Introduction to Indian

Philosophy UNIT 3 VEDAS-I

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning and Classification of the Vedas
3.3 Age of the Mantras
3.4 Age of the Brahmanas
3.5 Age of the Aranyakas
3.6 The Concept of Rita
3.7 Theories of Theology
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Key Words
3.10 Further Readings and References
3.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this unit is to introduce:
 the essence of pre-philosophical sources of Indian philosophy. Just as history
is preceded by pre-history and pre-history provides the background
knowledge so also knowledge of pre-philosophy provides an insight into
the spirit of philosophy and the direction in which it developed and why it
developed in a particular direction;
 various misconceptions that cause misunderstandings and misinterpretations.
With the help of this unit, you will be able to dispel all such negative elements
so that a beginner like you can approach the discipline without any
preconceived notion;
 in order to distinguish Indian philosophy from the western philosophy where
it has to be distinguished and highlight similarities where there are;
 in order to distinguish philosophy from religion. This task is of paramount
importance given the misplaced belief that philosophy is religion and religion
is philosophy. If this is not erased in the beginning itself, a study of philosophy
proves to be counterproductive;
 to be in a position to grasp the essence of Indian philosophy.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Historians agree that the Indian civilization (and culture) is the oldest one. It is,
therefore, natural that the earliest product of an ancient civilization should be the
oldest thought, though found expression in written form much later (in the present
case due to strange reasons) A refined civilization, if it is truly refined, does not
spring from vacuum. It should emerge from primitive form of civilization and
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the latter from more primitive form. In other words, history has its roots in pre- Vedas-I
historic age. But, then, we have to initiate our study from somewhere. When this
‘somewhere’ itself dates back to the earliest age, we begin from the threshold of
human civilization. It is sufficient if we are conscious of the roots of what marks
the beginning of our study.

The Indian civilization, in its infancy, is characterized by ‘nature-worship’. This

feature constitutes the base of our future study. The development of the Vedic
thought carries with it this particular germ. We are more pre-occupied with what
germinated from this seed than with history-oriented controversies.

DATE OF THE VEDIC AGE

At the outset, it should be borne in mind that the Vedic age is not restricted to one
particular year as in the case of the birth of any individual or a few decades as in
the case of a few philosophical schools. Most surprisingly, the Vedic age spans
over a very long interval of several centuries. What is shrouded in mystery is the
exact century, let alone year, in which the Vedic thought took its birth. With great
difficulty, scholars have pieced together all known evidences only to arrive at
varying results. It is impossible to accept any result with certainty. The beginning
of the Vedic age stretches incredibly from 1200 B.C……. Second aspect is that
the Vedic age is characterized by continuous flow of thought. It is, rather, more
like a stream of thought than like flashes of insight. Why is it so difficult to fix
the beginning? One reason is that ancient Indians never thought of maintaining
records what they did or, what they achieved. Secondly, the Vedic tradition is
characterized by oral tradition for reasons, which will become clear later (3.2).
Nor is there any reference to any thinker. Neither date nor authorship can be
fixed with certainty in such a tradition.

GENESIS
The most important feature of the Vedic tradition is mentioned at the end of the
previous section. Indeed, the word authorship is itself a misnomer because this
vast literature does not have its beginning in written form. Traditionally, the
Veda is regarded as ‘apaurusheya’. This word can be construed in two different
senses. In the first place, it may be taken to mean that the Veda is a message from
the god in the sense in which the ‘Ten Commandments’ of Moses are. In the
second place, it may be taken to mean as what is ‘revealed’. If we accept the first
one, we are likely to be caught in an argument jam. Surely, it will be quite awkward
to face this situation at the early stage. Hence, let us consider the second
alternative. Veda is literally ‘seen’; not constructed brick-by-brick. The opinion
is that ‘rishayah mantra drishtarah na tu kartarah’ (the Rishis, i.e., philosophers,
never constructed, but ‘saw’). Seeing is not through eyes, but it is through intuition.
Perhaps ancient Indians thought that what is intuitively grasped or revealed must
be independent of human. What is independent of human may not necessarily
mean ‘God-given’. In this sense the Vedas are Apaurusheya, just as the laws of
physics are. Philosophy, generally, regards knowledge as objective. Thereby it
regards knowledge as independent of human. Hence there does not seem to be
any reason to contest the apaurusheya character of the Vedic literature.
Apaurusheya can be taken to mean that the said text is objective.

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Introduction to Indian Earlier we mentioned that the Vedic literature spreads over a long interval of
Philosophy
time, at least a millennium, if S. Radhakrishnan is to be believed. Evidently, the
literature is not the handiwork of any one person but it is the outcome of several
generations. Hence there is lot of divergence in thought. Further, change of
environment also contributes to variation. Not only thought, even language varies
from generation to generation. The language of Vedas is said to the very ancient,
so ancient that even the language of classical Sanskrit literature differs from the
Vedic language. Consequently, the Vedic grammar differs from the grammar of
classical Sanskrit. This has resulted in lot of hermeneutic controversies.

While we are not in a position to establish the founders of the Vedic tradition, at
least we know philosophers who compiled what was preserved till then orally.
At this stage, the literature acquired a definite form fit for a systematic study.

3.2 MEANING AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE

VEDAS
THE MEANING
The word Veda is derived from the word ‘Vid’ which means ‘knowledge.’ Veda
is supposed to be boundless because knowledge is boundless. Earlier (3.1.3), we
mentioned that since knowledge is objective and impersonal, Veda also is
objective and impersonal. Being impersonal is the same as saying apaurusheya.
It clearly shows that whatever epithet describes knowledge also describes the
Veda.

At the outset, let us introduce two terms, sruti and smriti. Sruti means to hear
and smriti means to remember. Of course, sruti does include smriti, a point,
which will become obvious very shortly, though the converse does not hold
good. The Vedic literature came down from generation to generation in the most
unusual manner for extraordinary reasons. The ancient Indians believed that the
Vedas should be transmitted only orally because they are convinced that to put
the literature in the form of writing amount to sacrilege. It is likely that the
technique of preserving any document was invented much later. Whether the
ancient Indians knew the art of writing or not is a different question. But it is
something different to ask this question; did they know the technique of preserving
any written document for prosperity? In the absence of any such technique the
only way was to communicate orally. What is listened has to be remembered. In
this sense, sruti includes smriti.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VEDAS

In two different ways, the Vedic age can be divided; collection of material and
development of thought. It is commonly known that the Vedas are four in number;
Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. This particular division is based on the first system
of division. The Atharvaveda alone belongs to a different age. It differs from the
rest in all respects and only this Veda is independent in all respects. In the second
system of division, we have Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
These two systems of division are not distinct. At every stage, the first three
Vedas, according to first division and all four components, according to, second
division intersect. The whole scheme can be represented as follows.
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 Vedas-I
1 2 3 4

Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda

1 Mantras (M1) Mantras (M2) Mantras (M3) Mantras (M4)

2 Brahmanas (B1) Brahmanas (B2) Brahmanas (B3) Brahmanas (B4)

3 Aranyakas (A1) Aranyakas (A2) Aranyakas (A3)

4 Upanishads (U1) Upanishads (U2) Upanishads (U3) Upanishads(U4)

The case of Atharva Veda is slightly different. It has only one extant Brahmana
called Gopatha Brahman. The table indicates that the Aranyakas are associated
with the first three Vedas only and in the case of the Atharva veda, there is a sort
of quantum jump from the age of Brahmanas to the age of Upanishads. It may
be noted that both horizontal and vertical developments are essentially of temporal
order. While the Mantras of the Rigveda (M1 – R1) belong to the earliest age,
the Upanishad of the Atharvaveda(U4- A4) belongs to the latest age. All other
combinations vary within this range. While a discussion of individual Vedas
become our focuss in the next unit, the other mode of development shall engage
us presently.
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit
1) What do you understand by Veda?
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2) Write a short note on the classification of Vedas
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Introduction to Indian
Philosophy 3.3 AGE OF THE MANTRAS
Why did the Aryans compose Mantras? When these Mantras number several
thousands, it was not for nothing that they did so. No matter what they said or
did not say about the other world, unknown and unseen, the external world in
which they lived occupied the center stage of their activity. The Aryans never
thought that they could live independent of nature. Nor did they even believe
that the external world had submitted itself to their will. This is an essential
characteristic of the age of Mantras and the age of Mantras alone. They were
convinced that they were an integral part of nature. The power of nature came to
be regarded as far superior to their ability. One consequence of this attitude is
that they came to believe that they are parasites of nature.

This being the case, the Aryans ought to have developed only sense of fear. They
developed mixed emotions when they had to face gods. Gratitude and fear played
a major role in this case. At some point of time gratitude turned into a deep sense
of love. This is because their very survival, not just existence, depended upon
nature and in turn, nature itself was deified. The Vedic literature in its entirety is,
therefore, nature-centric and life-centric. Awareness of this simple fact propelled
the Aryans to take several strides far ahead of others, which shaped the Indian
Society (for good or bad) for a very long duration.

The Aryans took seriously two major issues: agriculture and protection from
enemies. There is no sense in talking of agriculture when life is restricted to the
bounds of forest. Depleting animal strength due to continuous hunting must have
forced tribal people to graduate from predation to cultivation. Evidently,
cultivation, then, was totally at the mercy of nature. By this time, the Aryans had
changed, or were driven to change, their life style. So they became nature-
dependent humans (or animals). Psychology is such that what is supportive of
one need is taken as supportive of any other need. If deified nature bestows all
its mercy in the form of food, then the very same nature may as well destroy
enemies. The Mantras were composed in order to pray to the nature-gods. Prayer
was the mark of gratitude. This is the birth place of the Vedas. Now we stand on
the threshold of learning the nuance of the Vedic literature.

The Vedas are the collection of Mantras. Collection in Sanskrit means ‘Samhitaa’
(sam = together, hita = put). Therefore, the Rigveda is actually the RigVeda
Samhitaa and so other Vedas. The collection of Mantras is not a random one.
There is a definite design, which determines every collection. To be precise,
Samhitaa stands for order (in biological sense), which has been clearly divided,
and each division is further divided and this process is very much akin to the
kind of classification and division, which take place in biology. Before
understanding this process we have to return to the Vedic literature.

The Vedic pantheon included many gods, because there were too many natural
forces, which they worshipped. But all these gods were characterized by one
particular quality. In Sanskrit, god means ‘deva’. According to the Nirukta, which
is Vedic dictionary, ‘deva’ means, two things: one which gifts and one which
shines; i.e., the source of light. Life depends upon light. So, naturally, life depends
upon the gods. These Vedic gods are classified differently. Hiriyanna M. classified
them as: (i) gods of the sky, (ii) gods of the mid-air and (iii) gods of the earth.
Bloomfield classified them as (i) gods of prominent aspects of nature, (ii) gods
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of action and (iii) gods of concept. While according to first classification, Agni Vedas-I
belongs to the third group, according to the second classification it belongs to
the first group. The difference between two types of classification is that in the
first type only natural forces find the place where as in the second type, in addition
to natural forces, abstract notions also find place. For example, Savitru (one
who stimulates) and Brahmanaspati (the source of prayer), which are gods of
action, form a sort of link between men and nature-gods.

The number of gods, it is said in the Vedic tradition is indefinite. However, it is

desirable to make a list of very important gods, numbering thirty-three, who
hold key portfolios. The list includes both types of classification.

Table A
i) gods of Sky (gods of Dyuhu): Mitra (the sun), Varuna, Dyuhu, Savitru,
Pushan, Ashwin, Ushas, Aadityaha, Vishnu
ii) gods of mid-air (gods of Antariksha): Indra, Vayu, Apaamnapaat, Rudra,
Marut, Parjanya, Aapaha.
iii) gods of the earth (gods of Prithivi): Agni, Prithivi, Soma, Brihaspati
(Brahmanaspati)
Table B
i) gods of nature: Agni
ii) gods of action: Tvashtru (the architect), Savitru (one who stimulates), etc.
iii) gods of notions: Shraddha (faith), Manyu (anger), etc.
All Mantras are composed only with the intention propitiating these gods. Now
we can understand the principle or motive behind the collection of Mantras. All
Mantras propitiating one particular deity are classified together and this collection
is called ‘Sukta’. The collection of all such suktas is ‘Samhita’.

Nature of the VEDIC GODS

It is very important to note this difference. In the Vedic tradition, we can only
find either impersonal gods (like all nature gods) or quasi-personal gods. In many
respects, the Vedic gods resemble human beings, like gender difference,
procreation, etc. However, it is wrong to think that gender difference, procreation,
etc. are restricted to human beings. Surely, they characterize life as such. Gods
ought to have life. Admittedly, it is impossible to imagine lifeless gods. When
every natural force or agency (including day and night) is animated, the whole
universe (nature = universe) becomes animated.

What is the philosophical significance of this conclusion? The manner in which

the Aryans conceived nature gods was such that it demanded that the gods must
be live-gods. The striking aspect here is that even impersonal gods are animated.

The Mantras had two-fold function to perform at different stages. During the
age of Mantras, the method and the motive were quite simple. The motive was
either to express gratitude or to make a request. At this point of time, there was
no place for sacrifice. The element of sacrifice dominated the next stage, i.e.,
Brahmanas. When mere prayer, accompanied by freely available commodities
like milk, ghee, etc., was enough to propitiate any number of gods, there was no
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Introduction to Indian need of any expert, i.e., priest. However, there was change in environment and
Philosophy
the change was not necessarily for better. This change takes us to the next stage
of Vedic thought.

Before we pass on to the age of Brahmanas, there are two more philosophical
aspects which remain to be considered. When the Aryans conceived every natural
force as something divine, they inadvertently accepted that the external world is
not final and that there is some unseen and unknown force, which controls the
visible world. This will lead us to the conclusion that if we choose the path set
by the Aryans, then we have to search for ultimate reality. This is possible if we
go beyond the bounds of senses. Hence speculation plays a major role. Just as,
all experimental sciences have their origin in philosophy and mythology, so also
pure philosophy has its origin in pure speculation. Speculation is an intellectual
activity. If our understanding is limited to what can be termed as elementary
sense experience, then neither philosophy nor science is possible. To refine there
should be something, which is in need of refinement. Initially, that which is
crude is refined. The process of refinement is endless. Therefore what was refined
at one stage is further refined. This process is common to both science and
philosophy.

Second aspect explains the origin of nature worship. Philosophy of religion

considers three types of religion; tribal, national and universal. There is no need
to study the characteristics of these types. It is sufficient to know that the feeling
of identity with nature is a characteristic mark of tribal religion alone. The idea
of sacrifice also characterizes only tribal religion. Since these are hallmarks of
Vedic thought, we ought to conclude that the Vedic thought is more tribal in its
nature than what it is made out to be. Surely, what is tribal is primitive. If so, is
it inferior to other kinds of religion? The question of superiority or inferiority
may arise anywhere else, but not in the case of religion. This is so because all
religions differ only in kind, but not in degree. Secondly, earlier form of religion
does not give rise to later form of religion; one religion may influence another.
That is very different. We are only concerned with the origin of religion. We do
not indulge in the qualitative comparison of religions.

3.4 AGE OF THE BRAHMANAS

The tribal character of Vedic thought is explicit in the Brahmanas. What
distinguishes this particular phase from the earlier one is the prominence that the
sacrificial cult received. It is interesting to know how this transition took place.
It is also necessary to peep into human psychology. M. Hiriyanna comments in
his work ‘Outlines of Indian Philosophy’, that the idea of sacrifice was not
altogether alien to the initial phase. Evidently, it had not yet become a cult at
that point of time. If so, why did it become a cult at later stage? During the
course of evolution, the ‘animal instinct’ or to ‘expect’ – to borrow the phrase
from David Hume –might have come down to man. Apparent order in nature is
understood as inscrutable law of nature thanks to this particular instinct. Again,
the very same instinct prompts man to ‘demand’. Obviously, the demands are
endless. To ensure that the expectation or demand does not hit dead end, he
ingeniously manipulates. His ability to manipulate events creates an impression
or firm conviction that he can dictate terms. This mindset worked behind the
attitude of Aryans at this stage. It also explains why and how the Aryan mind
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switched from one end to the other. An act of gratitude or request, which marked Vedas-I
the age of Mantras was explicitly replaced by ‘command’. This change reflects
the spirit behind Brahmanas.

The age of Brahmanas is marked by the institutionalisation of rituals, which

came to be known as yaga and yagna. Since the spirit of Brahmanas died a
premature death thanks to the onslaught of the Upanishads and the Buddhism,
its influence on the development of philosophy came to be restricted to the birth
of Purva Mimamsa only. This phase has to be considered only because it stands
for deviation from the mainstream of philosophy in the very beginning itself.

The institutionalisation of rituals brought into effect two major changes; first the
very existence of gods, in addition to their powers, became questionable. Secondly,
it gave rise to a new class, i.e., the priestly class. Though the Brahmanas did not
question the existence of gods per se, their attitude, in a way, downgraded gods
and second, new forces or entities were added. They came to believe that the
rituals performed as per specifications have innate ability to yield the desired
results. Hence, gods became mere puppets. If they yield, then what man puts
forth is not request, but demand. Further, due to accurate performance of rituals
if gods are forced to yield, then it shows that the power really is vested in rituals.
This was enough to sideline gods. Consequently, the Purva Mimamsa, much
later, denied altogether the very existence of god.

Earlier, a reference was made to new forces or entities. The equipments required
to perform rituals gained priority at this stage. They were treated nearly on par
with gods. Thus it was not just mechanism that played pivotal role. Thereby a
new dimension was added to rituals. Gradually, rituals came to be treated as a
sort of magic. The course of transition is now complete; from expression of
gratitude to demand or command and from technique to magic. Consequently,
an expert who conducts rituals turns out to be a magician in the last phase.
Symbolic presentation is another addition, which destroyed the spirit of veneration
that was prevalent in the preceding phase.

However, the disastrous addition, which damaged the very structure of ancient
Indian society, was that of priest-class. Most probably, this addition gave rise to
the caste system later. In other words, if chaturvarnya system degenerated into
caste system, it may be due to a sort of superiority, which the priest class acquired
rightly or wrongly.

3.5 THE AGE OF ARANYAKAS

This phase marks another transition from the spirit of Brahmanas to the spirit of
the Upanishads. While the Brahmanas are called Karma Kanda (Karma is another
word for yajna) because of total emphasis upon rituals, the Upanishads came to
be known as Jñāna kanda because here knowledge becomes primary. Since the
shift involved total change in attitude, it needed a link. This phase is called
Aranyanka because it became relevant when men retired to forests due to old
age. Why should old people retire to forests? Surely, this is a provoking question.
Forest was the dwelling place for tribes. If old people retired to forest, then it
must be due to strong affinity to the place of origin, which prompted them to
choose so.

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Introduction to Indian That apart, we should consider other changes which forest life brought into.
Philosophy
Even in those days life in society (it is not clear whether the urban- rural divide,
which is now a commonplace phenomenon characterized life then) was more
comfortable because all requirements could be met. This was not so in forest
where one has to lead secluded life. Non-availability of required material came
in the way performing rituals. Hence the need arose to replace rituals. At this
point of time, mechanism gave way to creativity. Routine performance of rituals
did not require any insight. What was required was merely practice. However,
creativity is required when replacement has to be decided. This thought itself
was enough to notice the undesirability of rituals. Reflection followed by
realisation paved the way for the pursuit of knowledge in the form of the
Upanishads.

This change is, admittedly, a revolution. The Aryans, hitherto, concentrated only
on procuring facilities to lead a trouble-free life. To be sure, there was literally
no philosophy in their endeavour. Their lifestyle only laid the foundation for
future philosophy. Hence, proper study of philosophy begins only from the
Upanishads.

In this connection, one question remains to be answered. The Aranyakas constitute

a phase in the life of an individual. There is no doubt about it. In what sense can
it be regarded as a phase in the Vedic thought? This question is relevant because
only older generation belonged to this phase, whereas younger generation
belonged to the Brahmanas. It means that the Aranyakas mark a stage in the life
of individuals, but not in the development of Vedic thought. There is only one
way of answering the question. The thoughts of old people might have influenced
the younger generation during interaction. If this possibility is not accepted, there
is no other reason to accept the Arayakas as a phase in the development of Vedic
thought.
Check Your Progress II
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit
1) Why did the Aryans compose Mantras?
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2) What are two major changes brought into effect by the institutionalisation
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 Vedas-I
3.6 THE CONCEPT OF RITA
Earlier (3.3.1), reference was made to several gods who were propitiated by the
Aryans but no mention was made about their role in the life of the Aryans. Since
in the next unit there will be a detailed discussion, only passing reference to this
aspect here is enough. Indra was regarded as god of Valour. He was venerated
during war. Surya was the source of life. Obviously, he occupied center stage.
The twin gods Dyava-Prithivi shower rains and through rains food. The role
played by Varuna, another Vedic god, is crucial. Varuna is held to be the guardian
of Rita. This word has two meanings; natural order and moral order. Varuna
enforces order not only on nature, but also on human beings. He is the guardian
of order and also one who practises moral principles (Ritavari) Not only Varuna,
Surya also is regarded as the practitioner of morality. Concern for morality, both
personal and social, is another aspect of the Vedic thought.

3.7 THEORIES OF THEOLOGY

Since the Vedic pantheon included many gods (around thirty three), a question
naturally arises; who is most important among them? It is difficult to say that all
are equally important. If only some gods are very important, there must be some
reasonable grounds to say so. In this light, we can discern three streams of thought.
In the strict sense of the term, the word theory cannot be used. First two streams
have only religious significance, whereas the last one is philosophically
significant. A brief consideration of these streams of thought follows.

POLYTHEISM
Ostensibly, the Vedic thought admits polytheism simply because several gods
are propitiated. This belief is further strengthened when we consider the fact that
the same sukta includes more than one name. However, in reality, the case is
different. Polytheism was never a dominant trend in the Vedic literature despite
the presence of so many gods. It became a stepping-stone to another trend. It
ought to be so because if God (not god) is taken as omnipresent and omnipotent,
then the presence of even two gods (not too many) defies common sense, forget
logic. Only tenacity and dogma should resist any thought contrary to belief. The
very fact that at the initial stage itself the Aryans renounced polytheism speaks
of their reflective temperament. Willingness to accept defect is the first step in
the direction of correcting the mistake. This is what is called progressive thought.
Hence, the obvious conclusion is that though the Vedic literature has very little
philosophy, the Vedic Aryan had developed philosophical acumen, which paved
the way for the birth of vast philosophical literature.

This is one aspect. The very prevalence of polytheism at any point of time
anywhere in Vedic literature was seriously questioned by Max Müller. If we follow
his argument, then polytheism is a misnomer. At any given point of time, ‘one’
god was worshiped. Gods differed in accordance with needs. The Aryan exercised
choice in worshiping one god which is surely peculiar or unique form of
democracy within the domain of religion. No pressure was exerted on them to
worship ‘this’ or ‘that’ god. They enjoyed religious ‘voluntarism’. This is what
is called freedom of thought. Max Müller used the word ‘henotheism’ to explain
this trend.
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Introduction to Indian MONOTHEISM
Philosophy
M. Hiriyanna makes a subtle distinction between ‘henotheism’ and monotheism.
While, according to him, the former is characterized by belief in one god, the
latter is characterized by belief in ‘one only’ god. Evidently, some sort of process
of reduction is involved in bringing down the number of gods from thirty-three
to one. This is choice exercised with reason which is similar to some kind of
thought experiment. In the Rigveda, the suktas, which declare oneness, are in
plenty. Let us consider one such sukta:

indram mitram varunam agnimaahu

ekam sadvipraa bahudha vadanti

Before they arrived at this conclusion, the Aryans were troubled by a genuine
problem, who should be invited to receive the gift (havis)? kasmai devaaya
havishaa vidhema, The Aryans went on experimenting speculatively (so it is
called thought experiment) to exercise their choice. Several names cropped up’
vishwedevaaha, vishwakarma, prajaapati, hiranyagarbha, etc. Yaska, in his
Nirukta, has resolved this issue in a very simple manner. ‘one God acquires
different names corresponding to different actions.’ In other words, the problem
of ‘many’ gods was not solved but simply dissolved by Yaska.

MONISM
Monotheism is as much theistic as polytheism. The real leap – a kind of quantum
leap – is to monism. This stream of thought is of critical importance for two
reasons; one, the Vedic thought caught up, finally, with philosophical speculation
and two, it freed itself from the clutches of primitive religion. The idea of god as
the architect of the universe and guardian of morality was set aside and instead
search of primeval substance began. Philosophy begins with doubt. Promptly,
monism begins with fundamental question; when and how did the universe come
into existence. The search for primeval substance is the search for unitary
principle. Cosmology is the subject of Vedic monism. Before quoting from the
Rigveda, we should know what monism means. Monism does not distinguish
between creator and created. Otherwise, it amounts to dualism. If ‘creator’ is the
cause and what is created is the effect, then it leads to dichotomy of cause and
effect. Monism denies this dichotomy of cause and effect. This is the bottom line
of the development of monism.

There is one sukta in the Rigveda called Nasadiya sukta. This sukta begins with
the assertion that there was neither being nor non-being. Only tadekam (that
one) was and is. Further, it continues to say that ‘no gods had then been born’. It
means that the gods are ‘younger’ than this universe. Then, in any sense,
philosophical or mythological, these gods are not gods at all. Only the last line
may pose a problem. It begins with these words; ‘its Lord in heaven’. How can
any sukta talk of heaven when it said earlier, ‘novyomaa paroyat (no sky beyond).
In this context, ‘sky’ means celestial, thing in deep space, etc. It may be reasonable
to assume that heaven means deep space and Lord means the ‘primeval substance’.
Irrespective of the correctness or incorrectness of interpretation what can be
concluded with certainty is that the Vedic monism is germane to philosophical
tradition.

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 Vedas-I
Check Your Progress III
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit
1) What do you understand by Rta?
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2) What is the difference between ‘henotheism’ and ‘monotheism’?
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3.8 LET US SUM UP

The earliest civilization in India began with the Vedic civilization. The Vedas are
four in number; Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva. Every Veda, with the exception of
the Atharva, is divided into four phases in its development of thought. The age
of Mantras is supposed to be the earliest phase. All Mantras are composed with
the intention of offering prayer to gods. The Vedic gods are known as nature
gods because natural forces were worshiped by the ancient Indians. Gods are 33
in number. The most important among them are Agni, Indra and Surya. The
Vedic thought, later, developed on philosophical lines giving birth to monotheism
and monism. Monism is the beginning of Indian philosophy.

3.9 KEY WORDS

Intuition : Intuition is the ability to sense or know immediately
without reasoning.
Hermeneutics : Hermeneutics is the science of interpretation. Traditional
hermeneutics – which includes Biblical hermeneutics –
refers to the study of the interpretation of written texts,
especially texts in the areas of literature, religion and law.

3.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Das Gupta,S.N. History of Indian Philosophy.Vol.I. New Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidas,1988.
M. Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen and Unwin,
1958.
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Introduction to Indian —————— Essentials of Indian Philosophy. London: Diane Publications, 1985.
Philosophy
S. Radhakrishnan. Indian Philosophy. Vol. I. New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1967
Sharma, Chandradhara. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Harper Collins,
2000.
Warder, A.K. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas,
1971.

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress I
1) The word Veda is derived from the word ‘Vid’ which means ‘knowledge.’
Veda is supposed to be boundless because knowledge is boundless. Earlier
(3.1.3), we mentioned that since knowledge is objective and impersonal,
Veda also is objective and impersonal. Being impersonal is the same as
saying apaurusheya. It clearly shows that whatever epithet describes
knowledge also describes the Veda.
2) In two different ways, the Vedic age can be divided; collection of material
and development of thought. It is commonly known that the Vedas are four
in number; Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. This particular division is based
on the first system of division. The Atharvaveda alone belongs to a different
age. It differs from the rest in all respects and only this Veda is independent
in all respects. In the second system of division, we have Mantras,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. These two systems of division are
not distinct. At every stage, the first three Vedas, according to first division
and all four components, according to, second division intersect.
Answers to Check Your Progress II
1) The Aryans never thought that they could live independent of nature. This
is an important reason for the composition of Mantras. The Mantras were
composed in order to pray to the nature-gods. Prayer was the mark of
gratitude. This is the birth place of the Vedas. The Vedas are the collection
of Mantras. Collection in Sanskrit means ‘Samhitaa’ (sam = together, hita
= put). Therefore, the Rigveda is actually the RigVeda Samhitaa and so
other Vedas.
2) The institutionalisation of rituals brought into effect two major changes;
first the very existence of gods, in addition to their powers, became
questionable. Secondly, it gave rise to a new class, i.e., the priestly class.
Answers to Check Your Progress III
1) This word ‘rta’ has two meanings: natural order and moral order. Varuna
enforces order not only on nature, but also on human beings. He is the
guardian of order and also one who practises moral principles (Ritavari).
Not only Varuna, Surya also is regarded as the practitioner of morality.
Concern for morality, both personal and social, is another aspect of the Vedic
thought.
2) There is a subtle distinction between ‘henotheism’ and monotheism. While
the former is characterized by belief in one god the latter is characterized by
belief in ‘one only’ god.
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