Module 1 – Set Theory

Math 412- DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

Overview
Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are countable or otherwise distinct
and separable. Examples of structures that are discrete are combinations, graphs, and logical statements.
Discrete structures can be finite or infinite. Discrete mathematics is in contrast to continuous mathematics,
which deals with structures which can range in value over the real numbers, or have some non-separable
quality.
Learning Outcomes
After working on this module, you will be able to:

1. describe sets using the roster method, set-builder notation, and real axis;
2. identify different types of sets
3. determine set relations;
4. determine Cartesian product;

Sets

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects according to Cantor. The term “well-defined”
means that our description of the elements of a set is clear and unambiguous . For example,
{tall people} is not a set, because people tend to disagree about what ‘tall’ means. Some
examples of a set are the following:

1.) the set of vowels a, e, i, o, u

2.) the set of even integers 2, 4, 6, 8
3.) the set of “ber” months

The objects are called elements or members of the set. We will denote sets by uppercase
Definition

letters,
A, B, C …

and lowercase letters will be used to represent the elements of the set,

a, b, c …

A set can be presented by listing its elements between braces, e.g: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The symbol
∈ is used to express that an element is (or belong to) a set. For instance 3 ∈ A (reads as 3 belongs
to set A). Its negation is represented by ∉, example 7 ∉ A ( reads as 7 does not belong to set A).

Take note that in representing sets that list the elements, we will separate the elements by
commas (,) and enclose them with braces { }.
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Two ways of Representing Sets

1.) Roster Method – This also called as list method, we list all the elements of the set
2.) Set –Builder Notation – This an alternative way to define a set. In this notation, we need
to describe the elements of the set by stating a property verified by exactly its elements.
In this case, we will introduce an arbitrary element 𝑥 and use the symbol “⃒ ” which
is read as “such that”.

Use the ROSTER METHOD to describe the following sets:

Example

1.) the set of vowels in the English Alphabet

2.) the set of even integers
3.) the set of “ber” months

Solution

1.) A = {a, e, i, o, u}

read as: “set A with elements (or members) a, e, i, o, u”

2.) B = {2, 4, 6, 8 …}
The three dots … means that the sequence of elements continues indefinitely.
3.) C = {September, October, November, December}

Use the SET-BUILDER NOTATION to describe the following sets:

Example

1.) the set of vowels in the English Alphabet

2.) the set of even integers
3.) the set of “ber” months

Solution
1.) A = {𝑥|𝑥 is a vowel}

read as “A is the set of all elements such that 𝑥 is a vowel”

read as: “set A with elements (or members) a, e, i, o, u”

2.) E = {𝑥|𝑥 is an even integer number}

3.) F = {𝑥|𝑥 is a “ber” month}

Observe that we introduced an arbitrary element 𝑥 that describes the property of the
elements of the set. Using the description, we can tell if an object is an element of the set or
not. Note that the description is written in its singular sense.
 Module 1 – Set Theory
Principle of Extension

Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements, i.e.:
A = B ≡ ∀x (x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B).

This means that the order in which the elements are written between the curly
Definition

brackets does not matter at all. For example, {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {3, 9, 7, 5, 1} = {5, 9, 1, 3, 7}.
Also, if an element is listed more than once, it is only counted once. For example, {a, a, b} =
{a, b}. The set {a, a, b} has only the two elements a and b. The second mention of a is an
unnecessary repetition and can be ignored. It is normally considered poor notation to list
an element more than once.

2 Answer the following questions:

1. Let X = {a, b, c}, Y = {c, a, b}, and Z = {b, c, c, a, a, a}.
Example

a. What are the elements of sets X, Y and Z?

b. How are X, Y, and Z related?
2. How many elements are there in the set {a, {b}, {c, d}}?
3. How many elements are there in the set { }?

Solution
1. a. X, Y, and Z have exactly the same three elements, namely: a, b, and c.
b. X, Y, and Z are different ways of representing the same set. Thus, we say that sets
X, Y and Z are equal.

Sets are said to be 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎l if they have exactly the same elements.

2. There are three elements in the set: a and the sets: {b} and {c, d}.
3. There are no elements in the set. Thus, the number of elements in the set is zero (0).
The set { } is called an empty set or a null set. We also use the symbol 𝜙 to denote an
empty set.

Types of a Set

Subset: We say that A is a subset of set B, or A is contained in B, and we represent

it “A ⊆ B”, if all elements of A are in B, e.g., if A = {1, 2, 3} and
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then A ⊆ B.

Proper subset: A proper subset of a set A is a subset of A that is not equal to A. In other
words, if B is a proper subset of A, then all elements of B are in A but A contains at least one
element that is not in B. For example, if A= {1,3,5} then B= {1,5} is a proper subset of A.
The set C= {1,3,5} is a subset of A, but it is not a proper subset of A since C=A. The set D=
{1,4} is not even a subset of A, since 4 is not an element of A.
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Universal Set: It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or application. All the
sets in that context or application are essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal
sets are represented as U

Empty Set: A set with no elements is called empty set (or null set,
or void set), and is represented by ∅ or {}.

Note that nothing prevents a set from possibly being an element of another set (which is
not the same as being a subset!). For instance
if A = {1, a, {3, t}, {1, 2, 3}} and B= {3, t}, then obviously B is an element of A, i.e., B ⊂ A.

Power Set: The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A,
and is represented P(A). For instance, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then
P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, A}.

Multisets: Two ordinary sets are identical if they have the same elements, so for instance,
{a, a, b} and {a, b} are the same set because they have exactly the same elements, namely a
and b. However, in some applications it might be useful to allow repeated elements in a set.
In that case we use multisets, which are mathematical entities similar to sets, but with
possibly repeated elements. So, as multisets, {a, a, b} and {a, b} would be considered
different, since in the first one the element a occurs twice and in the second one it occurs
only once.

Answer the following:

Given X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}; B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; C = {3, 4, 6, 9}; and
Example

D = {1, 4, 6, 8}. Tell if each sentence is true or false.

1. A ⊆ X 6. {1, 6} ⊆ D
2. B ⊆ X 7. C is a proper subset of X
3. {3, 6} ⊆ C 8. C is contained in D
4. 7 ∉ A 9. A ⊆ A
5. {1, 3} ∈ A 10. B is a proper subset of B
Solution
1. A ⊆ X is a TRUE sentence. Each element of A is an element of X.
2. B ⊆ X is a TRUE sentence. Each element of B is contained in X.
3. {3, 6} ⊆ C is a TRUE sentence. 3 ∈ C and 6 ∈ C
4. 7 ∉ A is a FALSE sentence. 7 is contained in A
5. {1, 3} ∈ A is a FALSE sentence. The set {1, 3} is not an element of A.
The symbol used in the sentence makes it false. We may correct
this by using the symbols, {1, 3} ⊆ A.
6. {1, 2} ⊆ D is a FALSE sentence. 2 ∉ D
7. C is a proper subset of X is a TRUE sentence. Each element of C is an element
of X and there are elements of X that are not
contained in C. That is, C ≠ X.
8. C is contained in D is a FALSE sentence. 3 ∉ D and 9 ∉ D.
9. A ⊆ A is a TRUE sentence. From Definition 2, we see that
every set is a subset of itself.
10. B is a proper subset of B is a FALSE sentence since B = B.
 Module 1 – Set Theory
There are many sets of numbers, but some important ones are the following:

1. ℕ = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · ·} = the set of natural numbers.

2. ℤ = {·· ·, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · ·} = the set of
integers.
a. ℤ+ = {1, 2, 3, · · ·} = the set of positive
integers
b. ℤ− = {−1, −2, −3, · · ·} = the set of negative
integers
3. ℚ = the set of rational numbers.
4. ℝ = the set of real numbers.
a. ℝ∗ = the set of non-zero real numbers.
5. ℂ = the set of complex numbers.

The real numbers ℝ contain all the integer numbers, rational numbers, and irrational
numbers.
The real numbers are usually presented as a real number line, which extends forever to the
left and right. The number 0 corresponds to the middle point which is called the origin. The real
number indicates a unit of distance from the origin. The real number line called the real axis. the
real axis has three parts: the origin (zero, which is neither a positive nor a negative number), the
set of positive real numbers, and the set of negative real numbers.

Answer the following:

Given ℝ the set of real numbers, ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, and ℤ−
Example

the set of negative integers. List the elements of the following sets:
a) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 6} d) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5}
+
b) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ |−2 < 𝑥 ≤ 7} e) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 2}
c) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ−|−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 0}
Solution
a) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 6}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 6
Using the roster method, the set is {2, 3, 4, 5}

𝑏) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+|−2 < 𝑥 ≤ 7}
read as:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 − 2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 7
Using the roster method, the set is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

𝑐) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ− |−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 0}
 Module 1 – Set Theory
read as:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 3 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0
Using the roster method, the set is {– 3, – 2, – 1}

𝑑) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5}
read as:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 5 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 5
Using the roster method, the set is {– 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

e) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 2}

read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2
The set is an empty set or null set (denoted by the symbol ∅).
That is, {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 2} = ∅
There is no such integer that is greater than 1 but less than 2.

Answer the following:

Given ℝ the set of real numbers, ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, and ℤ−
Example

the set of negative integers. Write the following sets using the set-builder notation:
a) {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} c) {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
b) {…, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} d) {… ,– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Solution
1. a) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|2 < 𝑥 < 10}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 10

Another answer: {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}

read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑎𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑜 9

b) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 ≤ 5}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 5

c) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 ≤ 𝑥 }
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 3

d) The given set is the ℤ, the set of integers. That is, ℤ = {… ,– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
The listing of elements shows that the set continues indefinitely to the left and right
sides from the origin 0.
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Finite and Infinite Sets

Finite Set
Definition

Finite sets are the sets having a finite/countable number of members. Finite sets are also
known as countable sets as they can be counted. The process will run out of elements to list
if the elements of this set have a finite number of members.

1. P = {0, 3, 6, 9, …, 99}
If three dots are placed in the middle of a sequence of elements, it means that the
sequence continues up to and include the last element.
Example

2. Q = {x ∣ x is an integer, 1 < x < 10}, we can list the elements of this set using roster
method to see that this is a finite set.
Q = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

3. G = {whole numbers between 2000 and 2005} = {2001,2002,2003,2004}

Infinite Set
Definition

If a set is not finite, it is called an infinite set because the number of elements in that set is
not countable and also we cannot represent it in Roster form. Thus, infinite sets are also
known as uncountable sets.

1. A set of all whole numbers, W= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}

In this case, we used symbol of ellipsis or the three dots … (read as “so forth”) to
indicate that the elements continue indefinitely
Example

2. A set of all points on a line

3. The set of all integers
These are infinite sets because no matter how many elements we list, there are always more
elements in the set that are not on our list. This time the dots ‘…’ have a slightly different
meaning, because they stand for infinitely many elements that we could not possibly list, no
matter how long we tried.

Cardinality of a Set
The cardinality of a set is a measure of a set's size, meaning the number of elements in the set. For
instance, the set A = {1,2,5} has a cardinality of 3 for the three elements that are in it. The cardinality of
a set is denoted by vertical bars, like absolute value signs; for instance, for a set A its cardinality is denoted
|A|. When A is finite, |A| is simply the number of elements in A. When A is infinite, |A| is represented by
a cardinal number.
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Find the cardinality of the following sets

1. S = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Answer: | S | = 5, since the number of elements of this set is five
The set S = {5} is a one-element set because | S | = 1. It is important to distinguish
between the number 5 and the set S = {5}:
Example

5 ∈ S but {5} ≠ S .

2. A = {1001, 1002, 1003, …, 3000}

Answer: | A | = 2000, since the elements of this set is from 1001 up to 3000

3. T = {letters in the English alphabet}

Answer: | T | = 26, since there are 26 letters in the English alphabet

Note that the cardinality of the power set is 2n, where n is the number of elements of the set.

The cardinality of the empty set is | ∅ | = 0.

Venn diagrams

The visual representation of a set is called Venn diagram. This is discovered by an English
Mathematician John Venn. This helps understand the sets easily by just looking at the diagram.

In a Venn diagram, the universal set is generally drawn as a large rectangle, and then other sets
are represented by circles within this rectangle.

𝒰
A

Example

If A = {vowels}, we could choose the universal set a U = {letters of the alphabet} and all the letters
of the alphabet would then need to be placed somewhere within the rectangle, as shown below.

b,c,d,f,g,h
a,e,i, ,j,k,l,m,n,
o,u p,q,r,s,t,v,
w,x,y,z
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Set Operations

1. Intersection
Definition

The common elements of two sets:

A ∩ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}.
If A ∩ B = ∅, the sets are said to be disjoint or they don’t have common elements.
Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, d, e}. Then A ∩ B = {b, d}.
Example

The elements b and d are the only elements that are in both sets A and B.

The Venn diagram of this operation is described below,

A∩B
The blue shaded region is the common elements or the intersection of the two sets A and B.
2. Union
Definition

The set of elements that belong to either of two sets:

A ∪ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}.
The union of two sets is a set containing all elements that are in A or in B (possibly both).

Let A = {1,2} and B = {2,3}.

Example

A ∪ B = {1,2} ∪ {2,3} = {1,2,3}.

Venn diagram:

A B
A∪B
The blue shaded region is the visual representation of the union of the two sets A and B.

3. Complement
Definition

The set of elements (in the universal set) that do not belong to a given set:
A = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}.
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Example
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and A = {1, 3, 5}. Then A' = {2, 4, 6}.
Example: U' = ∅. The complement of the universe is the empty set.

Venn diagram:

A’
A
The blue shaded region that is outside the circle are the elements of the complement of set A.

4. Difference or Relative Complement

Definition

The set of elements that belong to a set but not to another:

A − B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∉ B)} = A ∩ B.
Example

Let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, d, e}.

Then A – B = {a, c} and B – A = {e}

5. Symmetric Difference

Given two sets, their symmetric difference is the set of elements that belong to either one or
Definition

the other set but not both.

A ⊕ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ⊕ (x ∈ B)}.
It can be expressed also in the following way:
A ⊕ B = A ∪ B − A ∩ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A)
Example

Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {2,4,6}. The symmetric difference between these sets is
A ⊕ B = {1,3,5,6}

Self-Assessment Activity 1
1. Use (i) roster method and (ii) set-builder notation to describe the following sets:
a) X1 is the set of integers greater than – 2 but less than 2
b) X2 is the set of positive integers greater than or equal to 4 but less than or equal to 9
c) X3 is the set of integers greater than – 1 but less than 1
2. Which of the following sets are equal?
A = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤, 𝑥} C = {𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤, 𝑦, 𝑥} E = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑤}
B = {𝑤, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥} D = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤} F = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 }
3. Given ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, ℤ− the set of negative integers,
 Module 1 – Set Theory
and S = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, determine whether each sentence is true or false.
a) −3 ∈ S e) −3 ∈ ℤ−
b) 0 ∈ S f) 0 ∈ ℤ+
c) 2 ∉ S g) S = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 < 𝑥 < 3}
−
d) 3 ∉ ℤ h) S = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 < 𝑥 ≤ 3}

Note that if 𝑥 is equal to a real number then this real number is included in the set and the
circle in the real axis is shaded. Otherwise, it is not included and the circle is unshaded.

Self-Assessment Activity 2
Illustrate the sets using the real axis.
1. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−2 ≤ 𝑥 < 2}
2. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−2 < 𝑥}
3. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 ≤ 2}

Self-Assessment Activity 3
A. Given ℝ the set of real numbers, ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, and ℤ−
the set of negative integers. Tell if each sentence is true or false.
1. ℤ ⊆ ℝ 4. ℤ− 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℤ
2. {−1, 0, 1} ⊆ ℤ 5. 0 ∈ ℤ+
3. ℤ+ ∈ ℝ
B. Given A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, c}. Which of the following is a true sentence?
a. B 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 of A d. A ⊆ B
b. {c} ⊆ A e. {c} 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 of B
c. 𝑎 ∈ B

The axiom of extension states that the order of the elements in a set makes no difference. In
this, we really cannot tell which of the elements comes first. However, in the study of some
mathematical concepts the order of the elements in a set should matter. Before this discussion, let
us first have the following definition:

Ordered Pair
Given the elements 𝑎 and 𝑏, the ordered pair consisting these elements has the
Definition

specification that 𝑎 is the first element and 𝑏 is the second element.

In symbols, (𝑎, 𝑏)

Two ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) and (𝑐, 𝑑 ) are equal if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.

Cartesian Product
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏),
Definition

where 𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B.
In symbols, A × B = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B}.

A × B is read as “A cross B”.

 Module 1 – Set Theory

Answer the following:

Let A = {𝑎, 𝑏} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Find:
Example

1. A × B
2. B × A
3. A × A
4. B × B
Solution
1. A × B = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3)}
2. B × A = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏)}
3. A × A = {(𝑎, 𝑎), (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑎), (𝑏, 𝑏)}
4. B × B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

Self-Assessment Activity 4
Using Example 8, how many elements are there in A × B? B × A? A × A? B × B?
What can you say about the number of elements or the cardinality of a Cartesian product?
 Module 1 – Set Theory

1 WORKSHEET

General Instruction: Fill out completely the student’s information and write all your
solutions/answers on the space provided below each item.

Student’s Information:
Student Number: Last Name, First Name M.I.: Course – Year:

Class ID Number: Professor/Instructor’s Name: Date of Submission:

A. Answer completely.
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; B = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 is divisible by 2}; C = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 3 = 1}; and
D = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|5 divides x}. Mark the following true or false.

a. 10 ∈ D f. {2} ⊆ B
3
b. { √1, 1} ⊆ C g. −1 ∉ C
c. C⊆A h. 5∉D
d. {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ∈ B i. B⊆A
e. {3, 6, 9} ⊆ A j. D⊆A

2. Describe the following sets:

a. using list method
a.1) A = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−4 ≤ 𝑥 < 4}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
a.2) set B contains all non-negative integers greater than – 1 but less than or equal to
2.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

b. using set-builder notation

b.1) C = {…, −3, −2, −1, 0}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.2) D = {0, 1, 2, …, 10}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.3) E is the set whose elements are real number greater than 3 but less than or equal
to 4.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.4) F is the set of positive integers greater than or equal to 20 but less than or equal
to 10
____________________________________________________________________________________________

c. using real axis

c.1) G = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|0 < 𝑥 ≤ 10}

c.2) H = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 ≤ −1}

 Module 1 – Set Theory
d. Write in words. (do not list down the elements)
d.1) I = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+ |0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
d.2) J = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|4 < 𝑥 }
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 3, 10}, and define a relation ℛ from A to B as follows:
For all (𝑎, 𝑏) in A × B, 𝑎 ℛ 𝑏 means that 2𝑎 = 𝑏. Find the following:
a. A × B ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. B × A ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
c. ℛ ________________________________________________________________________
d. 𝐷(ℛ) ________________________________________________________________________
e. Im(ℛ) ________________________________________________________________________
f. Is ℛ a function? Justify your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Determine which of the relations ℛ are functions from set A to the set B.
a. A = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}; B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−2, 3), (−1,6), (0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
b. A = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}; B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−3, 3), (−2,3), (0, 4), (−2, 6), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
c. A = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}; B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−2, 3), (0, 4), (−3, 6), (−1, 7), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
d. A = B = {– 3,– 1, 0, 2}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−3, −1), (−1, 2), (0, 2), (2, −1)}
e. A = B = ℤ; and ℛ = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ × ℤ|𝑏 = 4𝑎 − 3} _______________________________________
f. A = B = ℝ; and ℛ = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ × ℝ|𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 6𝑎} _______________________________________

B. Answer the problem below using Venn Diagram

In a certain school, there are 60 students in the senior class: 24 are studying mathematics,
25 are studying English, 25 are studying history, 10 are studying both mathematics and
English, 11are studying both mathematics and history, 10 are studying both English and
history, and 6 are studying all three subjects.
a. How many are taking only mathematics?
b. How many are not taking any of these subjects?

References
 Module 1 – Set Theory

Calpa, Mary Jane, et. al, Module on Mathematics in the Modern World
http://amsi.org.au/teacher_modules/pdfs/Sets_and_venn_diagrams.pdf

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/discrete_mathematics/discrete_mathematics_sets.htm#:
~:text=An%20empty%20set%20contains%20no,or%20null%20set%20is%20zero.

https://byjus.com/maths/finite-and-infinite-sets/

https://brilliant.org/wiki/cardinality/#:~:text=The%20cardinality%20of%20a%20set,el
ements%20that%20are%20in%20it.