1.

Tashih
17/05/2004

A. CARTESIAN PRODUCT AND ANALYTIC PLANE

1. Ordered Pairs
Everyone knows that in a football match scores like 3 – 1 and 1 – 3 have different meaning.
When the score is written as 3 – 1, it is clear that home side is the winner. But when it is
written as 1 – 3, we understand that the away side is the winner. A similar approach is also
valid for ordered pairs (3, 1) and (1, 3), that is, they don't have the same meaning.
Definition
Given a and b any two elements, (a, b) is called ordered pair where a is the first component
and b is the second component.
For example, below we have ordered pairs where components are numbers, names, colors, etc.:
(28, December)
(René, Descartes)
(–9, 1)
(170 cm, 70 kg)
(Descartes, René)
(black, white)
How many different ordered pairs do we have above? Note that the pairs (René, Descartes)
and (Descartes, René) are not the same since their components are in different order.
Note
The ordered pair (a, b) is not the same as (b, a) since they are written in different orders.

Example 1 Give three examples for ordered pair (x, y) satisfying the equation 2x – y = 4.

Solution If we let x = 0, then y = –4

If we let x = 5, then y = 6
If we let x = –1.5, then y = –7
So three such ordered pairs may be (0, –4), (5, 6), (–1.5, –7)
Here, note that we can find infinitely many such ordered pairs and although (0, –4) is an
answer, (–4, 0) is not!
We say two ordered pairs are equal if and only if corresponding components are equal to each
other. That is, (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d.

2 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Example 2 Given (2x – 1, 7) = (3, 3y – 8), find x and y.

Solution (2x – 1, 7) = (3, 3y – 8)

2x – 1 = 3 and 7 = 3y – 8
x = 2 and y = 5

Note
(x1, x2, x3) is named as ordered triple
(x1, x2, x3, x4) is named as ordered quadruple
(x1, x2, ..., xn) is named as ordered n-tuple

Check Yourself 1
1. How many different ordered pairs are given below?
(5 hours, 20 minutes) (28, December, 2003) (20 minutes, 5 hours) (Italy, Rome)
2. Given (6, 2x – y) = (x + y, –3), find x and y.
3. Complete the following ordered pairs (x, y) if they satisfy y + 1 = 3x
(2, _) (_, 0)
Answers
1. 3 2. 1; 5 3. (2, 5), (1/3, 0)

2. Set Notation
A set is a collection of things. Each one of these things that form a set is called element of
that set.
For example months of a year is a set with 12 elements. All even numbers is another set with
infinitely many elements. All dogs with seven legs is another set with no elements. Think
about the students in your class. Is it a set? How many elements does it have?

Note
1. We usually name sets with capital letters like A, B, C, etc.
2. If a1, a2, a3, ..., an are elements of a set A, we list all elements of this set as
A = {a1, a2, a3, ..., an} and denote number of elements by s(A).
3. The symbol ∈ means “is element of ” whereas ∉ means “is not an element of ”.
For example if A = {3, 5, 10}, then 3 ∈ A and 4 ∉ A.
4. The symbol ∩ means “intersection” whereas the symbol ∪ means “union”
5. To denote an empty set, that is a set with no elements, we use ∅.

Relations 3
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Example 3 Given A = {1, 4, 5, 7} and B = {all odd numbers between 2 and 8}

a. find s(A) and s(B)

b. find A ∪ B and A ∩ B
c. is it true that 9 ∉ A ∪ B?
d. is it true that A ∩ B = ∅?

Solution We know that A = {1, 4, 5, 7}. If we list elements of B, we get B = {3, 5, 7}

a. s(A) = 4 and s(B) = 3

b. Union means we should find all elements that are either in A or B.
So A ∪ B = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7} . Intersection means we should find all elements that are both
in A and B. So A ∩ B = {5, 7}
c. Clearly 9 is not element of A ∪ B. So 9 ∉ A ∪ B is true.
d. Since s(A ∩ B) = 2, A ∩ B = ∅ is false.

Note
Certain letters are reserved for important number sets. These are:
\ set of real numbers
_ set of rational numbers
] set of integers
` set of natural numbers
Note that all these sets contain infinitely many elements, so it is impossible to list them.

Notation
A = [a, b] denotes set of all real numbers between a and b, inclusive.
A = (a, b) denotes set of all real numbers between a and b, exclusive.
A = [a, b) denotes set of all real numbers between a and b, where b is excluded.
A = (a, b] denotes set of all real numbers between a and b, where a is excluded.

Instead of A = [a, b] we can also use the notation A = {all x ∈ \ such that a ≤ x ≤ b}.
Similar notation can be used for the other sets described above.

Example 4 Given A = [–2, 3) and B = (0, 4) find A ∪ B and A ∩ B

Solution Here we cannot list all elements of the given sets since they contain infinitely many
elements. A ∪ B contains elements that are in A or in B so A ∪ B = [–2, 4). A ∩ B contains
elements that are both in A and B so A ∩ B = (0, 3).

4 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Check Yourself 2
1. Given A = {1, 2, 5, 9, 12} and B = {all x ∈ ` that are less than 14 and divisible by 3} find
s(B), A ∪ B, A ∩ B.
2. Given A = [–5, 3] and B = (2, 4] find A ∪ B) and A ∩ B.

Answers
1. 4, {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 12}, {9, 12} 2. [-5, 4], (2, 3]

3. Cartesian Product
Definition
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then the set of all ordered pairs first component of which
is from A and second from B is called cartesian product of A and B and is denoted as A × B.

For example if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {x, y}, then

A × B = {(1, x), (2, x), (3, x), (1, y), (2, y), (3, y)} and
B × A = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (y, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3)}
Here clearly, A × B and B × A are different sets. The only common property of them is that
they have the same number of elements which is equal to product of number of elements of
A and B. Note that A × B = B × A only when A and B are equal sets.

NUMBER OF ELEMENTS OF A CARTESIAN PRODUCT

Given two sets A and B, s(A × B) = s(B × A) = s(A) ⋅ s(B)

Example 5 Given M = {a, b, c} and N = {1, 2, 3, 4}, find the number of elements of M × N and list
them.

Solution s(M × N) = s(M) ⋅ s(N) = 3 ⋅ 4 = 12

M × N = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (a, 4), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3), (b, 4), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4)}

The above method of listing all elements of a cartesian product is named as list method
which is an obvious name to guess. But sometimes a set may have infinitely many elements
which will cause an endless list procedure! Or even though there are finite number of
elements we may want to see the whole picture rather than the list. For these cases
coordinate method is an efficient way. To express all elements of cartesian product we choose
the horizontal axis for first component and vertical axis for second component.

Relations 5
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Example 6 A coin is tossed and then a dice is rolled. Express all possible outcomes using

a. list method
b. coordinate method

Solution Let all possible outcomes of a coin toss be the set C = {heads, tails} and dice roll be the set
D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then we need to find C × D

a. by list method, we have

b. C × D = {(heads, 1), (heads, 2), (heads, 3), (heads, 4), (heads, 5), (heads, 6), (tails, 1),
(tails, 2), (tails, 3), (tails, 4), (tails, 5), (tails, 6)}
b. by coordinate method, we have
D
6
5
4
3
2
1
C

heads
tails
Here note that, the horizontal axis denote outcomes of coin toss and the vertical axis
denote outcomes of dice roll. Since s(C × D) = 12, we have 12 points plotted.

Example 7 Given A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {all x ∈ \ such that 3 ≤ x ≤ 6}, show A × B and B × A.

Solution Since A × B and B × A contain infinitely many elements, using list method is not possible.
But by coordinate method we can express all elements as below:
B
5 A

3 3
2
1
A B
1 2 3 3 5
A´B B´A

How many points are plotted on each plane?

Note
Given three non-empty sets A, B and C
A × B × C denotes their cartesian product and s(A × B × C) = s(A) ⋅ s(B) ⋅ s(C).

6 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

4. Analytic Plane
To graph cartesian products whose elements are ordered pairs of real numbers, we need a
coordinate system. The rectangular or cartesian coordinate system consists of a horizontal
number line, the x-aaxis or the abscissa which we label as x, and a vertical number line,
y-aaxis or the ordinate which we label as y.
The plane on which such a coordinate system is constructed is called analytic plane or
xy-pplane. Axes divide the analytic plane into four parts which are called quadrants. The
intersection point of axes is called origin.

ILLUSTRATION OF ANALYTIC PLANE

y
2nd 4 1st
quadrant quadrant
3
2 (1,2)
origin
1

-1 -2 -3 -4 -11 2 3 4 x
-2
3rd -3 4th
quadrant quadrant
-4

The term Cartesian is used in the name of the French mathematician and philosopher René
Descartes (1596-1650), who was one of the first to use such coordinate systems.
Just as every real number corresponds to a point on the number line, every pair of real
numbers corresponds to a point on analytic plane. For example the pair (1, 2) corresponds
to the point that lies one unit to the right of the origin and two units up. For the point (1, 2)
we say 1 is the x-ccoordinate and 2 is the y-ccoordinate of that point. Locating a point in
analytic plane is named as plotting or graphing the point.

Example 8 Plot the pairs (0, –2), (3, 1), (–4, 2), (1, 0) in analytic plane.

Solution y
4
3
2
1

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-1
-2
-3
-4

Relations 7
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Check Yourself 3
1. Given A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c, d}, express A × B and B × A by list method and
coordinate method.
2. Given M = {all x ∈ \ such that 1 < x < 5} and N = {all x ∈ \ such that 2 ≤ x ≤ 7},
express M × N by coordinate method. Can you use list method?
3. Plot the pairs (1, –2), (0, 1), (3, 3), (–4, –1) in analytic plane.

Answers
1. {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (1, d), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (2, d)}

{(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2), (d, 1), (d, 2)}
2. no

B. RELATION
1. Representation of a Relation
Definition
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

In a relation first component is related with the second component. The set of all first
components is called domain and the set of all second components is called range of the
relation.

For example, {(0, 5), (1, –3), (–1, –3), (2, 0), (–3, 5)} is a relation since it is a set of ordered
pairs. Its domain is {0, 1, –1, 2, –3} and its range is {5, –3, 0}.
Above, the relation is represented by a list. This relation can also be represented by a table,
by a mapping, or by a graph as seen below:

1st 2nd
component component
0 5
1 –3
–1 –3
2 0
–3 5

representation by table

8 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

1st componet 2nd componet

·0
·1 ·5
· -1 · -3
·2 ·0
·3

representation by mapping

2nd componet
5
4
3
2
1
1st componet
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3

representation by graph

Example 9 Given the following relation by a table,

month season
January Winter
September Fall
April Spring
March Spring
June Summer
October Fall
February Winter
May Spring

a. how is the first component related with the second component?

b. represent it by a list
c. represent it by a mapping
d. represent it by a graph
e. find the domain
f. find the range

Relations 9
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Solution a. First component is a month, second component is the season which contain the given
month.
b. {(January, Winter), (September, Fall), (April, Spring), (March, Spring), (June, Summer),
(October, Fall), (February, Winter), (May, Spring)}
c. month season

· January
· Winter
· September
· April
· Fall
· March
· June · Spring
· October
· February · Summer
· May

d. season

Summer

Spring

Fall

Winter
month
January September April March June October February May

e. Domain is {January, September, April, March, June, October, February, May}

f. Range is {Winter, Fall, Spring, Summer}

Example 10 Given the domain {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2} and the relation containing ordered pairs of the form
(x, y) such that x < y < 2 and y ∈ ]
a. represent the relation by a list
b. represent the relation by a graph
c. find the range

Solution a. {(–2, –1), (–2, 0), (–2, 1), (–2, 2), (–1, 0), (–1, 1), (–1, 2), (0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 2)}
b. y
2
1

-2 -1 1 2 x
-1
-2

c. Range is {–1, 0, 1, 2}

10 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Example 11 Given the domain [–1, 2] and the relation containing ordered pairs of the form (x, y) such
that y = x + 1

a. if possible, represent the relation by a list

b. represent the relation by a graph
c. find the range

Solution a. Since domain contains infinitely many elements it is impossible to list all elements of that
relation
b. We just sketch the line y = x + 1, but note that we take the part of the line whose x
values are between –1 and 2.
y

-1 2 x

c. As it is seen on the graph y can take any value between 0 and 3, inclusive, therefore range
is [0, 3].

Note
If domain of a relation contains infinitely many elements we cannot represent it by list, table
or mapping.

Check Yourself 4
1. Represent the relation {(Monday, sunny), (Tuesday, rainy), (Wednesday, sunny),
(Thursday, cloudy), (Friday, cloudy)} by mapping and graph.
2. Represent the relation having ordered pairs of the form (x, y) such that y2 = x in the
domain {0, 1, 4} by list and graph.
3. Given the domain [–3, 4] and the relation containing ordered pairs of the form (x, y) such
that y = –2x + 3 represent the relation by graph and find its range.

Answers
2. {(0, 0), (1, –1), (1, 1), (4, –2)} 3. [–5, 9]

Relations 11
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

2. Inverse of a Relation
As we learned previously relation is a set of ordered pairs. The inverse of a set of ordered pairs
is obtained by interchanging the places of first and second components. Since first and
second components are interchanged when we are finding the inverse of a relation, domain
and range are also interchanged.

Example 12 Given the relation {(–2, 3), (0, 1), (–4, 0), (2, 3)} containing ordered pairs of the form (x, y)

a. list the inverse relation

b. find the domain and range of the inverse relation
c. graph both relations

Solution a. We simply change places of components to find {(3, –2), (1, 0), (0, –4), (3, 2)}
b. Domain of inverse relation is {0, 1, 3} and its range is {–4, –2, 0, 2}
c. Let us plot set of points {(–2, 3), (0, 1), (–4, 0), (2, 3)} and {(3, –2), (1, 0), (0, –4), (3, 2)}
on the same analytic plane using different colors:
y
4 y=x
3
2
1

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-1
-2
-3
-4

Note that each point and its inverse is symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

GENERAL TERM FORMULA

The graph of inverse of a relation is symmetric to the original graph with respect to the
line y = x.

12 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Example 13 Sketch the graph of the inverse of the relation whose graph is given below.
y

Solution Since graph of inverse of a relation is symmetry of the original graph with respect to the line
y = x, we first draw the axis of symmetry, that is y = x, and then reflection of the relation.
So we get the following graph:
y y=x

Note that domain and range of the relation and its inverse contain infinitely many elements.

Example 14 Given the relation containing ordered pairs of the form (x, y) such that y = x + 2 find the
rule for the inverse relation.

Solution If the relation was given by list it would be enough to interchange x and y. Note that here it
is impossible to list element of the relation since it contains infinitely many elements.
However we can apply the same technique directly in the given rule. The given relation is
y = x + 2. If we interchange x and y we have x = y + 2. Finally leaving y on one side alone
we get the rule for the inverse relation as y = x – 2.

Note
If the rule for a relation is known, then the rule for its inverse is obtained by interchanging
x and y in the rule.

Relations 13
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

Check Yourself 5
1. Given the relation {(1, 2), (–4, 7), (1, 0)} find the inverse relation, its domain and range.
2. Sketch the graph of the inverse of the relation whose graph is given below.
y

3. Given the relation containing ordered pairs of the form (x, y) such that y = 3x – 1 find
the rule for the inverse relation.

Answers
x +1
1. {(2, 1), (7, –4), (0, 1)}, {0, 2, 7}, {–4, 1} 3. y =
3

EXERCISES 1
A. Cartesian Product and Analytic 4. Using the following find A and B
Plane a. A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
1. Find the unknowns in the following ordered pairs
b. B
a. (3x + 5, 4) = (2, y) 4

b. (x – 2y, 3x + y) = (2, 3) 2

A
2. If A = {2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 7, 8, 9}, 1 2

C = {1, 3, 5, 9, 10} find

a. A ∩ B b. s(A ∩ C)
c. B ∪ C d. A ∪ B ∪ C
e. A ∩ B ∩ C f. s((A ∪ B) ∩ C)
5. For the given sets A and B list A × A, B × B, A × B,
3. For the given sets A and B find A ∩ B and A ∪ B B × A,
a. A = {all x ∈ \ such that –3 < x ≤ 1}, a. A = {all x ∈ ]+ such that x2 < 35},
B = {all x ∈ \ such that –1 < x < 2} B = {all x ∈ ] such that x2 – 1 = 0}
b. A = {all x ∈ \ such that x > 2}, b. A = {months of winter},
B = {all x ∈ \ such that –3 ≤ x < 5} B = {1, 2, 3}

14 Functions
 1. Tashih
17/05/2004

6. For the given sets A and B, plot A × B in analytic 10. Graph the inverse relation for the following
plane.
a. y b. y
a. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 6} (0,2) (2,2)

b. A = {all x ∈ \ such that 1 < x < 4} and

(-3,0) x (0,0) (0,4) x
B = {2, 3, 4}
(2,-2)
c. A = {all x ∈ \ such that –2 < x ≤ 3} and
B = {all x ∈ \ such that 2 ≤ x ≤ 4} c. y
(2,4)
(-1,4)
B. Relation
7. Represent the following relations having ordered
pairs of the form (x, y) by list (0,0) (3,0) x

a. y = x2, domain is {0, 1, 2, 3}

b. 2x – 3y = 1, domain is –3 < x < 4 such that Mixed Problems
x∈]
11. Plot all pairs (x, y) that satisfy the equation
8. Represent the following relations having ordered y = x – 1 in analytic plane.
pairs of the form (x, y) by mapping

a. {(1, b), (2, d), (3, c), (5, e)} 12. List the elements of the
a
relation which is
b. x – y = 1, domain is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
represented by the
b d
following mapping.
9. Represent the following relations having ordered
c
pairs of the form (x, y) by graph

a. {(1, 3), (2, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}

b. y = 2x + 1, domain is [0, 3] 13. How many elements does A × B have if A denotes
c. y = x, domain is \ days in a week and B denotes months in a year?
d. y ≤ x – 1, domain is ]
14. Prove that s(A ∪ B) = s(A) + s(B) – s(A ∩ B).
10. Find the inverse relation, domain and range of ›

the inverse relation for the following relations

having ordered pairs of the form (x, y) 15. Given A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b}, C = {blue, red}
›
a. {(winter, December), (fall, September), list A × B × C. How can you show A × B × C by
(summer, June), (spring, March)} coordinate method?

b. y = x2 + 2, domain is [–3, 3]
2x − 3 16. Given A = {–1, 0, 3}, B = [1, 4), C = [–5, 5], find
c. y = , domain is [–20, 34] ›
4 the difference of A × B from A × C.

Relations 15