52 Cardenas
52 Cardenas
52 Cardenas
A Cárdenas Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Bolivia
Abstract
Bolivia is a well‐known mining country, mainly because of its rich tin, silver and gold deposits mined since
the Jesuit and Spanish times; 17th to 18th centuries. There are three types of mining sectors: private, state
and cooperatives.
Within the private sector four closures took place on the highlands: Kori Kollo (Golden Hill) and Kori Chaca
(Golden Bridge) projects both located in Oruro, COMCO silver heap leaching Project located in Potosí; and
Puquio Norte Gold Project located in the lowlands of Santa Cruz, agitation leaching operation.
Within the state sector, there were many mining operations with mine waste and tailings abandoned but
not closed. However, in order to mitigate the pollution the Bolivian Government, together with some
international donors such as the Danish International Development Agency, have prioritised and
encapsulated some tailings deposits in the Potosí Prefecture.
The cooperative or artisanal mining sector lacks mine closures. Neither the government nor the
communities have forced them to comply with the environmental mining regulations, which have been in
force since 1997. Therefore, there are many environmental issues on the sites operated by artisanal miners.
This paper reviews the results of the closure efforts of the gold and silver heap leaching operations on the
highlands of Oruro and Potosí, where pits, mine waste, evaporation ponds and tailings storage facilities
were closed. The paper also addresses another gold agitation leaching operation, in the rainforest which
was also closed. In all cases, closure plans and monitoring programmes were executed. Special focus was
placed upon the physical and chemical stability of closed facilities so that no further effluents would be
released and therefore no major threats would be expected to the environment and nearby communities.
1 Introduction
Bolivia is well‐known for its mining history. Ore and minerals have been extracted and processed for more
than 500 years, although most of the time only on a small scale and via artisanal equipment. Few projects
have been developed in the last three decades that have utilised high levels of technology, most of them
sponsored by multinational firms such as Battle Mountain Gold Company, Newmont, Glencore, Pan
American Silver and Coeur (Arce 2009).
Bolivia enacted its Environmental Law in 1992 whereas the specific Environmental Mining Regulations
came in force in 1997. Since then, any mining operation should comply with pollution and prevention
measures in order to take care of the environment and also comply with health and safety requirements to
protect people working in the mining sector.
In the following sections the legal and institutional framework for the environmental management is
presented. Then a brief explanation of the main characteristics of the private, governmental and
cooperative sectors is summarised, emphasising its importance on the people’s economy. Some case
studies of mine closures for the private sector are reviewed, in order to rescue best practices to be applied
in coming closures.
2 Legal framework
The legal environmental framework (Cardenas 2003) is composed of the following laws and regulations:
a. Environmental Law, Law 1333, 27 April 1992.
b. Environmental Regulations for the Environmental Law, Supreme Decree 24176, 8 December
1995. This has six general regulations:
General Regulation for Environmental Management.
Regulation for Pollution Prevention and Control.
Regulation for Atmospheric Pollution.
Regulation for Water Pollution.
Regulation for Dangerous Substances.
Regulation for Solid Waste Management.
c. Mining and Metallurgy Law, Law 535, 28 May 2014.
d. Environmental Regulations for Mining Activities, Supreme Decree 24782, 31 July 1997
(MMM 1997). Main regulations relate to:
Environmental Management for Mining.
Environmental Permitting Process.
Environmental Base Line Audits.
Water Management.
Mining and Metallurgy Solid Waste Management.
Dangerous Substances Management.
Mine Closure (VMMH 2001).
○ Stipulates when an operator should close the mine.
○ Requires a closure and rehabilitation plan.
○ Advises requirements for a concurrent reclamation programme.
Mining Exploration.
Mining Activities with Minor Impacts.
e. Other regulations, such as Environmental Regulations for the hydrocarbons sector, roads,
sanitation, landfill sites etc.
A wave of mine closures is expected to happen. Over the last decade, five medium scale mines in Bolivia
were closed and for the next decade a similar number are scheduled for closure. How well these closures
are handled has the potential to shape the national dialogue on the costs and benefits of the mining sector,
especially for private mining.
3 Institutional framework
The institutional set up for environmental management in mining is ranked from the highest level to the
lowest level, as follows:
Ministry of Environment and Water is the National Environmental Competent Authority (NECA)
and is in charge of the mining and hydrocarbon sectors.
○ The Ministry of Mines and Metallurgy is the Competent Sectorial Organisation (CSO) to assist
the NECA, mainly develops norms, standards, manuals, guidelines etc. for the mining sector.
The Governor is the Departmental Environmental Competent Authority (DECA) at the prefecture
level and is in charge of all the sectors except the mining and hydrocarbon sectors.
○ The City Hall is the institution to assist the Governor. They follow up, supervise and monitor
every activity, work or project. They review all the proposed projects, including
environmental documents and, once approved, they will inform the Governor to enact the
corresponding permits.
Each institution has specific technicians or specialised people to help the projects’ representatives to
comply with the environmental regulations.
Mine closure is an increasingly complex process, and given the concerns of all stakeholders regarding
environmental, social, and economic impacts, best practice has long gone beyond technical solutions.
Nowadays, a trilateral process of consultation and problem‐solving, involving mining companies,
governments and communities, is required for a mine to be closed successfully. In fact, to be fully effective,
the process of planning for mine closure should start as early as possible, i.e. at the mine design stage
(WB & IFC 2002).
4 Mining sector
Table 1 Summary of the major private mining projects in Bolivia, South America
4.3 Cooperatives
A mining cooperative is a group of people that has been provided special treatment or incentives from the
Government, such as low taxation on their mineral production. This sector has grown dramatically during
the last 10 years which coincides with the current presidential period. In 2005 miners from the cooperative
sector used to employ around 50,000 people; today they employ 200,000. Assuming five members per each
cooperative, the total number would be around a million people. Therefore, this is a sector with powerful
political influence in the decision‐making process of the Government; especially in terms of advantages that
they could receive from the President assisting their mining operations. Unfortunately today most
cooperatives do not comply with environmental regulations and social responsibility. However, their
contribution to the national mineral production is around 30% and, for mining royalties, they pay around
USD 40 million per year.
5 Closed mines
Kori Kollo were also reprocessed extending the life‐of‐the‐mine for another eight years. Meanwhile, the
closure of Kori Kollo was taking place concurrently.
The same techniques used for the Kori Kollo Mine were used at Llallagua Mine to close the waste dump and
pit. The experience gained at Kori Kollo was useful to turn the Llallagua pit into a wonderful lake in less than
three years. The two pits became lakes that are interconnected each other and with the river so they form
part of the natural hydrological Desaguadero River basin. Most of the areas disturbed by mining activities
are closed, rehabilitated and revegetated. However, the closure plan has not yet defined what to do with
some auxiliary installations such as the mining camp, airport, electricity and gas lines. It is expected to be
reviewed amongst interested parties (local government and communities).
From 2008 to 2013, the first environmental mining audit was conducted by the Bolivian government at Kori
Kollo Mine in response to some complaints from nearby communities. However, the result of the audit was
that no environmental impacts can be observed in the project area because all mine waste dumps and TSFs
were encapsulated, the perturbed lands have been reclaimed and revegetated successfully. In addition all
the monitoring results show that no major threats are expected against the environment and nearby
communities.
Figure 1 Cyanide silver heap leaching facilities at Compañía Minera Concepcion, Potosí, Bolivia
Figure 2 Open pit left by COMSUR at Puquio Norte Mine. The oxidised gold ore was treated by cyanide
agitation leaching, followed by the cementation and fusion process, Santa Cruz, Bolivia
very soon. The gold open pit at Don Mario in the Precambrian is also nearing its end. Huge pits, mine waste
dumps and TSFs are going to be the major challenges, together will all the potential social difficulties they
may face.
Because of the importance of groundwater for consumption it will also be important to know if
groundwater has been impacted by mining activities. Social mitigation will also be an important factor to be
reviewed.
In the public sector, COMIBOL has some very well‐known mines such as the famous Cerro Rico de Potosí,
Huanuni, Colquiri, Corocoro or Telamayu mines which will also be closed in the coming decades. Therefore,
all the experience and best practices from case studies around the world should be used to conduct
responsible mine closure in compliance with mining and environmental regulations.
6 Conclusion
Bolivia has specific environmental regulations for mining activities, together with an appropriate legal and
institutional framework. However, there are still problems regarding the follow up of mining closure
activities (private, state and cooperatives) to ensure they comply with the laws and regulations and, thus,
prevent and control environmental and social impacts. Best practices around the world should be
implemented.
Bolivia has gained good experience in terms of responsible mining closure with reputable international
operators. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to do productive mining but also be environmentally
and socially responsible. Because environmental management has been a priority for private companies
during the life of the mine operation, environmental management at closure was effective and less costly.
It was demonstrated that investing in environmental management is a win‐win situation for all the mine
stakeholders.
Some other private mines were not closed in a responsible fashion and the effects of that can be seen now
after many years of abandonment. These are lessons learned that should be reviewed among the different
mining stakeholders to avoid future problems and liabilities.
COMIBOL has, in the past, abandoned many mines without proper closure but today has the responsibility
to do things in a different manner. Most of the mining cooperatives neither practise environmental
management nor plan closure measures. The government has to make all necessary efforts to ensure that
mining operators comply with the laws and regulations.
Acknowledgement
The author acknowledges people from the mining sector, especially the Empresa Minera Inti Raymi,
Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy, COMIBOL and Cooperatives for providing valuable information.
References
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