacement is
x  x f  x i Eq.1.3
Note that the magnitude of the displacement is equal to the total distance
travelled.
Example 1.2
Starting from the origin, a car travelled a distance of 2km east and back to its
starting position.
What is the total displacement made by the car?

What is the total distance travelled by the car?
Solution
The displacement is x  x f  x i . Since the car made a round trip (i.e. it returned
to its initial position at the origin), x f  x i , therefore x  0.
The distance travelled by the car is d = 2 + 2 = 4km.
1.5.2 Average Speed and Velocity

The next thing to do in solving a problem is to find the object’s average speed.
We define the average speed as follows:

Total distance travelled
Average Speed  Eq.1.4
Time
The SI unit is m/s.
Speed is a scalar quantity. It represents how fast something is moving but does not
indicate the direction of the object.
Unlike speed, the average velocity is a vector quantity. The magnitude of v tells
us the speed or how fast an object is moving, and the sign gives the direction. If
the sign is +ve, the object moves in the +x direction. However, if the sign turns
out to be –ve, the object is then moving in the –x direction.
Example 1.3
One Sunday morning, you drive at 30m/s for 15 minutes, then at 50m/s for
another 10 minutes.
(a) What is the distance covered in km?
(b) What is your average speed in km/h?
Solution
(a) The total distance covered, D, is the sum of two parts i.e.
(i) d1 = Distance covered when you were driving at 30m/s for 15 minutes
and
(ii) d 2 = Distance covered when you were driving at 50m/s for
10 minutes.
d1 = 30m/s × (15 × 60s) = 27,000m = 27km
d 2 = 50m/s × (10 × 60s) = 30,000m = 30km
 D = d1 + d 2 = 27 + 30 = 57km
(b) From Eq.1.4,

Total distance D 57
Average speed =    136.8 km / h
Total time 15 10 1 1
 
60 60 4 6
1.5.3 Acceleration
An object accelerates whenever its velocity changes. Acceleration is a vector
quantity and has units of m/s2.
The average acceleration a is the change in velocity, v over the time interval,
t .
v
a Eq.1.5
t
An object will move faster if the velocity and acceleration are in the same
direction. Conversely, if they are in opposite directions, the object slows down.
Example 1.4
A mosquito moving along a straight line has an average acceleration of

0.01m/s2 over a time of 0.9s. If the initial velocity of the mosquito is 0.05m/s,
what is its final velocity?
Solution
a  0.01m/s 2 , vi  0.05m/s, t  0.9s
From Eq.1.5:
v vf  vi
a  
t t
vf  0.05
0.01 
0.9
vf  (0.01 0.9)  0.05  0.06m/s
EXERCISE 1.3
1. In the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Justin Gatlin won the 100m event
in 9.85s. What was his average speed?
2. An athlete accelerates to a final velocity of 5.0m/s in 4.0s.
If his average acceleration is 0.6m/s2, find his initial velocity.
3. A plane accelerates at 10m/s2 for 5s. Find its increase in speed.
Answers:
1. 10.15m/s
2. 2.6m/s
3. 50m/s
1.6 LINEAR MOTION WITH CONSTANT

ACCELERATION
To describe motion along a straight line with constant acceleration, we require a
set of equations, called the kinematic equations. The four kinematic equations are:
v = u + at Eq.1.6
1
x u  v t Eq.1.7
2
1
x  ut  at 2 Eq.1.8
2
v 2  u 2  2ax Eq.1.9
where x = distance covered by the object
u = initial velocity of the object
v = final velocity of the object
a = constant acceleration
t = time
Example 1.5
A car travelling on a straight line increases its velocity from 20km/h to 100km/h
in 45s.
Calculate the following:

(a) Magnitude of the acceleration in m/s2
(b) Distance covered by the car in m.
Solution
(a) Recall that 1km = 1000 m and 1h = 3600s.

We first need to convert the given velocities from km/h into m/s.
Since 1km = 1000m and 1h = 3600s, we have
20km 20  1000m
u  20km/h    5.56m / s
h 3600s
100km 100  1000m

v  100km/h    27.78m/s
h 3600s
Therefore, the magnitude of the acceleration is

v  u 27.78  5.56
a   0.49m/s 2
t 45
1
(b) From Eq.1.7, x  u  v t
2
1
  5.56  27.78 45  750.15m
2
Example 1.6
A sports car accelerates uniformly at a rate of 10 m/s 2 over a straight line distance
of 100m. Calculate the speed of the car at the end of 100m.
Solution
Apply Eq.1.9 to find the speed v.
Since a = 10 m/s 2 , u = 0, x =100m,

v 2  u 2  2ax  02  2 10  100
v  2000  44.7m / s
EXERCISE 1.4
1. Our heart is able to accelerate the flow of blood through the ventricle
from rest to a final velocity of about 30cm/s.
(a) Find the time taken for blood to reach its final velocity.
(b) If the displacement of the blood is 5cm, calculate the
acceleration in cm/s2.
Answer:
(a) 0.33s
(b) 90cm/s 2
2. A car accelerates from 36km/h to 54km/h in 10s. Find the acceleration

and the distance travelled by the car during this time.
Answer:
0.5m/s2, 125m
1.7 INERTIA AND MASS

You are surely aware from everyday experience that a push or a pull must be
applied to get a stationary object to move. You will also know from experience
that it is more difficult to move a heavier object than a lighter one. This is because
greater effort must be expended to overcome resistance in the heavier one. The
heavier the object, the greater is its resistance to motion.
We call this resistance to change as “inertia”. In physics, we define inertia as the

natural tendency of an object to resist any change in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line.
Mass is the measure of inertia in a body. The more inertia a body has, the greater
is its mass. The SI unit for mass is kg.
1.8 FORCE
We can think of a force as a push or a pull exerted on an object. Force is also the
cause for motion. When you push a chair, it will slide across the floor because you
have exerted force on it. Similarly, when a ball is tossed into the air, it will fall
towards the ground because of the pull or force of gravity.
Force is a vector quantity that has direction and magnitude. The SI unit of force is
Newton (N).
Another type of force is weight. We call the magnitude of the gravitational force
acting on a body of mass, m, near the earth’s surface as the weight of the object, W.
Mathematically:
W = mg Eq.1.10
Here, g is gravitational acceleration near the surface of the earth.

Weight is also a vector quantity. The unit of weight is also Newton.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Can we assume that in order for an object to move, the force applied
must be greater than the object’s inertia? Discuss.
Example 1.7
An astronaut weighs 600N on earth. What is his mass in kg?
Solution
W = 600N, g = 9.8m/s2
From Eq.1.10, his mass is given as:

W 600
m   61.2kg
g 9.8
SELF-CHECK 1.4
Consider the previous example again. If the astronaut is on the surface
of the moon, will he still weigh 600N?
1.9 NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS

Newton’s First Law of Motion states that an object at rest will remain at rest and
an object in motion will remain in motion with constant velocity along a straight
line unless acted upon by a force. This is also known as the law of inertia.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion states that the total force acting on a body is
equal to the mass of the body times its acceleration.
Mathematically, this is written as F = ma. Eq.1.11
If more than one force is acting on a body, the net effect of these forces is a single
resultant force,  F , that causes a resultant acceleration, a, on the body:
 F  ma Eq.1.12
Eq.1.11 shows that a force is necessary to produce an acceleration.

The acceleration will act in the same direction as the force. It also follows from
Eq.1.11 that a body will have zero acceleration if:
(a) It is at rest; or
(b) When it is moving with constant velocity.
Example 1.8
A constant force acting on a body of mass 2kg increases its speed from u = 5m/s
to v = 10m/s in t = 2s. What is the magnitude of the force?
Solution
The acceleration can be found from:

v  u 10  5
a   2.5m/s 2
t 2
The force is F = ma = 2  2.5  5N
Example 1.9
The force that acts on a 10kg mass has components Fx  30 N and Fy  40 N.

Calculate the resultant acceleration of the object.
Solution
In this example, there are two forces acting on the mass in the x and y directions.
We need to find the component of the acceleration in these directions.
Using  Fx  ma x and  Fy  ma y , we can obtain the x and y components of the

acceleration as follows:
ax 
F x

30
 3 m/s 2
m 10
ay 
F y

40
 4 m/s 2
m 10
The resultant acceleration of the object is then a  a 2x  a 2y  32  42  5 m/s 2 .

EXERCISE 1.5
1. A force of 50N is applied to a 10kg mass initially at rest.
(a) What is the acceleration produced?
(b) How far will it travel in 5s?
2. What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force that acts
on the 10kg mass in Example 1.9?
Answers:
1. (a) 5m/s 2
(b) 62.5m
2. 50N, 53.1° with the x-axis
1.10 FRICTION
Friction is the force that exists between two surfaces in contact. Friction has an
important role in our lives. For example, a body can remain at rest on a slope without
sliding down if there is sufficient friction. In general, friction opposes motion. We
will now consider two types of friction: static friction and kinetic friction.
(a) Static Friction

This is the frictional force that acts on a body at rest. Consider a body
resting on a rough surface (see Figure 1.5). A force of increasing magnitude,
F, is now applied to it. When F has a small value, the body will not move.
When F is increased, so will fs. The body will remain at rest so long as F is
less than fs,max. The maximum value of the static friction is given as:
f s,max  s N Eq.1.13
Here, s is the dimensionless quantity known as the coefficient of static

friction and N is the normal force exerted by the surface on the body. The
normal force acts perpendicular (i.e. 90) to the surface.
When F exceeds the maximum value of fs, the body will start to move and
kinetic friction takes over.
Figure 1.5: Example of static friction
(b) Kinetic Friction

When a body slides on a rough surface, a frictional force, called kinetic
friction, opposes the motion of the body.
The magnitude of kinetic friction can be found from the following equation:
fk  k N Eq.1.14
 k is a dimensionless quantity known as the coefficient of kinetic friction.
The Force of Tension in a Cord
When a cord is connected to a body and pulled tight, the cord is said to be taut or
under tension. The cord will pull the body with a force, called tension force, T,
which is directed away from the body.
Referring to Figure 1.6, if the cord does not have mass, then the tension
throughout it will be the same. If the cord is connected to a smooth pulley, the
tension in the cord on both sides will be equal.
Figure 1.6: Body being pulled to the right

EXERCISE 1.6
1
1. A car of mass 900kg is travelling at 20 ms along a straight road and
is brought to rest in a distance of 40m. What is the magnitude of the
braking force?
2. A student drags a box of mass m = 310kg across a rough floor by

pulling a rope tied to the box. The tension in the rope is T = 450N and
the force of friction is f = 125N (See the figure below).
(a) What is the resultant force acting on the box?
(b) What is the acceleration of the box?
Answers:
1. 4500N
2. (a) 229.6N
(b) 0.74m/s2
1.11 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

If you exert a force against the wall with your hands, you will feel the pressure
exerted on your palms. This is caused by the force exerted by the wall on your
palms. Likewise, when you kick a large stone with your bare foot, you will surely
feel the pain. The pain is due to the force the stone exerts back on your foot. In
both these cases, the force that you exert on the other body is opposite to the force
exerted by that body on you.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that when body A exerts a force
(called an “action”) on body B, then body B will exert an equal and opposite
force (called the “reaction”) on A.
Newton’s Third Law plays an important role during the launch of a rocket. At
launch, a rocket’s mass is composed mainly of propellant fuel. When the fuel burns,
hot gases are produced, which are expelled from the rocket at high velocities. An
action force is exerted when the rocket “pushes” against the gas in the downward
direction. According to Newton’s Third Law, the hot gases push back, causing a
reaction force, with equal magnitude on the rocket in an upward direction. When it
exceeds the weight of the rocket, the rocket accelerates upwards.
ACTIVITY 1.3
This is a very simple experiment that you can try at home. Tape a
balloon to a straw. Make sure that the straw is able to move freely along
a string as shown below. Now, release the balloon. Why does the
balloon move forward? What does this experiment demonstrate?
EXERCISE 1.7
A block of mass m = 2kg is pulled along the surface of a floor by a cord
of tension T = 10N. The coefficient of friction between the floor and the
block is   0.5.
(a) Draw a free-body diagram for the block.
(b) Determine the acceleration of the block.
Answers:
(a)
(b) ax = 0.1 ms  2
1.12 EQUILIBRIUM
A body is said to be in static equilibrium when it is stationary i.e. when the velocity
is zero. When the velocity is constant, the body will be in dynamic equilibrium. We
already know, from Newton’s First Law, that the resultant force acting on a body
will be zero if its velocity is zero, or when it moves with constant velocity.
When concurrent forces act on a body, the net effect of these forces is a single
force called the resultant force,  F. When the body is in equilibrium then the
resultant force must be equal to zero,  F = 0.
In component form, this implies that  Fx  0,  Fy  0.
SELF-CHECK 1.5
What is the resultant force when an object is in equilibrium?
Example 1.10
A load of mass 10 kg is held at point B as shown in Figure 1.7(a). If the system is

in equilibrium, find the tension in strings AB and BC.
Figure 1.7(a): Example of equilibrium
Solution
Let the tension in strings AB and BC be T1 and T2 respectively.

The weight of the 10kg object is equal to 10 × 9.8 = 98N.
Consider the 3 forces that act on point B (see Figure 1.7(b)).
Figure 1.7(b): Example of equilibrium

Consider the three forces that act on point B, in component forms (refer to
Table 1.3):
Table 1.3: Description of Three Forces
Force x-component y-component
W 0 –98
T1 T1 0
T2 + T2 cos 30 T2 sin 30
Since the system is in equilibrium:  Fx  0,  Fy  0

Therefore along the y direction,  Fy  0, which means that
T2 sin 30 – 98 = 0 or
T2 sin 30 = 98
98 98
T2 =   196 N
sin 30 0.5
Similarly, along the x direction, we have  Fx  0 :
T2 cos 30 – T1 = 0
T1 = T2 cos 30 = 196 × cos 30° = 169.7N
 All quantities that can be measured directly are known as physical quantities.
 Quantities which have magnitudes and directions are called vectors.
 Kinematics is the branch of physics that deals with the description of the
motion of objects.
 The four basic parameters used to describe motion along a straight line are
time, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
 Newton’s First Law states that an object at rest will remain at rest, and an
object in motion will remain in motion with constant velocity and along a
straight line, unless acted upon by a force.
 Newton’s Second Law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the resultant force acting on the body.
 Newton’s Third Law states that when body A exerts a force (called “action
force”) on body B, then body B will exert an equal and opposite force (called
“reaction force”) on A.
Acceleration Kinetic friction

Displacement Mass
Equilibrium Resultant Force
Force Scalar Quantities
Friction Vector Quantities
Inertia Velocity
Kinematics
Topic  Work, Energy
2 and Power
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the terms “work”, “energy”, and “power”;
2. Calculate the work done by a force;
3. Differentiate kinetic energy and potential energy;
4. Exercise the work-energy theorem to solve problems; and
5. Apply the Law of Conservation of Energy and the Law of
Conservation of Momentum.
 INTRODUCTION
Two very important concepts in basic science are “work” and “energy”. In this topic,
we will give the definition of “work” and show how it is related to the kinetic energy
of a body. We will also introduce kinetic energy, that is associated with the motion
of a body, and potential energy, the energy associated with the position of a body.
Finally, we will discuss two of the most fundamental laws of science, the Law of
Conservation of Energy and the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
2.1 WORK
In science, “work” is used to describe mathematically what is accomplished when
a force moves an object through a distance.
26  TOPIC 2 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Consider the following situation: When a force F is applied to an object, the

object will be displaced through a distance of s (see Figure 2.1). Since there is
displacement here, the force is said to have done work on the object.
Figure 2.1: Work done by a force
If the force is constant, the work done by the force on the object is defined as:
W = (Fcoss Eq.2.1
Here, F is the magnitude of the force, s is the magnitude of displacement and  is

the angle between the force and displacement vectors. Note also that the work is
done by the component of the force parallel to the displacement.
The SI unit for work is Joule (J), which is equivalent to newton-meter (Nm).
From Eq.2.1, it is clear that the work depends on angle  This gives rise to the
following situations:
(a) When  = 0°, the work done by the force is positive and is given as W = Fs.
(b) When  = 90°, the work done by the force is zero because the force and
displacement vectors are perpendicular.
(c) When the components of the force vector and the displacement vector
(or vice versa) are in the same direction, the work done is positive. If their
directions are opposite (anti-parallel), then the work done is negative.
When more than one force acts on an object, the total work done, W, is the sum of
the work done by each force separately on the object.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
When do we say that a force has done work on an object?

TOPIC 2 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER  27
ACTIVITY 2.1
A student is holding a bucket of water. Is he doing any work on the
bucket of water?
Example 2.1
You pull a crate with a constant force of 100N at an angle of 60° to the horizontal.
How much work is done if the crate moves through a horizontal distance of 5m?
Solution
Refer to Figure 2.1. Let F = 100N,  60°, s = 5m.

From Eq.2.1, the work done is given as:
W = (Fcos s
= (100 cos 60) × 5
= 250Nm.
Example 2.2
A 0.5kg mass slides 10cm along a rough horizontal table. How much work is done
in overcoming friction between the mass and the table if the coefficient of friction
is 0.5?
Solution
m = 0.5kg, s = 10cm = 0.1m,   0.5
The free body diagram for the mass is shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Diagram of free body for a mass

Since the mass is not moving in the y-direction, the normal force N must equal the
weight of the mass i.e.
N = mg = 0.5 × 9.8 = 4.9N.
The frictional force F acting on the mass is F = N = 0.5 × 4.9 = 2.45N.
The work done in overcoming the frictional force is given by Eq.2.1. Since the
frictional force F is opposite in direction to the displacement, 180
Thus from Eq.2.1,

W = (Fcos s = (2.45 cos 180) × 0.1 = –0.245Nm
Note that the work done is negative because the frictional force opposes the
motion of the mass.
EXERCISE 2.1
1. A 10kg crate is pushed 10m across a rough surface by a horizontal

force F of magnitude 100N. Let the coefficient of friction between the
crate and the surface be 0.5. Calculate the work done on the box by:
(a) The force of gravity
(b) The force of friction
(c) The horizontal force
2. How much work is done by an external force F in lifting an object of

mass 2kg from the ground to a height of s = 1m? Assume the object is
lifted at constant speed.
Answers:
1. (a) 0J
(b) -490J
(c) 1000J
2. 19.6J
2.2 ENERGY
Energy is present in many forms. Among the different forms of energy are kinetic
energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, electric energy,
sound energy, heat, chemical potential energy, nuclear energy, and so on. Energy
can be transformed from one form to another.
If something possesses energy, it has the ability to do work. For example, the
motion of water rushing down the reservoir of a dam has energy and this energy
can be used to do work in driving the turbines to produce electricity for household
use. An object with more energy has a greater ability to do work. The SI unit for
energy is the same as that for work i.e. Joule (J).
SELF-CHECK 2.2
What is the relationship between energy and work?
2.3 KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of an object. For a particle of mass
m moving with a speed v, the kinetic energy is given as:
1
K mv 2 Eq.2.2
2
Consider a force of magnitude F that accelerates the object from a speed u to
speed v over a distance s. Since F and s are in the direction, the angle between
them is equal to zero. Hence, the work done by the force is given by Eq.2.1:
W = Fs
vu
Substituting Newton’s Second Law, F = ma and the acceleration, a  , into
t
Eq.2.1 gives:
1 1
W= mv2 – mu2
2 2
1
Defining the initial kinetic energy as K1 = mu2 and final kinetic energy as
2
1
K2 = mv2, we have:
2
W  K 2  K1 Eq.2.3
This relation is known as the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem. The theorem

illustrates the fact that the total work done on a object is equal to the change in its
kinetic energy. If the work done by the force on the object is positive, then the
kinetic energy of the object will increase, meaning its speed will increase. If
negative work is done, the kinetic energy of the object will decrease and the
object will slow down.
2.4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

An object may possess energy by virtue of its position relative to the surface of
the earth. The position is measured by the height of the object above the surface.
The energy is stored in the object as gravitational potential energy.
Let the surface of the earth be the reference point with zero gravitational potential
energy. The gravitational potential energy, U, of an object of mass m at a height
y above the surface of the earth is defined as:
U = mgh Eq.2.4
From this equation, it is clear that an object at a higher elevation will have a larger
value of gravitational potential energy.
Example 2.3
A 500kg roller-coaster moves from point A to B and then to C (see Figure 2.3).
(a) Calculate the gravitational potential energy at A and B relative to point C.
(b) What is the change in potential energy as it goes from A to B?
Figure 2.3: Movement of a roller-coaster
Solution
(a) In this example, we are using C as the reference point. Therefore, potential
energies at A and B with respect to C are:
UA = mgh = 500 × 9.8 × 15 = 73,500 = 73.5kJ
UB = mgh = 500 × 9.8 × 25 = 122,500 = 122.5kJ
(b) Change in potential energy = U B – U A = 122.5 – 73.5 = 49.0kJ
2.5 POWER
In practical applications, it is sometimes not enough to know only the work done
due to a force, as we may also be interested in finding out how quickly the work is
done. Power, then, is the rate of work that has been done. The same amount of
work can be done in a short or long period of time. Hence, average power P is
defined as:
work, W
P = Eq.2.5
time, t
When the force acting is constant and acts in the same direction as the
s
displacement, and noting that the speed v  , then we can have an alternative
t
expression for the power as follows:
W Fs s
P = = = F = Fv Eq.2.6
t t t
The SI unit for power is the Watt (W) which is equal to Js–1.
Example 2.4
A constant force accelerates a 1000kg car from rest to a speed of 20m/s in 10s.
Find the average power needed to keep the car travelling at a constant speed of
20m/s.
Solution
Given: Mass of the car m = 1000kg, initial velocity u = 0, final velocity

v = 20m/s, t = 10s.
1
The average velocity is v   u  v 
2
1
  0  20 
2
 10m / s
The acceleration of the car is found from v = u + at

vu
a 
t
20  0

10
 2m/s 2
From Newton’s Second Law, the magnitude of the constant force is given by:
F = ma = 1000 × 2 = 2000 N.
Therefore from Eq.2.6, the average power generated is P = Fv = 2000×10 = 20 kW.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. The average power generated by an engine of a car is able to
accelerate the car from rest to a speed of 16.7ms–1 in a distance of
1000m. The mass of the car is 1500kg.
(a) Find the work done by the engine to accelerate the car to a
speed of 16.7ms–1.
(b) Find the time taken to attain this velocity.
2. What is the average power output of the engine in Question 1?
Answers:
1. (a) 2.08  105J

(b) 120s
2. 1.73kW
2.6 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

When an object falls to the ground, its speed and thus its kinetic energy K
increases, while the potential energy U decreases. Conversely, when the same
object is thrown up, its kinetic energy decreases while its potential energy
increases. A decrease in potential energy is always compensated by an equal
increase in the kinetic energy, and vice-versa. If frictional forces can be ignored,
the sum of K and U, called the mechanical energy, E is always conserved.
Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy states that the total mechanical

energy (E = U + K) of an object in motion is conserved provided that only
conservative forces act on it.
By “conserved”, we mean that the numerical value of the total mechanical energy
of the object remains constant during motion. Even though energy can change
forms, the total energy of a system is always conserved. This gives a very
important result called the Law of Conservation of Energy.
Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or

destroyed. Energy can be transformed from one form to another. The total
energy of a system is always conserved.
Example 2.5
A rock of mass m = 1kg is released from rest from a height h = 100m above the
ground. When the rock is at a height of 50m above the ground, determine its:
(a) Total mechanical energy;
(b) Gravitational potential energy; and
(c) Kinetic energy.
Neglect friction.
Solution
(a) Just before the rock is released from rest from a height of h, the values of the
gravitational potential energy of the rock Uo and its kinetic energy Ko are
U o  mgh and Ko = 0 repectively.
From the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy, the total mechanical

energy E is conserved at all times and has a value E = Ko + Uo = mgh =
1 9.8 100  980 J
(b) When the rock is at a height of 50m above the ground, its gravitational
potential energy is U1 = mgh   1 9.8  50  490 J.
(c) From the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy,

U o  K o  U1  K1
980  0  490  K1
K1  490J
Example 2.6
Figure 2.4: Movement of a ball
A ball of mass 2kg, initially at rest, is released from point A which is 10m above
the ground (see Figure 2.4). After that it travels on a smooth track. Determine:
(a) The gravitational potential energy of the ball at A
(b) The speed of the ball at B
(c) The speed of the ball at C, if C is 8m above B
Solution
(a) The gravitational potential energy at A can be found using Eq.2.4:

U A  mgh
 (2 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(10 m)
 196 J
(b) The kinetic energy of the ball at A, KA = 0. When the ball reaches point B, all
the ball’s energy is converted to kinetic energy, meaning that the gravitational
potential energy at B, UB = 0. Thus, from the law of conservation of energy:
K A  UA  K B  UB
1
0  196  mv 2B  0
2
2 196
 vB   14.0 m/s
2
(c) From the law of conservation of energy:

K B  UB  K C  UC
But K B  U A  196 J, so
1
196  0  mvC2  mgh C
2
1
196  .2.v C2  2(9.8)(8)
2
196  v C2  156.8
vC2  39.2
vC  6.26 m/s
EXERCISE 2.3
1. A ball of mass m kg initially at A, is released from rest onto a
smooth curved track (see Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5
(a) What is the ball’s total mechanical energy at A with respect to

the ground?
(b) What is the ball’s speed at B?
(c) What is the ball’s kinetic energy at C?
Answers:
(a) U A  mgy
(b) v B  2gy
5
(c) mgy
6
2.7 MOMENTUM
We already know that it is much more difficult to stop a heavier object than a
lighter one moving at the same speed. This is because the heavier object possesses
more inertia.We can think of momentum as a measure of how difficult it is to stop
a moving object.
Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of a body, p.

In symbols, p = mv. Eq.2.7
Momentum is a vector quantity having units of kgm/s.
2.8 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Consider a collision between two bodies moving along a straight line. At the
moment of impact, the first body exerts a force on the second body and from
Newton’s Third Law, the second body will exert a reaction force of the same
magnitude but in the opposite direction. For this system consisting of two bodies,
the net force is zero. From Newton’s Second Law, the net force acting on a body
is equal to the rate of change of momentum. If there is no net force acting on a
body, the momentum does not change. This result is known as the Law of
The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that the total momentum of a

system is conserved if no external forces act on it.
By “conserved”, we mean that the total momentum before the collision equals the
total momentum after the collision.
Let the velocities of two bodies (of mass m1 and m2) move along a straight line
with initial velocities u1 and u2. Assume that after the collision, their velocities
become v1 and v2. From the conservation of momentum:
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2 Eq.2.8

Example 2.7
An object A of mass m1 = 2kg and velocity u1= 5m/s collides with an object B of
mass m2 = 4kg moving the same direction with velocity u2 = 2m/s. If the velocity
of A after the collision is v1 = 2m/s, find the velocity of B.
Solution
From Eq.2.8:
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2
 2  5   4  2   2  2   (4  v 2 )
v 2  3.5 m / s
If the collision is not head-on (as in Example 2.8), then the bodies do not end up
travelling along a straight line. In such situations, we must first resolve the
velocities of each body into suitable components and then apply the conservation
of momentum to each component. For example, in two dimensions, the velocities
can be resolved into the x and y components i.e.:
m1v1x + m2v2x = m1u1x + m2u2x Eq.2.9
m1v1y + m2v2y = m1u1y + m2u2y Eq.2.10
Example 2.8
A ball A of mass mA = 4kg moving at an unknown speed uA collides

with a stationary ball B of mass mB = 2kg as shown in Figure 2.6. After the
collision, A moves with a speed of 5m/s at an angle of 30° from its original
direction. B moves with velocity vB at an angle of 45° as shown in Figure 2.6.
Calculate the values of uA and vB.
Figure 2.6: Movement of a ball

Solution
In all collisions, the total momentum is always conserved, i.e.:
Total momentum before the collision = Total momentum after the collision
(a) In the x direction, from the conservation of momentum:

m1u1x + m 2 u 2x = m1v1x + m 2 v 2x
m A u A  m A v A cos 30  m B v B cos 45
4u A  4  5cos 30  2  v B cos 45
vB
u A  5cos 30  cos 45
2
u A  4.33  0.35v B (1)
In the y direction, the initial momentum is zero. Therefore:

m1u1y + m 2 u 2y = m1v1y + m 2 v 2y
0  m A v A sin 30  m B v B sin 45
 4  5sin 30  2v B sin 45
 10  2v B sin 45
v B  7.07 m/s (2)
Now, replace (2) in (1):

u A = 6.80 m/s
EXERCISE 2.4
1. A ball of mass m with velocity 2u collides with a stationary ball of

2m that is initially at rest. After the collision, the two balls stick, and
move together with a common velocity v2. Find v2.
2. An elastic collision is a collision where the kinetic energy is always
conserved. Is the collision in Question 1 elastic?
Answers:
2
1. v 2  u
3
2. No
By now, you should be able to explain the concepts of work, energy and power,
and differentiate kinetic energy and potential energy. You should also be able to
solve problems by applying the Law of Conservation of Energy and the Law of
 The work done by a force on a particle is defined as W=(Fcos)s.
 The energy of an object is the ability of that object to do work.
1
 The kinetic energy of an object of mass m moving with speed v is K  mv 2 .
2
 The work-kinetic energy theorem states that the total work done on an object
is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
 The average power is the rate of work done by an object.
 According to the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy, the total

mechanical energy of an object in motion is conserved provided only
conservative forces act on it.
 According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy cannot be created

nor destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another. The total
energy of a system is always conserved.
 According to the Law of Conservation of Momentum, the total momentum of

a system is conserved if no external forces act on it.
Energy Momentum
Kinetic energy Power
Law of Conservation of Energy Work
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Topic  Heat and
3 Temperature
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify various temperature scales;
2. Describe various types of thermometers; and
3. Differentiate specific and latent heat.
 INTRODUCTION
Do you know that the human body has a built-in thermostat i.e. a temperature-
control mechanism called the hypothalamus? The hypothalamus region of the
brain helps keep our bodies at a constant temperature of about 37°C. However,
sometimes it requires our intervention as well.
Nomads living in desert regions where the temperature can reach 50°C have to wear
special clothing to prevent dehydration and heat stroke. By contrast, when visiting
temperate countries, we need to wear more clothes or stay indoors to keep warm.
In this topic, we will explore heat and temperature in more detail. While we often
confuse the two, they are in fact, very different. We will also look into the concept
of heat caused by temperature differences. Heat associated with temperature
change in a body is known as specific heat, whereas heat associated with phase
changes is known as latent heat.
TOPIC 3 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE  43
3.1 THE TEMPERATURE SCALE AND

THERMOMETERS
In this subtopic, you will be introduced to temperature, temperature scales, and
the units associated with these scales. The conversions between these different
temperature scales will be discussed. You will also be introduced to the various
types of thermometers that are available.
3.1.1 Heat and Temperature

Temperature T is a measure of how hot or cold an object is and is measured
using a thermometer. Temperature is measured in the SI units of Kelvin (K).
Alternative units that are in use are the Celsius or centigrade (°C), and
Fahrenheit (°F). Temperature does not depend on the amount of matter in a body.
Heat Q is a form of energy that is transferred from one body to another body
when there is a temperature difference between them. Heat applied to a body
results in molecular vibration. The kinetic energy of these vibrating molecules is
known as thermal energy. Heat depends on the amount of matter in a body. For
example, a bucket of water has more heat than a glass of water although both have
the same temperature.
3.1.2 Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of

Thermodynamics
When two bodies are in contact with each other, heat will flow from one body to
another. The hotter body will transfer heat at a higher rate to the colder body
while the colder body will transfer heat at a lower rate to the hotter body. Thermal
equilibrium is reached when the rates of heat exchange are the same between the
two bodies. At this state, both bodies will have a physical quality of the same
value. This physical quality is called temperature.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if a body C is in thermal

equilibrium with body A and B, then body A and B are in thermal equilibrium with
respect to each other even in the absence of any thermal contact between them. If
TA = TC and TB = TC, therefore TA = TB (see Figure 3.1).
44  TOPIC 3 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Figure 3.1: A graphical representation of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics is the basis of how a thermometer operates.

At thermal equilibrium, the temperature of the thermometer is equal to the
temperature of the environment (surroundings).
ACTIVITY 3.1
You place a cup of hot coffee on a table. Is it in thermal equilibrium

with the surroundings?
3.1.3 Temperature Scale

A thermometer is an instrument that measures temperature. It operates based on
how a thermometric quantity x changes with temperature T. The quantity x can
represent length (l), volume (V), pressure (p), electrical resistance (R), or the
electromotive force (emf).
A thermometer has two fixed points i.e.
(a) The Fixed Lower Point (ice point) is the temperature at which pure ice and
water exist in thermal equilibrium at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. The ice
point of water is 273.15K, which is equal to 0°C or 32°F.
(b) The Fixed Upper Point (steam point) is the temperature of water when it
exists in thermal equilibrium with steam at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. The
steam point of water is 373.15K, which is equal to 100°C or 212°F.
(c) In addition, Triple Point is a unique point where ice, water and steam exist
in thermal equilibrium. The triple point of water is 273.16K or 0.01°C.
To calibrate the temperature scale on a thermometer, the upper point xsteam and
lower point xice, which correspond to the temperatures of steam Tsteam and ice Tice
respectively, are determined as shown in Figure 3.2. Temperature T which
corresponds to the thermometric value of x positioned between xice and xsteam is
given by:
 x  xice 
T  n Eq.3.1
 xsteam  xice 
Here, n is the number of equally spaced divisions between xice and xsteam.
Figure 3.2: Temperature scale
Thermometers calibrated in the Kelvin temperature scale have the ice point
and the steam point of 273.15K and 373.15K respectively. Therefore, the
temperature T in Kelvin is defined as:
 x  xice 
TK   100  273.15 Eq.3.2
x
 steam  xice 
Thermometers calibrated in the Celsius temperature scale have an upper point of

100°C and lower point of 0°C, with 100 unit divisions between these two points.
From Equation 3.1, the temperature T in Celsius is defined as:
 x  xice 
TC   100 Eq.3.3
 xsteam  xice 
By substituting TC from Equation 3.3 into Equation 3.2, we obtain the relation
between the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales:
TK  TC  273.15 Eq.3.4
For thermometers calibrated in the Fahrenheit temperature scale, the upper point
is 212°F and lower point is 32°F, and it is divided into 180 unit divisions between
these two points. Equation 3.1 can be written as:
 x  xice 
TF   180  32 Eq.3.5
x
 steam  xice 
With reference to Equations 3.3 and 3.5 above, the relation between the units
Fahrenheit and Celsius is:
9
TF  TC  32 Eq.3.6
5
The absolute temperature scale is only applicable on special thermometers that are
calibrated in the absolute scale. This is because the zeroth point on this scale is the
temperature of absolute zero in the absolute temperature scale (Kelvin) at 0K.
Example 3.1
Convert the temperature of 300K to units of Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F).
Solution
With reference to Equation 3.4,

TC = TK – 273.15K
TC = 300K – 273.15K
= 26.85°C
 300K is equal to 26.85°C.
With reference to Equation 3.6,

9
TF  TC  32
5
9 
   26.85   32
5 
 80.33F
Example 3.2
At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to the Celcius scale?
Solution
Let the unknown temperature be T and T = TF = TC. From Equation 3.6,
9
TF  TC  32
5
9
Then, T  T  32
5
5T  9T  160
4T  160
Therefore, T  40C  40F
3.1.4 Thermometers
The various types of thermometers are explained below:
(a) Mercury Thermometer

Mercury thermometers are usually used in science laboratories. Mercury is
filled into a thick-walled Pyrex glass capillary with a thin-walled bulb at the
bottom. When temperature increases, the molecules in the mercury vibrate
with larger amplitudes. Consequently, the average separation distance
between the molecules increase and mercury expands. The thermal
expansion of mercury is far more pronounced than that of glass for the equal
amount of heat absorbed. Hence, the thermal expansion of the glass capillary
is negligible compared to the mercury column. The temperature T of a body
which corresponds to a length of lT in Celsius is:
lT  l0
T (C )  100 Eq.3.7
l100  l0
Here, l100 and l0 are the lengths of the mercury column length at steam and
ice points respectively.
Liquid mercury is used because it expands uniformly, does not adhere to the
glass capillary, is easily seen, and rapidly achieves thermal equilibrium. The
operating temperature range of the mercury thermometer is from –39°C to
357°C only. The addition of inert gases into the capillary tube raises the
boiling point of mercury to 800°C, hence raising the maximum operating
temperature.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Expose a mercury thermometer to broad daylight. Does the reading on
the thermometer’s temperature scale indicate the temperature of the
sun or environment around it?
ACTIVITY 3.2
(b) Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
These thermometers are rarely used and are only found in institutions of
higher learning. It consists of a glass bulb filled with a particular gas
connected to a glass column filled with mercury, by a U-shaped rubber or
plastic tube. Figure 3.3 illustrates such a thermometer.
When the temperature increases, the pressure of the gas (PT) in the bulb
increases and is proportional to the difference h between the levels of
mercury in the arms of the U-shaped tube. The temperature T at pressure PT
in units of Celsius is given by:
PT  P0
T (C )   100 Eq.3.8
P100  P0
Here, PT = PA +  gh,  is the density of mercury, g is the gravitational

acceleration, and PA is the atmospheric pressure, which is equal to
1.1013  105 Pascal (Pa). P100 is the pressure at steam point, while P0 is the
pressure at ice point.
Figure 3.3: Constant volume gas thermometer
The constant volume thermometer has an operating range between –270°C

to 1500°C. Note that since constant volume gas thermometers are extremely
sensitive to small temperature variations (or changes), it is usually used to
calibrate other thermometers.
(c) Thermocouple
Consider two wires of different materials connected at its ends. Each end or
junction is placed in separate mediums at different temperatures. It will be
noticed that an electromotive force (emf) will be induced between these two
junctions. This is known as the thermoelectric or the Seebeck effect.
Figure 3.4 shows a basic thermocouple which consists of copper and

constantan wires. The induced emf (in units of mV) varies with the
temperature difference. The magnitude of the emf will be greater if the
temperature difference is greater.
The temperature T which corresponds to the emf of  in units of Celsius is:
T  0
T (C )   100 Eq.3.9
100  0
where  is the emf at ice point and 100 is the emf at boiling point.
Figure 3.4: Thermocouple
Thermocouples are extremely sensitive and react promptly to temperature

changes. They are usually connected to a computer via an electronic device
that converts the analogue signals to digital data. Temperature changes can
be monitored accurately and recorded onto the computer. The operating
range of thermocouples is from –150°C to 1150°C.
(d) Resistance Thermometer

Resistance thermometers usually consist of a mica core wrapped in a
platinum coil. The ends of the coil are connected to a Wheatstone bridge by
a connecting wire A as in Figure 3.5. An identical connector B is connected
to another arm of the bridge, and functions as a buffer. When the
temperature of the platinum coil changes, the resistance of the wire changes
correspondingly. The equilibrium point of the galvanometer G can be
determined by adjusting the rheostat S.
The resistance of the platinum coil RT with respect to temperature T of the

Wheatstone bridge is:
R1
RT  S Eq.3.10
R2
The temperature T at resistance of RT in units of Celsius is:

RT  R0
T (C )   100 Eq.3.11
R100  R0
Figure 3.5: Platinum resistance thermometer
The resistance thermometer measures temperatures accurately and has an

operating range between –180°C and 1770°C. It is unsuitable for measuring
rapid changes in temperature. This is because it takes time to adjust the
rheostat S to achieve the balance point on the galvanometer.
Example 3.3
The ice point of a resistance thermometer is 30.0 whereas its steam point is
62.0. Calculate the temperature in units of Celsius when the thermometer
registers a resistance of 38.8.
Solution
RT  R0
Room temperature T   100
R100  R0
38.8  30.0
  100
62.0  30.0
 27.5C
You should attempt the following questions before proceeding to the next
section.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What is the difference between temperature and heat?
2. What is meant by thermal equilibrium? State its importance.
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Convert 300K to units of Celsius and Fahrenheit and 100°C into

units of Kelvin and Fahrenheit.
2. If the upper and lower points of a resistance thermometer are 75Ω
and 60Ω respectively, what is the temperature in units of Celsius
when the resistance is 68Ω? Assume the thermometer varies
linearly with temperature.
3.2 SPECIFIC HEAT AND LATENT HEAT

In this subtopic, you will be introduced to specific heat and latent heat. What are
their definitions and how are these quantities different from each other? This
section will attempt to answer the questions.
3.2.1 Specific Heat

The amount of heat Q needed to raise the temperature of a mass m of a substance
by an amount T depends on m and T. Mathematically, this can be written as:
Q  mT Eq.3.12
or
Q  mcT Eq.3.13
where c is the specific heat of the substance. From Equation 3.13, c can be defined
as:
1 Q
c Eq.3.14
m T
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise
1kg of that substance by 1K. The SI unit for specific heat capacity is Jkg–1K–1.
Table 3.1 displays the specific heat measurements of several selected substances.
Table 3.1: Specific Heat Capacities of Several Selected Substances
Specific Heat Capacity,

Substance c
(J kg K–1)
–1
Aluminium 910
Iron 470
Silver 234
Mercury 138
Water 4190
Ethanol 2430
Ice 2000
Wood 1700
Glass 840
Example 3.4
A wooden stick of mass 16g is heated in boiling water and subsequently placed in
a 70g copper calorimeter at a temperature of 28°C. The calorimeter contains 30g
of water. Upon stirring, the temperature of the mixture is 39°C. Determine the
specific heat of the wooden stick. (Specific heat of water is 4200Jkg–1K–1 whereas
the specific heat capacity of the copper calorimeter is 400Jkg–1K–1). Assume no
heat loss.
Solution
Heat supplied by the wooden stick, mc (100 – 39) = 0.016  61c = 0.976cJ.
Heat absorbed by water, mw cw (39 – 28) = 0.03  4200  11 = 1386J.
Heat absorbed by the calorimeter, mccc (39 – 28) = 0.07  400  11 = 308J since
there is no heat loss.
Heat supplied by the wooden stick = Heat absorbed by water and calorimeter
0.976c  308  1386
1694
c  1736 J kg 1 K 1
0.976
Example 3.5
A thermos bottle contains 250g of coffee at 100°C. To this we add 250g of

milk at 10°C. What is the final temperature of the system if there is no heat loss?
Take the specific heat capacity of coffee and milk to be the same as water, i.e.
4200Jkg–1K–1.
Solution
Let us call the final temperature of the system T.

Heat loss by the coffee as it cools down from 100°C to temperature T is:
Q1  mcT  0.25  4200  (100  T )
Heat gained by the milk as its temperature rises from 10°C to T is:
Q2  mcT  0.25  4200  (T  10)
Since there is no heat loss, the heat lost by the coffee must equal the heat gained by
the milk. In other words,
Q1 = Q2.
Thus,
0.25  4200  (100 – T) = 0.25  4200  (T – 10)
2T = 110°C
T = 55°C
3.2.2 Phase Transitions

When a substance in the solid phase changes to the liquid phase or, when the
liquid phase changes to gaseous phase, heat is absorbed with no change in
temperature. Figure 3.6 is a graph of temperature T against heat Q which
illustrates the temperature changes for the phase transitions from solid to liquid
and from liquid to gas.
Figure 3.6: Phase transitions of matter
ACTIVITY 3.4
Discuss this problem with your coursemates and tutor in the next tutorial
session.
Figure 3.7 shows the heating curve of a substance.
Figure 3.7: The heating curve of a substance

(a) What is the melting point and boiling point of the substance?
(b) Which part of the graph represents _______________

(i) Melting
(ii) Boiling
(c) What is/are the physical state/s of the substance between:

(i) AB
(ii) BC
(iii) CD
(iv) DE
(d) During melting or boiling, the temperature remains constant.

What happens to the heat supplied during this period?
Source: http://www.beginnerphysics.net/GCSEPhysicsSpecificHeat.html
3.2.3 Latent Heat

Latent heat (L) is the quantity of heat required to change the phase of 1kg of a
substance without a change in temperature.
Q = mL Eq.3.16
3.2.4 Latent Heat of Fusion and Vapourisation

The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the quantity of heat required for the phase change
from the solid phase to the liquid phase or vice versa, without temperature change.
The latent heat of vapourisation (LV) is the quantity of heat required for the
phase change from the liquid phase to the gas phase or vice versa, without
temperature change.
For comparison, the latent heat of fusion and vapourisation for water at a pressure
of 1 atmosphere are 3.34  105Jkg–1 and 2.26  106Jkg–1 respectively.
Example 3.6
2.0kg of hot water at a temperature of 100°C is poured into a container which has
0.5kg ice at 0°C. What is the final temperature of the ice-water mixture? Assume
no heat is lost to the surroundings.
Solution
Heat required to melt all of the ice,

Q1 = m1 L = 0.5  3.34  105 = 1.67  105J
Heat loss from the hot water,

Q2 = m2c (100 – 0) = 2  4200  100 = 8.40  105J
Since Q2 > Q1 all the ice melts and the temperature increases to a final
temperature T. Since there is no heat loss,
Heat gain by ice = Heat loss from hot water
m1 L  m1c(T  0)  mc(100  T )
1.67  10    0.5  4200T    2.0  4200  100    2.0  4200T 
5
8.4  105  1.67  105

T  64.1C
2.5  4200
Example 3.7
How many grams of ice at 0°C must be added to a 500g cup of tea at 80°C
to cool it to 40°C? Assume that all the ice melts and no heat is lost to the
surroundings. Take the specific heat capacity of tea to be 4200Jkg–1K–1.
Solution
Q1  Heat lost by the tea as it cools to 40C
 m1c1T
 0.5  4200  (80  40)
 84000 J
Q2  Heat needed to melt all the ice to water and raise the temperature to 40C
 mLF  mc1T , where m is the mass of ice required
 m  3.34  105  m  4200  (40  0)
 5.02  105  m
Since no heat is lost to the surroundings:

Q1  Q2
84000  (5.02  105 )m
m  0.167 kg
ACTIVITY 3.5
1. Why is water stored in an earthen jar cooler than water stored in a

plastic container?
2. Which of the following is more dangerous, exposure to steam or hot
water at the temperature of 100°C? State the reasons for your answer.
You should attempt the following problems in the exercise to gauge your current
level of comprehension.
EXERCISE 3.1
1. What is the minimum amount of heat required to heat a 2.0kg
aluminium block from a temperature of 30°C to 100°C?
2. Steam at 100°C is passed over 1kg of ice at a temperature of 0°C.
Determine the amount of steam required to completely melt the ice
to water at 0°C.
3. At 100°C, the upper points of a resistance thermometer and a

constant volume gas thermometer are 75Pa and 1.10  107Pa,
respectively. The lower points which corresponds to the freezing
point of ice (0°C) are respectively 63Pa and 8.00  106Pa. If
measurements yield the values of 66Pa and 9.76  106Pa, determine
the temperatures which correspond to these values.
Answer:
1. 1.27 105 J
2. 0.125kg
3. The temperature of the resistance thermometer is 25˚C.
The temperature of the pressure thermometer is 58.7˚C.
 Temperature is the degree of warmth, whereas heat is the transfer of thermal

energy.
 Temperature can be measured with thermometers. There are many types of

thermometers, for example, mercury thermometers, constant volume gas
thermometers, and platinum resistance thermometers.
 Heat content, specific heat, and latent heat can be measured with calorimeters.
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if a body C is in thermal

equilibrium with body A and B, then body A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with respect to each other, even in the absence of any thermal
contact between them.
 Latent heat is the quantity of heat required to change the phase of 1kg of a
substance without a change in temperature.
 Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise 1kg of a substance by

1K.
Heat Specific heat

Latent heat Temperature
Latent Heat of Fusion Thermal Equilibrium
Latent Heat of Vapourisation Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Topic  The Three States
4 of Matter
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the three states of matter and their properties;
2. List various gas laws;
3. Explain behaviour of gases according to the kinetic-molecular theory;
4. Describe four types of intermolecular forces in liquids;
5. Identify the processes and state of phase changes in matter; and
6. Discuss the types of bonding that exist in solids.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will outline some fundamental concepts relating to the three
states of matter in chemistry. The three states of matter are gases, liquids, and
solids. We will explore a number of parameters, theories, and laws that explain
the differences in the properties of the three states of matter.
For example, the gas laws summarise the relationship between these physical
variables, while the kinetic-molecular theory further explains the experimental
observations of the behaviour of gases.
We will also be analysing the many unique attractive forces that bind molecules in
liquids and solids together.
62  TOPIC 4 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER
4.1 STATES OF MATTER

The three physical states of matter are known as solids, liquids, and gases. Each
state has its own general characteristics that differentiate it from one another, as
shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: The General Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids
State of Matter General Characteristics

Gas  The molecules are far apart and therefore gases are easily
compressible.
 The kinetic energy of gas molecules is much larger than the
attractive forces between the molecules.
 Gas expand spontaneously to take the shape of its container
and occupies it.
 Gases have low viscosities that enable them to move more
freely compared to liquids and solids
 Gases will reveal their non-ideal behaviour when the
attractive forces become large.
Liquid  The molecules in liquids are closer than in gases.
 Liquids are less compressible in nature and therefore denser
than gases.
 The liquids take the shape of the container and have definite
volumes.
Solid  Molecules are arranged in close and packed positions. The
large intermolecular forces are able to keep the molecules in
a very firm configuration with definite volume and shape.
 The molecules in solids are not compressible due to the lack
of space among the molecules.
 The crystalline structures in solids portray packed and well
arranged molecules in its structures.
Different states of matter can have similar chemical properties. For example,
water vapour, liquid water, and ice are three different states of matter, but they
share the same chemical properties. However, the physical properties are
determined by the states of the matter. Gases, liquids, and solids will have
significantly different physical properties.
TOPIC 4 THE THREE STATES OF MATTER  63
The state of a substance is influenced by two factors:

(a) The kinetic energy of particles involved which depends on the temperature;
and
(b) The intermolecular forces that hold the molecules together.
4.2 GASES
In this subtopic, we are going to learn about gases. We will discuss their
characteristics and laws, and the kinetic molecular theory in detail.
4.2.1 Characteristics of Gases

The following are the characteristics of gases.
Volume (V) and Pressure (P)

The volume of a gas is determined by the volume of the container in the gaseous
state. Since gas molecules occupy the whole area inside a container, the volume of
the container is taken as the volume of the gas.
Pressure (P) is the result of a Force (F) exerted on an area. Formally, we define
pressure as the force (F) per unit area (A).
P=F/A
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa).

1Pa = 1N/m2
Due to gravity, the atmospheric gases exert a downward force on the earth’s
surface that results in an atmospheric pressure. The value of the atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere (atm) and 1atm = 1.01325 x 105Pa.
Figure 4.1: Torricelli’s (mercury) barometer
A barometer is an apparatus used to measure the atmospheric pressure. The dish of

the barometer is exposed to the atmosphere and the fluctuating pressure of the
atmosphere will vary the height of the mercury in the tube. The height of the mercury
measures the atmospheric pressure. The standard atmospheric pressure is when the
column of mercury is able to support 760mm Hg pressure (see Figure 4.1).
The relationship of the standard atmospheric pressure to other common units of

pressure is:
1atm = 760mm Hg = 760torr = 1.01325 × 105Pa = 101.325kPa
(Note that 1torr = 1mm Hg)
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the differences between the volume and pressure of gases?
4.2.2 The Gas Laws

Here, we are going to discuss the gas laws, which are Boyle’s law, Charles’s law,
Avogadro’s law, the ideal gas law, Dalton’s law of partial pressures, and partial
pressures and mole fractions.
(a) Boyle’s Law (The Pressure-Volume Relationship)

In the 17th century, Robert Boyle investigated the relationship between the
pressure and volume of a gas. Figure 4.2 shows Boyle’s apparatus. He used
a J-shaped glass tube and poured mercury into the longer end to trap some
air. The trapped air in the tube provided the gas for the experiment.
Figure 4.2: Boyle’s apparatus to investigate the P-V relationship
From the experiment, Boyle concluded that for a given temperature:

(i) The volume of the gas is reduced whenever the pressure is increased.
(ii) Doubling the pressure results in the gas volume reducing to half of its
initial volume and vice-versa.
This is known as Boyle’s Law.
Boyle’s Law states that the volume V of a fixed quantity of gas

maintained at constant temperature, is inversely proportional to its
pressure P:
V  1/P or PV=constant
(b) Charles’s Law (The Temperature-Volume Relationship)

In 1787, Jacques Charles investigated the relationship between the volume
and the temperature of a gas. He found that the volume of a gas at constant
pressure is directly proportional to the temperature. When the temperature is
doubled, the volume is also doubled. This is now known as Charles’s Law.
Charles’s Law states that the volume V of a fixed quantity of gas at constant
pressure P is directly proportional to its absolute temperature T, measured in
units of Kelvin, K.
V  T or V/T = constant
Important
The temperature of a gas is measured in Kelvin. 0K is equal to –273.15°C.
So in any calculation involving gases, do remember to convert temperature

from °C to K before using the gas laws.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
State the following laws:

(a) Boyle’s law; and
(b) Charles’s law.
(c) Avogadro’s Law (The Volume-Amount Relationship)

In 1811, Avogadro discovered the relationship between the volume and the
amount of substance of a gas. He found that equal volumes of all gases, at
the same temperature and pressure, will contain an equal number of
molecules.
Avogadro’s Law:
The volume V of a gas maintained at constant temperature and pressure is
directly proportional to the number of moles (n) of the gas,
V  n or V/n = constant
Thus, doubling the number of moles will double the volume of the gas
provided T and P remain constant.
Avogadro further showed that 1 mole of any gas (i.e. 6.02 × 1023 gas
molecules) at 1 atmosphere pressure and 0°C occupies approximately 22.4
litres in volume.
(d) The Ideal Gas Law

Up to now, we have discussed the three gas laws. You will recall that:
Boyle’s law : V  1/P (T and n constant)
Charles’s law : V  T (P and n constant)
Avogadro’s law : V  n (P and T constant)
The three gas laws, when combined, will result in a more general relationship:
V  (nT) / P
By inserting a constant, we can transform this relationship into an equality.
We will call this constant R, and the equation becomes:
V = R (nT) / P
The equation above is always expressed in its most common form, known as the
ideal gas law (or the ideal gas equation):
PV = nRT
The constant R is known as the universal gas constant. The value of R is
dependent on the units used for P, V, n, and T. If P is in atm, V in litre (L), n in
mole and T in Kelvin, then R will have a value of 0.0820Latm/mol.K.
But if the units used for P, V and T are N/ m², m³ and K, then R will have a value
of 8.314J/mol.K
The ideal gas equation is widely used under “standard conditions”, called standard
temperature and pressure (STP), where the temperature is kept at 0 °C (273.15K)
and the pressure is fixed at 1atm pressure.
Under these conditions, the volume of 1mol of an ideal gas is 22.4 litres.
Example 4.1
A sample of a gas with a volume of 10L and pressure 2atm is compressed to 4L at

constant temperature. Calculate the final pressure of the gas.
Solution
V1 = 10L; V2 = 4L ; P1= 2atm. Find P2
Apply Boyle’s law to find P2
P1V1= P2V2
P2 = P1V1 / V2 = 2atm × 10L / 4L = 5atm
Example 4.2
A sample of gas at 1atm and 27°C is heated at constant pressure to 57°C. Its final
volume is 4.85L. What was the original volume?
Solution
T1= 27°C= 27 + 273.15= 300.15K.
T2= 57°C= 57 + 273.15= 330.15K.
V1=?
V2 = 4.85L.
Apply Charles’s law to find V1
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
V1 = V2 / T2 × T1 = 4.85L / 330.15K × 300.15K = 4.41L
SELF-CHECK 4.3
Use the ideal gas equation to show that the volume of 1mol of an
ideal gas at STP is 22.4 litres.
EXERCISE 4.1
1. A tank has a volume of 438L and is filled with 27.7 moles of

nitrogen gas. Calculate the pressure of the gas at 21°C.
(Ans: 2atm)
2. A 200mL sample of oxygen gas at 30°C is heated to 60°C.

If the pressure remains constant, what is the final volume?
(Ans: 219.72mL)
3. 11.2L of a gas is known to contain 0.5 moles. Calculate the number

of moles of the gas in 20L at the same temperature and pressure.
(Ans: 0.89 moles)
(d) Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

The term “partial pressure” is used to refer to the pressure caused by a
particular constituent of gas in a mixture containing more than one gas.
According to John Dalton, the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum
of the partial pressures of the various gas components in the mixture.
In the example given below, assume that there are three types of gases i.e.
gas 1, gas 2, and gas 3, which are placed in a container. Notice that the
temperature and volume remain the same for each gas.
The partial pressure from each gas, derived from the ideal gas law PV= nRT,
is
P1 = n1 R T / V
P2 = n2 R T / V
P3 = n3 R T / V
with n1, n2, and n3 being the number of moles of each gas in the mixture.
The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.
So, Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3.
Mathematically, the equation can be written as follows:

(n1 + n 2 + n 3 )RT
Ptotal = , or
V
n total RT
Ptotal =
V
From this equation, the total pressure of any number of components in a

mixture can be calculated.
(e) Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions

For any mixture of gases, the temperature T and volume V will remain the
same. However, the total pressure, Pt, will be determined by the total
number of moles, n, of the gas present.
The term “mole fraction” is used to determine the fraction of the number of
moles of each gas in the mixture compared to the total number of moles of
gases:
Number of moles of a gas (n1 )
Mole fraction, X1 
Total moles of gases involved (n total )
The partial pressure of any gas can be calculated using the mole fraction
value. The formula below is used to calculate the Partial Pressure:
Partial pressure = X1 Ptotal
Example 4.3
Find the total pressure of a gaseous mixture containing 0.250mol of He, 0.99mol
of H2 and 0.11mol of N2 in a 5L container at 400K.
Solution
The total number of moles of the components in the gas mixture is

n total  0.25  0.99  0.11  1.35 moles
Now, we apply Dalton’s Law to find the total pressure.

n total RT 1.35  0.0821 400
Ptotal =   8.87 atm
V 5
SELF-CHECK 4.4
State DaltonÊs Law of Partial Pressures.

EXERCISE 4.2
A gaseous mixture made from 0.313mol of oxygen and 0.616 mol of
methane is placed in a 10L vessel at 25°C. What is the partial pressure
of each gas, and what is the total pressure in the vessel? (R =
0.0821Latm/molK).
(Ans: 0.77atm, 1.51atm, 2.28atm)
4.2.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory

The experimental observations of the behaviour of gases discussed so far can be
explained by a simple model known as kinetic molecular theory.
This theory is based on the following postulates or assumptions:

(a) Gases consist of a large number of tiny molecules moving in random
directions with different speeds (see Figure 4.3).
(b) These molecules move in a straight line until they collide with other
molecules or with the walls of the container.
(c) The volume of all the gas molecules is negligible compared to the total
volume in which the gas is contained.
(d) The attractive and repulsive forces between the gas molecules, or between
the molecules and the walls of the container are negligible.
(e) Collisions between gas molecules, and collisions between gas molecules and
the walls of the container, are perfectly elastic.
(f) The average kinetic energy of a gas molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
Figure 4.3: Random motion of gas molecules

SELF-CHECK 4.5
State some of the assumptions made in the Kinetic Molecular Theory.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Explain how raising the temperature of a confined gas increases its

pressure.
4.3 LIQUIDS
Molecules in liquids are held together by forces known as Intermolecular Forces.
4.3.1 Intermolecular Forces

There are two types of bonding that exist in any molecule. They are:
(a) The covalent bonds (hold the atoms together); and
(b) The intermolecular forces (bring molecules closer together).
The intermolecular forces are much weaker than the covalent bonds.
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. These
forces create bonds which are much weaker than covalent bonds.
Note that covalent bonds, ionic bonds and metallic bonds are called
intramolecular forces. These intramolecular forces hold atoms together, unlike
intermolecular forces which are known as forces between molecules. The
intermolecular forces have a vital effect on the physical properties of liquids. To
illustrate the two different types of bonding, let’s take HCl as an example.
Holding the H and Cl is the covalent bond. The bond that holds one HCl molecule
to another HCl molecule is a result of intermolecular forces.
Types of Intermolecular Forces
Now, we are going to discuss few types of intermolecular forces in a detailed manner.
(a) Dipole-Dipole Forces

This is the force of attraction between permanently polar molecules. The
uneven distribution of electrons in polar molecules causes negative and
positive charges to form in different regions of the molecule. A molecule
possessing one positive and one negative charge in different regions is
called a dipole. The negative end of one polar molecule is able to attract the
positive end of another polar molecule when they are close together
(see Figure 4.4). The bond that holds both these molecules is called dipole-
dipole force. This force is also known as van der Waals forces.
Figure 4.4: Dipole-dipole forces in polar molecules
(b) Ion-Dipole Forces

These are attractive forces between neutral and charged (ionic) molecules.
An ion-dipole force exists between the negative or positive end of one polar
molecule that is being attracted to the oppositely charged ions
(see Figure 4.5). Negative polar ends will be attracted to the positive ions,
and positive polar ends will be attracted to negative ions. The bond that
holds both these molecules is called the ion-dipole force.
Figure 4.5: Ion – dipole forces
(c) London Dispersion Forces

This is the attractive force between non-polar molecules. When non-polar
molecules are near one another, the electrons in each molecule tend to repel
one another. This repulsive force induces a temporary dipole in the
molecule, and it exists at a particular instant (see Figure 4.6). At this very
instant, this temporary dipole will induce a similar dipole on a neighbouring
molecule. The force of attraction between the dipole and the induced dipole
results in a very weak force called the “London Dispersion Force”. It is
weak because the dipole is temporary; the force exists at one instant and
then disappears.
Figure 4.6: Resultant attractive force of instantaneous dipole-induced dipole
(d) Hydrogen Bonding

This is a unique type of dipole-dipole interaction. When a hydrogen atom is
bonded with an electro negative atom such as Fluorine (F), Oxygen (O) and
Nitrogen (N), the H atom will form a hydrogen bonding with the electro
negative atom. This occurs because F, O or N are the most electro negative
atoms. When any of these atoms are bonded to H, it will render a partial
positive charge δ + on H. The H atom can then form a bond, called the
hydrogen bond, with an electro negative atom.
Hydrogen bonds are stronger than other intermolecular forces. For all
molecules which display the intermolecular forces, the boiling point increases
with molecular weight. However, when a molecule contains a H bonded to
either F, O or N, the boiling point will be much higher. This is because
hydrogen bonding is much stronger than the van der Waals, dipole-dipole, or
the London forces. One example of such a molecule is H2O (see Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7: Hydrogen bonding in water

Figure 4.8 shows the flowchart for recognising the major types of
intermolecular forces.
Figure 4.8: Flowchart for recognising the major types of intermolecular forces
Source: Brown, LeMay & Bursten (2003)
SELF-CHECK 4.6
Explain the following:

(a) Van Der Waals forces
(b) Hydrogen bonding
4.3.2 Changes of State

In general, matter in one state (liquid) can be changed into either a gas or a solid
state. Water in an uncovered container becomes a gas due to changes in the
internal energy, through a process called evaporation.
An ice cube left in glass becomes water. The phase change from solid to liquid is
called melting. The phase change from solid to gas is called sublimation.
Any change in the state of matter must be accompanied by energy changes. Either
the system gains heat or loses heat. Figure 4.9 summarises the processes and
phase changes for each condition.
Figure 4.9: Diagram showing changes of state due to energy changes
(a) Vapour Pressure

Consider a liquid in a closed container.
Some molecules are able to escape from the surface of the liquid through
evaporation to form a gas or vapour. This is because these molecules have
sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces between them.
At the same time, some of the molecules in the vapour will return to liquid
through condensation.
At some point in time, a state of equilibrium will be attained, where the

number of molecules returning to the liquid will equal the number leaving to
go into the vapour phase.
The pressure exerted by the vapour at equilibrium is called vapour

pressure. Vapour pressure increases with temperature.
(b) Boiling Points

The vapour pressure of a liquid is closely connected to another physical
property known as boiling point.
(i) Boiling Points and Pressure Change

Boiling point can be defined as the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of a substance becomes equal to the external pressure. The
boiling point varies according to the atmospheric pressure. At higher
altitudes the boiling point will be lowered since the pressure is lower,
and vice-versa. At the boiling point, the temperature remains constant
until all of the liquid has been converted to the vapour state.
The difference in the boiling point of a mixture of two substances can

be used to separate them through a distillation technique. Sometimes
one of the substances to be separated will chemically decompose
before it reaches its boiling point. In this case, reduced pressure
distillation is used to lower the boiling point of the substance below its
decomposition point.
(ii) Boiling Points and Impurities

Impurities will cause the boiling point of a substance to increase. From
a molecular view, non-volatile impurity molecules have a chance to
occupy a certain number of surface positions in the liquid. This
reduces the number of liquid molecules on the surface that will be able
to vapourise.
This decrease in vapour pressure will mean that the temperature will
have to be higher before the vapour pressure becomes equal to the
external pressure, so that boiling can take place again.
(iii) Factors Influencing Boiling Point Differences between Substances

There are two factors which are influencing boiling point differences
between substances.
 Molecular Polarity and Intermolecular Forces
More polar molecules will have greater intermolecular forces
between them. Therefore, the vapour pressure will be decreased
causing the boiling point to increase.
Generally, ionic compounds have much higher boiling points
compared to molecular compounds, because the ionic forces
between ions are far stronger than the van der Waals forces of
molecular compounds.
 Molecular Size
The larger the molecule, the heavier it will be. So more force is
needed to vapourise them. In other words, vapour pressure
decreases with molecular size.
(c) Freezing Points

The transformation of liquid to solid is called freezing and the reverse
process is called melting or fusion. The melting point of a solid or the
freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which solid and liquid phases
coexist in equilibrium.
At the freezing point (melting point), the rate at which particles (molecules)
leave the solid and enter the liquid is the same as the rate at which particles
leave the liquid and form the solid.
If heat is added, some solid melts and more liquid is formed, but the
temperature stays the same as long as both phases are present. Similarly, if
some heat is removed, some liquid freezes and more solid forms, again
without temperature change.
The normal melting (or freezing) point of a substance is the temperature at

which a substance melts (or freezes) at 1atm pressure.
4.4 SOLIDS
The solid state is said to be the most stable form of matter. The arrangement of
atoms in solids is closed and packed. It limits the movement of the atoms so that
they remain in position. Let us analyse the properties of solids due to structure and
bonding.
4.4.1 Categories of Solids Based on the Solid Packing

Solids can be subdivided into two categories based on how the particles are
arranged in them: crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
(a) Crystalline Solids

A crystalline solid consists of atoms, molecules, and ions arranged in a
repetitive geometric pattern. The orderly arrangement of particles in
crystalline structures gives then a well defined three-dimensional shape. The
strong intermolecular forces between the particles in crystalline solids

produce the stiffness of the structures. It is known for its stability. Diamond
and quartz are examples of crystalline solids (see Figure 4.10).
Figure 4.10: Crystalline Solids
(b) Amorphous Solids

Amorphous solids have poorly defined shapes because there is no definite
arrangement of atoms and molecules. Many amorphous solids exist in a
mixture of many types of molecules. Generally, large and complex
molecules are amorphous solids. Glass and rubber are examples of
amorphous solids.
Unit Cells and Crystal Lattice
A unit cell is the simplest repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid in which
atoms, molecules, or ions are ordered in three-dimensional engagements.
Within the arrangement of unit cells in a crystal form, a lattice point or crystal
lattice is identified at the end of each corner of particle arrangements. This lattice
point can be identified as an identically arranged cluster of atoms. However, we
can assume there is only one atom in every lattice point. Lattice points allow the
particles to vibrate in the space of a crystalline structure.
Crystalline solid structures can be easily represented by a three-dimensional array

of the lattice points (see Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.11: A crystalline solid can be constructed from a “unit cell” and lattice points
Each unit cell has eight corners. In a cubic cell, the eight corners will have the
same length. However, there are cases where the unit cell lengths differ and it
contributes to the non-equal internal angles.
Figure 4.12 shows the three coordinate axes a, b and c and the unit cell angles
and
Figure 4.12: Unit cell dimensions and unit cell angles
Every crystalline solid can be described by any of the seven categories of unit
cells given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: The Seven Categories of Bravais Unit Cells
Category Edge Lengths Internal Angles

Cubic a=b=c  =  =  = 90o
Tetragonal a=b≠c  =  =  = 90o
Monoclinic a≠b≠c  =  = 90o≠  
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c  =  =  = 90o
Rhombohedral a=b=c  =  =  ≠ 90o
Hexagonal a=b≠c  =  = 90o,  = 120o
Triclinic a≠b≠c  ≠  ≠  ≠ 90o
Cubic System
Many metals and ionic solid compounds crystallise in cubic unit cells. There are
three cubic systems. Each type of cubic system is determined by the occurrence of
lattice points. The cell lengths and the cell angles remain the same for all three
cubic systems.
When the lattice points are at the corners only, the unit cell is called a simple
cubic cell. If there is a lattice point in the center of the body, it is known as body
centred cubic cell. However, if we were to find lattice points at the corners, as
well as, in the centre, then we get face centred cubes (see Figure.4.13).
The coordination number in a cubic system refers to the number of particles that
are attached to the crystal lattice of a cubic. In other words, the coordination
numbers refers to the number of neighbouring atoms. The larger the coordination
number, the closer the atoms are packed to one another.
Simple Unit Cells
Most metals remain in this structure. There is only one atom at each lattice point.
It is the simplest repeating unit. The eight corners of the cubic systems have a
minimum of one identical particle.
There are four identical particles connected in the same plane. One particle is
attached at the top of the plane and another below the plane. So each particle in
this structure is in contact with six other neighbouring particles; the coordination
number in a simple cubic system is six. Refer to Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.13: The three types of cubic unit cells: (a) Simple cubic, (b) Body-centred cubic
and (c) Face-centred cubic
Bonding in Solids
The physical properties of solids, such as, melting point, density, and hardness are
determined by the forces that exist between the particles. There are four types of
forces in solids. They are ionic solids, molecular solids, covalent solids, and
metallic solids.
4.4.2 Ionic Solids

Ionic solids are composed of charged ions. The attraction between negatively
charged ions and positively charged ions results in a strong attractive force which
holds them together. This force is called electrostatic force. The common
properties of ionic bonds are that they have high boiling and melting points. Ionic
solids are also hard and brittle, and are good conductors of electricity when melted
or in solution. Examples of ionic compounds are NaCl and Ca(NO)3.
SELF-CHECK 4.6
Describe the following:
(a) Crystalline solids
(b) Amorphous solids
4.4.3 Molecular Solids

Molecular solids are occupied by atoms and molecules at the lattice points.
Intermolecular forces are responsible for holding molecules together. Since
intermolecular forces are weak, it produces soft molecules. Molecular solids
also have low melting and boiling points. They are also very poor electrical
and thermal conductors. Examples of molecular solids are methane, sucrose,
and dry ice.
4.4.4 Covalent Solids

A covalent solid is a type of solid that exists as a network of covalent bonds. The
covalent solid will link the atoms together through a massive three-dimensional
chain that is held together by the covalent bonds.
The covalent bonds are much stronger than the intermolecular forces. Therefore,
covalent solids possess higher melting and boiling points compared to the
molecular solids. However, covalent solids are often poor electrical and thermal
conductors. They are known for their hardness.
Diamond is an example of a covalent solid. In diamonds, each carbon atom is

covalently bound to four other atoms (see Figure 4.14). The strong covalent bonds
in a diamond results in its hardness and high melting point (3550°C). Another
example is quartz.
Figure 4.14: Crystal structure of a diamond
4.4.5 Metallic Solids

Metallic solids are formed by particles that are from the same metal atom. Each lattice
point in metallic solids is taken by the same metal atoms. The metallic solids are
deficient in the amount of electrons needed to construct a covalent bond. However, in
order to create a metallic bond, the metals need to delocalise the valence electrons
available over many metal atoms. In other words, the metal becomes an array of
positive ions immersed in a sea of delocalised valence electrons.
This will determine the bonding strength of the metal. The strength increases as
the number of electrons available to the bond increases. The delocalised electrons
in metallic bonds allow metals to be excellent conductors of electricity and heat.
Metallic solids are known for their high melting points and hardness. Metals are
malleable and ductile because they are able to change shape according to the force
exerted. All metallic elements are metallic solids. Examples include copper, zinc,
aluminium, and iron.
● The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
● The three states of matter can undergo a phase change from one phase to
another.
● Pressure, volume, temperature and the quantity in moles are sufficient to

define the condition of a gas.
● The experimental observations on the behaviour of gases can be explained

using the kinetic molecular theory.
● Intermolecular forces influence the physical properties of liquids and solids.
● Solids can be subdivided into two categories based on how the particles are
arranged in them: crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
Avogadro’s Law Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law Intermolecular forces
Charles’s Law Kinetic molecular theory
Crystalline solids Pressure
Dalton’s Law
Topic  Periodic
5 Properties of
the Elements
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe types of elements in the periodic table and how they are
classified;
2. Relate electron configurations of elements with their arrangement in
the periodic table;
3. Describe periodic properties of ionisation energy, electron affinity,
and electro negativity;
4. Explain physical properties of elements as well as general trends in
the periodic table; and
5. Discuss changes in the physical and chemical properties of metals
and non-metals in relation to their position in the periodic table.
 INTRODUCTION
Metals have been used by man since ancient times. However, it was not until the
18th century that copper and other metals like silver and gold were categorised as
elements. There are now 118 elements that have been discovered. The elements
are arranged according to their atomic masses in what is called the periodic table.
Through this table, we are able to explore further the physical and chemical
properties of the elements.
86  TOPIC 5 PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS
In this topic, we will learn to relate the electron configurations of the elements
with their arrangement in the periodic table. We will also discuss the periodic
properties of ionisation energy, electron affinity and electro negativity.
5.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

In the 19th century, chemists had no idea of the existence of subatomic particles
like electrons, protons and neutrons. So atomic masses were used as a reference to
place the elements in a table. The masses of atoms were carefully measured
because chemists then believed that the atomic masses somehow determined the
chemical behaviours of elements.
In 1864, John Newlands introduced the Law of Octaves. After arranging the then
known elements in order of increasing atomic weights, Newlands noticed that the
same chemical and physical properties appeared again after an interval of 8
elements. But this was not true for elements appearing after Calcium.
A major step forward was proposed in 1869 by Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar
Meyer. Both of them attempted to arrange atoms according to atomic weights and
common chemical properties. They independently found that if the atoms were
arranged in increasing atomic weights, the physical and chemical properties tend
to re-emerge.
Scientist at that time had yet to discover atomic numbers and remained focused on
arranging elements by their atomic weights. However, an increase in the atomic
number contributed to an increased atomic weight. This factor unknowingly
helped both Mendeleev and Meyer to design a table, which would later evolve to
become the periodic table that we use today.
Mendeleev further contributed to the development of the periodic table when he

grouped elements having similar chemicals and physical properties in one family.
He was bold enough to leave blank spaces for yet to be discovered elements to be
placed in the periodic table. Soon, he succeeded in filling the blanks with gallium
(Ga) and germanium (Ge). The properties of these elements closely matched
Mendeleev’s prediction.
However, there were some discrepancies in Mendeleev’s table that made it

questionable. For example, in some elements, the atomic masses alone did not
facilitate their position in accordance with their properties. The order of certain
elements was reversed; for instance, argon was put in the place of potassium.
Also, certain metals like magnesium (Mg), gold (Au), and copper (Cu), with very
TOPIC 5 PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS  87
different properties, were placed in the same group. These discrepancies

compelled scientists to search for another very important property (the atomic
number) that could be used as a point of reference in arranging the elements in the
table more accurately.
The atomic number was discovered by scientists who had contributed in the
discovery of subatomic particles. In 1913, Rutherford designed the nuclear model of
an atom, and showed that the nucleus of an element carried a net positive charge.
Henry Moseley successfully developed the idea of atomic numbers when he

revealed that atomic numbers represent the number of protons in the nucleus and
the existence of electrons in the atom. Once the elements were reorganised
according to increasing atomic numbers, many of the discrepancies disappeared.
This breakthrough led to the development of the modern periodic table as a vital
tool to accurately predict the nature of elements and their properties.
Periodic Classification of Elements
The modern periodic table illustrates the arrangement of elements according to their
increasing atomic numbers. The arrangement depicts the elements’ ability to display
repeating chemical and physical properties. The vertical column in the periodic
table represents the group or a family of elements. The horizontal row in a periodic
table is called a period or series. There are altogether 18 groups and seven periods.
The elements are placed according to the electron configuration in the subshells.
Elements in the same group have similar outer electron configurations, and thus
the same number of valence electrons. Elements in a group also have similar
chemical properties. Table 5.1 shows the names of the groups and the elements
that belong to each group.
Table 5.1: The Groups Found in the Modern Periodic Table
Group Name Elements

1A Alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
2A Alkaline earth metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
6A Chalcogens O, S, Se, Te, Po
7A Halogens F, C1, Br, I, At
8A Noble gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
Representative elements are combinations of elements from group 1A through 8A.

Transition elements are known from group 1B, followed by 111B to V111 B
elements. The 11B elements, Zn, Cd and Hg are neither representative nor
transition elements.
Actinides and Lanthanides are placed separately because there are incomplete
filled f subshells. You should refer to the periodic table (see Figure 5.1) to identify
the locations of these elements.
Figure 5.1: Periodic table

Source: Corwin (2001)
An online periodic table is accessible at the following URLs:

(a) http://www.webelements.com/
(b) http://periodic.lanl.gov/index.shtml
5.1.1 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

The deciding factor in arranging elements in the periodic table is the atomic
number. Scientists in the early part of the 20th century discovered the existence of
proton and neutron. They concluded that the number of protons contributes to the
atomic number and in the case of neutral atoms; the number of protons equals the
number of electrons. Protons are found inside the nucleus and electrons move
freely around the nucleus in their orbits.
In neutral atoms, electrons are located in subshells or orbitals. These subshells are
called s,p,d and f. There are two electrons allowed in subshell s, six in subshell p,
10 in subshell d and fourteen in subshell f (refer toTable 5.2). The digit in front of
each subshell is determined by its quantum number which in turn determines the
energy levels of the electrons in that shell.
Table 5.2: MaximumNumber of Electrons in Each Subshell
Maximum Number of
Subshell
Electrons Allowed
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
The valence electrons are the electrons that are placed in the outer most subshell
or orbital. The total number of electrons in the outer most shell of the element will
indicate the group it belongs to in the periodic table. For example, there are two
electrons in the outer most orbital of calcium; therefore calcium is found in group
2 of the periodic table. In the case of sodium, there is one electron in the outer-
most orbital, so sodium is found in group 1.
The periodic table is structured by adhering to the simple rule of thumb, that
elements with the same type of valence electron configuration are arranged in the
same group (see Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Arrangement of elements with the same type of valence electrons in the
periodic table
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What is meant by “period” and “group” in the periodic table?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Note: You may need to refer to the periodic table for the
answers.
1. On what basis are the elements arranged in the modern
periodic table compared to the arrangement made by
Mendeleev?
2. Which of the following is:

(a) An alkaline earth metal? Ca, Fe, Na, Cl, Zn.
(b) A halogen? Cs, Pb, Br, Mn, K.
3. Choose the symbol of the element that matches the

following description:
(a) The alkali metal in the third period.
(b) The noble gas in the first period.
(c) The actinide with the lowest atomic mass.
5.2 VARIATIONS IN ATOMIC CHARACTERISTIC

Here, we are going to discuss a few variations in atomic characteristics in detail.
First, we are going to look at electron shells in atoms-shielding effect.
5.2.1 Electron Shells in Atoms-Shielding Effect

The principal quantum number, n which denotes the shell, increases down the group
in the periodic table. The quantum number is assigned integer values beginning
from 1, 2, 3….n. The value 1 represents the shell that is closest to the nucleus. The
larger the quantum number, the further away the shell is from the nucleus.
The electron configuration for the first three elements of Group 1is shown below:
Li 1s22s1
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Electron shells in atoms create a phenomenon known as the shielding effect. For
the elements given above, the shielding effect can be explained as below.
In Li, the valence electron is shielded from the charge of the nucleus by the 1s2
orbital. As we move from Li to Na, an “octet” is completed, thereby adding a new
layer of shielding. For the Na atom, the 3s1 electron is shielded by 1s2 2s2 and 2p6
orbitals. Likewise, as we go down to K another layer of shielding is introduced.
The impact of shielding is that it reduces the electrostatic attraction between the
nucleus and the outer electron. In going down the group from Li to K, the shielding
effect increases (n increases) and this reduces the electrostatic attraction of the outer
most electron with the nucleus. Therefore the size of the atom increases from Li to K.
Example 5.1
1. Give the electron configuration for Ne and Ar.
Solution
Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6

Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
2. A neutral atom X has 15 electrons.

(a) Write the ground state electron configuration of X.
(b) How should X be classified? Justify your answer.
Solution
(a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

(b) The outer most electron: 3s2 3p3
Total number of electrons = 5
Thus X is in Group VA (Note that it is not VB because it does not have
d electrons and is not a transition metal).
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Explain the variation in the size of the Group 1 elements from Na
to Rb.
2. Give the electron configuration for 10Ne and 18Ar.
Answer:
Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
5.2.2 Sizes of Atoms

The size of an atom is an important factor in analysing the properties of elements
in the periodic table. Atoms may possess undefined sizes due to the distribution of
electrons, or the electron density around the nucleus. The definition of size of an
atom refers to half the distance between two nuclei in the neighbouring atoms.
Let us consider the bromine molecule (Br2) as an example. The Br-Br distance in
Br2 is 2.28 Å (see Figure 5.3), thus the radius of the Br atom is 1.14 Å.
Figure 5.3: Distance of Br-Br in molecule of Br2
Two factors determine the size of an atom in the periodic table:

(a) The principle quantum number, n; and
(b) The effective nuclear charge, Zeff.
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radius
When we proceed across a row, we find that the effects produced by the shielding
electrons remain constant since it is only the valence electrons that increase. The
number of protons will also increase. However, the core shielding electrons
remain constant and the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) on the valence electrons
will increase. As a result, the effective nuclear charge will pull the valence
electrons closer to the nucleus, and the atomic radii will decrease.
When we proceed down a column, the atomic numbers of the elements increase.
This increases the principal quantum number in the atom, as well as, the electron
shielding effect. As a result, the pull of the outermost electron by the nucleus
decreases, and the atomic radius is increased (see Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: General trends of atomic radii of elements across the row and down
the group
Example 5.2
1. Arrange the following elements according to increasing atomic size:

5 B, 6 C,7 N,8 O, and 9F
2. Fill in the missing blanks for the table below.
Element Al Si P S Cl Ar
Atomic
13 15 17
Number
2 2 6 2 2 2 6 2
Electron 1s 2s 2p 3s 1s 2s 2p 3s 1s 2s 2p63s2
2 2
1s22s22p63s2
configuration 3p2 3p3 3p5 3p6
Number of
electrons in
3 5
the outer
most shell
Number of
shielding 12 12 12
electrons
Zeff 2+ 4+ 6+
3. Based on the effective charge Zeff, explain the change in the sizes of the atoms
across the third row of the periodic table.
Solution
F, O, N, C, B
2. Element Al Si P
Atomic Number 13 14 15
Electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p1 1s22s22p63s23p2 1s22s22p63s23p3

Num of electrons in the
1 2 3
outer most shell
Num of shielding
12 12 12
electrons
Zeff 1+ 2+ 3+
Element S Cl Ar
Atomic Number 16 17 18
Electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p4 1s22s22p63s23p5 1s22s22p63s23p6

Num of electrons in
4 5 6
the outer most shell
Num of shielding
12 12 12
electrons
Zeff 4+ 5+ 6+
3. As the effective nuclear charge increases across the third row, the outer most
electron is held closer to the nucleus, thus the size decreases.
5.2.3 Ionisation Energy

The term “ionisation energy” is defined as the minimum energy required to
remove an electron from a neutral atom in the gaseous state. It is measured in
kJ/mol. The chemical property of an atom is influenced by the electron
configuration. The ionisation energy determines the ability of an atom to hold on
to its valence or outermost electron. The higher the ionisation energy value, the
closer the valence electron is to the nucleus.
The first ionisation energy, I1, is the energy needed to remove the first electron
from the atom:
energy + X(g)  X+(g) + 1e–
Periodic Trends of Ionisation Energy
The ionisation energy is influenced by the size of the atom. The smaller the atom, the
greater is the attraction between the outermost electron and the nucleus. Hence more
energy is required to remove one electron. Since the size increases down the group,
the first ionisation energy decreases. On the other hand, as we proceed across the row
the size decreases and the ionisation energy increases (see Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5: General trends for the first ionisation energy of elements in the
periodic table
Examples 5.3
Predict which element in each of the following pairs has the highest ionisation
energy:
(a) Potassium, 19 K or Sodium 1Na
(b) Oxygen, 8 O or Nitrogen,7 N
Solution
(a) Na
(b) O
5.2.4 Electron Affinities

We just studied that ionisation energy is the ability of an atom to lose an electron.
The reverse process is called electron affinity.
Electron affinity is defined as the energy released when an electron is added to an

atom of a gas X to form an anion (a negatively charged ion)X–:
X(g) + 1e –  X –  g  E= - value  kJ/Mol 
Most atoms release energy when an electron is added. Unlike ionization energy,
electron affinity produces a negatively charged ion. The negative value for the
electron affinity ∆E, indicates that energy is released when a gaseous atom forms
an anion.
Halogens from group 7 of the periodic table have the most negative electron
affinity values. There is a shortage of one electron in the p subshell of group 7
elements to achieve a stable electron configuration. Thus group 7 elements have a
greater tendency to attract another electron to form a stable noble gas
configuration, as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Electron Affinity Values for Halogens
Element Ion E (kJ/mol)

F F– –328
CI CI– –349
Br Br– –325
I I– –295
Periodic Trends of Electron Affinity
The electron affinity does not change very much on going down a group in the
periodic table. Moving down a group, the increase in the quantum number will
result in less attraction between the electrons at the outermost orbital and the
nucleus. Also, the distribution of the electron in the subshells becomes more
widely dispersed, thus reducing the electron-electron repulsions. Consequently,
the electron affinity for halogens does not change substantially as we move down
group 7 as shown in Table 5.3.
When we move across each row towards the halogens, the electron affinities
become more negative (see Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6: General trends for the electron affinity of elements in the periodic table
5.2.5 Electro Negativity

Electro negativity is a measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons towards it.
Bond Polarity
Electro negativity is a combination of the function of the atom’s ionisation energy

(ability to hold own electrons) and the atom’s electron affinity (the atom’s ability
to attract electrons).The value of the electro negativity is directly related to the
ability of the atom to attract electrons towards it in a chemical bond.
Periodic Trends of Electro negativity
When we proceed across a row, we find that the elements become more electro
negative.
When we proceed down a column, we find that the elements become less
electro negative.
As a whole, the atoms on the right side of the periodical table are highly
electronegative. However, due to other factors, the electro negativity of the
transition metals is unpredictable.
The general trend of the electro negativity of atoms shown in the periodic table can
be seen in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: General trends for the electro negativity of an element in the periodic table
The most electro negative element in the periodic table is Flourine and the least
electro negative element is Cesium.
EXERCISE 5.2
Predict which element in each of the following pairs is more
electronegative:
(a) Br or Cl
(b) As or Br
Answer:
(a) Cl
(b) Br
ACTIVITY 5.2
List the general trends for the electronegativity of an element in the

periodic table.
5.3 VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

We have learnt a few variations in atomic characteristics. Now, we move on to
variation in physical properties.
5.3.1 Properties of Metalloids and Non-Metals

It is found that the majority of elements exist as metals at room temperature.
Metals have general properties, such as, high electrical conductivity and high heat
conductivity. They are also known for their lustrous, brittle, and malleable nature.
There is one exception – hydrogen. It is placed together with metallic elements,
but it is a gas.
Non-metals exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature. They vary

greatly in appearance with various colours. Non-metals are poor conductors of
heat and electricity. The melting points of non-metals are comparatively lower
than metals.
There is another type of element in the periodic table called metalloids. They
exhibit properties which are intermediate, between metals and non-metals. These
elements may appear lustrous but they are not malleable or ductile. Some
elements have the brittle characteristics that some non-metals naturally possess.
Metalloids are poor conductors of heat and electricity compared to metals. They
are widely used in the semiconductor industry. Silicon is an example of a
metalloid.
5.3.2 Periodic Trends of Metallic Properties

When we proceed across a row, we find that there is a clear distinction between
the metals, metalloids, and non-metals in a periodic table. We find the metals on
the left and middle regions of the periodic table. As we move across the row, the
metallic characteristic decreases. Metalloids are found in the region between
metals and non-metals, e.g. Boron (B), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Arsenic
(As), Antimony (Sb), Tellurium (Te), Astatine (At). Non-metals are placed at the
extreme right of the periodical table. It is also found that non-metallic
characteristics increase with ionisation values (see Figure 5.9).
When we proceed down a column, the general trends in metallic and non-metallic
characteristics within a group increase from top to bottom. However, this cannot
be generalised for transition metals.
Figure 5.9: General trends for the metallic character of an element

(metallic character is the opposite of non-metallic character)
5.4 VARIATIONS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

In this subtopic, we are going to learn variations in chemical properties. We will
cover chemical properties of metals and non-metals.
5.4.1 Chemical Properties of Metals

The chemical properties of a metal are determined by the number of valence
electrons. Metals have low ionisation energies and lose electrons easily. This
promotes chemical reactions.
Metals are easily oxidised too. Alkaline metals lose one electron in the s subshell
to produce 1+. On the other hand, alkaline earth metals always lose both electrons
in the s subshell to become 2+.
However, the transition metal ions do not follow an obvious pattern. The most
common is 2+, but 1+ and 3+ are also observed. The attraction between a metal
and non-metal compound will produce an ionic compound.
Elements in group 1and group 2 in the periodic table form alkaline metals. When
these metals dissolve in water, metal hydroxides are produced.
Metal + water  metal hydroxide + H2

For example: Na(s) + H2 O(l )  NaOH(aq) +H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2 H2O(l ) Mg(OH)2(aq) +H2(g)
Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides:

Metal + Oxygen  metal oxide
For example: 2 Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
4 Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2 O(s)
Metal oxides dissolve in water to form metal hydroxides:

Metal oxide + water  metal hydroxide
For example: Na2 O(s) + H2 O(l )  2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l )  Ca(OH)2(aq)
The metal oxides react with acid to form a salt and water. This demonstrates the
alkaline nature of the metal oxide.
Metal oxide + acid  salt + H2 O
For example: NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl (aq) + H2 O(l )
Mg(OH)2(s) +2 HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 O(l )
SELF-CHECK 5.2
How do metal oxides exhibit their basic chemical nature?
5.4.2 Chemical Properties of Non-metals

When reacting with metals, non-metals have a tendency to gain electrons to
achieve stable electronic configurations.
Non-metal + Metal  Salt
For example: 3Br2(l) + 2Al(s)  2AlBr3(s)
Non-metal compounds will produce molecular substances. Unlike metals, non-

metals will dissolve in water to produce acidic oxides.
Non-metal oxide + water  acid
For example: CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)  H2 CO3 (aq) [carbonic acid]
Non-metal oxides can combine with bases to form salts and water.
Non-metal oxide + base  salt + water
For example: CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
● In the periodic table, elements in the same group have similar electron
configurations and the same number of valence electrons.
● Moving down the group in the periodic table, the quantum number, n,
increases, thus the shell increases.
● The atomic properties of elements correlate with their electron configurations.

Ionisation energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove an
electron from a neutral atom in the gaseous state.
● The electron affinity is defined as the energy released when an electron is

added to an atom of a gas X to form an anion (a negatively charged ion) X–.
Electron affinity Metalloids

Electron Configurations Periodic table
Electro negativity Periodic trends
Ionisation Energy
Topic  Stoichiometry
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the atomic and molecular weight of a compound;
2. Write balanced chemical equations for various reactions;
3. Calculate the mass, mole and number of particles;
4. Determine the limiting reagent;
5. Calculate the theoretical and percent yield;
6. Explain dilution of a solution; and
7. Describe titrimetric and gravimetric analyses.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will deal with basic concepts of atomic weight, molecular weight,
formula weight, mole, Avogadro’s number, molar mass, molarity, and dilution.
We will also be exploring the quantitative aspects of chemical formulae and
reactions. Therefore, some essential skills of relating the mass of a substance to
the number of chemical entities (atoms, molecules, or formula units), applying
quantitative information within chemical equations, and using the mole concept to
solve chemical calculations are required. Stoichiometric calculations in titration
and gravimetric calculations are further discussed in this topic. In order to master
all of the above skills, the fundamental requirement is to be able to balance
chemical reactions. All calculations will only be right if they are based on a
balanced chemical equation.
104  TOPIC 6 STOICHIOMETRY
6.1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Stoichiometry deals with the quantitative relationship (in terms of masses or
volumes) between reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
6.1.1 What is Stoichiometry?

The word “stoichiometry” derives from two Greek words: stoicheion (meaning
“element”) and metron (meaning “measure”). Jeremias Benjamin Richter (1762–
1807) was the first to define the principles of stoichiometry, as the science of
measuring the quantitative proportions or mass ratios in which chemical elements
stand to one another.
6.1.2 Balanced Chemical Equations

Every reaction is represented by a balanced chemical equation, which shows all
the chemical symbols in the right proportion to ensure that all atoms are balanced.
An example of a balanced equation is:
2H2 + O2  2H2O
Now, how does one go about balancing a chemical equation? There are two ways
of doing this:
(a) By algebra; and
(b) By inspection.
Example 6.1
Let us consider the following reaction to demonstrate the use of algebra in

balancing a chemical equation:
P4O10 + H2O  H3PO4
Solution:
a P4O10 + b H2O  c H3PO4
For P: 4a = c
For O: 10a + b = 4c
For H: 2b = 3c
TOPIC 6 STOICHIOMETRY  105
Assume a = 1 then c = 4 and b = 6.
Therefore, the balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:
P4O10 + 6 H2O  4 H3PO4
Example 6.2
Let us now consider the following reaction as an example of balancing an

equation by inspection.
NH3 + CuO  Cu + N2 + H2O
Solution
The easiest way is to balance all the atoms other than H and O first.
(a) Balance the N and Cu atoms

2 NH3 + CuO  Cu + N2 + H2O
(b) Balance the H and O atoms

2 NH3 + 3CuO  Cu + N2 + 3 H2O
(c) Balance all the atoms

2 NH3 + 3CuO  3Cu + N2 + 3 H2O
What You Should Expect
The most common stoichiometric problem is given a certain amount of a reactant,

we need to calculate how much of a product can be formed. Let us consider a
generic chemical equation:
2A + 2B  3C
Here is a typical problem: Given 20.0 grams of A and a sufficient amount of B,

calculate the quantity (in grams) of C that will be produced.
First you need to balance the equation. Based on the balanced equation, you will
be able to relate the molar ratios with molar masses, and then convert between
grams and moles of the reactants and products.
6.1.3 Atomic and Molecular Weights

Since counting individual atoms or molecules is difficult, quantitative aspects of
chemistry rely on knowing the masses of the compounds involved.
(a) The Atomic Mass Scale

The following is the explanation of the atomic mass scale.
Atoms of Different Elements Have Different Masses
Hydrogen, the lightest element, is assigned a relative mass of “1” and the
other elements are assigned “atomic masses” relative to this value for
hydrogen. For example, oxygen is assigned an atomic mass of 16.
We now know that a hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.6735 × 10–24 grams
and that the oxygen atom has a mass of 2.6561 × 10–23 grams. However,
when dealing with such small numbers, it is more convenient for us to use a
reference unit called the atomic mass unit. The atomic mass unit (amu) is
not standardised against hydrogen, but rather, against the 12C isotope of
carbon (amu = 12).
Thus, the mass of the hydrogen atom (1H) is 1.0080amu and the mass of an
oxygen atom (16O) is 15.995amu. Once the masses of atoms are determined,
the amu could be assigned an actual value. As an example, for 16O:
15.995amu = 2.6561 × 10–23 grams

1amu = 1.66058 × 10–24 grams
 1 gram = 6.02199 × 1023amu
(b) Average Atomic Mass

Most elements occur in nature as a mixture of isotopes (i.e. populations of
atoms with different numbers of neutrons and, therefore, mass). We can
calculate the average atomic mass of an element by knowing the relative
abundance of each isotope, as well as the mass of each isotope.
Naturally occurring carbon is 98.892% 12C and 1.108% 13C. The mass of 12C
is 12amu and that of 13C is 13.00335amu. Therefore, the average atomic
mass of carbon is:
(0.98892) × (12amu) + (0.01108) × (13.00335amu) = 12.011amu
The average atomic mass of each element (in amu) is also referred to as its
atomic weight. Values for the atomic weights of each of the elements are
commonly listed in periodic tables. For each element, the number written on
the upper right hand corner denotes the atomic weight while the number at
the bottom right hand denotes the atomic number.
(c) Formula and Molecular Weights
The formula weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights of each
atom in its chemical formula.
For example, water (H2O) has a formula weight of:

2 × (1.0079amu) + 1 × (15.9994amu) = 18.01528amu
If a substance exists as discrete molecules (as with atoms that are chemically
bonded together) then the chemical formula is the molecular formula, and
the formula weight is the molecular weight. For example, carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen can chemically bond to form a molecule of glucose with the
chemical and molecular formula of C6H12O6. The formula weight and the
molecular weight of glucose is thus:
6 × (12amu) + 12 × (1.00794amu) + 6 × (15.9994amu) = 180.0amu
Ionic substances do not exist as discrete molecules. However, they do

associate in discrete ratios of ions. Thus, we can describe their formula
weights, but not their molecular weights. Table salt (NaCl), for example, has
a formula weight of:
23.0amu + 35.5amu = 58.5amu
6.1.4 The Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant

In daily life, objects are typically measured out by counting (a dozen eggs), or by
weighing (a kg of rice). Similarly, part of daily life in the laboratory involves
measuring out chemical substances to prepare a solution, or to “run” a reaction.
Even tiny samples of chemicals contain huge numbers of atoms, ions or
molecules. How can we possibly count entities that are so small? To do this,
chemists have devised a unit called the mole (abbreviated mol) to count these
chemical entities by weighing them.
A mole is defined as the amount of matter that contains the same number of
entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of 12C.
This number is known as Avogadro’s number and is equal to 6.022 × 1023mol-1.

It is generally referred to as the Avogadro Constant.
One mole (1mol) contains 6.02 × 1023 entities, thus:

12
1mol C contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms
1mol H2O contains 6.02 × 1023 molecules
1mol NaCl contains 6.02 × 1023 formula units
Molar Mass
Note that the mass of one atom in atomic mass units (amu) is numerically equal to
the mass of one mole of the same atom in grams (g).
The mass in grams of 1 mole (mol) of a substance is called its molar mass (M).
The molar mass (in grams) of any substance is always numerically equal to its
formula weight (in amu).
Examples:
One 12C atom has a mass of 12amu; 1 mol of 12C weighs 12 grams (by
definition).
One H2O molecule weighs 18.0amu; 1 mol of H2O weighs 18.0 grams.
One NaCl ion pair weighs 58.5amu; 1 mol of NaCl weighs 58.5 grams.
Example 6.3
Calculate the number of atoms found in 0.6 moles of copper.
How many moles of chlorine molecules are found in 5.0 × 10 20 of chlorine gas?
Solution
1 mole of copper = 6.02 × 1023 atoms of copper
0.6 mole copper = 6.02 × 1023 × 0.6 atoms of copper
= 3.6 × 1023 atoms of copper
6.02 × 1023 molecules of chlorine gas = 1mol

5.0  1020
5.0 × 10 20 molecules of chlorine gas =
6.02 1023
= 8.30 × 10-04mol
6.1.5 Stoichiometry Problems

The stoichiometric relationships, derived from balanced equations, can be used to
determine expected amounts of products given amounts of reactants.
Keeping track of units in calculations is necessary when inter-converting masses,

moles, and numbers of particles. This is formally known as dimensional analysis.
There are several types of stoichiometry problems:

(a) Mole to mole;
(b) Mole to mass (or mass to mole);
(c) Mass to mass (most useful);
(d) Mole to volume (or volume to mole);
(e) Mass to volume (or volume to mass); and
(f) Volume to volume.
The first three (a) to (c) in the above list will be discussed here.
(a) Mole to Mole Stoichiometry Problem

Mole to mole means given the moles of one component in a chemical
reaction, the moles of another component in the same reaction can be
determined.
Example 6.4
Given the Haber Process: N2 + 3 H2  2 NH3
How many moles of NH3 can be produced if 4 moles of N2 are reacted with
enough H2?
Solution
To answer the above equation, the following steps will be required:

(i) Check to ensure that the chemical equation is balanced.
(ii) Determine the mole relationship (stoichiometric relationship)
between the given component (N2) and the requested component
(NH3).
Note:
The number of moles of NH3 produced is determined by the quantity of N2
(limiting reagent), since the quantity of H2 is sufficient (unlimited).
The balanced equation is:

N2 + 3 H2  2 NH3
Based on the balanced equation:

1 mole N2 produces 2 moles of NH3
2 4
4 moles of N2 produce:
1
= 8 moles NH3
(b) Mole to Mass Stoichiometry Problem

Now, we are going to discuss mole to mass stoichiometry problems in detail.
Example 6.5
Using the same chemical reaction as above, determine the grams of H2 that
will react with 4 moles of N2.
Solution
Based on the balanced equation,

N2 + 3 H2  2 NH3
1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2

4 moles of N2 react with 12 moles of H2
I mole of H2 weighs 2g
So 12 moles of H2 weigh 2×12 g = 24 grams.
(c) Mass to Mass Stoichiometry Problem

Here, we are going to learn more about mass to mass stoichiometry
problems.
Example 6.6
Calculate the grams of NH3 that will be produced if 10 grams of H2 are

reacted with enough N2.
Solution
Based on the balanced equation,

N2 + 3 H2  2 NH3
3 moles of H2 produce 2 moles of NH3, thus, in terms of grams:
(3 × 2)g H2 produce (2 × 17)g NH3
(2×17)×10g H 2
Therefore, 10 grams of H 2 
6g H 2
= 56.7g
Example 6.7
A general chemistry student was asked to produce 5.0g metallic copper (Cu)
by reacting an aqueous solution of copper sulphate with zinc. Calculate the
mass of zinc required to produce the 5.0g Cu. The balanced equation for the
reaction is:
CuSO4 + Zn  Cu + ZnSO4
(The atomic weights are O = 16.0; S = 32.1; Cu = 63.5; Zn = 65.4)
Solution
Based on the balanced equation:

1 mole of Cu is produced from 1 mole of Zn
63.5g Cu is produced from 65.4g Zn.
65.4g Zn  5.0gCu
Therefore, 5.0g Cu is produced from
63.5gCu
= 5.14g Zn
EXERCISE 6.1
1. How many grams of FeO are needed to produce 140 grams of Fe?
Given:
FeO  Fe + O2 (unbalanced)
(Atomic weights: O = 16.0; Fe = 55.9)
2. If 80.0 grams of O2 was produced, how many moles of KClO3

decomposed?
2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
(Atomic weights: O = 16.0; Cl =35.5; K=39.1)
3. How many grams of AuCl3 can be made from 100.0 grams of

chlorine by this reaction?
2 Au + 3 Cl2  2 AuCl3
(Atomic weights: Cl =35.5; Au=197)
Answers:
1. 140g
2. 0.44 moles
3. 66.7g
6.1.6 Limiting Reagent

Here, we are going to learn the definition of limiting reagent and how to apply it
as a basic concept in stoichiometry.
(a) What is Limiting Reagent?

Chemical reactions will come to a stop when one of the reactants is fully
consumed. This reagent is called the limiting reagent and it determines the
quantity of product formed. Let us now consider the following reactions as
an example, and go through the steps of identifying the limiting reagent.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O(l)
Suppose we start off by having 10 moles of H2 and 7 moles of O2 in the

reaction vessel. Identify the limiting reagent and hence the expected product.
Solution
(i) The balanced equation is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O(l)
(ii) From (i), 2 moles of H2 react with 1 mole O2. Therefore, 10 moles of
H2 would react with 5 moles of O2.
Thus there is an excess of 2 moles O2 in the system. Therefore, H2 is

the limiting reagent, the reagent that is completely consumed in a
chemical reaction. Limiting reagent will determine the amount of the
product formed.
One approach to solve the question of which reactant is the limiting reactant
(given an initial amount for each reactant) is to calculate the amount of
product that can be formed from each amount of reactant, assuming all other
reactants are available in unlimited quantities. In this case, the limiting
reactant will be the one that produces the least amount of potential product.
(i) 10 moles of H2 will produce 10 moles of H2O
(ii) 7 moles O2 will produce 14 moles of H2O
The reaction that produces the least amount of product is H2, thus it is the
limiting reagent.
(b) Theoretical and Actual Yields

The quantity of product that should be formed (by calculation) when all of
the limiting reactant is consumed in a reaction is called the theoretical yield.
The amount of product actually obtained is called the actual yield.

Actual yield is normally smaller than the theoretical yield due to the
following reasons:
(i) For some reasons not all the reactants may react;
(ii) There may be some significant side reactions; and
(iii) Physical recovery of 100% of the sample may be impossible.
The percent yield of a reaction relates the actual yield to the theoretical
yield, according to the following formula:
(Actual yield)
Percent yield = × 100
(Theoretical yield)
Example 6.8
Consider the reaction:

2 Al + 3 I2  2 AlI3
Determine:
(i) The limiting reagent and the theoretical yield of the product if one starts
with 1.20mol Al and 2.40mol I2.
(ii) The limiting reagent and the theoretical yield of the product if one starts
with 1.20g Al and 2.40g I2.
(iii) How many grams of Al are left over in part (b)? (Atomic weights: Al=
27;I=126.9)
Solution
(i) Based on the balanced equation:.

2 Al + 3 I2  2 AlI3
For 1.2mol AI
2.0mol Al  2.0mol AlI3
For 2.40mol I2
3.0mol I2  2.0 AlI3
2  2.4
2.4mol I2 
3
= 1.6mol AlI3
Since Al produces the least product, Al is the limiting reactant.
The theoretical yield is calculated based on the limiting reactant. Since Al is

the limiting reactant, the theoretical yield = 1.2mol AlI3.
(ii) 1.20g Al and 2.4g I2

2 Al + 3 I2  2 AlI3
1.2g
Mol Al =
26.98g mol1
= 0.04mol
2.4g
Mol I2 =
253.8g mol1
= 0.009mol
For 1.20g Al:

2  0.04
0.04mol Al 
2
= 0.04mol AlI3
For 2.4g I2
3.0mol I2  2.0mol AlI3

2  0.009
0.009mol I2 
3
= 0.006mol AlI3
Thus, I2 is the limiting reactant.
Theoretical yield will take consideration of the amount of I2 existing.

Then,
0.009mol I2  0.006mol AlI3
 0.006mol AlI3 × 407.7g/mol = 2.45g

Therefore, the theoretical yield of AlI3 would be 2.45 grams.
(iii) Since I2 is the limiting reactant, it will react entirely.

From the balanced reaction equation,
3.0mol I2  2.0mol Al
2  0.009
0.009mol I2 
3
= 0.006mol Al
The mass of Al = 0.006mol × 27g/mol = 0.16g
Initial mass of Al = 1.20g

Mass of Al used in the reaction = 0.16g
Therefore, the amount of excess aluminium = (1.20 – 0.16)g = 1.04g.
EXERCISE 6.2
15.00g aluminium sulphide, Al2S3, and 10.00g water react until the
limiting reagent is used up. The balanced equation for the reaction is:
Al2S3 + 6 H2O  2Al(OH)3 + 3 H2S
(a) Which is the limiting reagent?
(b) Calculate the yield.
(Al = 27.0, S = 32.1, H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
Answers:
(a) Water
(b) 9.46g
6.2 AQUEOUS REACTIONS AND SOLUTION

STOICHIOMETRY
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, consisting of:
(a) The solvent – Usually the substance in greater concentration; and
(b) The other component(s) is (are) called the solute(s) – They are said to be
dissolved in the solvent.
When a small amount of NaCl is dissolved in a large quantity of water, we refer to
the water as the solvent and the NaCl as the solute.
Solutions in which water is the dissolving medium are called aqueous solutions.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What is the difference between a solvent and a solute?
6.2.1 Molarity
The term concentration is used to indicate the amount of solute dissolved in a
given quantity of solvent or solution.
The most widely used method of quantifying concentration in chemistry is

molarity.
The molarity (symbol M) of a solution is defined as the number of moles of

solute in a litre volume of solution:
Mole solute
Molarity =
Volume solution (litres)
Example 6.9
Determine the molarity of a solution obtained by dissolving 20 grams of NaCl in

100ml of water.
Solution
number of moles NaCl
Molarity =
volume of solution in litres
(20.0g/58.5g) mol1
=
(100ml/1000ml) 11
= 3.4mol l-1 = 3.4M
If we know the molarity of a solution, we can calculate the number of moles of

solute in a given volume. Thus, molarity is a conversion factor between volume of
solution and moles of solute.
Example 6.10
Calculate the number of moles of CaCl2 in 0.78 litre of a 3.5M solution:

(3.5 moles CaCI2 )
× 0.78 = 2.73 moles CaCl2
(1 litre)
Example 6.11
Explain how you would prepare 100ml of aqueous NaOH, 0.1M:

(Molar mass NaOH = 40g/mol)
Solution
Mole of NaOH
Molarity =
Volume of solution
Mole of NaOH
0.1 =
(100ml / 1000ml)11
0.1 = (mol NaOH / 0.1 litre)
Mol of NaOH = 0.1 × 0.1 = 0.01mol
But, moles of NaOH = Mass of NaOH × molar mass NaOH
Mass of NaOH = 0.01 mol × 40.0gmol-1
= 0.4g
Now,
(a) Weigh 0.4g NaOH and put it into a 100ml volumetric flask; and
(b) Add distilled H2O to dissolve the NaOH, then add enough distilled H2O to
the meniscus.
EXERCISE 6.3
1. A student prepares a solution by dissolving 1.5g NaOH in H2O. He

then transfers the solution to a 100ml flask. H2O was added to fill
the 100ml volumetric flask.
Calculate the molarity of the NaOH solution. What are the solute
and solvent in this solution?
(Answer: 0.375M; solute: NaOH, solvent H2O)
2. A restaurant worker dissolves 4g of sugar in 350ml of hot water.

Find the molarity of the sugar solution. The molecular weight of
sugar is 342gmol-1.
(Answer: 0.033M)
6.2.2 Dilution
When we take a sample of a stock solution, we have a certain number of moles of
molecules in that sample. Dilution alters the molarity (i.e. concentration) of the
solution but the total number of moles of molecules or ions in the solution
remains the same.
One of the standard equations for determining the effects of dilution upon a
sample is to set up an equation comparing (concentration) × (volume) before and
after dilution. Since (concentration) × (volume) gives us the total number of
moles in the sample and since this does not change, the values before and after
dilution are equal:
Before After
(concentration) × (volume) = (concentration) × (volume)
(moles/liter) × (litre) = (moles/litre) × (litre)
M1V1 = M2V2
(where 1=before dilution and 2= after dilution)
moles of solute before = moles of solute after
Example 6.12
How much of a 5M stock solution of NaCl will you need to make up 250ml of a
1.5M solution?
Solution
Using
M1V1 = M2V2
(where 1 = initial; 2= final)
5 M × V1 = 1.5 M × (250 ml l-1/1000ml l-1)
1.5 M × (250ml 1-1 /1000ml1-1 )

V1 =
5M
V1 = 0.075 l
Thus, we would need 0.075 litre of 5M NaCl stock solution. The quantity required
for a 250ml 1.5M solution will be:
0.25 litre – 0.075 litre = 0.175 litre
So we would take 0.075 litre of stock 5M NaCl solution and add to that 0.175 litre
of water for a final volume of 0.25 litre with a final concentration of 1.5M.
Example 6.13
How would you prepare 5.00 × 102ml of a 1.75 M H2SO4 stock solution from an
8.00M stock solution of H2SO4?
Solution
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = 8.0 V1 = ?
M2 = 1.75M V2 = 5.00 × 102 ml = 5.00 × 10-1 l
8.0 M × V1 = 1.75M × 5.00 × 10-1 l
1.75M × 5.00 × 10-11

V1 =
8.0 M
= 1.09 × 10-1 = 0.109 l = 109ml
Take 109ml of 8.0 M H2SO4 and add 391ml distilled H2O to make up to 500ml.
EXERCISE 6.4
How would you prepare 200ml of a 0.80M NaOH solution from a

5.0M stock solution?
(Answer: 0.032 litre of 5.0M from stock solution)

6.3 STOICHIOMETRY OF TITRATION AND

GRAVIMETRY
In this subtopic, we are going to learn stoichiometry of titration and gravimetry in
a detailed manner. First, let us discuss titrations.
6.3.1 Titrations
Titration or volumetry is a technique to determine the concentration of some
solution of interest.
In titration, a solution of an accurately known concentration called a “standard

solution” is added gradually to another solution of unknown concentration until the
reaction between them is complete. Usually an indicator is used to determine the
completion point.
Types of titrations include acid-base titrations, redox titrations, indirect titrations,

back titrations, and some others.
In an acid-base titration, a solution of an acid with an unknown concentration is

titrated with a solution of known concentration of base (or vice-versa).
Let us consider one example of an acid-base titration. A standard NaOH solution of

a known concentration is added to a fixed volume of HCl solution of unknown
concentration until the acid is completely neutralised. This is known as the
equivalence point or the stoichiometric end point in the titration.
The equivalence point of a titration can be detected by some physical change,

produced by the standard solution itself, or by the addition of a reagent indicator
with a change in colour.
By knowing the concentration of the standard solution and the amount added to
achieve stoichiometric equivalency, the amount of moles of acid in the original
sample volume can be determined.
Example 6.14
A solution of 25ml HCl of an unknown concentration is titrated with a standard

solution of 0.5M NaOH. The phenolphthalein indicator dye begins to turn colour after
the addition of 2.8ml of standard solution. What is the concentration of the HCl?
Solution
Balanced equation for the reaction:

HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
Let a = HCl ; b = NaOH
Since the stoichiometry of HCl : NaOH is 1 : 1
MaVa = MbVb
(number of moles of HCl) = (number of moles of NaOH)
Ma × 25ml = 0.5M × 2.8ml
Ma = 0.5M × 2.8ml
25ml
Ma = 0.056M
Example 6.15
Based on the following equation for a neutralisation reaction, calculate the volume
of a 0.6M NaOH solution that is required to neutralise 20ml of 0.20M H2SO4.
Solution
0.2 mol 20.0ml
Number of moles of H2SO4 = 
litres 1000 ml 1-1
= 0.004mol
The balanced chemical equation is 2NaOH + H2SO4  Na2 SO4 + 2 H2SO
Number of moles of NaOH = 2 (0.004) = 0.008mol

Number of moles = MbVb, or
0.008 = 0.6M Vb
0.008 mol
Vb = = 0.013l
0.6 mol 1-1
EXERCISE 6.5
Calculate the mass of NaOH (in grams) required to prepare

5.00 × 102ml solution of concentration 2.5M (molar mass
NaOH = 40)
(Answer: 50.0g)
6.3.2 Gravimetry
It is a quantitative analysis by weight, which constitutes the process of isolating
and weighing an element or a definite compound of the element in as pure a form
as possible.
Gravimetry analysis is usually applied to ionic compounds. A sample substance of

an unknown composition dissolved in water is allowed to react with another
substance to form a precipitate. Knowing the mass and chemical formula of the
precipitate, the mass of the particular component (ion) of the original sample can
be calculated. The mass of the component and the mass of the original sample will
enable us to calculate the percent composition by mass of the original compound.
The actual weight of the element or compound is determined by the direct ratio
with the weight of the precipitate.
Let us look at the following example.
Example 6.16
A 0.50g sample of an ionic compound containing Cl– of an unknown metal X is

dissolved in H2O and treated with an excess AgNO3. 1.06g of AgCl was produced.
Calculate the percent by mass of Cl in the original compound.
(Atomic weights: Ag=107.9, Cl=35.5)
Solution
The chemical equation is X + Cl - + Ag+ NO3-  X + NO3- + Ag+ Cl -
g CI _ molar mass of CI
=
g AgCI molar mass of AgCI
(the stoichiometric factor is 1:1)
Thus,
molar mass of CI
g Cl– (unknown) = × g AgCl (weighed)
molar mass of AgCI
g Cl– (unknown) = 35.5 / 143.4 × 1.06g AgCl

= 0.26g of Cl–
mass sought Cl
% of Cl– (unknown) = × 100%
mass of sample
= 0.26 / 0.50 × 100%

= 52. 0 %
Gravimetric Factor
Gravimetric Factor is the ratio of the molecular weight of the unknown

substance to that of the substance weighed.
(molar mass of unknown)

Gravimetric factor (GF) = stoichiometric factor ×
(molar mass weighed)
a molar mass unknown(Cl)

GF = ×
b molar mass weighed (AgCl)
Here, a and b are small whole numbers with values such that the number of moles
in the numerator and the denominator are chemically equivalent.
General formula:
Weight of the unknown material (X) = GF × weight of precipitate

weight of precipitate
Percent X = GF × × 100%
weight of sample
Some examples of gravimetric factor are as follows (refer to Table 6.1):

Table 6.1: Examples of Gravimetric Factor
Weight Sought Precipitate Weighed Gravimetric Factor
SO 3 (Molar mass)
SO3 BaSO4
BaSO 4 (Molar mass)
2Fe3O 4 (Molar mass)

Fe3 O4 Fe2 SO3
3Fe 2 O 3 (Molar mass)
2Fe (Molar mass)

Fe Fe2O3
Fe O (Molar mass)
2 3
2MgO (Molar mass)

MgO Mg2P2O7
Mg P O (Molar mass)
2 2 7
P O (Molar mass)
2 5
P2O5 Mg2P2O7
Mg P O (Molar mass)
2 2 7
EXERCISE 6.6
A 0.3220g sample of an ionic compound containing bromide ion (Br–)
is dissolved in water and treated with an excess of AgNO3.
If the mass of the AgBr precipitate that forms is 0.6964g, what is the
percent by mass of Br in the original compound?
(Answer: percentage of Br is 92.0%)
 The principle of stoichiometry is the science of measuring the quantitative

proportions or mass ratios in which chemical elements stand to one another.
 The average atomic mass of each element (in amu) is also referred to as its
atomic weight.
 Chemical reactions will come to a stop when one of the reactants is fully
consumed. This reagent is called the limiting reagent and it determines the
quantity of product formed.
 A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances, consisting of

the solvent and the solute
 The term concentration is used to indicate the amount of solute dissolved in a

given quantity of solvent or solution.
 The most widely used method of quantifying concentration in chemistry is

molarity.
 Titration or volumetry is a technique to determine the concentration of some

solution of interest.
 Gravimetric factor is the ratio of the molecular weight of the unknown

substance to that of the substance weighed.
Dilution Gravimetry
Stoichiometry Limiting reagent
Titration Molarity
Topic  Hydrocarbons
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Classify hydrocarbons as alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkadienes,
cycloalkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons;
2. Write chemical formulae of different classes of hydrocarbons based
on their general formulae and
3. Name chemical formulae according to IUPAC nomenclature;
3. Explain the concept of aromaticity; and
4. Name arenes correctly.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will explore hydrocarbons, a family of compounds that we encounter in
our daily lives, especially in our use of fossil fuels, perfumes, and plastics. Indeed,
modern life would not be what it is without hydrocarbons.
But first, what are hydrocarbons? Quite simply, they are chemical compounds
made up of only carbon and hydrogen atoms. For example, in methane, the
simplest of hydrocarbons, one carbon atom is attached to four hydrogen atoms.
In this topic, we will discuss not only the chemical and structural formulae of
hydrocarbons but also their IUPAC names, physical properties, and typical
reactions of alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkadienes, cycloalkenes, alkynes, and
aromatic hydrocarbons.
TOPIC 7 HYDROCARBONS  129
7.1 HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons contain carbon and hydrogen atoms only. Examples are shown in
Table 7.1:
Table 7.1: Hydrocarbons
Aromatic
Group Alkane Alkene Alkyne
Hydrocarbon
Example
IUPAC name methane ethene ethyne benzene
For more information about hydrocarbons visit the following websites:

(a) http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/nomen1.htm#start
(b) http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/library/hydrocarbons/
7.2 ALKANES AND CYCLOALKANES

Alkanes and cycloalkanes contain only single bonds. The general formula of
alkanes is CnH2n+2 (n = 1, 2, 3, …). Examples are CH4, C2H6 and C3H8.
For n  4, the carbon chains may be linear or branched. For example, refer to
Table 7.2:
Table 7.2: Examples of Carbon Chain
Linear C5H12 Branched C5H12

CH3– CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3
130  TOPIC 7 HYDROCARBONS
EXERCISE 7.1
What is the chemical and structural formula of __________?

(a) The fourth alkane
(b) Cyclobutane
Answers:
(a) The fourth alkane, n = 4
The chemical formula is C4H10 (from CnH2n+2; where n = 4)
The structural formula:
CH3-CH2–CH2–CH3 or CH3–CH–CH3
|
CH3
(b) The general formula for cycloalkane is CnH2n

Cyclobutane, n = 4; Chemical formula is C4H8
The structural formula:
7.2.1 Nomenclature of Alkanes

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) names of
alkanes have the ending “ane”. The names of the first ten linear alkanes are given
in Table 7.3. These must be memorised as they are the basis for the IUPAC name
of other classes of organic compounds. The rules are discussed next.
Table 7.3: Linear Alkanes
Carbon No. Chemical Formula Structural Formula Name

C1 CH4 CH4 methane
C2 C2H6 CH3CH3 ethane
C3 C3H8 CH3 CH2 CH3 propane
C4 C4H10 CH3 (CH2)2CH3 butane
C5 C5H12 CH3 (CH2)3CH3 pentane
C6 C6H14 CH3 (CH2)4CH3 hexane
C7 C7H16 CH3 (CH2)5CH3 heptane
C8 C8H18 CH3 (CH2)6CH3 octane
C9 C9H20 CH3 (CH2)7CH3 nonane
C10 C10H22 CH3 (CH2)8CH3 decane
Rule 1: The base name corresponds to the number of carbon atoms in the main
chain. The main chain is a continuous chain (not necessarily written in a straight
line) containing the most number of carbon atoms. Example:
The main chain above has five carbon atoms. The alkane is a pentane.
Rule 2: Identify and name the substituent. Substituents are atoms (other than H) or
groups bonded to the main chain.
For alkanes, the substituents are the alkyl groups, general formula CnH2n+1 (n = 1,
2, 3 …). They are named from the corresponding alkanes by substituting the
ending “ane” with “yl” (refer to Table 7.4). In the example above, the alkyl is
methyl.
Rule 3: Indicate the location of the substituent on the main chain by a number.
Each substituent is given a number, which starts from the chain end that gives the
lowest number for the first substituent on the chain.
Example:
The IUPAC name is 2-methylpentane.

Hyphens are used to separate numbers from words, and there is no space between
the names.
Table 7.4: Names of Common Alkyl Groups
Name
Formula
Common IUPAC
CH3– methyl methyl
CH3CH2– (or C2H5–) ethyl ethyl
CH3CH2CH2– propyl (or n propyl) propyl
isopropyl (methylethyl)
CH3CH2CH2CH2– butyl (or n-butyl) butyl

isobutyl (2-methylpropyl)
CH3CH2CH(CH3)– sec butyl (or s-butyl) (1-methylpropyl)

tert butyl (or t-butyl) (dimethylethyl)
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2– pentyl (or n pentyl) pentyl

isopentyl (2-methylbutyl)
neopentyl (2,2-dimethylpropyl)
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2– hexyl (or n-hexyl) hexyl

isohexyl (2-methylpentyl)
– (3-methylpentyl)
IUPAC recommends common names for simple alkyls. The IUPAC name for an
alkyl group is obtained as follows:
Therefore, the name of the compound is 2,5-dimethylhexane.
EXERCISE 7.2
Write the IUPAC names for the following alkanes.
(a)
(b)
Answers
(a) Base name : Heptane (longest carbon chain)
Substituent : Methyl groups at C-3 and C-5.
IUPAC name : 3,5-dimethylheptane
(b) Base name : Decane (longest carbon chain)
Substituent : (3,3-dimethyl at C-3; ethyl at C-4.
IUPAC name : 4-ethyl-3,3-dimethyldecane
IUPAC Rules:
(a) Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon in the structure. This forms
the parent chain.
(b) If there are more than one of the same substituent, a prefix di (for two), tri
(for three), tetra (for four), penta (for five), hexa (for six), and so on, is used.
(c) Commas are used to separate numbers; hyphens are used to separate
numbers from words.
(d) Arrange the names of the substituents alphabetically, but do not consider the
prefixes n, sec , tert , di, and tri. Example:
Base name : Octane

Substituents : Methyl at C-2 and C-5, ethyl at C-3, isopropyl at C-5
IUPAC name : 3-ethyl-5-isopropyl-2,5-dimethyloctane
(e) If there is more than one chain with the same number of carbon atoms, the
main chain is the one with the most substituents. Example:
or
Chain A Chain B
Base name: heptane

Substituents (Chain A): tert-butyl at C-3 and methyl at C-4 (two
substituents)
Substituents (Chain B): methyl at C-2, C-2 and C-4, and ethyl at C-3 (four
substituents)
The IUPAC name: 3-ethyl-2,2,4-trimethylheptane (Chain B)

NOT 3-tert-butyl-4-methylheptane (Chain A)
(f) If the number for the first substituent is the same from both ends of the
chain, choose the end that gives a lower number for the next substituent.
Example:
Base name : Hexane

Substituent : Methyl at C-2, C-3 and C-5 (NOT C-2, C-4, and C-5)
IUPAC name : 2,3,5-trimethylhexane (NOT 2,4,5-trimethylhexane)
(g) If the locations of two different substituents are the same from both ends of
the main chain, the substituent to be named first is given a lower number.
Example:
Base name : Octane

Substituent : Methyl at C-5, ethyl at C-4 (NOT methyl at C-4, ethyl at
C-5)
IUPAC name : 4-ethyl-5-methyloctane
EXERCISE 7.3
What is the IUPAC name of the following alkane?
Answer:
Base name : Decane
Substituent : Ethyl at C-5 and (1,2-dimethylpropyl) at C-6
IUPAC name : 5-ethyl-6-(1,2-dimethylpropyl)decane
The IUPAC names for cycloalkanes have prefix “cyclo” added to the name of
the corresponding alkane (same number of carbon atoms). Examples (refer to
Table 7.5):
Table 7.5: Examples of IUPAC Names for Cycloalkanes
Carbon
C3H6 C4H8 C5H10 C6H12
Number
Example
IUPAC Name Cyclopropane Cyclobutane Cyclopentane Cyclohexane
The additional IUPAC rules for cycloalkanes are:
(a) If there is one alkyl group bonded to the cyclic carbon, the name of the alkyl
group is written as a prefix.
Example:
(b) If there are two or more alkyl groups, the alkyl group to be named first
(alphabetically) is numbered 1. The number starts from this alkyl group
either clockwise or anti-clockwise to give a lower number for the next alkyl
group.
Example:
(c) If the number of carbon atoms in the ring is less than in the linear chain, the
cycloalkane becomes the substituent and is named as cycloalkyl.
Example:
EXERCISE 7.4
What is the IUPAC name for the following cycloalkane?
Answer:
Base name: Cyclopropane
Substituent: Ethyl at C-1 and isopropyl at C-2
IUPAC name: 1-ethyl-2-isopropylcyclopropane
7.2.2 Typical Alkanes Reactions

Alkanes are unreactive hydrocarbons because they are non-polar, saturated, and do
not have any functional group.
(a) Combustion of Alkanes

Alkanes or cycloalkanes when burned in air (oxygen) will form carbon
dioxide and water. The general equations and examples are:
EXERCISE 7.5
Write the combustion equation for
(a) 2-methylpropane
(b) Methylcyclopropane
Answers:
(a) 2 CH3–CH(CH3)–CH3 + 13 O2 8 CO2 + 10 H2O
(b)
(b) Cracking and Hydrocracking

Higher alkanes undergo cracking reactions when heated in the absence of air
at high temperatures (800oC–1000oC), to give mixtures of smaller linear
alkanes and alkenes. For example, cracking of hexane under these conditions
gives mixtures of ethene, ethane, propene, propane, and many others.
C6H14 C2H4 + C2H6 + C3H6 + C3H8 + …

ethene ethane propene propane
Modern cracking processes use catalysts, such as zeolites, at relatively high

temperatures (500oC) to give mixtures of linear smaller alkanes and alkenes.
For example:
C12H26 C5H10 + C7H16

pentane heptane
Hydrocracking (catalytic cracking in the presence of hydrogen gas) of

alkanes gives mixtures of smaller alkanes. For example:
C12H26 + H2 C5H12 + C7H16

pentane heptane
EXERCISE 7.6
Two of the products identified from the catalytic cracking of hexane are
ethane and butane. Name two probable products formed from
hydrocracking of hexane, and write the equation for the reaction.
Answer:
The two probable products are ethane and butane.
C H 3 – C H 2 – C H 2 – C H 2 – C H 2– C H 3 C H 3– C H 3 + C H 3 – C H 2– C H 2 – C H 3

7.3 ALKENES, ALKADIENES AND

CYCLOALKENES
Alkenes, alkadienes, and cycloalkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing
the functional group –C=C–. Alkenes (CnH2n; n = 2, 3, …) have one –C=C– bond,
an alkadiene (CnH2n–2; n = 3, 4, …) has two –C=C– bonds, while a cycloalkene
(CnH2n–2; n = 3, 4, …) is a cyclic alkene. Examples (refer to Table 7.6):
Table 7.6: Examples of Alkene, Alkadiene and Cycloalkene
Group Alkene Alkadiene Cycloalkene
Example
ethene 1,3-butadiene cyclopentene
EXERCISE 7.7
Write the structural formula of a

(a) Propene;
(b) 1,2-butadiene or 1,3-butadiene; and
(c) Cyclobutene.
Answers:
(a) CH3–CH=CH2
(b) CH2=C=CH–CH3 or CH2=CH–CH=CH2
(c)
7.3.1 IUPAC Nomenclature

Alkenes are named by replacing the ending “ane” in the names of the corresponding
alkanes (same number of carbon atom) with “ene” (refer to Table 7.3).
Table 7.3: IUPAC Names of First Four Linear Alkenes
Chemical Formula Structural Formula IUPAC Name

C2H4 H2C=CH2 ethene
C3H6 H2C=CHCH3 propene
C4H8 H2C=CHCH2CH3 1-butene
CH3CH=CHCH3 2-butene
C5H10 H2C=CHCH2CH2CH3 1-pentene
CH3CH=CHCH2CH3 2-pentene
Note: The main chain must contain –C=C–.

For alkenes with four or more carbon atoms, the location of the double bond is
shown by a number. The numbering starts from the end of the main chain that
gives a lower number to the –C=C– bond. Examples:
(a) CH3–CH2–CH2–CH=CH–CH2 –CH3 Base name: heptene

Location of –C=C–: C-3
IUPAC name: 3-heptene
(b) Base name: butene

Substituent: methyl at C-3
IUPAC name: 3-methyl-1-butene
(c) Base name: hexene

Substituent: ethyl at C-3, methyl
at C-2
IUPAC name: 3-ethyl-2-methyl-1-
hexene
Alkadienes are named by replacing the ending “ene” from the names of the
corresponding alkanes with “diene”. Examples:
(a) CH2= CH–CH=CH2 Base name: butadiene

Location of –C=C–: C-1 and C-3
IUPAC name: 1,3-butadiene
(b) Base name: hexadiene

Substituent: isopropyl at C-3
IUPAC name: 3-isopropyl-2,4-
hexadiene
(c) Base name: heptadiene

Substituent: methyl at C-3 and C-4
IUPAC name: 3,4-dimethyl-1,5-
heptadiene
Cycloalkenes are named by assigning the numbers 1 and 2 for the double bond.
However, the numbers are not written in the names. Examples:
(a) Base name: cyclopentene

Substituent: butyl at C-3
IUPAC name: 3-butylcyclopentene
(b) Base name: cyclobutene

Substituent: ethyl at C-2 and C-3
IUPAC name: 2,3-diethylcyclobutene
EXERCISE 7.8
Write the structural formulas and IUPAC names for all the isomers with
the chemical formula C5H10.
Answer:
CH2=CH–CH2–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH=CH–CH2–CH3
Linear
1-pentene 2-pentene
Branches
2-methyl-1-butene 2-methyl-2-butene 3-methyl-1-butene
7.3.2 Typical Alkenes Reaction

Here, we are going to learn a few typical alkenes reactions in a detailed manner.
(a) Halogenation
Halogens (Cl2 or Br2) adds to the C=C of alkenes and cycloalkenes at room
temperature, in the dark and using inert solvents, such as, dichloromethane
(CH2Cl2) or tetrachloromethane (CCl4), to give vicinal-dihaloalkanes. This is
an example of an electrophilic addition reaction. For example:
Bromination of alkenes is used as a test for unsaturated hydrocarbon

(the presence of double or triple bonds). The test can be used to distinguish
alkenes from alkanes and other saturated compounds. For example:
Observation: The red colour of bromine disappears, it turns colourless.
Observation: The red colour of bromine remains.
EXERCISE 7.9
Write the reaction equation for the chlorination of

1-methylcyclohexene in CCl4.
Answer:
(b) Oxidation
Description of oxidation is as follows:
Oxidative Cleavage of Alkenes
The cleavage of –C=C– by O3, in water in the presence of zinc forms
carbonyl compounds. The general reaction equation and example are:
Products from ozonolysis of an unknown alkene may be used to deduce the

structural formula of the alkene. For example:
The structural formula of alkene X is deduced as follows:
The –C=C– of alkenes may be cleaved by ozone (O3), or by hot concentrated

potassium permanganate (KMnO4).
The cleavage of –C=C– by hot, concentrated KMnO4 gives either ketones

(R–CO–R), carboxylic acids (R–COOH), or carbon dioxide and water. This
is because KMnO4 is a strong oxidising agent.
Examples:
EXERCISE 7.10
Deduce the structural formula and give the IUPAC name of the alkene
that produces the following compound when reacted with hot
concentrated KMnO4.
Answer:
7.4 ALKYNES
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with the functional group –CC– and
general formula CnH2n–2 (n = 2, 3, 4 …). Their IUPAC names are similar to the
corresponding alkenes, by replacing “ene” with “yne”.
Examples:
n=2 C2H2 n=4 C4H6

Formula
Structure
IUPAC Name Ethyne Butyne
7.4.1 Typical Alkyne Reactions

After we have learnt the typical alkene reactions, we move on to the typical alkyne
reactions.
(a) Hydrogenation (Addition of Hydrogen)

One mole of hydrogen gas adds to one mole of an alkyne in the presence of
Pt, Pd, or Ni to form an alkene. For example:
cis-2-Butene is formed due to the syn-addition (same side of the triple bond).
Two moles of hydrogen gas add to one mole of an alkyne in the presence of
Pt, Pd, or Ni to form an alkane. For example:
(b) Halogenation (Addition of Halogen)

One mole of a halogen in an inert solvent (CI2/CCI4 or Br2/CCI4) adds to
one mole of an alkyne to form a trans–dihaloalkene. For example:
trans-2,3-dichloro-2-butene is formed due to the anti-addition (opposite side

of the triple bond).
Two moles of halogen add to one mole of alkyne in an inert solvent to form
tetrahaloalkane. For example:
7.5 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

Aromatic compounds must be cyclic, planar, and conjugated (have alternating
single and double bonds), have (4n + 2) π electrons (Huckel rule; n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
...), and have large resonance energies (stable). Three examples of aromatic
hydrocarbons are shown in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4: Three Examples of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Hydrocarbon Structural Formula Number of π Electrons
Benzene (C6H6) 6 (n = 1)
Naphthalene (C10H8) 10 (n = 2)
Anthracene (C14H10) 14 (n = 3)
Note:
(a) There are two π electrons for each double bond.
(b) Naphthalene and anthracene are examples of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
EXERCISE 7.11
Are the following hydrocarbons aromatic? Briefly explain your

answer.
(a) (b) (c)
Answers:
(a) The hydrocarbon (cyclobutene) has two  electrons, but it is not
aromatic because the bonds are not conjugated.
(b) The hydrocarbon (cyclooctatetraene) has conjugated double
bonds, but it is not aromatic because it has 8  electrons (Huckel
rule: 4n + 2).
(c) The hydrocarbon (tetracene) is aromatic because it is planar, has
conjugated double bonds, and 18  electrons (n = 4).
Visit the following website for more details on aromatic hydrocarbons:

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/arenes/fc.html
7.5.1 Benzene
Kekule suggested two structural formulas for benzene:
and
Kekule’s structures are based on the following arguments:

(a) The empirical formula (CH) and chemical formula (C6H6) indicate a highly
unsaturated hydrocarbon (either double or triple bonds).
(b) Hydrogenation of benzene gives cyclohexane. Thus, the six C atoms are
joined in a ring.
(c) Addition of halogen, Br2 gives only one di-bromobenzene (no isomer); this
means that all H atoms are equivalent.
However, Kekule’s structures suggest the existence of two 1,2-dibromobenzenes.

Kekule argued that two 1, 2-dibromobenzenes could not be isolated because they
were in rapid chemical equilibrium.
Kekule’s structures were replaced by one resonance structure, as shown below and
it explains the following observation.
(a) All C–C bond lengths are equal (1.397 A). The bond length is intermediate
between C–C (1.48 A) and C=C (1.34 A). Thus, benzene does not have
alternating single and double bonds.
(b) Benzene is unreactive towards electrophilic addition reactions (in contrast to
alkenes or alkynes).
Benzene is a planar hexagonal molecule with bond angles of 120o. Each carbon
atom is sp2 hybridised. There is one p orbital containing one electron in each
carbon atom. The six p orbitals overlap sideways to form delocalised π electron
clouds above and below the plane. These π electrons explain the reaction of
benzene with electrophiles.
Removing one hydrogen results in the phenyl group, C6H5, and this group is
present in many products, such as, in aspirin, polystyrene, perfumes, etc (see
Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Example of benzene in aspirin, polystyrene, or perfume

ACTIVITY 7.1
View the animation of the benzene molecule at

http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=6XOm3Km7r30&feature=
endscreen
and answer the following questions:
(a) Describe the type of bond formed between all the six carbon
atoms which form the hexagonal framework
(b) Describe the type of bond formed above and below the
hexagonal framework.
(c) Describe the type of bond holding the hydrogen atoms.
(d) How many electrons are contained in the doughnut shaped π
bonds?
By answering the above questions, you should understand why

benzene has an unexpected stability.
7.5.2 Nomenclature of Arenes

Arenes (ArH or alkylbenzenes) have the general formula C6H5R. Some examples
are:
Note
(a) When there are two substituents in the ring, their positions are shown as 1,2-
(or ortho- or o-), 1,3- (or meta- or m-), or 1,4- (para- or p-).
(b) When there are more than two substituents in the ring, use numbers of the
lowest combination to show their positions.
(c) When benzene is the substituent (C6H5– or Ph), it is named “phenyl”.
7.5.3 Typical Aromatic Hydrocarbon Reactions

Now, we are going to discuss the typical aromatic hydrocarbon reactions in detail.
(a) Nitration
ArH reacts with concentrated nitric acid (HNO3), in the presence of
concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as a catalyst, to form nitroarene
(ArNO2). Before the actual reaction takes place, the nitronium ion, NO2+ is
generated. The nitrating mixture generates the nitronium ion, NO2+, as
shown in the equation that follows:
HNO3 + 2H2SO4  H3O+ + 2HSO4- + NO2+
(b) Sulphonation
ArH reacts with fuming sulphuric acid (H2SO4) to form arylsulphonic acid
(ArSO3H), which serves as important industrial chemicals. Fuming sulphuric
acid (H2SO4 enriched until SO3) under cold condition will produce HSO3+.
The sulphur atom carries a partial positive charge and attacks the benzene
ring.
Examples:
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. (a) Give a definition for the term “hydrocarbon”

(b) Which of the following compounds are hydrocarbons?
(i) CH2=CH–CH=CH2 (ii) CH3Cl
(iii) (iv) CH3CH(OH)CH2C  CH
2. The structural formula of compound A is given below:
(a) What is the general formula of the compound?

(b) Is the compound saturated or unsaturated?
3. Compound B is a cyclic hydrocarbon with the chemical formula

C5H10.
(a) What is the general formula of the compound?
(b) Is the compound saturated or unsaturated?
(c) Draw the structural formula of the compound.
(d) Draw the structural formula of linear compounds with the same
chemical formula as compound B. How many can you draw?
4. What is the IUPAC name for the following compound?
(a)
(b)
5. Write the structural formulae of the following compounds:

(a) 5-isobutylnonane
(b) 2, 2, 3-trimethylhexane
(c) 2-cyclobutyl-4-ethyl-4-isopropyldecane
6. Write the structural formulae of alkenes with the chemical formula

C4H8.
7. What are the IUPAC names for the following compounds?
(a)
(b)
8. Write the structural formula for each of the following

compounds:
(a) 2-isopropyl-2-hexene.
(b) Trans-2-pentene.
(c) 1-tert-butyl-3-isopropylcyclohexene.
(d) 2-cyclopropyl-2,4-heptadiene.
9. Write the chemical formula of the fourth alkyne. How many

alkynes has this chemical formula?
10. What are the structural formulae and IUPAC names of alkynes
with the chemical formula C5H8?
 The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2, cycloalkanes and alkenes is CnH2n,
and alkadienes, cycloalkenes and alkynes is CnH2n - 2.
 Hydrocarbons are aromatic if they are planar, cyclic and have (4n + 2) 
electrons (The Huckel rule).
Alkadienes Cycloalkenes
Alkanes Hydrocarbons
Alkenes Nomenclature
Alkynes Reaction
Aromatic hydrocarbons The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
Arenes
Cycloalkanes
Topic  Macromolecules
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify different types of natural polymers;
2. Explain the classifications of different types of natural polymers;
3. Describe the building block and structure of each natural polymer;
4. Identify the structures of polymers and their monomers; and
5. Differentiate natural polymers and synthetic polymers.
 INTRODUCTION
Macromolecules are basically large complex molecules formed from simple
molecules. They are usually polymeric with a high relative molecular mass. The
structures of these polymers comprise multiple repetitions of molecules with low
relative molecular mass, called monomers. The polymers can either be natural or
synthetic. Examples of natural polymers are the classes of biopolymers that
include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Synthetic polymers are
man-made and can be either organic or inorganic in nature. Some examples of
synthetic polymers are plastics, nylons, and polyesters. The items in Figure 8.1
give us an idea of man-made polymers.
156  TOPIC 8 MACROMOLECULES
Figure 8.1: Some items made from polymeric compounds
SELF-CHECK 8.1
How are macromolecules different from micromolecules?
8.1 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are among the most abundant of natural organic compounds.
Chemically, they are organic molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms bonded together, with the general molecular formula being CH2O.
Carbohydrates are one of the four major classes of organic compounds in living
cells. They are produced by plants during photosynthesis and are the main source
of energy for plants, animals, and humans. Energy is obtained by consuming
carbohydrate-rich foods, such as, rice and potatoes. Other important sources of
carbohydrates are wheat, oats, sugar beets, and others.
The term carbohydrate is used when referring to a saccharide or sugar and its
derivatives. Carbohydrates can be simple sugars (monosaccharides) or double
sugars (disaccharides); they may even be composed of a few sugars
(oligosaccharides), or many sugars (polysaccharides). Figure 8.2 shows some
sources of carbohydrates.
TOPIC 8 MACROMOLECULES  157
Figure 8.2: Some sources of carbohydrates
SELF-CHECK 8.2
What is the primary source of fuel and energy for the human body?
During the process of metabolism, our bodies break down carbohydrates to

generate energy. For example, during the chemical metabolism of glucose, the
simple carbohydrate gives off energy as well a carbon dioxide and water, as
shown in the equation below:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
There are two types of carbohydrates. They are simple carbohydrates and complex
carbohydrates. These two types of carbohydrates are described further in
Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Two Types of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates Complex Carbohydrates
These are carbohydrates that These are carbohydrates that are made up of two or
contain one sugar unit and cannot more sugar units linked together. Carbohydrates
be hydrolysed further to a simpler that have two sugars are called disaccharides.
molecule. These carbohydrates are Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates with 3 to 10
called monosaccharides. repeating units of sugars. Polysaccharides are
carbohydrates that contain thousands of covalently
linked monosaccharides.
Table 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4 explain the classifications of carbohydrates in detailed manner.
Table 8.2: Classification of Monosaccharides
Name Derivation of Name and Source
Glucose From the Greek word for sweet wine; grape sugar, blood sugar, dextrose.
Galactose From the Greek word for milk – "galact", found as a component of
lactose in milk.
Fructose From the Latin word for fruit – "fructus", also known as levulose, found
in fruits and honey.
Ribose Ribose and Deoxyribose are found in the backbone structure of RNA and
DNA, respectively.
Table 8.3: Classification of Disaccharides
Name Derivation of Name and Source
Sucrose From the French word for sugar – "sucre", a disaccharide containing
glucose and fructose; table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar.
Lactose From the Latin word for milk – "lact"; a disaccharide found in milk
containing glucose and galactose.
Maltose From the French word for "malt"; a disaccharide containing two units of
glucose; found in germinating grains, used to make beer.
Table 8.4: Classification of Polysaccharides
Name Source
Starch Plants store glucose as the polysaccharide starch. The cereal grains
(wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) as well as, tubers, such as, potatoes, are
rich in starch.
Cellulose The major component in the rigid cell walls in plants is cellulose, and is a
linear polysaccharide polymer with many glucose monosaccharide units.
Glycogen This is the stored form of glucose in animals and humans which is
analogous to the starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesised and stored
mainly in the liver and the muscles.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. How are carbohydrates classified?
2. What are the two types of carbohydrates?
8.2 LIPIDS
We classify lipids as biological molecules that are insoluble in water or aqueous
solutions, but are soluble in organic solvents such as ether, acetone, and other
lipids. Major lipid groups include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids
(like cholesterol), and some other related compounds. The common building
block for most types of lipids is fatty acid. Fatty acids are composed of a chain of
methylene groups with a carboxyl functional group at one end. Lipids differ
mainly in the nature of these fatty acid chains, as well as, in their respective
structures and functions.
Lipids have four major functions in our bodies:

(a) To serve as structural components of biological membranes;
(b) To provide energy reserves, predominantly in the form of triacylglycerols;
(c) To serve as vitamins and hormones; and
(d) To aid in lipophilic bile acids in lipid solubilisation.
Lipids, like carbohydrates, are formed from C, H and O atoms. The number of H
atoms exceeds that of the oxygen. One molecule of lipids is made up of one
molecule of alcohol and one to three molecules of fatty acids. Alcohol and fatty
acids are hydrocarbons containing the hydroxyl (-OH) group and carboxyl
(-COOH) group respectively.
Lipids are organic compounds formed mainly from alcohol and fatty acids
combined together by ester linkages, as follows (see Figure 8.3):
Figure 8.3: Formation of lipid structures

Lipids are classified as either glycerol based or non-glycerol based, as shown in

Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Major classes of lipids
Lipids are classified as either glycerol based or non-glycerol based, as shown in

Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Classification of Lipids
Glycerol based Non-Glycerol based
Contains alcohol group
Simple Complex Composed of
Esters of fatty Esters of long Esters of fatty acids and hydrocarbon rings and
acids chain fatty acids alcohol; contain other a long hydro carbon
and long chain groups (N, P) side chains
alcohols
 Fats  Triglycerides  Glycolipids  Eicosanoids
 Oils  Waxes  Phospholipids  Steroids
8.2.1 Fatty Acids

Fatty acids are merely carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains. The
hydrocarbon chain length may vary from 10-30 carbons (most common is 12-18).
Fatty acids are of two types: Saturated and Unsaturated.
(a) Saturated Fatty Acids

They are not able to accept hydrogen or halogen atoms. It has all bonding
positions between carbons occupied by hydrogens. Two successive carbon
atoms therein are linked by a single bond. Based on the number of carbon
atoms, the saturated fatty acids can be grouped as:
(i) Short chain fatty acids (for example: butyric acid); and
(ii) Long chain fatty acids (for example: palmitic acid, stearic acid).
(b) Unsaturated Fatty Acids

They are able to accept hydrogen or halogen atoms. This results in the
presence of one or more double bonds between carbons, as in alkenes. Two
successive carbon atoms at certain places therein are linked by double
bonds. On the basis of the number of carbon atoms, these fatty acids can be
classified as:
(i) Short chain fatty acids (for example: Crotonic acid); and
(ii) Long chain fatty acids (for example: Oleic acid).
8.2.2 Classification of Lipids

Glycerol based lipids (containing alcohol groups) can be classified as:
(a) Simple Lipids

Structurally they are formed from an alcohol group and a fatty acid group.
One molecule of glycerol and three molecules of any fatty acids when linked
by ester bonds (C-O-O-C) through the process of dehydration, form one
molecule of triglyceride.
Figure 8.5 shows examples of lipids are fats and oils.

Figure 8.5: Complex lipids
(b) Complex Lipids

Complex lipids contain some non-lipid components in addition to fatty acids
and alcohol. The non-lipid group in glycolipids are the carbohydrates.
Similarly, phosphates belong to the non-lipid group, phospholipids.
Structurally both these are complex lipids. Cell membranes, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, and others, have their outer membranes made up of
complex lipids. Such membranes are made up of complex lipids and are
selectively semi-permeable, allowing essential substances to flow through.
SELF-CHECK 8.4
1. State the four functions of lipids in our bodies.
2. How are lipids classified?
8.3 PROTEINS
Proteins are important to us in many different ways. They make up about 15% of
the mass of the average person and are the key molecules in the process of life.
Proteins are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. In some cases, sulphur and phosphorus are present. Virtually all
activities which sustain living organisms are now known to be carried out by
proteins. Proteins are needed for growth and the repair of body tissues. For
example, collagen is one of the most abundant proteins in the body that provides
an essential structural component for skin, bone and tendons. They are also
needed for the formation of enzymes, hormones, haemoglobin, and antibodies.
Another example is regulatory protein that controls functions, such as, the
expression of genetic information, and the balance of chemical reactions in cells.
Animal products, such as, beef, lamb, pork, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, milk, and
milk products are sources of proteins. Proteins can also be found in grains, fruits,
and vegetables.
Proteins are a class of polymeric organic compounds called polyamides. These

polyamides are made up of monomer units called -amino acids which are held
together by amide groups. A molecule of protein is made up of a large number of
subunits called amino acids. Proteins are made by connecting amino acids
together. The amide group -CO-NH- joining two -amino acids is often called a
peptide link; so single polymer chains made from -amino acids are sometimes
called polypeptides. Proteins can be made from a single polypeptide chain or
from several polypeptide chains joined together. Only twenty -amino acids are
commonly found in nature.
Amino acids are classified as essential and non-essential amino acids. The human
body requires 20 amino acids to make its proteins. However, our body can make
only 13 of the amino acids. These amino acids are known as the non-essential
amino acids because we do not have to get them from the food that we consume.
There are 9 essential amino acids that the body cannot make and must be obtained
from the food we eat. Protein in food that supplies enough of the essential amino
acids is known as complete protein. Meat and animal products are complete
proteins. Plant protein sources are considered incomplete proteins since they lack
one or more of the essential amino acids. However, plant proteins can be
combined to include all of the essential amino acids and form a complete protein.
Examples of combined, complete plant proteins are rice and beans, milk and
wheat cereal, and corn and beans.
8.3.1 Amino Acids

Most amino acids have the following structural properties. A carbon (the alpha
carbon) bonded to four different groups:
(a) A hydrogen atom (H);
(b) A Carboxyl group (-COOH);
(c) An Amino group (-NH2); and
(d) A “variable” group.
Of the 20 amino acids that typically make up proteins, the “variable” group
determines the differences among the amino acids. All amino acids have the
hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, and amino group bonds.
The general structures of the -amino acids and of proline are shown in
Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: General structure of -amino acid
The difference between one amino acid and another is the nature of the side chain,
R. Table 8.4 shows the amino acids found in proteins according to their types and
structures of their side chains.
(a) Naming of Amino Acids

The names of the amino acids as listed in Table 8.4 are not arranged
systematically, but by how they are universally known. In addition, each
amino acid is given a three-letter, as well as, a one-letter ,
Table 8.6: List of Natural Amino Acids (R= -CH (NH2) CO2H)
8.3.2 Structure of Proteins

Proteins have highly organised structures. They exist in an intricate three-
dimensional structure unique to each protein, which in turn, influences its
function. Hence, to understand the details of protein function, one must
understand protein structure.
Protein structure is broken down into four levels:

(a) Primary structure;
(b) Secondary structure;
(c) Tertiary structure; and
(d) Quaternary structure.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Why is it important to understand the structure of proteins?
8.4 POLYMERS
Plastic is perhaps the most recognised polymer. As a result, many people assume
that polymers are synonymous with plastics. In reality, polymers are much more
than just plastics. Polymers can be found easily in nature and these, of course, are
called “natural polymers”. Many living organisms including human beings,
animals, fish, insects, and plants are made up of polymers. Paper is made from
cellulose, the major structural component of wood, and a natural polymer,
polysaccharide. The outer shell of crustaceans is made of chitin, which is the
most abundant natural polymer on earth. Silk, cotton, and wool are among the
natural polymers used in textiles.
“Man-made” or synthetic polymers can be organic or inorganic in nature.

Organic polymers are made up of carbon and hydrogen, while inorganic polymers
have other atoms, such as, silicon in their structure. Polyester, spandex and nylon
are some examples of synthetic fibres used in clothing. Polymers are also found as
the major components in paints and adhesives. Automobile windshields are made
of safety glass, which is a layer of polymer sandwiched between two sheets of
glass. The polymer in the windshields keeps the broken pieces of glass from
becoming dangerous projectiles during a collision. These are only some examples
that illustrate the importance of polymers in our daily lives.
8.4.1 What are Polymers?

Polymer is a material that has long chains of atoms making up its structure. The
word polymer comes from the Greek word pollus, meaning many, and meros
which means parts or segments; put together, they mean many parts and indicate a
large molecule with many repeating units.
The simplest organic polymer is a product of the polymerisation of ethylene:

polyethylene. Ethylene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon which readily undergoes
additional reactions. Two ethylene molecules reacting will form a molecule of
butane:
CH2=CH2 + CH2=CH2 CH3-CH2-CH=CH2
The starting material in the reaction, ethylene, is called a monomer and the
resulting butane is a dimer. A combination of three molecules of ethylene makes
a trimer while four molecules of ethylene react to form a tetramer. Thus, a
polymer is a long chain molecule formed from n molecules of a monomer linked
to one another as shown in Figure 8.7.
nCH2=CH2 [CH2-CH2-]n
Monomer Polymer
Figure 8.7: Flowchart of polymeric materials

Table 8.7 and 8.8 describes types of polymers and their classification based on
physical properties.
Table 8.7: Types of Polymers
Polymers are further classified by the reaction mode of polymerisation, and

these include:
Addition Polymers - The monomer Condensation Polymers - Usually two
molecules bond to each other without the different monomers combine with the loss
loss of any other atoms. Alkene of a small molecule, usually water.
monomers are the biggest groups of Polyesters and polyamides (nylon) are in
polymers in this class. this class of polymers.
Table 8.8: Classification based on Physical Properties
Classification based on the physical property related to heating

Thermoplastics - Plastics that soften Thermosets - Plastics that soften when
when heated and become firm again heated and can be moulded; but harden
when cooled. This is the more popular permanently. They will decompose when
type of plastic because the heating and reheated. An example is Bakelite, which is
cooling may be repeated. used in toasters, handles for pots and pans,
dishes, electrical outlets, and billiard balls.
8.4.2 Synthesis of Polymers

Synthetic polymers are produced from low-molecular-mass compounds through
polymerisation and polycondensation reactions, as well as, by chemical
transformation of other natural and synthetic polymers.
Polymerisation
Polymerisation is a reaction that forms large molecules by joining many small
molecules together. Polymerisation reactions can be classified into two broad
categories, i.e., addition or condensation. The terms chain growth and step-
growth, however, provides a more accurate and complete description of
polymerisation reaction.
(a) Addition Polymerisation

The theory of addition polymerisation is sometimes called chain growth
polymerisation. It was developed by S. Medvedev and other workers on the
basis of N. Semenov’s theory of chain reactions which involve an active
chain site reacting with an unsaturated (or heterocyclic) monomer such that
the active site is recovered at the chain end. The chain growth
polymerisation reaction consists of three main steps:
(i) Activation or initiation of the monomer molecule:

M  M* (excited monomer molecule or active centre)
(ii) Chain propagation:

M*+ M  M1*
M1*+M  M 2 *
M 2 *+M  M 3 *
………………………..
M n-1*+M  M*n (activated growing polymer molecule)
(iii) Chain termination:
M n *  M n (unactivated polymer molecule)
There are several different techniques of polymer synthesis through the

addition polymerisation process, depending on the active site of the
monomer unit as shown in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9: Several Different Techniques in Addition Polymerisation
Please refer to this following website for more information on

polymerisation.
csua.berkeley.edu/~ranga/school/me223/intro5.html
Vinyl polymers are amongst the examples of addition polymers, which

have the same atoms as the monomer in their repeat units. A few other
important vinyl monomers are listed in the Table 8.10.
Table 8.10: Some Examples of Vinyl Monomers of Addition Polymers
(b) Condensation Polymerisation

When addition polymers are formed, no by-products result. Formation of a
condensation polymer, on the other hand, produces H2O, HCl, or some other
simple molecule which escapes as a gas. A condensation polymerisation
occurs when a polymer is formed from a reaction that leaves behind a small
molecule, often water.
The formation of peptide bonds in proteins is an example of a condensation

polymerisation. In this case, an amine reacts with a carboxcylic acid to form
an amide bond. Glycine is the simplest amino acid: the reaction below
shows the reaction between two glycine molecules to form a glycine dimer.
The atoms in the box drop away to form the water molecule on the right.
This is the reaction that is used for all amino acids in the formation of
proteins, and is fundamental to life as we know it.
A common industrial condensation polymerisation is the formation of

Dacron, a polyester. In this case an alcohol reacts with a carboxcylic acid to
form an ester bond, and a water molecule drops away.
SELF-CHECK 8.5
1. What are polymers?
2. Describe what happens in the polymerisation process.
3. Differentiate synthetic polymers and natural polymers.
4. Give one example of a synthetic polymer and a natural polymer.
8.4.3 Structure of Polymers

Now, let us discuss the three polymer structures.
(a) One-dimensional Polymers

One dimensional polymers are formed whenever two reacting chains join to
make a chain. This is the most common structure found in polymers. If the
long-chains pack regularly, side-by-side, they tend to form crystalline
polymers. If the long chain molecules are irregularly tangled, the polymer is
amorphous since there is no long range order. Sometimes this type of
polymer is called glassy.
(b) Two-dimensional Polymers

Two dimensional polymers are rare, the best example being graphite. It is
the structure of graphite which provides its great lubricating capability.
The condition to form this planar structure is to have 3 or more active
groups all directed in the same plane and capable of forming a planar
network. This structure offers low shear strength and good lubricating
properties.
(c) Three-dimensional Polymers

Crystalline diamond is an example of the 3-dimensional crystalline polymer
in which carbon is linked to four corners of the tetrahedral, and these are
packed with long range order in space to form a lattice. Diamond has
properties which are much more like ceramics than polymers in terms of its
mechanical behaviour (high melting point, modulus, hardness, strength, and
fracture behaviour).
ACTIVITY 8.2
Arrange the following in descending order, starting from the highest
melting point: Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), poly
(methylmethacrylate). Explain why.
SELF-CHECK 8.6
1. What are the differences between addition polymers and
condensation polymers?
2. Give one example of an addition polymer and a condensation
polymer and give a reaction for each example..
 Macromolecules, the large molecules formed from simple molecules, have

dominated much of our lives.
 Known as polymers, they are made up of repeating units of monomers.
 Some polymers are naturally occurring, such as, carbohydrates, lipids,

proteins, and nucleic acids.
 Natural polymers have a direct contribution to the survival of living

organisms.
 The man-made or synthetic polymers are the plastics (polyethylene,

polypropylene), nylons, and polyesters.
 Polymers may be classified by their structures and may be linear, branched, or

less commonly cyclic.
Amino acids Lipids

Carbohydrates Polymers
Complex carbohydrates Proteins
Fatty acids Simple carbohydrates
Topic  Microbiology:
9 Introduction
and
Fundamental
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the definition of microbiology;
2. Differentiate bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi, and viruses;
3. Explain each unique mechanism of action of these microorganisms
(bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi, and viruses); and
4. Discuss the roles of these microorganisms in human life.
 INTRODUCTION
Microbiology is the study of all microorganisms (microbes), either unicellular
(single cell), multicelullar, or acellular (lacking cells), which are so small that you
need a microscope to study them. Microorganisms are almost everywhere around
us and in the environment.
The field of microbiology can be classified into two main areas: basic research
microbiology, and applied microbiology. Basic research microbiology is based on
the classification of microorganisms (microbial taxonomy), studies of
microorganisms (for example: bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi and viruses), study
of processes or functions (for example: genetics), and study in relation to disease
174  TOPIC 9 MICROBIOLOGY: INTRODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL
(for example: immunology). In this topic, we will focus on classification and

studies of microorganisms.
Despite the diversity of genome structure, microorganisms obey the central

dogma of molecular biology. All genetic information flows from nucleic acid to
protein (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Central dogma of molecular biology
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Microbiology is classified into two areas: ___________________

microbiology and _________________ microbiology.
2 Illustrate the central dogma.
9.1 WHY STUDY MICROBIOLOGY?

Microorganisms are nearly everywhere around us and in our environment. The
following are the few reasons for studying microbiology.
(a) Microorganisms are closely associated with humans, and therefore important
to human health and activities. Examples:
(i) The air we breathe is the result of microbial activity by cyanobacteria,
responsible for oxygenating the atmosphere.
TOPIC 9 MICROBIOLOGY: INTRODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL  175
(ii) Biochemical and fermentation reactions in microorganisms are used in

the food industry to make cheese, yogurt, yeast, and others.
(iii) Pharmaceutical products (which are insulin and other human proteins)
can be produced economically by genetically engineered
microorganisms.
(b) Provides deep understanding of life processes in all forms of life:

(i) Biologists from various disciplines utilise information and ideas from
microbiology, and use the organisms themselves. Biochemists use
microorganisms to study metabolic pathways and chemical reactions
in living organisms. Geneticists use microorganisms to study how
genetic information is transferred and how this information controls
the structure and functions of organisms.
(ii) Microorganisms are useful in research compared to other organisms
because of their relatively simple structures, experiments with large
numbers of microorganisms give more statistically reliable results at a
reasonable cost, and because microorganisms reproduce very quickly.
(iii) By studying microorganisms, much more remains to be learnt by
future generations of biologists and health scientists about genetic
changes that lead to antibiotic resistance, and how to manipulate
genetic information in microorganisms.
9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS

The science of classification of microorganisms is called microbial taxonomy, and
grouping them into a category is called taxon (plural: taxa).
The reasons for classification are:
(a) Identifying new organisms or reclassifying existing ones;
(b) Arranging related organisms into groups; and
(c) Providing information on how organisms evolve.
The first and largest group for microorganisms classification is called a domain.
The three domains are bacteria, archae, and eukarya (see Figure 9.2). The three-
domain system was proposed by Carl Woese in 1978, based on identifying
ribosomal RNA sequences similarities of microorganisms.
The second largest group is called a kingdom. This five-kingdom system was
proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969. The kingdoms include Monera (for
example: bacteria), Protista (for example: protozoa and algae), Fungi, Plantae, and
Animalia (see Figure 9.3). A kingdom is further split into phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species (see Figure 9.4).
Figure 9.2: Three-domain system
Figure 9.3: Five-kingdom system
Figure 9.4: Levels of classification
Microorganisms are scientifically recognised using a binomial nomenclature

where each microorganism has two names - a genus name and a species name.
The names assigned to microorganisms are in Latin. Both are either underlined or
italicised. The first letter of the genus name is always capitalised and the species
is lowercase. Example: Escherichia coli.
Classification of microorganisms has been commonly carried out by studies of

fossils, and recently by DNA sequencing. Methods of classifications are
constantly changing. The most widely used methods for classifying
microorganisms are phenotypic analysis (morphological characteristics,
differential staining, biochemical testing), and molecular methods (DNA

fingerprinting or DNA base composition, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)).
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Explain why the study of microbiology is important. List two
reasons.
2. The first and largest group for microorganisms classification is
called a domain. The three domains are __________, __________,
and _________.
9.3 BACTERIA
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms, and classified as prokaryotes. As
prokaryotes, bacteria do not have cell nucleus and generally lack membrane
enclosed intracellular structures. Bacteria are one the earliest forms of life that
appeared on Earth billions of years ago. Bacteria are widely distributed in
nature, for example, in soils, water, and the atmosphere, including on and in
other living organisms, such as, plants, animals and humans. The study of
bacteria is known as bacteriology.
9.3.1 The Cells of Bacteria

Bacterial cells differ from plant, animal, or fungi (eukaryotes) cells. Bacterial cells
have no nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, except for ribosomes.
Figure 9.5: A bacterial cell structure

Source: Pearson Prentice Hall
Structurally, a bacterial cell consists of (see Figure 9.5):
(a) Cell Wall

A thin layer of membrane outside the plasma membrane and within the
capsule. It maintains the characteristic shape of the cell, and prevents the
cell from bursting when fluids flow into the cell by osmosis.
(b) Plasma Membrane

Regulates the movement of substances into and out of a cell.
(c) Capsule
A protective layer outside the cell wall. Only certain bacteria have capsules;
not all bacteria have a capsule.
(d) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

It contains all the genetic instructions used in the development and
functioning of the bacterium. Chromosome is in the form of a large loop,
packed into the cytoplasm of the cell. Plasmid also exists as an
extrachromosomal DNA that can replicate separately from the chromosome,
and also carries genes for a variety of functions (e.g. contain genes that
express resistance to antibiotics).
(e) Cytoplasm
A semifluid substance inside the plasma membrane which consists of
genetic material and ribosomes.
(f) Flagellum
This is used for movement (to propel the cell). A bacterium can have one
flagellum or two or more flagella.
(g) Inclusions
A granule or vesicle found in the cytoplasm.
(h) Pili (singular: pilus)

These spikes allow the cell to attach to surfaces and transfer genetic material
(DNA) between two cells.
(i) Ribosomes
It serves as a site for protein synthesis. Ribosomes consist of ribonucleic
acid (RNA), and protein.
9.3.2 Bacterial Growth

Bacterial growth (growth of a group of bacteria) refers to the reproduction of
cells. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission (see Figure 9.6), whereby a single cell
rapidly divides into two new cells (replicates). Each new cell has the same genetic
material as the parent cell. Under favourable and optimal conditions (moisture,
temperature, pH, and nutrients), bacteria, such as, E. coli may divide
approximately every twenty minutes.
Figure 9.6: Stages of binary fission in a bacterial cell

Source: Black (2002)
9.3.3 Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified in several ways:
(a) Scientific Names

The scientific name of bacteria is classified by genus followed by species.
For example : E. coli, Clostridium botulinum. There may be different types
of strains within a species, where strains differ in genetic and chemical

components.
(b) Staining
Bacteria are also classified on the basis of the different types of responses to a
stain. A commonly used stain is Gram stain. Gram stain is also called a
differential stain because it differentiates bacteria based on differences in their
cell walls. The procedure is based on the ability of the bacteria to retain colour
of the stains used during the Gram stain reaction. Gram-positive bacteria are
not decolourised by alcohol and will remain purple (retain the primary dye
called Crystal Violet). Gram-negative bacteria are decolourised by the
alcohol, losing the colour of the primary stain, purple. After decolourisation
step, a counterstain (e.g. safranin) is used to impart a pink colour to the
decolourised gram-negative bacteria. In summary, the gram-positive bacteria
(i.e. Staphylococcus aureus) stain purple, and the gram-negative bacteria (i.e.
E. coli) stain pink (see Figure 9.7). They stain differently because their cell
walls are different; therefore, they cause different types of infections and need
different types of antibiotics to kill them.
Figure 9.7: Gram-positive bacteria (left) and gram-negative bacteria (right)

Source: Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

(c) Shapes
Bacteria are classified according to their basic shapes: spherical (cocci), rod
(bacilli), spiral (spirilla), comma (vibrios), or corkscrew (spirochetes) (see
Figure 9.8).
Figure 9.8: Bacterial shapes

(d) Oxygen Requirement

Bacteria are also classified by the need of oxygen to live and grow. Aerobic
bacteria (aerobes) need oxygen to live and grow. Anaerobic bacteria
(anaerobes) do not require oxygen in order to live and grow. Other than
aerobes and anaerobes, facultative bacteria can live and grow with or
without oxygen.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. Fill in the blanks with the correct terms.

a.
b.
c.
2. The types of bacterial shapes are ________________________.

9.3.4 The Effects of Bacteria

The effects of bacteria on the environment and human activities, their relationship
with plants and animals, and also on their use in food production and
biotechnological processes, can be beneficial or harmful.
(a) Effects of Bacteria on Human Life

The human body contains many types of bacteria that live on the skin
surface, on mucous membranes, and in the digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive systems. These bacteria do more good than harm and do not
necessarily cause disease. There are 10 times more bacteria on or in the
human body than the total number of human cells in the entire human body.
E. coli mostly lives in the digestive system, aiding in the breakdown of the
food we eat as well as assisting in waste processing, vitamin K and certain B
vitamins production, and food absorption.
(b) Effects of Bacteria as Pathogens (Cause Diseases)

Along with the beneficial importance of bacteria, there are also harmful
effects of bacteria. Some bacterial species cause diseases in human and
animals such as cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis and food borne illnesses. For an
infection to happen, bacteria gains access to the body tissues, for example,
through the mouth and/or nose. Therefore, bacterial infections of the digestive
system and lungs are common. Similarly, some bacteria that already exist in
the normal flora on the skin, in the mouth and human intestine also cause
diseases when the immune system has weakened. Antibiotics are normally
used to kill harmful bacteria and the diseases they cause.
(c) Nitrogen Fixation

Bacteria remove N2 from the atmosphere and convert it to ammonia (NH3),
for use by plants. Plants cannot extract atmospheric nitrogen and place it in
the soil, but plants need nitrogen in soil to synthesise proteins. So, bacteria
are needed to fix nitrogen as ammonia for plants. Bacteria also benefit from
the nitrogen fixation process, where they obtain a source of carbon and
energy for growth from the plant, as well as, a secure environment for them
to grow within the plant roots.
(d) Importance of Bacteria in Food Technology

Bacteria are involved to make a wide range of food products. The most used
bacteria in food technology are lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus
species. They have been used for preparing foods such as cheese, yoghurt,
and many more. Lactic acid bacteria are also used in food supplements, such
as, probiotics which help to restore the balance in the human digestive tract.
(e) Importance of Bacteria in Other Technologies

Some bacteria are essential in the process of waste materials decomposition,
which recycles important nutrients from dead animals and plants. Some
bacteria even help in clearing toxic waste. The pharmaceutical and chemical
industries use bacteria in the production of certain chemicals to be applied in
molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetic research, due to their rapid
growth and ease of manipulation. Scientists can use bacteria to study the
functions of genes and enzymes, as well as, bacterial metabolic pathways,
and subsequently test out their results on other complex organisms.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Bacteria growth requires favourable and optimal conditions. Discuss
in a small group the optimum conditions for the growth of bacteria.
2. By referring to Internet sources, discuss how the gram staining
works to differentiate bacteria. Why it is so important to identify
whether the particular bacteria is gram positive or negative?
9.4 ALGAE
Algae are eukaryotic microorganisms, and can be either unicellular (e.g.
Chlamydomonas) (see Figure 9.9(a)) or colonial (exist as aggregates of cells) (e.g.
Spirogyra) (see Figure 9.9(b)). Algae have a clear defined cell nucleus and
numerous membrane-enclosed intracellular structures. All algae contain
chlorophyll as plants do, and they make their own food by photosynthesis. Algae
are widely distributed in fresh or sea water, either free-floating (planktonic), or
attached on the surfaces of moist rocks or soil. Algae are also an important source
of food for other organisms as well as humans. The study of algae is known as
phycology (phyco, seaweed).
(a) (b)
Figure 9.9: Green algae (a) Chlamydomonas (b) Spirogyra
Source: Carolina Biological Supply
9.4.1 Characteristics of Algae

Algae can be characterised based on the types of chlorophyll present, carbon
reserve materials produced, cell wall structure, and motility.
(a) Chlorophylls and Carbon Reserve Materials

All algae contain chlorophyll a (green colour). Some algae appear brown or
red because of the presence of other pigments. Example: Brown algae
(Phaeophyta) contain chlorophylls a and c, and xanthophylls. Based on the
carbon reserve materials produced, the group Chlorophyta produce starch as
a result of the photosynthesis process. Other groups produce a variety of
carbon reserve materials.
(b) Cell Walls

The cell walls of algae are mainly composed of cellulose. Some algae have
calcium carbonate in their cell wall to form coral-like algae.
(c) Motility
Most algae are motile because of the presence of flagella. Chlorophyta have
either two or four flagella. Algae are nonmotile in the vegetative state, and
form motile gametes only during sexual reproduction.
SELF-CHECK 9.4
What is the common habitat of algae?
9.5 PROTOZOA
Protozoa are single-celled and eukaryotic microorganisms that do not have cell
walls. Protozoa have at least one nucleus and intracellular structures. They are
found in a variety of water and soil environments. Some protozoa are parasitic in
other plants and animals, including humans. The study of protozoa is known as
protozoology.
9.5.1 Characteristics of Protozoa

Protozoa can be characterised based on their mechanism of motility, method of
nutrition, and mode of reproduction (Yaeger, 1996).
(a) Motility and Nutrition

Protozoa are aquatic and motile microorganisms that can be amoebas (motile
by means of pseudopodia), flagellates (motile with flagella), and ciliates
(motile with cilia). Protozoa take up food by ingesting particulate materials
such as bacteria, yeast, algae, and other protozoa via phagocytosis, a process
of surrounding and engulfing the food particle into the cell. Some protozoa
have mouth-like openings to swallow food. All protozoa perform digestion
and absorption in food vacuoles, and subsequently eject waste substances.
(b) Reproduction
Asexual reproduction in protozoa such as amoeba and flagellates occurs by
binary fission, where the organelles are duplicated and then divide into two
organisms. Both sexual and asexual reproduction occur in the Apicomplexa.
9.5.2 Classification of Protozoa

Protozoa are classified into various groups based on their movement
(locomotion). The groups are Mastigophora, Sarcodina, Ciliaphora, and
Apicomplexa (Sporozoa) (see Figure 9.10).
Figure 9.10: Four groups of protozoa

Source: CliffsNotes/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
(a) Mastigophora
Commonly known as Flagellates. The flagella (long thread-like structures
that extend from the cell surface) move in a whip-like motion to produce
waves that propel the flagellates around. Examples: Trichomonas,
Trypanosoma, Giardia.
(b) Sarcodina
Known as the amoebas. An amoeba moves by extending the cell membrane,
forming a structure called a pseudopod (temporary protrusions filled with
cytoplasm that flows from the body of the cell). Examples: amoeba proteus,
entamoeba.
(c) Ciliophora
Known as the Ciliates. The largest group of protozoans, these protozoa have
cilia (tiny hair-like structures) that cover the outside of the cell. They beat in
a regular continuous pattern like flexible oars to move the cell through
water. Example: Paramecium.
(d) Apicomplexa (Sporozoa)

Commonly known as apicomplexans (or sporozoans). They are parasitic and
immobile. Example: plasmodium vivax (cause malaria).
SELF-CHECK 9.5
1. List the common names of the major groups of protozoa.

2. The largest group of protozoans are the ___________.
9.6 FUNGI
Fungi can be single-celled (e.g. yeasts) or multicellular (e.g. moulds and
mushrooms). They are widely distributed mainly in water and soil as decomposers
of dead organisms. Fungi grow in the soil or on dead plant matter where they play
an important role in the cycling of carbon and other elements. The study of fungi
is known as mycology (myco, a fungus).
9.6.1 Characteristics of Fungi

The characteristics of fungi are based on the components of the cell wall, their
metabolism, and features of reproduction.
(a) Cell Wall

The cell walls of most fungi contain chitin.
(b) Metabolism
Fungi are a diverse group of heterotrophs, which obtain nutrients by
absorption. Many are saprotrophs which digest materials from dead
organisms and organic wastes. Some are parasites which obtain nutrients
from other living organisms.
(c) Reproduction
Many fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, but only a few reproduce
asexually. Asexual reproduction involves asexual spore formation or mitotic
cell division such as budding in yeasts. Sexual reproduction occurs in
several stages: haploid gametes unite by fusion of cytoplasm (plasmogamy),
fusion of nuclei to form a diploid zygote (karyogamy), and finally the zygote
undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores.
9.6.2 Classification of Fungi

Fungi are classified based on the sexual stage in their life cycles. The major
groups of fungi are:
(a) Bread Mould (multicellular filamentous fungi)

The bread moulds, called Zygomycota, are made up of very fine filaments
(hyphae). Hyphae grow at the tip and keep growing across a surface and
intertwine resulting in a compact mat called a mycelium (see Figure 9.11).
From the mycelium, some of the hyphal branches grow into the air, and
spores (conidia) form on these aerial branches. Spores are similar to seeds
as they enable the fungus to reproduce. Some spores are easily carried by
wind. When the spores reach a new habitat with the right condition, they
start to grow (germinate) to produce new hyphae. Example: Rhizopus (see
Figure 9.12), and other bread moulds.
Figure 9.11: Diagram of a mould life cycle

Source: Gregory Dimijian/Science Photo Library
Figure 9.12: Rhizopus nigricans growing on bread

Source: Gregory Dimijian/Science Photo Library
(b) Club Fungi (macroscopic fungi that form large fruiting bodies)
The club fungi (Basidiomycota) such as mushroom have hyphae aggregated
to form mycelia, and produce club-shaped sexual structures called basidia.
Mushroom is the part of the fungus visible above the ground, that is, the
basidia, which is also known as the fruiting body. The fruiting body is made
up of tightly packed hyphae which divide to produce the different parts of

the fungal structure (cap and stem). Gills underneath the cap are covered
with sexual spores called basidiospores. Example: mushrooms
Leucoagaricus naucinus (see Figure 9.13), Amanita (poisonous mushroom).
Figure 9.13: Mushroom, Leucoagaricus naucinus

Source: Pamela Kaminski/MushroomExpert.com
(c) Sac Fungi (unicellular fungi)

The sac fungi called Ascomycota produce a saclike ascus during sexual
reproduction. Yeasts are classified as ascomycetes even though they have no
known sexual stage. Yeasts are small, oval-shaped single cells that are about
the same size as red blood cells. Yeasts multiply by budding where a daughter
cell forms as a small outgrowth of the original parent cell (see Figure 9.14).
The most commercial yeasts are the baker’s and brewer’s yeasts,
Saccharomyces (production of bread and in brewing). Other species of yeast
such as Candida are opportunistic pathogens that can cause vaginal, oral or
lung infections and, cause infections in individuals who do not have a healthy
immune system, such as, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency) patients.
Figure 9.14: Budding yeast

Source: Pamela Kaminski/MushroomExpert.com
(d) Fungi Imperfecti

The Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycota) are called “imperfect” because no
sexual life cycle has been observed. These fungi reproduce by asexual
spores known as conidia. Example: Penicillium.
9.6.3 Importance of Fungi

Fungi are important in several ways. They are important decomposers, as the
carbon and nitrogen compounds from the dead organisms contribute to the
recycling of materials in the ecosystems. Some mushrooms species are edible and
safe to be used as food for humans. Some fungi, such as, Penicillium produce
antibiotics that inhibit the growth of or kill bacteria.
SELF-CHECK 9.6
1. What is the difference between bread moulds and yeasts?

2. Why are the Fungi Imperfecti considered to be “imperfect”?
9.7 VIRUSES
A virus is a small infectious agent with genetic elements that can replicate
independently inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses are neither
prokaryotes nor eukaryotes because of their simplicity and unique characteristics.
Viruses are able to infect all types of life forms such as eukaryotic (i.e. animals
and plants), and prokaryotic (i.e. microorganisms, including bacteria) organisms.
Therefore, a virus can also be classified on the basis of the hosts they infect (i.e.
animal viruses, plant viruses, and bacteria viruses). The characteristics of carrying
genetic materials, ability to reproduce and evolving through natural selection,
make viruses to be considered life forms. Bacteria viruses (i.e. bacteriophage)
have been established as common model systems for research on molecular
biology and genetics of virus reproduction.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Virus has limitation to propagate on its own although it carries the
genetic code. Explain the limitations and strategies for viruses to survive.
9.7.1 Why Study Virology?

As we all know, viruses are among the most numerous microorganisms on earth
and infect all types of cellular organisms. Therefore, viruses are interesting to
study and investigate to have better understanding of the development of diseases

as well as genetics and biochemistry of cellular metabolism for the related
application. The study of viruses is known as virology.
9.7.2 Component of Viruses

Virus particles (also known as virions) consist of two or three parts (Figure 9.15):
(a) The genetic material (i.e. DNA or RNA), single-stranded or double-stranded
transcript molecules that carry genetic information;
(b) Capsid, a protein coat that protects the genetic material; and
(c) An envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat in the extracellular
form
Figure 9.15: Viral structure

Source: http://pixshark.com/hiv-virus-diagram.htm
9.7.3 Virus Replication

In extracellular form, the virus particle (i.e. virion) does not carry out respiratory
or biosynthetic functions for their replication process, and redirects pre-existing
host machineries and metabolic functions to support virus replication and the
assembly of new virions (i.e. viruses). Moreover, virus genome has limited
capacity; therefore genetic code only encodes primarily those functions that
cannot be produced by the hosts.
In intracellular state, virus replication occurs where new copies of virus genome
are replicated; the components that build up the virus structure are synthesised,
and by utilising the host system.
Virus infections can give important new properties to their host cell, where the
new properties can be inherited when the host cell divides. Some alterations are
often not harmful, and may bring beneficial properties in the evolution process.
Virus replication occurs in several steps (see Figure 9.16):

(a) Adsorption - attachment of viruses to host cells;
(b) Penetration - entry of viruses (or their nucleic acid) into host cells;
(c) Synthesis - synthesis of nucleic acid molecules, proteins, and other viral
components in the host cells;
(d) Maturation - assembly and packaging of synthesised viral components into
new virus particles; and
(e) Release - departure of mature virions from host cells.
Figure 9.16: The stages of virus replication

Source: Madigan et al. (2003)
SELF-CHECK 9.7
1. The study of viruses is known as _____________________.
2. Describe these TWO (2) stages in a virus life cycle:

(a) Extracellular form; and
(b) Intracellular form.
3. Explain why viruses use the host’s translational machinery.
9.7.4 Shapes and Sizes

Viruses have a range of shapes and sizes. The shape and size of a virus help us to
understand its class and components.
(a) Virus particles (i.e. virions) vary widely in sizes and shapes. Generally,
viruses are smaller than cells, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.3 µm.
(b) Most viruses are too small to be seen directly with a microscope (i.e. for
comparison: one-hundredth the size of the average bacterium).
(c) The shapes of viruses can be as simple as helical and icosahedral forms, to
more complex structures.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Microorganisms are closely associated with humans, therefore they are
important to human health and activities. Using appropriate examples,
discuss in a small group the importance of microorganisms in human life.
SELF-CHECK 9.8
Indicate whether each of the following statements is True (T) or False (F).
(a) _______ Yeasts are in the fungi category.
(b) ______ Viruses can multiply outside of a living cell.
(c) ______ Bread moulds produce basidiospores.
(d) ______ Amoebas move by means of pseudopodia.
(e) ______ Protozoa are classified into various groups based on their
life cycle.
● Microbiology is the study of all microorganisms (microbes), either unicellular

(single cell), multicelullar, or acellular (lacking cells), which are so small that
you need a microscope to study them.
● The first and largest group for microorganisms classification is called a

domain. The second largest group is called a kingdom. A kingdom is further
split into phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
● Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms classified as prokaryotes. Bacteria

reproduce by binary fission where a single cell rapidly divides into two new
cells (replicates).
● The effects of bacteria can be beneficial or harmful to the environment and

human activities, their relationships with plants and animals, and their uses in
food production and biotechnological processes.
● Algae are eukaryotic microorganisms and can be either unicellular or colonial,

and they have a clear defined cell nucleus and numerous membrane-enclosed
intracellular structures. All algae contain chlorophyll as plants do, and they
make their own food by photosynthesis.
● Protozoa are single-celled and eukaryotic microorganisms that do not have

cell walls, and can be characterised based on their mechanism of motility,
method of nutrition, and mode of reproduction.
● Fungi are important decomposers, as the carbon and nitrogen compounds from
the dead organisms contribute to the recycling of materials in the ecosystems.
Some fungi such as Penicillium produce antibiotics that inhibit the growth or
kill bacteria.
● A virus is a small infectious agent with genetic elements that can replicate
independently inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses are able to
infect all types of life forms, such as, eukaryotic (i.e. animals and plants), and
prokaryotic (i.e. microorganisms, including bacteria) organisms.
Asexual Motile
Eukaryote Multicellular
Extracellular Prokaryote
Gene Sexual
Intracellular
Black, J. G. (2002). Microbiology: Principles and explorations (5th ed.). John Wiley &
Sons.
Boundless.com. (2015). Classification of microorganisms. Retrieved from

https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless-
microbiology-textbook/introduction-to-microbiology-1/microbes-and-the-
world-19/classification-of-microorganisms-208-1908/
Boundless.com. (2014). Nitrogen fixation: Root and bacteria interactions.

Retrieved from https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-
biology-textbook/soil-and-plant-nutrition-31/nutritional-adaptations-of-plants-
188/nitrogen-fixation-root-and-bacteria-interactions-715-11939/
Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., & Parker, J. (2003). Brock biology of microorganisms
(10th ed.). Pearson Education.
Nordqvist, C. (2014). What is bacteria? What are bacteria? Retrieved from

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/157973.php
UXL Encyclopedia of Science. (2002). Bacteria. Retrieved from

http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3438100087.html
Yaeger, R. G. (1996). Protozoa: Structure, classification, growth, and

development. In. Baron S. (Eds.), Medical microbiology (4th ed., chapter 77).
Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
Topic  Microbiology:
10 Applications
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the relationship between microorganisms and food, with
regard to food production, foodborne diseases, and food preservation
(i.e. food microbiology);
2. Explain the function and diversity of microorganisms in their natural
environments (i.e. environmental microbiology);
3. Describe the uses of microorganisms in industrial processes (i.e.
industrial microbiology);
4. Discuss the microbial control strategies in the production of
pharmaceutical products (i.e. pharmaceutical microbiology);
5. Illustrate the approaches used in response to diseases caused by
microorganisms in medical microbiology; and
6. Outline the basic techniques and applications of genetic engineering.
 INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms are important to every aspect of human life. In fact, throughout
the years, humans have used microorganisms for virtually everything, from
making food to medicine, and many other applications of microorganisms.
As we all know, other than basic science microbiology (referred to in the previous
topic), the future of applied microbiology is promising and rapidly advancing.
Applied microbiology refers to the applications of knowledge of how
microorganisms can be controlled or used for various purposes, such as, food
TOPIC 10 MICROBIOLOGY: APPLICATIONS  201
microbiology, environmental microbiology, industrial microbiology,

pharmaceutical microbiology, medical microbiology, and genetic engineering.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Microbiologists study various kinds of problems that involve

microorganisms. In groups, elaborate on three fields where
microbiologists can apply their knowledge.
10.1 FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Food microbiology deals with the interaction of microorganisms and food – from
food production, preventing food spoilage and food borne diseases, and also food
preservation. Microorganisms play important roles in the food industry.
10.1.1 Microorganisms as Food Source and in Food

Production
Microorganisms are important factors in our food supply. A vast majority of foods
we consume are produced or enhanced by microbial action.
(a) Fungi (yeasts, mushrooms), bacteria and algae are often used as human foods.
The following are further descriptions of yeasts and mushrooms.
(i) Yeasts
Yeasts are rich in protein and vitamins. Dried yeast is marketed as a
nutritional supplement in health-food stores.
(ii) Mushrooms
The commercially grown mushroom in most parts of the world is
Agaricus bisporus (see Figure 10.1a). Another widely cultivated
mushroom is shiitake, Lentinus edulus (see Figure 10.1b). The shiitake
mushroom is sold at a higher price because of its superior taste to
Agaricus bisporus.
202  TOPIC 10 MICROBIOLOGY: APPLICATIONS
(a) (b)
Figure 10.1: Mushroom production (a) Agaricus bisporus (b) Shiitake mushroom
Source: Tom Volk’s Fungi, Agroforestry at UBC Farm
(iii) Bacteria
Some bacteria such as cyanobacteria, Spirulina (usually dried) is a
very valuable food rich in protein.
(iv) Algae
Algae also show great promise for increasing human food supplies.
Algae such as red algae are dried and pressed into sheets. Nori, the
dried sheets, are usually used to wrap sushi rolls.
(b) In food production, certain microorganisms are used to make a variety of

foods.
The following are further explanations of the microorganisms that are used
in certain foods.
(i) Bread
In bread making, yeast is used as a leavening agent to produce gas that
makes the dough rise. The most common yeast is the Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. Home bakers usually use activated dry yeast (prepared by
the lyophilisation of yeast cells).
(ii) Dairy products

Yogurt is made by adding Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus bulgaricus to milk.
(iii) Cheeses
The process in making any cheese is to add lactic acid bacteria,
Lactobacilli, and the enzyme rennin to pasteurised milk. The
bacterium sours the milk, and the rennin coagulates the milk protein
casein. The solid portion (curd) is used to make cheese, and the liquid
portion (whey) is a waste product of this process. Curds are drained,
pressed and salted. Salting helps remove water from the cheese,
prevents growth of undesired microorganisms, and adds flavour to the
cheese.
(iv) Other products

Other food produced by microbial fermentation include vinegar,
pickles, soy sauce, and other soy products. For example, vinegar is
made from ethyl alcohol by the acetic acid bacterium, Acetobacter
aceti. These bacteria oxidise ethyl alcohol to acetic acid.
10.1.2 Food Spoilage

Foods usually spoil due to contamination by microorganisms. Food spoilage
happens with the change of appearance, smell, or taste of a food product that is
considered unacceptable for human consumption.
(a) Grains
Various types of grains (e.g. wheat) are dry when properly harvested.
However, under moist conditions, grains can be easily contaminated with
moulds and other microorganisms. Most grains are used in making breads
and cereals. Bread is susceptible to spoilage by the most common bread
mould, Rhizopus nigricans.
(b) Fruits and vegetables

Most fruits and vegetables are vulnerable to microbial spoilage, which causes
soft rot and mould damage (see Figure 10.2). Example: Fungi, Penicillium
species produce blue and green mould on citrus fruits.
Figure 10.2: Rotten apple

Source: https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless-microbiology-
textbook/industrial-microbiology-17/food-preservation-202/food-spoilage-by-microbes-
1015-5468/
(c) Meats and poultry

Meats and poultry contain many microorganisms. Therefore, all meats
especially ground meats should be cooked thoroughly to kill pathogens.
Example: Bacteria, Pseudomonas mephitica causes green discolouration on
refrigerated meat under low oxygen conditions.
(d) Seafood
Fish and shellfish (e.g. oysters and clams) contain several species of bacteria,
viruses, and parasitic worms. Raw oysters usually carry Salmonella
typhimurium and Vibrio cholerae.
(e) Milk
Microorganisms can enter milk even before it is consumed. Milk can contain
microorganisms from cow, milk handlers, and the environment. Some
microorganisms, such as, bacteria, Acinetobacter johnsoni causes slime to
form in milk, and Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus species cause
souring of milk.
(f) Other substances

Tea, coffee, cocoa, and spices are subjected to mould contamination, if they
are not kept dry. Foods with added sugar also support growth of various
microorganisms, because sugar is an excellent nutrient for them. Conversely,
foods with high sugar concentration act as a preservative (e.g. jams and
candies), which creates osmotic pressure to inhibit microbial growth.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. A green discolouration on refrigerated meat may be caused by the
growth of: ___________________
2. Describe the process of cheese production.
3. Souring of milk greatly alters the taste and appearance of the milk.
Which microorganisms sour milk?
10.1.3 Foodborne Diseases

Foodborne diseases can be separated into two categories, food poisoning and food
infection. Foodborne diseases are commonly caused by bacteria, viruses, and
parasites or their toxins.
(a) Food poisoning results from the consumption of foods containing microbial
toxins. The most common food poisoning is caused by the gram-positive
bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus. When growing in foods, S. aureus produce
heat-stable enterotoxins into the food; once ingested, they cause nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhoea within one to six hours.
(b) Food infection results from consumption of pathogen-contaminated food
due to the direct effects (growth and invasion) of microorganisms in the
body. Food infection is a common type of foodborne disease, where the food
may contain enough pathogens to cause disease in the host. Salmonellosis, a
common food infection results from ingestion of food containing
Salmonella. Salmonella normally inhabit the small and large intestine.
Symptoms, such as, headache, chills, vomiting, diarrhoea, and fever occur 8
to 48 hours after ingestion. Other than Salmonella, E. coli can also cause
serious food infection.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Foodborne diseases include food poisoning resulting from the action of
microbial toxins, and food infection is due to the growth and invasion of
microorganisms in the body. In your own words, differentiate between
food poisoning and food infection.
10.1.4 Food Preservation

There are several processes of food preservation and storage that will inhibit or
stop the growth of microorganisms in food.
(a) Refrigeration and freezing

Generally, a lower storage temperature results in a lower spoilage rate.
Refrigeration at temperatures of about 4°C is suitable for preserving foods
for only a few days. Freezing at a temperature of -20°C are commonly used
for the preservation of meats and other fruits and vegetables (see Figure
10.3a). However, freezing and thawing can change the physical structure of
foods. For example, it causes some foods, especially fruits and watery
vegetables to become soft upon thawing. Besides that, microbial growth can
still occur, as soon as food begins to thaw.
(b) Acidity
Another factor affecting microbial growth in food is pH or acidity. At pH 5 or
less (acidic), the growth of most spoilage microorganisms is inhibited.
Therefore, acid is normally used in food preservation, a process called pickling.
Vinegar (diluted acetic acid) in addition to salt or sugar, are used in the pickling
process to prevent microbial growth in pickled foods, such as, cucumbers,
meats, fish, and fruits. In fermented foods, acid is produced in food as a result
of microbial action, such as, in yogurt, cheese, and sour cream.
(c) Drying and lyophilisation

Water activity is the availability of water for metabolic processes of
microorganisms. A certain level of water activity is important for microbial
growth. Natural (sun drying) or artificial heat, with addition of high
concentrations of salt or sugar, is often used for drying (see Figure 10.3b).
Lyophilisation (freeze-drying) involves drying frozen foods in a vacuum.
This process yields better quality foods than with ordinary drying methods.
(d) Canning
Canning is a method of food preservation in which a food is sealed in metal
cans or glass jars, and heated under pressure to kill all spoilage
microorganisms. The food should remain stable, unspoiled, and edible, even
when stored in the absence of refrigeration (see Figure 10.3c).
(e) Chemical additives

Certain chemicals are added to foods to destroy microorganisms or control
their growth. Organic acids such as sodium propionate, sodium benzoate,
and sorbic acid inhibit growth of yeast and other fungi in bread, fruit juices,
margarine, and pickles.
(f) Irradiation
Irradiation of food, using ionising irradiation as a method of preservation, is
now a standard method to control contamination by microorganisms. For food
irradiation, gamma rays from cobalt-60 or cesium-137 have been used to
irradiate fresh meat products, fresh fish, spices, fresh fruits, and vegetables.
Figure 10.3: Food preservation (a) Freezing (b) Drying (c) Canning
10.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY

Environmental microbiology (or known as microbial ecology) is the study of the
relationships among microorganisms and their environments. Environmental
microbiology applies the knowledge of microorganisms to maintain safe drinking
water, disposal of wastes, and controlling environmental pollution. There are
different kinds of environments – from air, soil, and water, to the microorganisms
they contain.
10.2.1 Roles of Microorganisms in the Environment

Microorganisms are everywhere in the environment, such as, in the air we
breathe, the soil where food is grown, and the water we drink. The roles of
microorganisms in the environment need to be understood in order to control

disease caused by microorganisms in air, soil, and water.
Microorganisms can be producers, consumers, or decomposers in the

environment. Producers (autotrophs) include photosynthetic microorganisms such
as cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae. They capture energy from the sun and use
nutrients from soil or water to produce substances they need to support their
growth and other activities. Consumers (heterotrophs) obtain nutrients by eating
the producers or other consumers. Other microorganisms act as decomposers.
Decomposers obtain energy by recycling nutrients from waste products of
producers and consumers.
In fact, these microorganisms play a vital role in biogeochemical cycles; bio refers to
living things and geo refers to the Earth, the environment of the living things.
Biogeochemical cycles involve the recycling of elements by microorganisms. The
biogeochemical cycles include the carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus cycles.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Microorganisms can be producers, consumers or decomposers in the

environment. Differentiate producers, consumers and decomposers.
10.2.2 Microorganisms in Air

Microorganisms do not grow in air, but are transmitted by air because they lack
the nutrient needed for growth and metabolism. Various types and numbers of
airborne microorganisms exist in different environments. For example, large
numbers of different kinds of microorganisms are present in poorly ventilated
buildings and crowded areas. Mould spores are the most numerous
microorganisms found in air. Bacteria, algae, protozoa, yeasts, and viruses have
also been isolated from air.
Methods for controlling microorganisms in air include the use of chemical agents,
radiation, filtration, and laminar airflow. All of them are described as follows:
(a) Chemical agents

Certain chemical agents which are highly bactericidal and non-toxic to
humans are dispersed as aerosols to kill most microorganisms in room air.
(b) Radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is useful in maintaining sterile conditions in a room
where the number of microorganisms has been reduced.
(c) Filtration
Air filtration involves passing air through fibrous materials such as cotton or
fibreglass. In industrial processes, sterile air must go through large
fermentation vats.
(d) Laminar airflow

Filters can be installed in a laminar airflow system to remove microorganisms
that may have escaped into the air underneath the laminar flow hood.
10.2.3 Microorganisms in Soil

Components of soil are as follows:
(a) Soil is divided into a number of layers which include the topsoil, subsoil,
and bedrock.
(b) Topsoil (the surface layer of soil) contains the largest number of
microorganisms, due to well supplied oxygen and nutrients.
(c) Lower layers of soil (subsoil and bedrock), depleted of oxygen and nutrients,
contain fewer microorganisms.
(d) Despite the variety of soil organisms (e.g. earthworms, snails, insects, etc),
microorganisms are numerous in total numbers and species. They make
great demands on soil nutrients as most microorganisms act as decomposers
(see Figure 10.4). When nutrients are abundant, the number of
microorganisms increases accordingly.
Figure 10.4: Examples of microorganisms in soil

Source: http://statebystategardening.com/state.php/articles/no_fuss_no_till
Major groups of microorganisms found in soil are as follows:

(a) All the major groups of microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, protozoa,
fungi, and viruses are present in soil, but bacteria are more numerous than
other kinds of microorganisms.
(b) Soil fungi, mostly moulds, are also a large group of microorganisms. In
addition to moulds, yeasts are abundant in soils where grapes and other
fruits are growing.
(c) Algae are found only on the soil surface in order to carry on photosynthesis.
(d) Protozoa in soils usually feed on bacteria and help to control bacterial
populations.
Soil microorganisms interact with their environment. Environmental factors

affecting soil microorganisms include:
(a) Moisture content

Moist soils support the growth of microorganisms better than dry soils.
(b) Oxygen concentration

Oxygen dissolves poorly in water. In waterlogged soils which are lower in
oxygen, only anaerobic bacteria grow there.
(c) pH
Soil pH can vary from 2 to 9. Most soil bacteria have an optimum pH
between 6 and 8, whereas some moulds can grow at almost any soil pH.
(d) Temperature
Soil temperature varies from below freezing to as high as 60°C at soil
surfaces exposed to intense sunlight. Most soil moulds are mesophilic,
which are found in soils of moderate temperature. Mesophilic and
thermophilic bacteria are abundant in warm to hot soils, whereas cold-
tolerant mesophilic bacteria are present in cold soils.
10.2.4 Microorganisms in Water

All freshwater, ocean (marine) water, and even rainwater contain microorganisms.
Which microorganisms are present depends on the temperature and pH of the
water, oxygen’s concentration, the depth of sunlight penetration, and the quantity
of nutrients in the water.
(a) Freshwater environments

Freshwater systems are characterised by low salt content, which include
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and groundwater.
(i) Water temperature

Water temperatures vary from 0°C to nearly 100°C. Most
microorganisms survive in water at moderate temperatures. Some
thermophilic bacteria are found at a water temperature above 90°C, and
psychrophilic fungi and bacteria are found in water at 0°C.
(ii) pH
The pH of freshwater varies from two to nine. A few microorganisms
are found in both extremely acidic and alkaline waters, even though
most microorganisms grow in waters of neutral pH.
(iii) Oxygen concentration

Oxygen can be the limiting factor in the growth of microorganisms.
Oxygen depletion is more common in lakes and ponds than in running
water, such as, rivers and streams, because the movement of running
water causes it to be continuously oxygenated.
(iv) Sunlight penetration

Photosynthetic microorganisms such as eukaryotic algae, and
cynobacteria are limited to water that receive adequate sunlight.
(iv) Nutrient concentrations

Most freshwaters are rich in nutrient. For example, sometimes an
overabundance of nutrients leads to algal bloom (sudden proliferation of
microorganisms) to develop on ponds.
(b) Marine (or ocean) environments

Marine systems are characterised by a salt content which is about seven
times as salty as freshwater. Therefore, organisms that live in marine
environments must be able to tolerate high salinity.
(i) Water temperature

Ocean water ranges from 0°C (lowest depths), 30-40°C (surface) to
250°C (volcanic areas). At any location and depth, the temperature is
nearly constant.
(ii) pH
The pH of ocean water ranges from nearly neutral to slightly alkaline
(pH 6.5 to 8.3), which is suitable for growth of many microorganisms.
(iii) Oxygen concentration

Oxygen is released by photosythetic microorganisms in sunlit water,
which diffuses into surface water.
(iv) Sunlight penetration

Sunlight of sufficient intensity to support photosynthesis depends on the
season, latitude, and transparency of water. Deep water lacks sunlight.
(iv) Nutrient concentrations

Nutrient concentrations depend on depth and proximity to the shore.
Nutrients are plentiful near the shore, whereas nutrients in the waters of
the open ocean are quite dilute. Photosynthetic microorganisms near the
surface serve as food for heterotrophic organisms at the same or deeper
levels.
10.2.5 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a process that uses microorganisms such as yeast, fungi, and
bacteria to clean up toxicity in the environment, by transforming harmful
substances into less toxic or nontoxic compounds.
There are two types of bioremediation:
(a) Natural bioremediation

Microorganisms degrade a variety of organic compounds in nature to
obtain nutrients, carbon, and energy for growth and survival. The most
known application is the use of bacteria to clean oil spills.
(b) Artificial (genetically engineered) bioremediation

Genetically modified microorganisms are used to specifically degrade
certain pollutants. However, at present, only naturally occurring
microorganisms are used in bioremediation. Safety measures are required
in developing bioengineered microorganisms to evaluate any possible risks
to human health or to the environment.
There are both advantages and disadvantages to the use of bioremediation (refer to
Table 10.1):
Table 10.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioremediation
Advantages Disadvantages
 Bioremediation is an ecologically  Bioremediation often takes longer time
“natural” process which destroys target than other methods such as excavation
chemicals at the contamination site. (digging) and incineration (burning).
 The process is considered less  The techniques are not yet refined for
expensive than other methods used for sites with mixtures of contaminants, as
cleaning up harmful wastes. more research is needed to perfect this
technology.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. The most common microbiological contaminant found in air is

_______________.
2. Describe the four methods for controlling microorganisms in air.
3. List four environmental factors affecting soil microorganisms.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bioremediation?
10.3 INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY

Industrial microbiology is the discipline that uses microorganisms (usually grown
in large scale) to produce valuable commercial products, or carry out industrial
chemical processes. The most used industrial microorganisms are fungi (yeasts
and moulds), and certain bacteria. Products of industrial microbiology include the
microbial cells themselves, for example, yeast cultivated for food or baking, and
products made from cells (e.g. enzymes, antibiotics, food additives, alcohol, and
chemicals).
10.3.1 Important Properties of an Industrial

Microorganism
The important characteristics and properties of a useful industrial microoorganism
are as follows:
(a) Capable of growth and able to produce the product of interest in high yields;
(b) Grows rapidly on inexpensive culture medium in bulk quantities;
(c) Should be amenable to genetic manipulation, as increased yields are
obtained by a genetically stable and easily manipulated producing
microorganism; and
(d) Should be non-pathogenic to humans and animals or plants.
10.3.2 Products of Industrial Microbiology

Products of industrial microbiology are antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, and
other biological products.
(a) Antibiotics
Of all the microbial products, antibiotic production is a huge industry
worldwide, and the most manufactured commercially. As we all know,
antibiotics are chemical substances produced by microorganisms to kill or
inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. Industrial microbiologists
must work hard to screen new antibiotics, as pathogens continually
develop resistance to antibiotics. They also look for ways to make
available antibiotics in large quantities, as well as, be more effective, such
as, increase potency, improve therapeutic properties, and make antibiotics
more resistant to inactivation by microorganisms. The examples of
industrial production of antibiotics are penicillins (produced by moulds of
the genera Penicillium), and tetracyclines (produced by Streptomyces
bacteria).
(b) Enzymes
Enzymes are produced commercially from fungi and bacteria. Enzymes
are usually produced in large amounts and extracted from microorganisms.
Of the commercially available enzymes, the most produced industrial
enzymes in largest quantities are the proteases and amylases. Proteases
(made from bacteria, Bacillus and mould, Aspergillus), which degrade
proteins, are used as additives in laundry detergents. Amylases are used in
the production of glucose from starch.
(c) Amino acids

The most important commercial amino acid is glutamic acid which is used
to make the flavour enhancer, monosodium glutamate (MSG). Other
microbially synthesised amino acids are lysine, phenylalanine, and aspartic
acid. These amino acids are produced by mutant strains of bacteria, such
as, Brevibacterium flavum and Corynebacterium glutamicum.
(d) Other biological products

The major categories of other biological products of industrial
microbiology are vitamins, hormones, and single-cell proteins. Vitamins
produced microbially include vitamin B12 and riboflavin. The main
commercial producers of vitamin B12 are bacteria of the genera
Propionibacterium and Pseudomonas. Riboflavin is also synthesised by
many microorganisms, such as, bacteria, yeasts, and fungi. Hormones that
can be produced industrially by microorganisms are steroid, insulin,
human growth hormone, and somatostatin. Single-cell proteins (SCP) are
whole organisms rich in protein, usually used in animal feed. For example,
certain Candida species make protein from paper pulp wastes.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. List the important properties of an industrial microorganism.
2. What is the use of single-cell proteins?
10.4 PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY

Pharmaceutical microbiology is a special branch of industrial microbiology that
deals with the use of microorganisms in the manufacture of pharmaceutical
products such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other health products. It also involves
the study of microorganisms that cause pharmaceutical contamination and
spoilage. The manufacture and quality control of pharmaceutical products include
minimising the number of microorganisms in pharmaceutical processes,
environments and water, validating the test methods used in testing finished
products, and ensuring the sterility (free of microorganisms) of the final
pharmaceutical products (Magdy 2014).
10.4.1 Drug Safety

Drug safety is a main focus of pharmaceutical microbiology. Pharmaceutical
microbiologists emphasise greatly on quality control to make sure the supply of
drugs and other pharmaceutical products are free from contamination by
microorganisms. Pathogenic bacteria, yeasts, moulds, and toxins produced by
microorganisms are all likely contaminants of drugs, although strict and regulated
processes are carried out to ensure the risk is minimal. Contamination by
microorganisms in pharmaceutical products is a serious problem, as they can
cause illness or death.
10.4.2 Antimicrobial Activity and Disinfection

Pharmaceutical microbiology also focuses on the aspect of antimicrobial activity.
This is to determine how a product will react in cases of contamination. In
sanitation measures, pharmaceutical microbiology is also involved with the
evaluation of disinfectants effectiveness in suspension, on surfaces, and through
field trials.
10.4.3 Microbiological Testing of Pharmaceutical

Products
Microbiological testing of pharmaceutical products is important to determine the
presence or absence of microorganisms in the product. The test methods involve
testing with defined specifications for the amount of microorganisms allowed in a
given amount of product.
10.4.4 Contamination Control

Contamination control through appropriate monitoring is designed to detect the
presence of bacteria and fungi in defined locations/areas, during a particular stage
in the activity of processing and filling a product.
10.5 MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY

Medical microbiology is the application of knowledge with the study of causative
agents of infectious diseases, diagnosis, treatment, and control of infection in
humans. Medical microbiology generally focuses on the presence and growth of
microbial infections in individuals, their effects on the human body, and the
methods of treating those infections.
Medical microbiology is not only about diagnosing and treating disease; it also
involves the study of useful microorganisms. Microorganisms have been shown to
be helpful in preventing infectious diseases and improving health.
10.5.1 Causes of Diseases

Infectious diseases can be caused by many types of microorganisms, such as,
bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites (refer to Table 10.2).
Table 10.2: Types of Infectious Diseases
Microorganisms Agent Diseases

Bacteria  Mycobacterium tuberculosis  Tuberculosis
 Salmonella typi  Typhoid fever
Fungi  Candida albicans  Candidiasis
 Aspergillus funigatus or A.  Aspergillosis
flavus
Viruses  Human papillomavirus (HPV)  Warts

 Hepatitis C virus (HCV)  Hepatitis C
Parasites  Plasmodium species  Malaria
 Toxoplasma gondii  Toxoplasmosis
10.5.2 Diagnosis
Detailed diagnosis of infectious diseases generally involves identification methods
to find out which microorganisms could be causing the disease.
(a) Microbiological culture

Microbiological culture is used for isolating infectious disease for study in the
laboratory. Tissue or fluid samples are tested for the presence of a specific
pathogen, which is determined by growth in a selective or differential
medium.
(b) Microscopy
Microscopy is used prior to the microbiological culture techniques, to further
identify and observe the microorganisms in detail.
(c) Biochemical test

Biochemical tests can also be used to identify infectious agents. For bacterial
identification, the use of metabolic or enzymatic characteristics is common,
due to their ability to ferment carbohydrates in patterns characteristic of their
genus and species. Serological methods (identification of antibodies in serum
and other bodily fluids) are also used to identify different types of
microrganisms. The methods, such as, immunoassays can detect antigens
from either infectious agents or the proteins generated by an infected host in
response to the infection.
(d) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

PCR methods are the most commonly used molecular technique to detect
microorganisms. It can study the DNA sequences of newly discovered
infectious microorganisms or strains, and compare the DNA sequences in
the listed databases. This helps to know which microorganism is the cause of
the infectious disease, and what types of treatment could be used.
10.5.3 Treatment
After an infection has been known, appropriate treatment must be referred for
consultation by the doctor, or other healthcare professional and medical
microbiologists. Some infections can be overcome by the body’s own immune
system, but more serious infections are treated with antimicrobial drugs. Bacterial,
fungal, and viral infections are treated with antibiotics, antifungals, and antivirals,
respectively. Antiparasitics are used to treat parasitic diseases.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
1. What are the major focuses of pharmaceutical microbiology?
2. Name two infectious diseases caused by bacteria.
3. Describe the identification methods for detailed diagnosis of
infectious diseases.
10.6 GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering (or recombinant DNA technology) refers to the purposeful
and direct manipulation of genetic material to alter the characteristics of an
organism in a desired way. It deals with the use of microorganisms to synthesise
products useful to humans. The majority of genetic engineering is based on
molecular cloning (also called gene cloning).
10.6.1 Techniques of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering techniques allow the modification of DNA of living
organisms. The most useful technique of genetic engineering is the production of
recombinant DNA (see Figure 10.3).
(a) Isolation and synthesis of DNA

The following is the description of isolation and synthesis of DNA.
(i) Restriction enzymes

A gene of interest is isolated from the DNA molecule using the
restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes (or restriction endonucleases)
are enzymes specialised in the cutting of DNA fragments at specific
sites of the DNA molecule. The resulting DNA molecules will be

inserted into other DNA molecules cut by the same enzymes.
(ii) DNA analysis

After cleaving the DNA by restriction enzymes, the restriction
fragments can be separated via gel electrophoresis. Gel electrophoresis
can sort the fragments according to length. The DNA band with the
correct size should contain the gene and can be excised from the gel.
(iii) Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

DNA can also be synthesised by the polymerase chain reaction. PCR
allows rapid and efficient amplification of DNA to yield large amounts
of specific genes. PCR is extremely valuable for obtaining DNA for
cloning, because the gene of interest can easily be amplified if flanking
sequences are known.
(b) Gene cloning

Gene cloning will be explained as follows:
Cloning vectors (plasmids)
The DNA fragments are joined to a cloning vector with DNA ligase.
Cloning vector’s characteristics are self-replicating, small, circular shape,
proper size, and have markers, such as, antibiotic resistance. The gene or
DNA along with the vector is called as recombinant DNA.
(c) Hosts for cloning vectors

Here, we are going to discuss hosts for cloning in details.
(i) Transformation
The recombinant DNA is introduced into a host organism by DNA
transformation where it can replicate. Transformation of host DNA
usually involves the use of bacterial species (e.g. E. coli) to take up
vector DNA by methods such as heat shock. Besides E. coli,
eukaryotic microorganism such as yeast S. cerevisiae is being
extensively used as a cloning host (see Figure 10.5).
(ii) Screening/selection
Screening for hosts containing the cloning vector is done by selecting a
vector marker (antibiotic resistance), so only those cells can grow and
form colonies in a medium containing antibiotics. This also indicates
whether transformation has been successful.
Figure 10.5: Basic techniques of genetic engineering to produce recombinant DNA

Source: Access Excellence @ the National Health Museum
ACTIVITY 10.4
Genetic engineering involves many different genetic techniques.
Describe the techniques used in molecular cloning. Include the terms
cloning vector, restriction enzymes, and transformation.
10.6.2 Applications of Genetic Engineering

The applications of genetic engineering include medicine, research, industry, and
agriculture, and can be used on plants, animals and microorganisms.
(a) Medicine
Genetic engineering has been used in the production of the hormone insulin,
vaccines, human growth hormone, human albumin, monoclonal antibodies,
and many other drugs. The medically significant application of genetic
engineering is the modification of bacterial cells to make substances useful
to humans. To make bacterial cells produce human proteins, a human gene
with the information for synthesising the protein is inserted into the vector.
The hormone insulin is among the first products made with recombinant
DNA technology.
(b) Research
Genetic engineering acts as a valuable tool for scientists. Genes and other
genetic information from various organisms are transformed into bacteria for
modification and storage. It is possible to create genetically modified
bacteria, as they are cheap, multiply rapidly, easy to grow, transform, and
store. Thus, the isolated gene stored inside the bacteria provides unlimited
supply for research. Microorganisms are also genetically engineered to
discover the functions of certain genes. This is applied based on the
phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed, or on what other
genes it interacts with.
(c) Industry
Industrial applications include transforming microorganisms such as bacteria
or yeast with a gene coding, for a useful protein. Yield of proteins, such as,
enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, and industrial chemicals can be increased
by genetic modification to create new combinations of genetic material in
microorganisms. Oil-eating recombinant bacteria can also clean up oil spills
or remove oil residue from empty tankers.
(d) Agriculture
In agricultural applications, genetic engineering is also used to create
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or GM plants. For example, in vitro
genetic techniques are used to modify plant DNA, by using vectors from the
bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens which can transfer DNA directly to
certain plants. Major areas targeted for genetic improvement in plants
include herbicide, insect, and microbial disease resistance, as well as,
improved product quality.
SELF-CHECK 10.5
1. Describe at least two applications of genetic engineering.
2. What are the main focuses of genetic improvement in plants?
 Food microbiology deals with the interaction of microorganisms and food –

from food production, preventing food spoilage, and foodborne diseases, to
food preservation.
 Food spoilage happens with the change of appearance, smell or taste of a food
product, which is considered unacceptable for human consumption.
 Foodborne diseases can be separated into two categories, food poisoning and
food infection.
 There are several processes of food preservation and storage; refrigeration and
freezing, acidity, drying and lyophilisation, canning, chemical additives, and
irradiation.
 Environmental microbiology (also known as microbial ecology) is the study of

the relationships among microorganisms and their environments (air, soil and
water).
 Microorganisms can be producers, consumers, or decomposers in the

environment.
 Bioremediation is a process that uses microorganisms such as yeast, fungi, and

bacteria to clean up toxicity in the environment, by transforming harmful
substances into less toxic or nontoxic compounds.
 Industrial microbiology is the discipline that uses microorganisms to produce

valuable commercial products, or carry out industrial chemical processes.
 Pharmaceutical microbiology is a special branch of industrial microbiology

that deals with the use of microorganisms in the manufacture of
pharmaceutical products such as antibiotics, vaccine, and other health
products.
 Medical microbiology is the application of knowledge with the study of

causative agents of infectious diseases, diagnosis, treatment, and control of
infection in humans. It generally focuses on the presence and growth of
microbial infections in individuals, their effects on the human body, and the
methods of treating those infections.
 Genetic engineering (or recombinant DNA technology) refers to the

purposeful and direct manipulation of genetic material to alter the
characteristics of an organism in a desired way. It deals with the use of
microorganisms to synthesise products useful to humans. The majority of
genetic engineering is based on molecular cloning (also called gene cloning).
Biogeochemical cycles Gene cloning

Bioremediation Genetic engineering
Cloning vector Microbial ecology
Food infection Pathogen
Food poisoning Recombinant DNA
Foodborne diseases Restriction enzyme
Black, J. G. (2002). Microbiology: Principles and explorations (5th ed.). John

Wiley & Sons.
Boundless.com. (2015). Applications of genetic engineering. Retrieved from
https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless-microbiology-
textbook/microbial-genetics-7/genetic-engineering-products-93/applications-
of-genetic-engineering-498-6642/
Karla I. F. (2011). The importance of microbiological quality control in the
pharmaceutical industry. Retrieved from www.pharmaforum.com.
Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., & Parker, J. (2003). Brock biology of
microorganisms (10th ed.). Pearson Education.
Magdy, M. (2014). Brief introduction to pharmaceutical microbiologist. Journal
of Microbiology & Experimentation, 1(5), 00029.
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Faculty of Science and Technology

Module Writers: Prof Dr Latifah Abdol Latif

Moderator: P Rajesh Kumar

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2012

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2015, SBSC1103

Topic 1 Physical Quantities and Motion 1

Topic 2 Work, Energy and Power 25

Topic 3 Heat and Temperature 42

Topic 4 The Three States of Matter 61

Topic 5 Periodic Properties of the Elements 85

5.4 Variations in Chemical Properties 100

Topic 6 Stoichiometry 103

Topic 7 Hydrocarbons 128

Topic 8 Macromolecules 155

Topic 9 Microbiology: Introduction and Fundamental 173

Topic 10 Microbiology: Applications 200

Table 1: Estimation of Time Allocation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

Topic 1 introduces physical quantities in science and the SI system of units.

Topic 4 outlines some of the important fundamental concepts required to

Topic 7 discusses the chemical formulae, structural formulae, IUPAC names,

Topic 9 introduces the definition of microbiology. This topic focuses on basic

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

1.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SYSTEM OF

An advantage of the metric system is that it is a decimal or base-10 system. Thus

Table 1.2: Some Common Prefixes Used in Physics

1.2 CONVERSION OF UNITS

(a) Convert 3mm3 to m 3.

Since 1m = 1000mm, 1mm = 0.001m, then 1mm3 = 1 × 10-9m3.

So, 3mm3 = 3 × 10-9m3.

Since 1L = 1 × 10-3m3, then 0.1 L = 0.1 × 1 × 10-3m3 = 1 × 10-4m3.

1. A CD has a diameter of approximately 10cm. What is its area in m2?

1.3 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

Any measurement is only accurate up to a certain degree, depending on the

Uncertainties in measurements can result from:

How can we reduce uncertainties when taking measurements?

1.4 DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR AND SCALAR

In contrast, a vector quantity is described completely by its magnitude and

Examples of vectors in science are velocity, acceleration, displacement, and force.

1.4.1 Representing a Vector

We represent a vector quantity by a single boldface type, such as A. Alternatively,

Figure 1.1: Equal vectors Figure 1.2: Negative vector

1.4.2 Resolving a Vector into Its Components

Figure 1.3: Vector components in two dimensions

The magnitudes of these components are:

The magnitude of A can be found using Pythagoras’ theorem:

The velocity v of a particle has components

Find the magnitude of the vector.

Figure 1.4: Example of displacement

What is the total displacement made by the car?

1.5.2 Average Speed and Velocity

We define the average speed as follows:

The SI unit is m/s.

(b) From Eq.1.4,