Module 2:

Theories and
Foundations of
Instructional
Design
This document contains the content from the interactive
instructional unit for the module.
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 3
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Theories of Learning ............................................................................................................................... 4
Behaviorism ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Cognitive Learning Theory .................................................................................................................. 6
Constructivism .................................................................................................................................... 9
Instructional Design (ISD) Models ........................................................................................................ 13
Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) Model ............................................................................................. 14
Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) Model......................................................................................... 15
Links ..................................................................................................................................................... 17
 Introduction
Instructional Design is “a discipline in which practitioners constantly look to
the findings of other disciplines (e.g., cognitive psychology, communication)
to study and improve methods of developing, delivering, and evaluating
instruction and instructional practices.” (Brown & Green, 2006)

In the last module, we identified that in your future career in the field of educational technology,
it is likely that you will be expected to oversee and to design online or mobile workshops,
tutorials, courses, and programs. Thus, this course focuses on instructional design in distance
education.

We started building a foundation of knowledge about distance education in the last module. In
this module, we will continue to build foundational knowledge for this course and for your future
work in ISD. We will focus on learning theories and instructional design models. Underlying
every effective ISD project is a theoretical foundation, namely a learning theory, and the
implementation of an ISD model (Smith & Ragan, 2005). As our text book authors imply,
ignorance or lack of understanding of theory, especially human learning theory, can lead to
ineffective course development and media selection; thus, hindering learning (Clark & Mayer,
2008). Theories about how humans learn and frameworks to explain how to apply these theories
should guide instruction (Horton, 2007).

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Unit Objectives:
• Explain the basic constructs of learning theories foundational to the instructional design
process
• Describe your personal theoretical orientation to learning
• Apply basic constructs of learning theories to distance education instructional design
• Identify the steps of instructional design models
• Describe the role that instructional design models play in distance education instructional
design

By the end of this unit, what would you like to learn? Write your personal
objectives.

Personal Objectives:
•
•
 Theories of Learning
Learning theories provide a foundation for ISD. An instructional designer’s
theoretical approach to learning affects how the instruction is designed,
developed, implemented, and evaluated. Most instructional designer’s
theoretical orientation is based upon one or the integration of three theories:
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. These three theories may be
familiar to you from an undergraduate psychology or education courses.
They may also be familiar to you from previous courses in your program.

Although the distance education literature, particularly for higher education,

purports that constructivism underlies effective distance learning, additional
learning theories are also applicable. Let’s briefly consider definitions of these theories and their
application to distance education instructional design. Please note that in in-depth study of each
of these theories is not within the scope of this course. If you would like to know more, I would
encourage you to read the seminal works of some of the theorists mentioned in this discussion.

But, before we begin, reflect upon these questions:

Reflection 2.1
What do I believe about the
following…

• How does learning occur?

• What factors influence learning?
• How should instruction be structured to facilitate
learning?
• Think about how you learn. When you hear, read,
or see something new, does it help to talk about it
and reflect on it to better understand the new
information? How about research? Does it help to
do some active research on this new information?

Behaviorism

Think About It Activity 2.1

Yes or No: Do you think that practice, reinforcement, and modeling are important for
learning? If you said yes, your primary theoretical orientation to learning may be behaviorism.
Behaviorism focuses upon observable behaviors, and behaviorists define learning as the
acquisition of new behaviors. Although behaviorists acknowledge that the mind exists, it is
relatively ignored in this theoretical approach because the interworking of the mind cannot be
directly observed. Well-known behavioral theorists include: Skinner, Pavlov, and Bandura.

Behaviorism Applied to Distance Education

Davidson-Shiver and Rasmussen (2006) purport that there are several

key concepts of behaviorism that have been applied to the educational
environment and that you may find important in designing and
implementing a distance education course or program. Please note that
these are a few selected concepts; there are many more.

Practice – Research demonstrates that repetition via practice can strengthen learning.
Providing learners with opportunities practice after the presentation of material or reading
may allow learners to strengthen a specific skill. In the e-learning environment, an instructor
may use Second life, a virtual world, to deliver a lecture and engage his or her students in a
role-play. To read about an example of this, take a virtual trip to Innovate to Read Educational
Opportunities for Clinical Counseling Simulations in Second Life.

Modeling – Modeling is defined as a demonstration of the desired behavior or response. For

example, a course designer may encourage an
instructor to provide instructions for an assignment Positive Reinforcement: A
and then post exemplarily work of previous students
as examples. Another example is an instructor Reinforcing e-mail or Text
modeling the writing of desired discussion board Message
responses when interacting on discussion forum.
Practice. Write a reinforcing e-mail or text
Reinforcement - Theorists purport that learners learn message.
or exhibit desired behaviors when provided with
positive or negative reinforcement. For example, in Dear students,
the e-learning environment, an e-mail from the
instructor providing results and explanation of those I appreciate all of your hard work on this
results on an assignment may serve as a positive assignment. The grades, with an average of
reinforcement. In the mobile environment a 95%, clearly demonstrated the time and effort
reinforcing text could be sent. (Note: For this to be a you put into this assignment. Please see the
positive reinforcement the learner must view the e- attached file with your grades and my notes.
mail as pleasant. When planning reinforcement, Keep up the great work.
learners’ characteristics should be taken into
consideration). Your Instructor
Active Learning - Behaviorist purport that learners Active Learning: Assignment
should be active in that they should respond to Instructions
stimulus in order for learning to occur. In the e-
learning or mobile environment, instructors may Practice. Write an assignment that requires
require students to require students to answer active learning.
questions in a discussion forum or via text
messaging. The instructor may require learners to Example: In the discussion area of the content
share documents in a collaborative workspace such management system, post the following
as a wiki or other collaborative workspace. The assignment.
purpose of this is so that instructors may observe
students understanding of the material; thus, making This week in class, you learned how to write a
this different than active learning described in research question and hypothesis. Based on what
constructivism. you have earned, develop a research question
and hypothesis for a research study of your
choice.

Think About It Actifvity 2.2

Blog Reflection Idea: On your blog, reflect on the following: How is behaviorism applicable
to distance education environment? What concepts of behaviorism do I see as useful to
distance education instructional design? What are some concrete examples (aside from the
ones listed in this module?)

Cognitive Learning Theory

Think About It Activity 2.3

Yes or No: Do you think that the brain functions like a computer and reflection and
processing are important for learning? If your answer is yes, your primary theoretical
orientation to learning may be cognitivism.
 Cognitivism emphasizes information processing, the mental processes
that a learner uses as they apply skills and knowledge. In cognitive
learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching,
reading, or experiencing and then processing and remembering the
information.
Cognitive learning might seem to be passive learning because there is
no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active in processing
and remembering newly incoming information. Cognitive theorists
liken the human mind unto a computer in their explanation of learning:
information comes in, is processed, and leads to certain outcomes.

Behaviorism vs. Cognitivism

Behaviorists are concerned with what learners do to answers questions; whereas, cognitivists
are interested in how learners explain how they arrive at an answer to a question.

"Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through
contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although
they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a
motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists
view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures
through which humans process and store information." (Good & Brophy, 1990, p. 187).

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Mayer, is well known for his cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Mayer, (2003) says the
following about learner centeredness, “it is not what is done to the learner, but how the learner
interprets what happens, that is, on the learner’s personal experience” (p.5). His theory is based
upon several primary assumptions:

• There are two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing
information
• Each channel has a finite capacity, and the learner can only process a
finite amount of information in one channel at a time
• The brain does not interpret a multimedia presentation of words,
pictures, and auditory information in a mutually exclusive fashion;
rather, these elements are selected and organized dynamically to
produce logical mental constructs.
 • Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating
information based upon prior knowledge, and the learner make sense of incoming
information by actively creating mental representations.

Many of the design principles are based upon this theory. We will read more about this in the
upcoming weeks as we delve deeper into our text book.

Cognitivism Applied to Distance Education

There are multiple key principles of cognitivism that have been applied to the educational
environment and that you may find important in designing and implementing an e-learning
course. Many of these, as stated earlier, are discussed in detail in your text book (Clark& Mayer,
2008); a few are identified here:

• Reflection upon content is important. In the online environment, an instructor can ask
students to reflect upon the content to bring prior knowledge and experience to the
forefronts of their minds.
• In order for learning to be meaningful, it should be relevant. In the online environment,
an instructor or instructional designer may identify primary learner audience prior
knowledge and background and relate instruction and assignments to learners’
backgrounds.

Example: A Reflection Activity from a Grant Writing Course

After you have completed your tasks, reflect on the learning process and post your
thoughts in your learning blog:

Have you engaged in a previous activity that was similar to the grant writing process?

What did you learn about while completing this task that you would not have learned from
simply reading about grant proposals?

What obstacles did you face in writing the grant proposal? How did you overcome the
obstacles? What did you learn from the obstacles that you faced and conquered? How will
this learning impact the next grant proposal you write?

How will completing this task help Constructivism

you in the future as a human service professional?

Think About It Activity 2.4

Blog Reflection Idea: On your blog, reflect on the following: How is cognitive theory
applicable to distance education environment? What concepts of theory do I see as useful to
distance education instructional design? What are some concrete examples (aside from the
ones listed in this module?)
 Constructivism

Think About It Activity 2.5

Yes or No: Do you think that actively interacting with materials and peers is important to
learning? If your answer is yes, your primary theoretical orientation to learning may be
constructivism.

Constructivism posits that learning is an active process, and the learner is a constructor of knowledge.
Learners construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things
and reflecting on those experiences. More specifically, "learners construct their own reality or at least
interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of
one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events"
(Good & Brophy, 1990). "What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social
experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991). Driscoll (2004) suggests that the
primary differences between constructivism and cognitivism is that constructivism focuses upon novel
research on cognition and information processing, more upon the environmental and social aspects of
learning, and more upon the adaption and management of learning.

Constructivism Applied to Distance Education

In contrast to the traditional
methods of teaching in which the NOTE: A common misunderstanding
teacher disseminates knowledge regarding constructivism is that instructors
to be memorized by the students, should never tell students anything directly but,
who in turn recite the information instead, should always allow them to construct
back to the teacher, knowledge for themselves. This is actually
constructivism promotes strategies confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with
based on active learning. Thus, the role of the a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes
teacher shifts from the “sage on the stage” to a that all knowledge is constructed from the
collaborator and facilitator; scaffolding, learner’s previous knowledge, regardless of
reciprocal teaching, and guided instruction are how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a
considered primary effective teaching strategies lecture involves active attempts to construct
for both the traditional and e-learning new knowledge.
environment. This learning theory and the
Taken from: http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html
associated strategies are associated with effective
e-learning, especially higher education e-leaning.

• Scaffolding is a temporary supportive structure that the instructor uses to assist a learner
to accomplish a task that they could not complete alone.
• Reciprocal teaching refers to a dialogue between teachers and students. The dialogue is
structured through the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating,
 clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and students take turns leading the dialogue
(Palincsar,1986).
• Guided instruction involves the teacher and learners exploring problems and via
dialogue sharing their different problem solving strategies (Hausfather, 1996).

The constructivist instructor provides tools plans problem-based learning activities so that
learners can construct ideas, make inferences, draw conclusions and inferences, and discuss their
knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. For example, the instructor may pose a case
study based question in the discussion or provide students with a multimedia flash-based case
study to discuss during a online video conferencing session. The instructor then focuses on
assisting the learners. He or she may prompt each learner to reflect on and examine his or her
current knowledge related to the problem and indicates to the group of learners fruitful avenues
they may want to explore based on their ideas. Another well known online constructivist
instructional strategies is a WebQuest. Click here to download a brief description of a WebQuest
and click here to see an example WebQuest. A mobile instructional strategy is the use of
augmented reality. Do a web-search on “Augmented Reality in Education” to learn about the
current practice and research.

Think About It Activity 2.6

Blog Reflection Idea: On your blog, reflect on the following: How is cognitive theory
applicable to distance education environment? What concepts of theory do I see as useful to
distance education instructional design? What are some concrete examples (aside from the
ones listed in this module)?

Summary of Learning Theories

Now that we have briefly discussed the different learning theories, let’s summarize them.

Learning Traditional (Behaviorism) Traditional (Cognitivism) Constructivism/ Social

Theory Constructivism
Theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Dewey, Vygotsky Rort,
Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Piaget, Bruner
Gagne
Theories and Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Dual Coding Theory Situated Cognition
Instructional Skinner's Operant Conditioning Elaboration Theory Social-Cultural Learning
Models Thorndike's Laws and Schema Theory Case-Based Learning
Connectionism Collins & Stevens Inquiry Discovery Learning
Contract Learning Teaching Model Distributed Learning
Individualized Instruction Keller's ARCS Model of Problem-Based Learning
Information Processing Model Motivation (PBL)
Merrill’s Component Display
Model
Assumptions Knowledge is an objective reality Knowledge is an objective Knowledge is constructed
about to be obtained reality to be obtained through environmental
Knowledge Learning is a change in behavior Learning is concerned with interactions and it is
and Learning and the goal of teaching is to internal mental process embedded in the context in
produce behavioral change in (including insight, which it is used
desired direction information processing, Knowledge is collaboratively
Emphasis is on the relationship memory, perception) and constructed and meaning is
between observable, measurable results in information in an individually imposed
behaviors and environmental organized manner in the
variables stored in memory
Locus of Stimuli in external environment Internal cognitive structuring Learning is in relationship
Learning between people and
environment.
Educator’s Expert, knowledge source Is responsible to structures Facilitator
Role Arranges environment to elicit content of learning activities Guide
desired response to assist learners in Collaborator
organizing information in an
optimal manner for
assimilation
Works to establish
communities of practice in
which conversation and
participation can occur.
Learner Passive, consumer of knowledge Active processor of Active, constructors of
According to behaviorism, the information knowledge
learner is a responder to
environmental stimuli, a tabula
rasa shaped by reinforcements

Instruction and Instruction and assessment is Instruction and assessment is Instruction and assessment is
Assessment teacher-centered and criterion- independent, contextual, and student –centered,
based; reflective collaborative, and
The purpose of instruction is to Instructions aims to assist customized to learners’ prior
elicit the desired response based learners in using strategies knowledge.
on a stimulus (e.g., automatically that result in changes in Authentic assessments,
performing a specified procedure) thinking portfolios, contextual, case-
Knowledge obtainment, Instruction encourages based projects, authentic
retention, and reproduction The goal of instruction is for tasks and dialogue are
(recalling facts) is key. learners to develop capacity primarily instructional
and skills to learn better strategies.
Instruction is a process of
supporting knowledge
construction rather than
communicating knowledge
for the purpose of a product.

Also click here to visit GMU’s Instructional Design Knowledge Base

I highly recommend the online book entitled Theory and Practice in Online Learning edited by
Terry Anderson & Fathi Elloumi. It’s an excellent resource to explore even more about how
these theories apply to distance education topics and is a valuable reference to have at your
fingertips. You can download it at http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/index.html
In addition to these classical theories, JiTT is another theory in which you may want to be
familiar. If plan to work on instructional design projects with adults, then it is important that you
research and understand adult learning theory. At the end of this unit, links are provided to assist
you in beginning to explore adult learning theory.

Personal Learning Theory

Now you have read about various learning theories, take time to re-reflect on these questions.
Have your answers changed? Additionally, look at your Philosophy of Distance Education that
you wrote for your philosophy course in this program. Do you need to make any modifications?

Reflection 2.2
What do I believe about the
following…

• How does learning occur?

• What factors influence learning?
• How should instruction be structured to facilitate
learning?
• Think about how you learn. When you hear, read,
or see something new, does it help to talk about it
and reflect on it to better understand the new
information? How about research? Does it help to
do some active research on this new information?
• Do these answers differ when you consider web-
based teaching and learning?
• Think about your Christian worldview. How does
this impact your view of learning? Do any of the
theories discuss stand in opposition to your
worldview?
 Instructional Design (ISD) Models
Now that we have explored learning theories that are foundational to instructional design, we are
going to consider instructional design models, these processes assist us in applying learning
theories in a systematic, yet often iterative manner as we design instruction. Although there are
many different approaches, most ISD models follow ADDIE: Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation, and Evaluation. The following describes each stage of ADDIE:

1. Analysis - The process for identifying and defining what is to be learned

2. Design - The process of determining how it is to be learned—based on audience need,
timetable, and budget
3. Development - The process of authoring and producing the learning materials
4. Implementation - The process of installing the learning solution within the real-world
business environment
5. Evaluation - The process of measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning,
based on the stated objectives; occurring in each phase of the ADDIE model and at the
project end (see http://www.crawfordinternational.com/html/cai_addie.asp)

Analysis

Implementation Evaluation Design

Development

Davidson-Shivers and Rasmussen (2006) identify two type of ISD models. They say that
traditional ISD models focus on planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating on a lesson
of course level. The core elements of the traditional models include determining learners’ needs,
identifying learning goals and objectives, planning assessment and developing assessment tools,
planning instructional strategies and media, pilot testing, implementing, and evaluating. The
most common traditional ISD models include Gagne’s (1985) Conditions of Learning and Dick,
Carey, and Carey’s (2005) model.

The second type of ISD model is for macro-level design. These models assist with design on a
program level rather than a lesson or course level. Common ISD models for macro-level design
include Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson and Spiller’s Elaboration Theory, Rapid prototyping
(expeditiously developing prototypic instructional material), and Morrison, Ross and Kemps’
(2004) model. In this unit, two of these models are briefly summarized: Dick, Carey, and
Carey’s (2005) and Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) model. These are the two models upon
which much of the instruction in this course is based and what you will use as a foundation to
design your own instructional unit in this course. To learn more about these models and the ones
mentioned above, you can use the links at the end of the unit. I would also encourage you to read
some of the seminal works on the ISD models.

Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) Model

This model consists of the following steps:

1. Needs Assessment and Goal identification
2. Instructional analysis
3. Learner and context analysis
4. Definition of objectives
5. Assessment instrument
6. Instructional strategy and Materials Development
7. Formative evaluation
8. Summative evaluation of instruction
 Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) Model

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp’s (2004) Nine Steps:

1. Identify instructional problems.

2. Examine learner characteristics.
3. Identify subject content and analyze task
components related to stated goals and
purposes.
4. State instructional objectives.
5. Sequence content within each
instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies.
7. Plan the instructional message and
delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess
objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and
learning activities.

Think About It Activity 2.7

After reading about Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) model and Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) model,
answer the following questions:

How are the two models different?

Instructors thoughts: Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) model demonstrates how to tackle an instructional design
task systematically. Although a step by step systematic process, it takes into consideration the learners and their
environments, as well as the need to constantly examine and readjust instruction to ensure improvement in the
instruction itself. In contrast to the Dick and Carey model, Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) model thrives on
the idea of flexibility. The essential concept of this model is that any of the elements can be addressed at any
time in the process, giving freedom to the designer to modify their instruction as necessary.

What are the strengths and weaknesses that you see if you were asked to design a course or program using each
model?

Instructors thoughts: Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) model is detailed and enables designers to be thorough
and appropriately steered through the instructional design process; however, it relies on front-end analysis, it
assumes that your predictions of what will happen during the process will be correct. Being incorrect could cost
a lot of time and money. Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) model allows for flexibility and easy revision;
however it lack a systematic, linear process.
Now you have an overview of many of the instructional design models. In this course, you will
work collaboratively to design a web-based lesson or workshop using the basic tenets of ADDIE,
the Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) model, the Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) model, and
your text book. Please note, as Horton (2007), says that e-learning ISD should be an iterative
process. As we survey and apply different ISD models and theories relevant to distance learning,
it is important to remember to consider all of the factors that need to go into designing effective
instruction and that some models are better suited to certain personalities, instructions, and
situations, especially the e-learning and mobile environments.

Think About It Activity 2.8

In closing this unit, listen to Dr. Merrill’s thoughts about instructional design in an era in
which online education has become popular. Identify his concerns. On your blog, reflect on
the following questions: 1) Are his concerns justified? Why or why not? 2) Based on your
experience, do you have additional concerns? 3) Do you think that Dr. Merrill identifies
important points about instruction? Why or why not? 4) Would you add additional factors that
need to be considered?

Summary
Now you should be able to:

• Explain the basic constructs of learning theories

foundational to the instructional design process
• Describe your personal theoretical orientation to learning
• Apply basic constructs of learning theories to distance
education instructional design
• Identify the steps of popular instructional design models
• Describe the role that instructional design models play in
distance education instructional design

Finally, have you met your personal objectives?

Personal Objectives:
•
•
In the next module, we will focus on the first step of the design process, analysis, and you will
begin your ISD project with your ISD team.
 Links
Links from Unit:
• Educational Opportunities for Clinical Counseling Simulations in Second Life
• WebQuest
• GMU’s Instructional Design Knowledge Base
• Theory and Practice in Online Learning

Andrgogy/ Adult Learning Theory

• Andragogy (Mendelsohn)
• Andragogy summarized (Brookfield)
• Fidishun (Andragogy and Technology: Integrating Adult Learning Theory As We Teach
With Technology )

Behaviorism

• Skinner's Programmed Instruction

• Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

Cognitivism

• Gagné's Nine Events

• Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory
• Component Display Theory (CDT)
• Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT)

Constructivism

• Anchored Instruction
• Case-Based Reasoning
• Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT)
• Jonassen's Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)
• Mayer's SOL
• Open-Ended Learning Environments (OELEs)
• Perkins and Unger's Teaching and Learning for Understanding (TfU)
• Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
• Situated Learning
• http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html

Comparative Summaries

• Behaviorist, Cognitivist, Constructivist (Judith Boettcher)

• Behaviorist, Constructivist (University of Washington, Seattle)
• Behaviorist, Information Processing, Constructivist (Leilani Carbonell)
 • Objectivism/Behaviorism Cognitivism/Pragmatism Constructivism/Interpretivism (N.
Dabbagh)
• Bruner, Ausubel, and Gagne (NSW HSC, Charles Sturt Univ)

Dick, Carey, and Carey’s (2005) model

• Dick and Carey Model (Lee and Lee)

• Dick and Carey Model (Don Clark)
Engagement Theory

• http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/engage.htm

Gagne’s (1985) Conditions of Learning:

• Gagne profile (Leilani Carbonell)
• Gagne profile (Sebastian Foti)
• Conditions of Learning (Peter Patsula)
• Conditions of Learning (Stephen Bostock)
• Conditions of Learning (Kearsley)

JiTT

• http://webphysics.iupui.edu/JITT/ccjitt.html
• http://jittdl.physics.iupui.edu/jitt/
• http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/justintime/index.html

Morrison, Ross and Kemps’ (2004) model

• Morrison, Ross and Kemp Model
• Morrison, Ross, and Kemp Model

Reigeluth, Merrill, Wilson and Spiller’s Elaboration Theory

• Summary (Greg Kearsley)

Rapid Prototyping

• Hoffman and Margerum-Leys (Rapid Prototyping as an instructional design)

• Rieber (Understanding Rapid Prototyping by Analogy: Making Paper Planes)
• Rapid Prototyping (Strickland)
• Rapid Prototyping (WikiBooks)