Beta Equilibrium in Neutron
Beta Equilibrium in Neutron
Beta Equilibrium in Neutron
PACS numbers:
Beta-equilibrated nuclear matter is of great physical p + e− , in which case the principle of detailed balance
significance as the main constituent of neutron stars. It tells us that (2) is the condition for equilibrium.
is therefore important to establish the conditions for beta In the Fermi surface approximation there is a thresh-
equilibrium at the densities and temperatures that are old density above which the direct Urca processes shown
astrophysically relevant. in (1) are dominant. Below that threshold they are kine-
In this paper we point out that the standard low- matically forbidden, and equilibration occurs via modi-
temperature criterion for beta equilibrium in neutrino- fied Urca processes which involve an additional spectator
transparent nuclear matter is not valid at temperatures nucleon in the initial and final state [13, 16, 17].
and densities that are attained in neutron star merg- In this paper, we consider only the six Urca processes
ers. After their formation in a supernova, neutron stars (two direct and four modified) where the charged lep-
quickly cool [1–3] below a temperature of 1 MeV, but neu- ton involved is an electron. Weak interactions involv-
tron star mergers (now observed [4, 5]) contain nuclear ing positrons are negligible, and for simplicity we neglect
matter at densities above nuclear saturation density nsat Urca processes involving muons, because even though
and temperatures ranging up to 30 MeV [6–11]. We per- those processes are not negligible, they do not qualita-
form numerical calculations of the rates of the relevant tively change the conclusions that we present here.
flavor-changing processes at these densities and temper-
atures and show that in nuclear matter, beta equilibrium
requires an isospin chemical potential that rises with the B. Breakdown of the Fermi surface approximation
temperature, reaching almost 30 MeV at T ∼ 20 MeV.
We work in natural units, where ~ = c = kB = 1.
The beta equilibrium criterion (2) is not guaranteed
to be valid under all circumstances because neutrinos
are not in statistical equilibrium in neutrino-transparent
A. The Fermi surface approximation matter. Because neutrinos escape, they only occur in fi-
nal states so the two processes (1) whose rates have to
Neutron stars contain nuclear matter at temperatures balance are not exact inverses of each other, which means
that are much smaller than the Fermi energy of the nu- that the principle of detailed balance is not guaranteed
cleons and electrons and low enough so that the matter is to hold. (For a discussion in the context of hot plasmas
transparent to neutrinos [12–15]. Under such conditions, see Ref. [18]). Detailed balance is a good approxima-
flavor equilibration occurs via direct Urca processes (neu- tion when neutrinos play a negligible role, namely in the
tron decay and electron capture) T → 0 limit where the Fermi surface approximation is
valid. However, for astrophysical applications we need
n → p + e− + ν̄e , to know the criterion for beta equilibration at a range of
− (1) temperatures up to 30 MeV. We will now make a rough
p + e → n + νe .
estimate of the temperature at which the corrections to
Note that because neutrinos escape from the star, neu- Eq. (2) become significant. In Sec. IV we will perform a
trinos can only occur in the final state. full calculation.
In the T → 0 limit, one can work in the “Fermi surface For densities below the direct Urca threshold we can
approximation” where the Urca processes are dominated estimate the range of validity of the Fermi surface ap-
by nucleons and electrons close to their Fermi surfaces. proximation by noting that it will become invalid when
In the Fermi surface approximation, the criterion for beta the exponential suppression of direct Urca processes in-
equilibrium in nuclear matter is volving particles away from their Fermi surface is not
so severe as to make those processes negligible relative
µn = µp + µe , (2) to modified Urca. In direct Urca processes the proton
2
is expected to play a crucial role, since it is the most non-relativistic, with dispersion relation
non-relativistic fermion which means that the energy of
a proton rises very slowly as the momentum of the proton p2i
Ei = meff,i + (4)
deviates from its Fermi surface: E −EF ∼ (p−pF )pF /m. 2mi
For particles on their Fermi surfaces, the momentum mis-
match for direct Urca at densities around 3nsat in nuclear where, following Roberts et al. [21], at each density meff,i
matter described by the APR equation of state [19] is is chosen such that EF,i matches the chemical potential
pmiss = pF n − pF p − pF e ≈ 50 MeV (see, e.g., Fig. 2 µi from the APR equation of state, which is a simple way
in Ref. [20]), and the proton Fermi momentum is about of taking into account the nuclear mean field.
220 MeV. The energy cost of finding a proton that is pmiss
from its Fermi surface is pmiss pF p /mp ≈ 12 MeV, so we
might expect that direct Urca electron capture, where the A. Direct Urca
probability of finding a proton from above its Fermi sur-
face includes a Boltzmann factor, becomes unsuppressed In the T → 0 limit, the Fermi surface approximation is
at temperatures of order 10 MeV, and that it starts to valid and conservation of energy and momentum ensures
compete with modified Urca at even lower temperatures. that the direct Urca process (1) can only occur above the
In fact, as can be shown from the Urca rate expressions direct Urca threshold density where
that we review in Sec. II, at 3nsat the modified Urca rate
2 pF n < pF p + pF e , (5)
is approximately a factor of mn T /(3m2π ) smaller than
the above-threshold direct Urca rate. Thus, the below- which is called the triangle condition. For densities be-
threshold direct Urca electron capture rate would begin low the threshold density, the electron and proton Fermi
to compete with modified Urca when momenta are not large enough to add up to the neutron
2 Fermi momentum (the three momentum vectors can not
mn T be made to form a triangle) and so the direct Urca reac-
e−(Ep −EFp )/T ≈ , (3)
3m2π tion is prohibited. As density increases, the proton and
electron Fermi momenta grow more quickly than the neu-
which, for a proton with Ep − EFp = 12 MeV, is when tron Fermi momentum and when the threshold density
the temperature is between 1 and 2 MeV. is reached, they, when co-aligned, add up to exactly the
As we will show below in an explicit calculation, this is neutron Fermi momentum. Above threshold, the proton
a fair estimate. The Fermi surface approximation starts and electron Fermi momenta can add up to the neutron
to become invalid at temperatures T & 1 MeV which are Fermi momentum even when they are not co-aligned [13].
still much less than the Fermi energies, and can still be The rates of the two direct Urca processes are given by
low enough for neutrinos to escape. This leads us to [13, 22]
expect corrections to the low-temperature criterion (2)
for beta equilibrium at temperatures and densities that
Z 3
d pn d3 pp d3 pe d3 pν 2
are relevant for neutron star mergers, in which nuclear ΓdU,nd = 3 3 3 3 h|M| i (6)
(2π) (2π) (2π) (2π)
matter is heated to temperatures up to 30 MeV. 4
In Sec. II we reproduce the standard calculation of the × (2π) δ 4 (pn − pp − pe − pν )fn (1 − fp ) (1 − fe )
rates of neutron decay and electron capture, which uses
d3 pn d3 pp d3 pe d3 pν
Z
the Fermi surface approximation. To describe nuclear 2
matter we will use the APR equation of state [19].
ΓdU,ec = 3 3 3 3 h|M| i (7)
(2π) (2π) (2π) (2π)
In Sec. III we describe the kinematics of the below- 4
threshold direct Urca process, and how particles away × (2π) δ 4 (pn − pp − pe + pν ) (1 − fn ) fp fe ,
from their Fermi surface can participate in the processes,
where fi are the Fermi-Dirac distributions for n, p, or e,
leading to exponential suppression of the direct Urca
and the matrix element is
rates for temperatures below about 10 MeV.
In Sec. IV we describe the results of a numerical calcu-
2 2 2 2 pe · pν
lation of the rates which includes contributions from the h|M| i = 2G 1 + 3gA + 1 − gA , (8)
Ee Eν
whole phase space.
where G2 = G2F cos2 θc = 1.1 × 10−22 MeV−4 and gA =
1.26. These rate integrals are evaluated in the Fermi
II. URCA PROCESSES IN THE FERMI surface approximation, so we set |pi | = pFi in all smooth
SURFACE APPROXIMATION functions of momentum in the integral, and the neutrino
three-momentum is neglected. In this approximation we
We now obtain the standard expressions for the rate can perform phase space decomposition, splitting the rate
of the direct and modified Urca processes in matter integral into an angular integral and an energy integral
with the APR equation of state. We will assume ultra- which can be straightforwardly evaluated revealing that
relativistic electrons and neutrinos, but nucleons that are the direct Urca neutron decay and electron capture rates
3
are identical when Eq. (2) holds, and are given by [13, the modified Urca rates, including clarification of errors
23, 24] and omissions in the the literature.
The p-spectator modified Urca neutron decay and elec-
ΓdU,nd = ΓdU,ec = AdU G2 1 + 3gA2
mn mp pF e ϑdU T 5
tron capture rates are equal to each other when (2) holds,
and are given by [12, 13, 24, 26]
(9)
mn m3p
0 if pF n > pF p + pF e AmU 2 4 2
ϑdU ≡ ΓmU,p = G fπN N gA
1 if pF n < pF p + pF e , 7 m4π
pF n (pF n −pF p )4 7
AdU ≡ 3 π 2 ζ(3) + 15ζ(5) /(16π 5 ) ≈ 0.0170 . × 2 ϑp T (13)
2
(pF n −pF p ) + mπ 2
B. Modified Urca (3pF p + pF e − pF n )2
if pF n > 3pF p − pF e
pF n pF e
Below the direct Urca threshold density, modified Urca
3p − pF n 3pF p − pF e > pF n
4 Fp
processes provide the leading contribution in the T → 0
if
limit because, although they are suppressed by a higher p pF n > pF p + pF e
ϑp ≡ F n
power of T , they are kinematically allowed for particles
2pF p − pF n
2+3
on their Fermi surfaces. Using the Fermi surface approx-
pF e
imation and neglecting the neutrino three-momentum we
2
(p p − pF e )
F
−3 if pF n < pF p + pF e .
can perform phase space decomposition and calculate the
pF n pF e
rates.
For the modified Urca processes, which involve strong where AmU ≈ 7 × 2300/(64π 9 ) ≈ .0084. In Appendix A,
interactions between the nucleons, we use the matrix el- we give the Fermi-surface approximation for the modified
ements given by Yakovlev et al. [13] and Friman and Urca rates when Eq. (2) is violated by an amount ξ =
Maxwell [25], which involve a long-range one-pion ex- (µn − µp − µe )/T .
change, and a short-range interaction described by Lan- In the T → 0 limit, where the Fermi surface approxi-
dau Fermi-liquid theory. The matrix element for neutron mation is valid, the standard low-temperature beta equi-
decay and electron capture with a neutron spectator (n- librium condition holds: when (2) is obeyed, the the neu-
spectator modified Urca) is given by tron decay and electron capture rates balance for both
direct and modified Urca processes.
4 2
fπN N gA p4F n In the upper panels of Figs. 2 and 3, we have plot-
h|Mn |2 i = 84G2 , (10)
mπ Ee (p2F n + m2π )2
4 2 ted, among other curves that we explain in Sec. IV, the
Fermi-surface approximation of the two direct Urca (in
and the matrix element for neutron decay and electron dotted, green) and four modified Urca (labeled “mU”, in
capture with a proton spectator (p-spectator modified blue) rates in APR matter for T=500 keV and 10 MeV
Urca) is given by respectively. For the APR equation of state the direct
Urca threshold density is around 5nsat . Above thresh-
4 2
fπN N gA (pF n − pF p )4 old, the direct Urca neutron decay and electron capture
h|Mp |2 i = 96G2 , (11) rates are identical and dominate over the modified Urca
m4π Ee2 (pF n − pF p )2 + m2 2
π
processes which have no threshold. Below threshold, nei-
with the p-wave πN coupling constant fπN N ≈ 1. ther direct Urca process is allowed and so the four modi-
When the traditional beta equilibrium condition (2) is fied Urca processes dominate. The two n-spectator mod-
used, the n-spectator modified Urca neutron decay and ified Urca processes are slightly more important than the
electron capture rates are equal and given by [12, 13, 24, two p-spectator modified Urca processes. As long as the
26] Fermi surface approximation is used, and Eq. (2) is im-
posed, the proton-producing Urca processes balance the
m3n mp p4F n pF p neutron-producing Urca processes exactly at all densities
ΓmU,n = AmU G2 fπN
4 2
N gA ϑn T 7 , and temperatures.
m4π (p2F n + m2π )2
(12)
III. URCA PROCESSES BEYOND THE FERMI
SURFACE APPROXIMATION
1 if pF n > pF p + pF e
ϑn ≡ 3 (pF p + pF e − pF n )2
1− if pF n < pF p + pF e . A. Particles away from their Fermi surface
8 pF p pF e
See Sec. 6 of [24] for a comprehensive discussion of the In order to discuss the rates it is useful to introduce
integrals involved in the Fermi surface approximation of the concept of the single particle free energy, defined as
4
ν
10 p B. Below-threshold direct Urca neutron decay
Γ (MeV4)
e-cap. (FS) dU e-capture
10−11 mU (n) n-decay & e-cap. (FS)
−30
10
μδ (MeV)
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
−5 −5
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Baryon density (units of nsat) Baryon density (units of nsat)
Figure 2: Exact direct Urca and approximate modified Urca Figure 3: Exact direct Urca and approximate modified Urca
rates at T = 500 keV, obeying the low-temperature beta equi- rates at T = 10 MeV, obeying the low-temperature beta equi-
librium condition (2). Above threshold, the two direct Urca librium condition (2). Above threshold, electron capture di-
rates balance each other, and they also match the approxi- rect Urca dominates, and agrees with the approximate direct
mate direct Urca rate. Below threshold, the direct Urca rates Urca rate calculation. At densities greater than 6nsat , we
exponentially fall off, and modified Urca dominates. However, expect neutron decay direct Urca to match electron capture
the two direct Urca rates have different exponential falloffs direct Urca. Below threshold, electron capture direct Urca
below threshold. In the lower plot, the deviation µδ from dominates over all modified Urca processes, which contradicts
low-temperature beta equilibrium needed to achieve true beta the conventional wisdom. In the lower plot, the deviation µδ
equilibrium is plotted as a function of density. from low-temperature beta equilibrium needed to achieve true
beta equilibrium is plotted as a function of density.
The fact that electron capture is much less suppressed Figure 4: The isospin-coupled chemical potential µδ needed
than neutron decay at T & 1 MeV means that the to achieve true beta equilibrium in APR matter at various
system will be driven away from the state that obeys temperatures.
7
10−10 dU n-decay
dU e-capture
e
mU (n) n-decay (FS)
Γμ =μ +μ +μ / Γμ =μ +μ
p
10−11 mU (n) n-decay (FS)
n
mU (p) n-decay (FS)
Γ (MeV4)
δ
mU (n) e-cap. (FS) dU e-capture
e
p
mU (p) e-cap. (FS) mU (n) e-cap. (FS)
n
10−13
dU n-decay
10−14 & e-cap. (FS) mU (p) e-cap. (FS)
0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Baryon density (units of nsat) Baryon number density (units of nsat)
Figure 5: Urca rates in true beta equilibrium, µn = Figure 6: Fractional change in the six Urca rates at T =
µp + µe + µδ . Above threshold, the two direct Urca processes 10 MeV when we change µδ from zero to the value for true
dominate, but modified Urca neutron decay is not negligible. beta equilibrium. Below threshold, the change is the most
Below threshold, direct Urca electron capture competes with prominent, and as density increases to far above the threshold
modified Urca neutron decay (n-spectator) and, to a lesser density, the true beta equilibrium condition approaches the
extent, direct Urca neutron decay. behavior of the low-temperature beta equilibrium condition
(2).
G2
Z
Γn = d3 pn d3 pp d3 pe fn (1 − fp ) (1 − fe )
128π 8
Appendix A: Modified Urca rates when µn 6= µp + µe × δ(q − |pn − pp − pe |) (B1)
2 2
pn − pp − pe
× 1 + 3gA + 1 − gA p̂e · ,
We present here the Fermi-surface approximation of |pn − pp − pe |
the modified Urca rates, when allowed to deviate from
the low-temperature beta equilibrium criterion (2) by an where we define q ≡ En − Ep − Ee , and the “hat” denotes
amount ξ ≡ (µn − µp − µe ) /T . In the following expres- a unit vector. We adopt spherical coordinates for the
sions for the rates the non-equilibrium behavior is encap- momentum of each of the three particles. We have the
sulated in the function freedom to choose the coordinates such that the neutron
momentum lies along the z axis, and the proton momen-
tum lies in the same plane as the neutron momentum,
F (ξ) = − ξ 4 + 10π 2 ξ 2 + 9π 4 Li3 (−eξ )
(A1) and so the momentum unit vectors are written as
+ 12ξ ξ + 5π Li4 (−e ) − 24 3ξ + 5π Li5 (−eξ )
2 2 ξ 2 2
p̂n = (0, 0, 1) (B2)
+ 240ξLi6 (−eξ ) − 360Li7 (−eξ ), q
p̂p = 1 − zp2 , 0, zp (B3)
where Lin is the Polylogarithm function of order n. We
p p
p̂e = 1 − ze2 cos φ, 1 − ze2 sin φ, ze , (B4)
note that F (0) ≈ 2300. The rate of modified Urca neu-
9
where zp and ze are cosines of the polar angles of the pro- where
ton and electron momenta and as such, take values from
−1 to 1. φ is the azimuthal angle of the electron with
respect to the plane formed by the proton and neutron
momenta, and ranges from 0 to 2π.
This choice of coordinates allows us to integrate over
the three trivial angles, giving a factor of 8π 2 . The rate
integral can now be written as
Z ∞ Z 1
G2
Γn = dp n dp p dp e dzp p2n p2p p2e (B5)
16π 6 0 −1
× fn (1 − fp ) (1 − fe ) I(pn , pp , pe , zp ),
!
1 2π
Z Z r q p
I= dze dφ δ q − p2n + p2p + p2e + 2pp pe 1− zp2 1− ze2 cos φ + 2pp pe zp ze − 2pn pp zp − 2pn pe ze (B6)
−1 0
q
p
pn ze − pp zp ze − pe − pp 1 − 1 − cos φ zp2 ze2
2 2
1 + 3gA + 1 − gA r
× q
.
p
p2n + p2p + p2e + 2pp pe 1 − zp2 1 − ze2 cos φ + 2pp pe zp ze − 2pn pp zp − 2pn pe ze
We do the φ integral first, using the delta function. thus the integral would be zero. For q > 0, the delta
Clearly we require q > 0, because if q is negative, the function argument vanishes for either zero or two values
argument of the delta function could never be zero and of φ between 0 and 2π. We find that
2
2 1 − gA
p2n + p2p − p2e − q 2 − 2pn pp zp Θ(q)
I = 4|q| 1 + 3gA + (B7)
2pe q
Z 1
1
× dze q 2 Θ(B),
−1 4p2p p2e 1 − zp2 (1 − ze2 ) − q 2 − p2n − p2p − p2e − 2pp pe zp ze + 2pn pp zp + 2pn pe ze
where the step function enforces B > 0, where ze− < ze < ze+ , where ze± lie inside the interval [−1, 1],
q p and thus ze± become the new integration bounds. Doing
B = 2pp pe 1 − zp2 1 − ze2 (B8) the integral, we find
2
− |q − p2n − p2p − p2e − 2pp pe zp ze + 2pn pp zp + 2pn pe ze |.
This is the condition for there to be two, not zero, values
of φ in the integration range which make the argument 2π|q|
I= Θ(C)Θ(q) (B10)
of the delta function vanish and thus contribute to the pe
integral. 2
1 − gA
2 2 2 2 2
We now evaluate the ze integral, noting that the step 1 + 3gA + 2pe q pn + pp − pe − q − 2pn pp zp
function Θ(B) adjusts the range of integration. Only if × q .
p2n + p2p − 2pn pp zp
C > 0, where
C = 2pe |q| − |p2e + q 2 − p2n − p2p + 2pn pp zp |, (B9)
is the step function “on” for any range of ze in the interval
[−1, 1], in which case the step function is “on” only for The final expression for the direct Urca neutron decay
10
[1] D. Yakovlev, O. Gnedin, M. Gusakov, A. Kaminker, interactions in hot and dense matter, Phys. Rev. D 58
K. Levenfish and A. Potekhin, Neutron star cooling, (May, 1998) 013009.
Nuclear Physics A 752 (2005) 590 – 599. [16] J. M. Lattimer, C. J. Pethick, M. Prakash and
[2] D. G. Yakovlev and C. J. Pethick, Neutron star cooling, P. Haensel, Direct URCA process in neutron stars,
Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 42 (2004) 169–210, Phys. Rev. Lett. 66 (May, 1991) 2701–2704.
[astro-ph/0402143]. [17] D. G. Yakovlev and K. P. Levenfish, Modified URCA
[3] E. F. Brown, A. Cumming, F. J. Fattoyev, C. J. process in neutron star cores., Astron. Astrophys. 297
Horowitz, D. Page and S. Reddy, Rapid neutrino cooling (May, 1995) 717.
in the neutron star MXB 1659-29, 1801.00041. [18] Y.-F. Yuan, Electron-positron capture rates and a steady
[4] B. P. Abbott et al., Multi-messenger observations of a state equilibrium condition for an electron-positron
binary neutron star merger, The Astrophysical Journal plasma with nucleons, Phys. Rev. D 72 (Jul, 2005)
Letters 848 (2017) L12. 013007.
[5] Virgo, LIGO Scientific collaboration, B. Abbott [19] A. Akmal, V. R. Pandharipande and D. G. Ravenhall,
et al., GW170817: Observation of Gravitational Waves The equation of state for nucleon matter and neutron
from a Binary Neutron Star Inspiral, Phys. Rev. Lett. star structure, Phys. Rev. C58 (1998) 1804–1828,
119 (2017) 161101, [1710.05832]. [nucl-th/9804027].
[6] L. Baiotti and L. Rezzolla, Binary neutron-star [20] M. G. Alford, L. Bovard, M. Hanauske, L. Rezzolla and
mergers: a review of Einstein’s richest laboratory, K. Schwenzer, Viscous dissipation and heat conduction
Reports on Progress in Physics (2016) , [1607.03540]. in binary neutron-star mergers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 120
[7] S. Bernuzzi, D. Radice, C. D. Ott, L. F. Roberts, (Jan, 2018) 041101.
P. Mosta and F. Galeazzi, How loud are neutron star [21] L. F. Roberts, S. Reddy and G. Shen, Medium
mergers?, Phys. Rev. D 94 (Jul, 2016) 024023. modification of the charged-current neutrino opacity and
[8] D. Radice, F. Galeazzi, J. Lippuner, L. F. Roberts, its implications, Phys. Rev. C 86 (Dec, 2012) 065803.
C. D. Ott and L. Rezzolla, Dynamical mass ejection [22] Villain, L. and Haensel, P., Non-equilibrium beta
from binary neutron star mergers, Monthly Notices of processes in superfluid neutron star cores, Astron.
the Royal Astronomical Society 460 (2016) 3255–3271. Astrophys. 444 (2005) 539–548.
[9] L. Baiotti, B. Giacomazzo and L. Rezzolla, Accurate [23] P. Haensel, K. P. Levenfish and D. G. Yakovlev, Bulk
evolutions of inspiralling neutron-star binaries: Prompt viscosity in superfluid neutron star cores. I. Direct Urca
and delayed collapse to a black hole, Phys. Rev. D 78 processes in npeµ matter, Astron. Astrophys. 357
(Oct, 2008) 084033. (2000) 1157–1169, [astro-ph/0004183].
[10] Oechslin, R., Janka, H.-T. and Marek, A., Relativistic [24] A. D. Kaminker, D. G. Yakovlev and P. Haensel,
neutron star merger simulations with non-zero Theory of neutrino emission from nucleon–hyperon
temperature equations of state - I. Variation of binary matter in neutron stars: Angular integrals, Astrophysics
parameters and equation of state, Astron. Astrophys and Space Science 361 (Jul, 2016) 267.
467 (2007) 395–409. [25] B. L. Friman and O. V. Maxwell, Neutron Star Neutrino
[11] K. Kiuchi, Y. Sekiguchi, M. Shibata and K. Taniguchi, Emissivities, Astrophys. J. 232 (1979) 541–557.
Long-term general relativistic simulation of binary [26] Haensel, P., Levenfish, K. P. and Yakovlev, D. G., Bulk
neutron stars collapsing to a black hole, Phys. Rev. D viscosity in superfluid neutron star cores - II. Modified
80 (Sep, 2009) 064037. Urca processes in npeµ matter, Astron. Astrophys. 372
[12] S. L. Shapiro and S. A. Teukolsky, Black holes, white (2001) 130–137.
dwarfs, and neutron stars: The physics of compact [27] D. T. Son and M. A. Stephanov, QCD at Finite Isospin
objects. 1983. Density, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (Jan, 2001) 592–595.
[13] D. Yakovlev, A. Kaminker, O. Gnedin and P. Haensel, [28] M. G. Alford, S. Mahmoodifar and K. Schwenzer, Large
Neutrino emission from neutron stars, Physics Reports amplitude behavior of the bulk viscosity of dense matter,
354 (2001) 1 – 155. J. Phys. G37 (2010) 125202, [1005.3769].
[14] L. F. Roberts and S. Reddy, Charged current neutrino [29] A. Rios, A. Polls and W. H. Dickhoff, Depletion of the
interactions in hot and dense matter, Phys. Rev. C 95 nuclear Fermi sea, Phys. Rev. C79 (2009) 064308,
(Apr, 2017) 045807. [0904.2183].
[15] S. Reddy, M. Prakash and J. M. Lattimer, Neutrino [30] S. Reddy, M. Prakash, J. M. Lattimer and J. A. Pons,
11