UNIT I THERMAL POWER PLANTS

Thermodynamic Cycles :
A cycle is defined as sequence of processes which end in the same final state of the
substance as the initial.

Steam Cycle :
The cycles which use air as medium is known as air standard cycles. They are used in
internal combustion engines like petrol and diesel engines and in gas turbine. They are also
referred to as power cycles.
The use of steam is based upon large latent heat which water absorbs when changes into
steam. Steam is produced at high pressure where its boiling point is high but when it expands in
the turbine its pressure reduces continuously and its boiling point simultaneously reduces so it
remains vapour until the end of expansion to very low pressure. Thus, enough expansion work is
obtained from steam.

The total cycle consists of water converting into steam, expansion of steam and steam
condensing into water.

Rankine cycle consists of following processes :

1-2 : Pumping water from condenser to boiler, it requires work but the work is very small in
comparison of work and heat in other processes, hence negligible.
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler, it can heat water into wet, saturated or
superheated steam.
3-4 : Expansion of steam in an engine or turbine, converting heat into work, normally an
adiabatic process.
4-1 : Condensing steam into water at low pressure which is the exit pressure of engine or turbine.
The work is obtained from expansion process 3-4 and heat is supplied during heating process 2-
3. The pumping work during 1-2 is negligible. The heat is rejected during condensation process
4-1.
The cycle is represented in Figure

Ideal Rankine Cycle

(a) Schematic representation of an ideal Rankine cycle (b) T-s diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle

Application of the First law of thermodynamics to the control volume (pump, steam generator,
turbine and condenser), gives

Work done on pump, per kg of water, WP= h2-h1

Energy added in steam generator, q1= h3-h2

Work delivered by turbine, WT= h3-h4

Energy rejected in the condenser, q2= h4-h1

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by,
Layout of Steam Power Plant :
A steam power plant, also known as thermal power plant, is using steam as working fluid.
Steam is produced in a boiler using coal as fuel and is used to drive the prime mover, namely,
the steam turbine. In the steam turbine, heat energy is converted into mechanical energy which
is used for generating electric power. Generator is an electro-magnetic device which makes the
power available in the form of electrical energy.

The layout of the steam power plant is shown in figure below. It consists of four main
circuits. These are:
 Coal and ash circuit.
 Air and flue gas circuit
 Water and steam circuit and
 Cooling water circuit

Coal and ash circuit:

Coal from the storage yard is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of coal handling
equipment like belt conveyor, bucket elevator, etc., ash resulting from the combustion of coal in
the boiler furnace collects at the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard
through the ash handling equipment.

Ash disposal :
The indian coal contains 30% to 40% ash. A power plant of 100MW 20 to 25 tonnes of hot ash
per hour. Hence sufficient space near the power plant is essential to dispose such large
quantities of ash.

Air and flue gas circuit:

Air is taken from the atmosphere to the air preheater. Air is heated in the air preheater by the
heat of flue gas which is passing to the chimney. The hot air is supplied to the furnace of the
bolier.

The flue gases after combustion in the furnace, pass around the boiler tubes. The flue gases
then passes through a dust collector, economizer and pre-heater before being exhausted to the
atmosphere through the chimney. By this method the heat of the flue gases which would have
been wasted otherwise is used effectively. Thus the overall efficiency of the plant is improved.

Feed water and steam circuit:

The steam generated in the boiler passes through super heater and is supplied to the steam
turbine. Work is done by the expansion of steam in the turbine and the pressure of steam is
reduced. The expanded steam then passes to the condenser, where it is condensed.

The condensate leaving the condenser is first heated in a l.p. water heater by using the steam
taken from the low pressure extraction point of the turbine. Again steam taken from the high
pressure extraction point of the turbine is used for heating the feed water in the H.P water
heater. The hot feed water is passing through the economizer, where it is further heated by
means of flue gases. The feed water which is sufficiently heated by the feed water heaters and
economizer is then fed into the boiler.

Cooling water circuit:

Abundant quantity of water is required for condensing the steam in the condenser. Water
circulating through the condenser may be taken from various sources such as river or lake,
provided adequate water supply is available from the river or lake throughout the year.
If adequate quantity of water is not available at the plant site, the hot water from the condenser
is cooled in the cooling tower or cooling ponds and circulated again.

Advantages of thermal power plants

1. Initial cost is low compared with hydro-plant.
2. The power plant can be located near load center, so the transmission losses are considerably
reduced.
3. The generation of power is not dependent on the nature’s mercy like hydro plant.
4. The construction and commissioning of thermal plant requires less period of time than a hydro
plant.

Coal Handling :

Pulverized Fuel Firing:

Pulverised coal firing is done by two systems :
(a) Unit System or Direct System.
(b) Bin or Central System.

Unit System
` In this system the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder. Hot air is passed
through coal in the feeder to dry the coal. The coal is then transferred to the pulverizing mill
where it is pulverized. Primary air is supplied to the mill, by the fan. The mixture of pulverized
coal and primary air then flows to burner where secondary air is added. The unit system is so
called from the fact that each burner or a burner group and pulverizer constitutes a unit.
Advantages
(a) The system is simple and cheaper than the central system.
(b) There is direct control of combustion from the pulverizing mill.
(c) Coal transportation system is simple.

Bin or Central System

Crushed coal from the raw coal bunker is fed by gravity to a dryer where hot air is passed
through the coal to dry it. The dryer may use waste flue gases, preheated air or bleeder steam as
drying agent. The dry coal is then transferred to the pulverizing mill. The pulverized coal
obtained is transferred to the pulverized coal bunker (bin). The transporting air is separated from
the coal in the cyclone separator. The primary air is mixed with the coal at the feeder and the
mixture is supplied to the burner.

Advantages
(a) The pulverizing mill grinds the coal at a steady rate irrespective of boiler feed.
(b) There is always some coal in reserve. Thus any occasional breakdown in the coal supply will
not affect the coal feed to the burner.
(c) For a given boiler capacity pulverizing mill of small capacity will be required as compared to
unit system.
Disadvantages
(a) The initial cost of the system is high.
(b) Coal transportation system is quite complicated.
(c) The system requires more space.
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of
solid particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low
velocity. As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles
are suspended in the air stream – the bed is called “fluidized”.
With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid
mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the
properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid – “bubbling fluidized bed”.
If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal
is injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform
temperature. The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840 OC to 950 OC. Since
this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated
problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat
transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed
through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between
minimum fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of
the bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream.

There are three basic types of fluidized bed combustion boilers:

1. Atmospheric classic Fluidized Bed Combustion System (AFBC)
2. Atmospheric circulating (fast) Fluidized Bed Combustion system(CFBC)
3. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion System (PFBC).

ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS:

Ash Handling Systems is the none / un combusted portion or residue, after taking
combustion of any solid fuel. Solid fuel is usually coal. And any coal contains some non
combustible portion which is called ash. Content of that coal.
There are different types of ashes.
• Bottom ash
• fly ash.
Bottom ash is the residue which remains in the solid form at the bottom and fly ash
is the light particle which goes out along with exhaust gases, and usually they are collected
in chimneys. Taking ash away from the Plant / Boiler is called – "ASH HANDLING SYSTEM"
This is done in either

• Mechanical conveying
• Pneumatic conveying
Mechanical system requires conveyors, and Pneumatic system requires – compressed air to carry
out the ash.
Draft System
Most boilers now depend on mechanical draft equipment rather than natural draft. This is
because natural draft is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the
furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors make proper draft hard to attain and
therefore make mechanical draft equipment much more economical.

There are three types of mechanical draft :

Induced Draft
This is obtained one of three ways, the first being the “stack effect” of a heated chimney, in
which the flue gas is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the boiler. The denser column
of ambient air forces combustion air into and through the boiler. The second method is through
use of a steam jet. The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gasses into
the stack and allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draft in the furnace.
This method was common on steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The
third method is by simply using an induced draft fan (ID fan) which removes flue gases from the
furnace and forces the exhaust gas up the stack. Almost all induced draft furnaces operate with a
slightly negative pressure.

Forced Draft
Draft is obtained by forcing air into the furnace by means of a fan (FD fan) and ductwork. Air is
often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests, heats the air going into the
furnace in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are used to control the
quantity of air admitted to the furnace. Forced draft furnaces usually have a positive pressure.

Balanced Draft
Balanced draft is obtained through use of both induced and forced draft. This is more common
with larger boilers where the flue gases have to travel a long distance through many boiler
passes. The induced draft fan works in conjunction with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace
pressure to be maintained slightly below atmospheric.

Boilers :

Type of boilers

Fire Tube Boiler

In fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the shell side
is converted into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for relatively small steam capacities
and low to medium steam pressures. Fire tube boilers are available for operation with oil, gas or
solid fuels. For economic reasons, most fire tube boilers are nowadays of “packaged” type

Water Tube Boiler :In water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters
the boiler drum. The circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and converted into steam
at the vapour space in the drum.
These boilers are selected when the steam demand as well as steam pressure requirements are
high as in the case of process cum power boiler / power boilers.
Most modern water boiler tube designs are within the capacity range 4,500 – 120,000 kg/hour of
steam, at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers nowadays are of “packaged” construction
if oil and /or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs are available but
packaged designs are less common.
The features of water tube boilers are:
Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency. Less
tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant. Higher thermal efficiency levels are
possible after which there may be one, two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler
of this class is a three-pass unit with two sets of fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting
through the rear of the boiler.

High Pressure Boilers

In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as they offer
the following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity, forced
circulation of water through boiler tubes is found helpful. Some special types of boilers operating
at super critical pressures and using forced circulations are described in this chapter.
(a) The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam is
required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
(b) The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement of
furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.
(c) The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
(d) The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
(e) The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.

CONDENSER TYPES
There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power plant:
1. Direct Contact
2. Surface

Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by mixing it directly with cooling
water. The older type Barometric and Jet-Type condensers operate on similar principles.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power plants. The
exhaust steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum) of the condenser, while
the plant‟s circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating water can be
either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e. from a lake, ocean,
or river). The condensed steam from the turbine, called condensate, is collected in the bottom of
the condenser, which is called a hot well. The condensate is then pumped back to the steam
generator to repeat the cycle.
2.9.3 Surface Condenser
The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated
through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is
cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the diagram.
Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of
air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum.

Water-cooled Surface Condenser

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to
achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature
can almost always be kept significantly below 100oC where the vapor pressure of water is much
less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-
condensable air into the closed loop must be prevented.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject
waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

Cooling Towers :
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and
cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air to cool the
working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.

With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:

Natural draft, which utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to
the density differential to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air is less dense than drier air at
the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces a current of air through the tower.

Mechanical draft, which uses power driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower.

Induced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which pulls air through
tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and high
exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows back
into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through. (see Image 2, 3)

Forced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan forces air
into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities.

Categorization by air-to-water flow

Crossflow
Crossflow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow (see
diagram below). Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill
material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues
through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum area. A distribution or hot
water basin consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in the bottom is utilized in a crossflow
tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material.

Counterflow
In a counterflow design the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow (see diagram below).
Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media and is then drawn up vertically. The
water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles and flows downward through the fill, opposite to
the air flow.
Common to both designs:
The interaction of the air and water flow allows a partial equalization and evaporation of
water. The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the cooling tower.
A collection or cold water basin is used to contain the water after its interaction with the
air flow. Both crossflow and counterflow designs can be used in natural draft and mechanical
draft cooling towers.

Feed Water Pumps

A boiler feedwater pump is a specific type of pump used to pump feedwater into a steam boiler.
The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate produced as a result of the
condensation of the steam produced by the boiler. These pumps are normally high pressure units
that use suction from a condensate return system and can be of the centrifugal pump type or
positive displacement type.

Construction and operation

Feedwater pumps range in size up to many horsepower and the electric motor is usually
separated from the pump body by some form of mechanical coupling. Large industrial
condensate pumps may also serve as the feedwater pump. In either case, to force the water into
the boiler, the pump must generate sufficient pressure to overcome the steam pressure developed
by the boiler. This is usually accomplished through the use of a centrifugal pump.

Feedwater pumps sometimes run intermittently and are controlled by a float switch[citation needed] or
other similar level-sensing device energizing the pump when it detects a lowered liquid level in
the boiler. The pump then runs until the level of liquid in the boiler is substantially increased.
Some pumps contain a two-stage switch. As liquid lowers to the trigger point of the first stage,
the pump is activated. If the liquid continues to drop (perhaps because the pump has failed, its
supply has been cut off or exhausted, or its discharge is blocked), the second stage will be
triggered. This stage may switch off the boiler equipment (preventing the boiler from running dry
and overheating), trigger an alarm, or both.

Another common form of feedwater pumps run constantly and are provided with a minimum
flow device to stop overpressuring the pump on low flows.The minimum flow usual returns to
the tank or dearator.

Steam-powered pumps
Weir feedwater pump

Steam locomotives and the steam engines used on ships and stationary applications such as
power plants also required feedwater pumps. In this situation, though, the pump was often
powered using a small steam engine that ran using the steam produced by the boiler. A means
had to be provided, of course, to put the initial charge of water into the boiler (before steam
power was available to operate the steam-powered feedwater pump). The pump was often a
positive displacement pump that had steam valves and cylinders at one end and feedwater
cylinders at the other end; no crankshaft was required.

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR :
An electrostatic precipitator is a large, industrial emission-control unit. It is
designed to trap and remove dust particles from the exhaust gas of an industrial process.
Electrostatic precipitation removes particles from the exhaust gas stream of an
industrial process. Often the process involves combustion, but it can be any industrial
process that would otherwise emit particles to the atmosphere. Six activities typically
take place:
 Ionization - Charging of particles
 Migration - Transporting the charged particles to the collecting surfaces
 Collection - Precipitation of the charged particles onto the collecting surfaces
 Charge Dissipation - Neutralizing the charged particles on the collecting surfaces
 Particle Dislodging - Removing the particles from the collecting surface to the hopper
 Particle Removal - Conveying the particles from the hopper to a disposal point

The major precipitator components that accomplish these activities are as follows:
 Discharge Electrodes
 Power Components
 Precipitator Controls
 Rapping Systems
 Purge Air Systems
 Flue Gas Conditioning
 UNIT – II – HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
Layout of Hydel Power Plant :
Hydroelectric power plants convert the hydraulic potential energy from water into
electrical energy. Such plants are suitable were water with suitable head are available. The layout
covered in this article is just a simple one and only cover the important parts of hydroelectric
plant. The different parts of a hydroelectric power plant are

(1) Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a reservoir. The reservoir
stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to turbines in power stations. The
dams collect water during the rainy season and store it, thus allowing for a steady flow through
the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for controlling floods and irrigation. The
dams should be water-tight and should be able to withstand the pressure exerted by the water on
it. There are different types of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams and buttress dams. The
height of water in the dam is called head race.
(2) Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of water from dams. It is
used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over toping of the
dams which could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be controlled type or
uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing water upon water rising above a
particular level. But in case of the controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.
(3) Penstock and Tunnel
Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside power station.
They are usually made of steel and are equipped with gate systems. Water under high pressure
flows through the penstock. A tunnel serves the same purpose as a penstock. It is used when an
obstruction is present between the dam and power station such as a mountain.
(4) Surge Tank
Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves the purpose of reducing
water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surge of water in
penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the
collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.
(5) Power Station
Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator. The water brought to the power station
rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of turbine shaft. This rotational
torque is transferred to the generator and is converted into electricity. The used water is released
through the tail race. The difference between head race and tail race is called gross head and by
subtracting the frictional losses we get the net head available to the turbine for generation of
electricity.

Types of Hydraulic Turbines

The potential energy in the water is converted into mechanical energy in the turbine, by one of
two fundamental and basically different mechanisms.

The water pressure can apply a force on the face of the runner blades, which decreases as it
proceeds through the turbine. Turbines that operate in this way are called reaction turbines. The
turbine casing, with the runner fully immersed in water, must be strong enough to withstand the
operating pressure.

In the second case, the water pressure is converted into kinetic energy before entering the runner.
The kinetic energy is in the form of a high-speed jet that strikes the buckets, mounted on the
periphery of the runner. Turbines that operate in this way are called impulse turbines. As the
water after striking the buckets falls into the tail water with little remaining energy, the casing
can be light and serves the purpose of preventing splashing.

Impulse Turbines

Pelton turbines

Pelton turbines are impulse turbines where one or more jets impinge on a wheel carrying on its
periphery a large number of buckets. Each jet issues through a nozzle with a needle (or spear)
valve to control the flow. They are only used for relatively high heads. The axes of the nozzles
are in the plane of the runner. To stop the turbine - e.g. when the turbine approaches the runaway
speed due to load rejection- the jet may be deflected by a plate so that it does not impinge on the
buckets. In this way the needle valve can be closed very slowly, so that overpressure surge in the
pipeline is kept to an acceptable minimum. Any kinetic energy leaving the runner is lost and so
the buckets are designed to keep exit velocities to a minimum. The turbine casing only needs to
protect the surroundings against water splashing and therefore can be very light.

Turgo turbine
The Turgo turbine can operate under a head in the range of 30-300 meters. Like the Pelton it is
an impulse turbine, but its buckets are shaped differently and the jet of water strikes the plane of
its runner at an angle of 20°. Water enters the runner through one side of the runner disk and
emerges from the other. Whereas the volume of water a Pelton turbine can admit is limited
because the water leaving each bucket interferes with the adjacent ones, the Turgo runner does
not present this problem. The resulting higher runner speed of the Turgo makes direct coupling
of turbine and generator more likely, improving its overall efficiency and decreasing
maintenance cost.

Cross-flow turbines
This impulse turbine, also known as Banki-Michell in remembrance of its inventors and
Ossberger after a company which has been making it for more than 50 years is used for a wide
range of heads overlapping those of Kaplan, Francis and Pelton. It can operate with discharges
between 20 litres/sec and 10 cubic meters per second and heads between 1 and 200 meters. Water
enters the turbine, directed by one or more guide-vanes located in a transition piece upstream of
the runner, and through the first stage of the runner, which runs full with a small degree of
reaction. Flow leaving the first stage attempt to crosses the open center of the turbine. As the
flow enters the second stage, a compromise direction is achieved which causes significant shock
losses. The runner is built from two or more parallel disks connected near their rims by a series
of curved blades. Their efficiency is lower than conventional turbines, but remains the same level
for a wide range of flows and heads.

Reaction turbines
Francis turbines.
Francis turbines are radial flow reaction turbines, with fixed runner blades and adjustable guide
vanes, used for medium heads. In the high speed Francis the admission is always radial but the
outlet is axial.

Francis turbines can be set in an open flume or attached to a penstock. For small heads and
power open flumes are commonly employed. Steel spiral casings are used for higher heads,
designing the casing so that the tangential velocity of the water is constant along the consecutive
sections around the circumference. Small runners are usually made in aluminum bronze castings.
Large runners are fabricated from curved stainless steel plates, welded to a cast steel hub.

Kaplan and propeller turbines

Kaplan and propeller turbines are axial-flow reaction turbines, generally used for low
heads. Large Kaplan turbines have adjustable runner blades and may or may not have adjustable
guide- vanes. If both blades and guide-vanes are adjustable it is described as "double-regulated".
If the guide-vanes are fixed it is "single-regulated".
Unregulated propeller turbines are used when both flow and head remain practically
constant, and are most common in micro-hydro applications.

Draft tubes and diffuser tubes

In reaction turbines, to reduce the kinetic energy still remaining in the water leaving the
runner a draft tube or diffuser stands between the turbine and the tail race. A well-designed draft
tube allows, within certain limits, the turbine to be installed above the tail water elevation
without losing any head. As the kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity one of
the draft tube objectives is to reduce the outlet velocity. An efficient draft tube would have a
conical section but the angle cannot be too large, otherwise flow separation will occur. The
optimum angle is 7° but to reduce the draft tube length, and therefore its cost, sometimes angles
are increased up to 15°. Draft tubes are particularly important in high-speed turbines, where
water leaves the runner at very high speeds. In horizontal axis machines the spiral casing must be
well anchored in the foundation to prevent vibration that would reduce the range of discharges
accepted by the turbine.

Typical draft tubes

Straight divergent tube (Fig.a.) The shape of this tube is that of frustum of a cone. It is usually
employed for low specific speed, vertical shaft Francis turbine. The cone angle is restricted to 8 0
to avoid the losses due to separation. The tube must discharge sufficiently low under tail water
level. The maximum efficiency of this type of draft tube is 90%. This type of draft tube improves
speed regulation of falling load.

Simple elbow type (Fig.b.)The vertical length of the draft tube should be made small in order to
keep down the cost of excavation, particularly in rock. The exit diameter of draft tube should be
as large as possible to recover kinetic energy at runner's outlet. The cone angle of the tube is
again fixed from the consideration of losses due to flow separation. Therefore, the draft tube
must be bent to keep its definite length. Simple elbow type draft tube will serve such a purpose.
Its efficiency is, however, low (about 60%). This type of draft tube turns the water from the
vertical to the horizontal direction with a minimum depth of excavation. Sometimes, the
transition from a circular section in the vertical portion to a rectangular section in the horizontal
part (Fig.c) is incorporated in the design to have a higher efficiency of the draft tube. The
horizontal portion of the draft tube is generally inclined upwards to lead the water gradually to
the level of the tail race and to prevent entry of air from the exit end.

Governing of Reaction Turbines Governing of reaction turbines is usually done by altering the
position of the guide vanes and thus controlling the flow rate by changing the gate openings to
the runner. The guide blades of a reaction turbine (Figure a.) are pivoted and connected by levers
and links to the regulating ring. Two long regulating rods, being attached to the regulating ring at
their one ends, are connected to a regulating lever at their other ends. The regulating lever is
keyed to a regulating shaft which is turned by a servomotor piston of the oil
 Governing of reaction turbine

Govering of Pelton Turbine : When a turbine drives an electrical generator or alternator, the
primary requirement is that the rotational speed of the shaft and hence that of the turbine rotor
has to be kept fixed. Otherwise the frequency of the electrical output will be altered. But when
the electrical load changes depending upon the demand, the speed of the turbine changes
automatically. This is because the external resisting torque on the shaft is altered while the
driving torques due to change of momentum in the flow of fluid through the turbine remains the
same.

For example, when the load is increased, the speed of the turbine decreases and vice
versa . Constancy in speed is therefore maintained by adjusting the rate of energy input to the
turbine accordingly. This is usually accomplished by changing the rate of fluid flow through the
turbine- the flow in increased when the load is increased and the flow is decreased when the load
is decreased. This adjustment of flow with the load is known as the governing of turbines.

PUMPED STORAGE HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER GENERATIONS :

There's another type of hydropower plant, called the pumped-storage plant. In a

conventional hydropower plant, the water from the reservoir flows through the plant, exits
and is carried down stream. A pumped-storage plant has two reservoirs:

 Upper reservoir - Like a conventional hydropower plant, a dam creates a reservoir. The
water in this reservoir flows through the hydropower plant to create electricity.
 Lower reservoir - Water exiting the hydropower plant flows into a lower reservoir rather
than re-entering the river and flowing downstream.

Using a reversible turbine, the plant can pump water back to the upper reservoir. This is
done in off-peak hours. Essentially, the second reservoir refills the upper reservoir. By
pumping water back to the upper reservoir, the plant has more water to generate electricity
during periods of peak consumption.
Types of Dams

Dams can be grouped according to the type of material of which they are constructed as follows;
concrete dams are further grouped according to how they achieve their strength and stability.

CONCRETE DAMS

 Concrete Gravity Dams

 Concrete Arch Dams
 Concrete Buttress Dams

FILL (EMBANKMENT) DAMS

 Earth Dams
 Earth and Rock Fill Dams
 Concrete Faced Rock Fill Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams rely on the weight of the concrete of which they are built to resist the
forces (gravity, water pressure, earthquake) to which they are subjected.

Concrete Arch Dams and Buttress Dams can be built using a smaller amount of concrete than
that required for a Gravity Dam and, as a result, are cheaper to build. This is possible because
Arch and Buttress Dams are designed to transfer some of the loads (forces) on them to the
foundation on which they are built ie the strength of the foundation is used to help resist the
loads which could not be resisted simply by the weight of the dam wall alone. In all cases the
impermeable membrane of concrete dams is the whole dam wall.

Fill or Embankment Dams are grouped according to the material of which they are constructed
which, in turn, relates to the type of impermeable membrane used. Earth Dams are built of
homogeneous, impermeable earth material so that the impermeable membrane is the whole dam
wall.

Earth and Rock Fill Dams have a relatively narrow, impermeable earth or clay core inside the
dam but most of the dam is constructed of permeable rock fill which, by itself, would be
incapable of retaining water. The impermeable membrane in these dams is the clay core.

Concrete Faced Rock Fill Dams are constructed of permeable rock fill, the impermeable
membrane being a concrete slab constructed on the upstream face of the dam wall. This type of
dam has become increasingly popular over the last 25 years or so. A recent example is the
proposed 205 m high Bakun Dam in Malaysia, originally put on hold due to the Asian financial
crisis. Three Australian concrete faced rock fill dams (CFRD) built in 1970-71 (Pindari,
Kangaroo Creek and Cethana) played a significant role in the development of the CFRD type of
dam design.
 UNIT III NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Nuclear Fission and Fusion :

Nuclear Fission :
It is a nuclear reaction that splits the nucleus of an atom into smaller, subatomic particles. It
often produces free neutrons and photons. Fission of heavy elements can release large amounts
of energy as electromagnetic and kinetic energy. For fission to produce energy, the total binding
energy of the resulting element has to be lower than that of the original element. Fission is a form
of transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element used.

Nuclear fission can occur without neutron bombardment (radioactive decay). This type of fission
only occurs in a few heavy isotopes. In nuclear devices, all nuclear fission occurs from a neutron
bombardment process that results from the collision of two subatomic particles. In nuclear
reactions, a subatomic particle collides with an atomic nucleus and causes changes to it, so
nuclear reactions are thus driven by the mechanics of bombardment. The isotopes that can
sustain a fission chain reaction are called nuclear fuels and are said to be fissle. The most
common nuclear fuels are 235uranium and 230plutonium. These fuels break apart into a bimodal
range of chemical elements with atomic masses centering near 95 and 135.

Typical fission events release about two hundred million eV(electron volts) of energy for
each fission event. Most chemical fuels only release a few eV. The energy of nuclear fission is
released as kinetic energy, fragments, gamma rays, along with a huge amount of heat. Neutron
bombs release a larger fraction of their energy as ionizing radiation, but these are all
thermonuclear devices which rely on the fusion stage to produce the extra radiation.

Nuclear fission was discovered in 1938 after nearly five decades of work. Work by Ernest
Rutherford, Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie elaborated that the nucleus, though
tightly bound, could undergo different forms or radioactive decay and could transmute into other
elements. All known radioactive processes before fission changed mass of the atomic nucleus by
no more than two protons. Einstein’s principle of mass-energy equivalence described the amount
of energy released in such processes, but this could not be harnessed on a large scale. After
James Chadwick discovered the neutron, Enrico Fermi studied the results of bombarding
uranium with neutrons. Leo Szilard realized that fission could be used to create a nuclear chain
reaction. If the number of secondary neutrons produced by each fissioning nucleus was greater
than one, then each fission reaction could, in theory, trigger two more reactions. Such a system of
exponential growth held out the possibility of using uranium fission as a means to generate large
amounts of energy, either for civilian or military purposes. The atomic bomb was born.

Nuclear Fusion :
If light nuclei are forced together, they will fuse with a yield of energy because the mass
of the combination will be less than the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei. If the
combined nuclear mass is less than that of iron at the peak of the binding energy curve, then
the nuclear particles will be more tightly bound than they were in the lighter nuclei, and that
decrease in mass comes off in the form of energy according to the Einstein relationship. For
elements heavier than iron, fission will yield energy.

For potential nuclear energy sources for the Earth, the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction
contained by some kind of magnetic confinement seems the most likely path. However, for
the fueling of the stars, other fusion reactions will dominate.

Layout of Nuclear Power Plant :

Nuclear Power Stations use a fuel called uranium, a relatively common material. Energy
is released from uranium when an atom is split by a neutron. The uranium atom is split into two
and as this happens energy is released in the form of radiation and heat. This nuclear reaction is
called the fission process
 In a nuclear power station the uranium is first formed into pellets and then into long rods.
The uranium rods are kept cool by submerging them in water. When they are removed from the
water a nuclear reaction takes place causing heat. The amount of heat required is controlled by
raising and lowering the rods. If more heat is required the rods are raised further out of the water
and if less is needed they lower further into it.

There are several components common to most types of reactors:

Fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are
arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.

Moderator. This is material which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they
cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it.
(Secondary shutdown systems involve adding other neutron absorbers, usually in the primary
cooling system.)

Coolant. A liquid or gas circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light
water reactors the moderator functions also as coolant.

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and
moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant
through the moderator.

Steam generator. Part of the cooling system where the heat from the reactor is used to make
steam for the turbine.

Containment. The structure around the reactor core which is designed to protect it from outside
intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any major
malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel structure.

If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a power reactor on

natural instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium has the same elemental composition as
when it was mined (0.7% U-235, over 99.2% U-238), enriched uranium has had the proportion
of the fissile isotope (U-235) increased by a process called enrichment, commonly to 3.5 - 5.0%.
In this case the moderator can be ordinary water, and such reactors are collectively called light
water reactors. Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them, it is less
efficient as a moderator than heavy water or graphite.
 Practically all fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2 with a melting point of 2800°C) and
most is enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically
arranged in a long zirconium alloy (zircaloy) tube to form a fuel rod, the zirconium being hard,
corrosion-resistant and permeable to neutrons. Up to 264 rods form a fuel assembly, which is an
open lattice and can be lifted into and out of the reactor core. In the most common reactors these
are about 3.5-4.0 metres long.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Nuclear power is a controversial method of producing electricity. Many people and

environmental organisations are very concerned about the radioactive fuel it needs.

2. There have been serious accidents with a small number of nuclear power stations. The
accident at Chernobyl (Ukraine) in 1986, led to 30 people being killed and over 100,000 people
being evacuated. In the preceding years another 200,00 people were resettled away from the
radioactive area. Radiation was even detected over a thousand miles away in the UK as a result
of the Chernobyl accident. It has been suggested that over time 2500 people died as a result of
the accident.

3. There are serious questions to be answered regarding the storage of radioactive waste
produced through the use of nuclear power. Some of the waste remains radioactive (dangerous)
for thousands of years and is currently stored in places such as deep caves and mines.

4. Storing and monitoring the radioactive waste material for thousands of years has a high cost.

5. Nuclear powered ships and submarines pose a danger to marine life and the environment. Old
vessels can leak radiation if they are not maintained properly or if they are dismantled carelessly
at the end of their working lives.

6. Many people living near to nuclear power stations or waste storage depots are concerned about
nuclear accidents and radioactive leaks. Some fear that living in these areas can damage their
health, especially the health of young children.

7. Many Governments fear that unstable countries that develop nuclear power may also develop
nuclear weapons and even use them.

ADVANTAGES:

1. The amount of electricity produced in a nuclear power station is equivalent to that produced
by a fossil fuelled power station.

2. Nuclear power stations do not burn fossil fuels to produce electricity and consequently they do
not produce damaging, polluting gases.

3. Many supporters of nuclear power production say that this type of power is environmentally
friendly and clean. In a world that faces global warming they suggest that increasing the use of
nuclear power is the only way of protecting the environment and preventing catastrophic climate
change.

4. Many developed countries such as the USA and the UK no longer want to rely on oil and gas
imported from the Middle East, a politically unstable part of the world.

5. Countries such as France produce approximately 90 percent of their electricity from nuclear
power and lead the world in nuclear power generating technology - proving that nuclear power is
an economic alternative to fossil fuel power stations.

6. Nuclear reactors can be manufactured small enough to power ships and submarines. If this
was extended beyond military vessels, the number of oil burning vessels would be reduced and
consequently pollution.
Types of Nuclear reactors :
There are very many different types of nuclear reactors with different fuels, coolants, fuel
cycles, purposes.

Pressurized Water Reactor

 The most common type of reactor -- the PWR uses regular old water as a coolant. The
primary cooling water is kept at very high pressure so it does not boil. It goes through a
heat exchanger, transferring heat to a secondary coolant loop, which then spins the
turbine. These use oxide fuel pellets stacked in zirconium tubes. They could possibly
burn t
horiu
mor

plutonium fuel as well.

 Pros:

 Strong negative void coefficient -- reactor cools down if water starts bubbling because the
coolant is the moderator, which is required to sustain the chain reaction
 Secondary loop keeps radioactive stuff away from turbines, making maintenance easy.
 Very much operating experience has been accumulated and the designs and procedures
have been largely optimized.
 Cons:

 Pressurized coolant escapes rapidly if a pipe breaks, necessitating lots of back-up cooling
systems.
 Can’t breed new fuel -- susceptible to "uranium shortage"

Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor

 The first electricity-producing nuclear reactor in the world was SFR (the EBR-1 in Arco,
Idaho). As the name implies, these reactors are cooled by liquid sodium metal. Sodium is
heavier than hydrogen, a fact that leads to the neutrons moving around at higher speeds
(hence fast). These can use metal or oxide fuel, and burn anything you throw at them
(thorium, uranium, plutonium, higher actinides).
 Pros:

 Can breed its own fuel, effectively eliminating any concerns about uranium shortages

 Can burn its own waste

 Metallic fuel and excellent thermal properties of sodium allow for passively safe
operation -- the reactor will shut itself down and cool decay heat without any backup-
systems working (or people around), only relying on physics (gravity, natural circulation,
etc.).
 Cons:

 Sodium coolant is reactive with air and water. Thus, leaks in the pipes results in sodium
fires. These can be engineered around (by making a pool and eliminating pipes, etc.) but
are a major setback for these nice reactors.
 To fully burn waste, these require reprocessing facilities which can also be used
for nuclear proliferation.
 The excess neutrons used to give the reactor its resource-utilization capabilities could
clandestinely be used to make plutonium for weapons.
 Positive void coefficients are inherent to most fast reactors, especially large ones. This is
a safety concern.
 Not as much operating experience has been accumulated

Boiling Water Reactor

 Second most common, the BWR is similar to the PWR in many ways. However, they
only have one coolant loop. The hot nuclear fuel boils water as it goes out the top of the
reactor, where the steam heads over to the turbine to spin it.

 Pros:

 Simpler plumbing reduces costs

 Power levels can be increased simply by speeding up the jet pumps, giving less boiled
water and more moderation. Thus, load-following is simple and easy.
 Very much operating experience has been accumulated and the designs and procedures
have been largely optimized.
 Cons:

 With liquid and gaseous water in the system, many weird transients are possible, making
safety analysis difficult
 Primary coolant is in direct contact with turbines, so if a fuel rod had a leak, radioactive
material could be placed on the turbine. This complicates maintenance as the staff must
be dressed for radioactive environments.
 Can’t breed new fuel -- susceptible to "uranium shortage"
 Does not typically perform well in station blackout events, as in Fukushima.

Canada Deuterium-Uranium Reactors (CANDU)

 CANDUs are a Canadian design found in Canada and around the world. They contain
heavy water, where the Hydrogen in H2O has an extra neutron (making it Deuterium
instead of Hydrogen). Deuterium absorbs many fewer neutrons than Hydrogen, and
CANDUs can operate using only natural uranium instead of enriched.

 Pros:

 Require very little uranium enrichment.

 Can be refueled while operating, keeping capacity factors high (as long as the fuel
handling machines don’t break).
 Are very flexible, and can use any type of fuel.
 Cons:

 Some variants have positive coolant temperature coefficients, leading to safety concerns.
 Neutron absorption in deuterium leads to tritium production, which is radioactive and
often leaks in small quantities.
  Can theoretically be modified to produce weapons-grade plutonium slightly faster than
conventional reactors could be.

Nuclear WASTE management

All parts of the nuclear fuel cycle produce some radioactive waste (radwaste). The cost of
managing and disposing of these wastes is part of the electricity cost, i.e., it is internalized and
paid for by the electricity consumer.

Types of radioactive wastes

Low-level Wastes (LLW) are generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear
fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, etc. that contain small amounts of
mostly short-lived radioactivity. These wastes do not require shielding during handling and
transport and are suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce the waste's volume, it is often
compacted or incinerated before disposal. LLW comprises some 90% of the volume but only 1%
of the radioactivity of all radwaste.

Intermediate-level Wastes (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some

requires shielding, usually of lead, concrete or water. It typically comprises resins, chemical
sludges, and metal fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor
decommissioning. Smaller items and any non-solids may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for
disposal. ILW makes up some 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all radwaste.
The maintenance of a 1000 MWe nuclear reactor produces less than 0.5m3 of long-lived ILW
each year. If fuel is reprocessed this is increased to 3m3.

High-level Wastes (HLW) arise from the "burning" of uranium fuel in nuclear reactors.
HLW contains the fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is
highly radioactive and hot, so requires cooling and shielding. It can be considered as the "ash"
from "burning" uranium. These wastes contain the fission products and transuranic elements
generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and hot and thus requires cooling and
shielding. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of
electricity generation. There are two distinct kinds of HLW:
Used fuel itself in fuel rods, or separated waste from reprocessing the used fuel as described
below. HLW has both long-lived and short-lived components, depending on the length of time it
will take for the radioactivity of particular radionuclide to decrease to levels that are considered
no longer hazardous for people and the surrounding environment. If generally short-lived fission
products can be separated from long-lived actinides, this distinction becomes important in
management and disposal of HLW.
 UNIT IV GAS AND DIESEL POWER PLANTS

Layout of Gas Turbine Power Plant :

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion
engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and
a combustion chamber in-between.
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed
with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel
increases the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced into the turbine section.
There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the
turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for some turbines,
drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in
the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas.
Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air or thrust or any
combination of these and used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, or even tanks.
Gases passing through an ideal gas turbine undergo three thermodynamic processes.
These are isentropic compression, isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and isentropic
expansion. Together these make up the Brayton cycle.
If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator or
a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is
necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gases. In the
case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the
compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gases are accelerated to provide
a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.

Layout of a Combined Cycle Power Plant :

The Combined Cycle Power Plant or combined cycle gas turbine, a gas turbine generator
generates electricity and waste heat is used to make steam to generate additional electricity via a
steam turbine. The gas turbine is one of the most efficient one for the conversion of gas fuels to
mechanical power or electricity. The use of distillate liquid fuels, usually diesel, is also common
as alternate fuels.
More recently, as simple cycle efficiencies have improved and as natural gas prices have fallen,
gas turbines have been more widely adopted for base load power generation, especially in
combined cycle mode, where waste heat is recovered in waste heat boilers, and the steam used to
produce additional electricity.
This system is known as a Combined Cycle. The basic principle of the Combined Cycle is
simple: burning gas in a gas turbine (GT)
produces not only power – which can be
converted to electric power by a coupled
generator – but also fairly hot exhaust gases.
Routing these gases through a water-cooled
heat exchanger produces steam, which can be
turned into electric power with a coupled
steam turbine and generator.
Figure - Combined cycle power plant scheme

This type of power plant is being installed in increasing numbers round the world where there is
access to substantial quantities of natural gas.
A Combined Cycle Power Plant produces high power outputs at high efficiencies (up to 55%)
and with low emissions. In a Conventional power plant we are getting 33% electricity only and
remaining 67% as waste.
By using combined cycle power plant we are getting 68% electricity. It is also possible to use
the steam from the boiler for heating purposes so such power plants can operate to deliver
electricity alone or in combined heat and power (CHP) mode.

Reheat cycle and Regeneration :

Improvements could include (1) decreasing compression work by intermediate cooling,

(2) increasing turbine output by reheating after partial expansion, or (3) decreasing fuel
consumption by regeneration.
The first improvement would involve compressing air at nearly constant temperature.
Although this cannot be achieved in practice, it can be approximated by intercooling (i.e., by
compressing the air in two or more steps and water-cooling it between steps back to its initial
temperature). Cooling decreases the volume of air to be handled and, with it, the compression
work required.
The second improvement involves reheating the air after partial expansion through a
high-pressure turbine in a second set of combustion chambers before feeding it into a low-
pressure turbine for final expansion. This process is similar to the reheating used in a steam
turbine.
Both approaches require considerable additional equipment and are used less frequently
than the third improvement. Here, the hot exhaust gases from the turbine are passed through a
heat exchanger, or regenerator, to increase the temperature of the air leaving the compressor prior
to combustion. This reduces the amount of fuel needed to reach the desired turbine-inlet
temperature. The increase in efficiency is, however, tied to a large increase in initial cost and will
be economical only for units that are run almost continuously.

Layout of Diesel Power Plant

Diesel engine:
Diesel engines or compression ignition engines as they are called are generally classified as two
stroke engine and four stroke engines. In diesel engine, air admitted into the cylinder is
compressed, the compression ratio being 12 to 20. At the end of compression stroke, fuel is
injected. It burns and the burning gases expand and do work on the position. The engine is
directly coupled to the generator. The gases are then exhausted from the cylinder to atmosphere.

Engine starting system:

This includes air compressor and starting air tank. The function of this system is to start
the engine from cold supplying compressed air.

Fuel system:
Pump draws diesel from storage tank and supplies it to the small day tank through the filter. Day
tank supplies the daily fuel need of engine. The day tan is usually placed high so that diesel flows
to engine under gravity.
Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by the fuel injection pump. The fuel
is supplied to the engine according to the load on the plant.

Air intake system:

Air filters are used to remove dust from the incoming air. Air filters may be dry type, which is
made up of felt, wool or cloth. In oil bath type filters, the sir is swept over a bath of oil so that
dust particles get coated.

Exhaust system:
In the exhaust system, silencer (muffler) is provide to reduce the noise.

Engine cooling system:

The temperature of burning gases in the engine cylinder is the order of 1500 to 2000’C. to keep
the temperature at the reasonable level, water is circulated inside the engine in water jackets
which are passage around the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber etc. hot water leaving the
jacket is sent to heat exchanger. Raw water is made to flow through the heat exchanger, where it
takes up the heat of jacket water. It is then cooled in the cooling tower and recirculates again.

Engine lubrication system:

It includes lubricating oil tank, oil pump and cooler. Lubrication is essential to reduce friction
and wear of engine parts such as cylinder walls and piston. Lubricating oil which gets heated due
to friction of moving parts is cooled before recirculation. The cooling water used in the engine is
used for cooling the lubricant also.

Advantages of diesel power plant:

1. Plant layout is simple. Hence it can be quickly installed and commissioned, while the
erection and starting of a steam power plant or hydro-plant takes a fairly long time.
2. Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads are possible in a very short time.
3. Location of the plant is near the load center.
4. The load operation is easy and requires minimum labors.
5. Efficiency at part loads does not fall so much as that of a steam plant.
6. Fuel handling is easier and no problem of ash disposal exists.
7. The plant is smaller in size than steam power plant for same capacity.
8. Diesel plants operate at high overall efficiency than steam.

Cooling System :
Internal Combustion engines, combustion of air and fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and hot gases are generated. The temperature of gases will be around 2300-2500°C.
This is a very high temperature and may result into burning of oil film between the moving parts
and may result into seizing or welding of the same. So, this temperature must be reduced to
about 150-200°C at which the engine will work most efficiently. Too much cooling is also not
desirable since it reduces the thermal efficiency. So, the objective of cooling system is to keep
the engine running at its most efficient operating temperature.
There are mainly two types of cooling systems :
(a) Air cooled system, and
(b) Water cooled system.

Air Cooled System

Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up to 15-20 kW and in aero
plane engines. In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder walls,
cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in the engine cylinder will be conducted to
the fins and when the air flows over the fins, heat will be dissipated to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon :
(a) Amount of air flowing through the fins.
(b) Fin surface area.
(c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.

Advantages of Air Cooled System

Following are the advantages of air cooled system :
(a) Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.
(b) In case of water cooling system there are leakages, but in this case there are no
leakages.
(c) Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required.
(d) This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System
(a) Comparatively it is less efficient.
(b) It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are exposed to air
directly.

WATER COOLING SYSTEM

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder
head, valve seats etc. The water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of
combustion. This hot water will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and
partially by the flow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is
again recirculated through the water jackets.
There are two types of water cooling system :
Thermo Siphon System
In this system the circulation of water is due to difference in temperature (i.e.
difference in densities) of water. So in this system pump is not required but water is
circulated because of density difference only.

Pump Circulation System

In this system circulation of water is obtained by a pump. This pump is driven by
means of engine output shaft through V-belts

LUBRICATION SYSTEM :
All moving parts in an engine require lubrication, that is, the application of oil to moving parts to
reduce friction between them. A lubrication system distributes oil through the engine. A typical
lubrication system consists of an oil sump, an oil pump, and oil galleries. The oil is stored in the
sump, bolted to the bottom of the engine block. Oil is drawn from the sump by an oil pump. Oil
galleries are small passages in the cylinder block that direct oil to the moving parts. Oil that has
been pumped to the crankshaft main bearings travels through oil-ways to the connecting rods.
Oil may also be splashed from the connecting rods onto the cylinder walls. A filter is usually
provided to remove particles of dirt from the oil, and the circulation of the oil assists with the
cooling of the internals parts.
Splash Lubrication System
In the splash lubricating system, oil is splashed up from the oil pan or oil trays in the lower part
of the crankcase. The oil is thrown upward as droplets or fine mist and provides adequate
lubrication to valve mechanisms, piston pins, cylinder walls, and piston rings.

In the engine, dippers on the connecting-rod bearing caps enter the oil pan with each crankshaft
revolution to produce the oil splash. A passage is drilled in each connecting rod from the dipper
to the bearing to ensure lubrication.

This system is too uncertain for automotive applications. One reason is that the level of oil in the
crankcase will vary greatly the amount of lubrication received by the engine. A high level results
in excess lubrication and oil consumption and a slightly low level results in inadequate
lubrication and failure of the engine.
 UNIT V NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION

Solar Power Plant :

Solar Trough System

Trough systems predominate among today’s commercial solar power plants. Trough
systems convert the heat from the sun into electricity. Because of their parabolic
shape, troughs can focus the sun at 30 to 60 times its normal intensity on a receiver
pipe located along the focal line of the trough. Synthetic oil captures this heat as the
oil circulates through the pipe, reaching temperatures as high as 390°C (735ºF). The
hot oil is pumped to a generating station and routed through a heat exchanger to
produce steam. Finally, electricity is produced in a conventional steam turbine.

Solar Power Towers

These systems produce electricity on a large scale. They are unique among solar
technologies because they can store energy efficiently and cost effectively. They can
operate whenever the customer needs power, even after dark or during cloudy
weather.

Power towers operate by focusing a field of thousands of mirrors onto a receiver

located at the top of a centrally located tower. The receiver collects the sun's heat in a
heat-transfer fluid, which is used to generate steam for a conventional steam turbine
located at the foot of the tower for production of electricity.

Schematic of electricity generation using molten-salt storage:

1. sun heats salt in receiver;

2. salt stored in hot storage tank;
3. hot salt pumped through steam generator;
 4. steam drives turbine/generator to produce electricity;
5. salt returns to cold storage tank

Solar Dish/Engine Systems

These systems, with net solar-to-electric conversion efficiencies reaching 30%, can
operate as stand-alone units in remote locations or can be linked together in groups to
provide utility-scale power

Solar dish/engine systems convert the energy from the sun into electricity at a very
high efficiency. Using a mirror array formed into the shape of a dish, the solar dish
focuses the sun’s rays onto a receiver. The receiver transmits the energy to an engine,
typically a kinematic Stirling engine (although Brayton-cycle engines are also being
considered), that generates electric power.

Because of the high concentration ratios achievable with parabolic dishes and the
small size of the receiver, solar dishes are efficient at collecting solar energy at very
high temperatures. Tests of prototype systems and components at locations throughout
the United States have demonstrated net solar-to-electric conversion efficiencies as
high as 30%. This is significantly higher than any other solar technology.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion :

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a process that can produce electricity by using the
temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical surface waters. OTEC
plants pump large quantities of deep cold seawater and surface seawater to run a power cycle and
produce electricity. OTEC is firm power (24/7), is a clean energy source, is environmentally
sustainable and is capable of providing massive levels of energy.

A basic closed-cycle OTEC plant is shown in in the figure to the right. Warm seawater passes
through an evaporator and vaporizes the working fluid, ammonia. The ammonia vapor passes
through a turbine which turns a generator making electricity. The lower pressure vapor leaves the
turbine and condenses in the condenser connected to a flow of deep cold seawater. The liquid
ammonia leaves the condenser and is pumped to the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
WIND MILL
Wind is a form of solar energy and is a result of the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun,
the irregularities of the earth's surface, and the rotation of the earth. The terms wind energy or wind power
describes the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be
used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this
mechanical power into electricity.
A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind
turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a
generator and makes electricity.

Types of Wind Turbines

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups: the horizontal-axis variety, as shown in the photo to the
left, and the vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model pictured to the right, named after
its French inventor. Horizontal-axis wind turbines typically either have two or three blades. These three-
bladed wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades facing into the wind.

Tidal Power Plant :

Tidal energy is produced through the use of tidal energy generators. These large
underwater turbines are placed in areas with high tidal movements, and are designed to
capture the kinetic motion of the ebbing and surging of ocean tides in order to produce
electricity.

Huge dam (called a "barrage") is built across a river estuary. When the tide goes in and
out, the water flows through tunnels in the dam. The ebb and flow of the tides can be used to
turn a turbine, or it can be used to push air through a pipe, which then turns a turbine. Large
lock gates, like the ones used on canals, allow ships to pass.

FUEL CELL
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel cell has two
electrodes, one positive and one negative, called, respectively, the anode and cathode. The
reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes.
Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically charged particles from one
electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the electrodes.
Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells also require oxygen. One great appeal of fuel cells is
that they generate electricity with very little pollution much of the hydrogen and oxygen used in
generating electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless byproduct, namely water.
One detail of terminology: a single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct current (DC)
electricity. In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled into a stack. Cell or stack, the
principles are the same

There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in general terms,
hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their
electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now ionized, and carry a positive electrical charge. The
negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to do work. If alternating current
(AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion device called
an inverter.

Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types (like the one illustrated above),
it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have
traveled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons
and then travels through the electrolyte to the anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions.

The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the
anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel through the electrolyte, they
would disrupt the chemical reaction.

Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water, which
drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate
electricity.

Layout of MHD generator

Introduction
The MHD (magneto hydrodynamic) generator transforms thermal energy or kinetic
energy directly into electricity. MHD generators are different from traditional electric generators
in that they can operate at high temperatures without moving parts.

Power Generation
The heating of a gas to plasma or the addition of other easily ionizable substances like the
salts of alkali metals accomplishes this increase in conductivity.

Working Principle
The MHD generator can be considered to be a fluid dynamo. This is similar to a mechanical
dynamo in which the motion of a metal conductor through a magnetic field creates a current in
the conductor except that in the MHD generator the metal conductor is replaced by a conducting
gas plasma.
When a conductor moves through a magnetic field it creates an electrical field perpendicular to
the magnetic field and the direction of movement of the conductor. This is the principle,
discovered by Michael Faraday, behind the conventional rotary electricity generator. Dutch
physicist Antoon Lorentz provided the mathematical theory to quantify its effects.

The flow (motion) of the conducting plasma through a magnetic field causes a voltage to be
generated (and an associated current to flow) across the plasma, perpendicular to both the plasma
flow and the magnetic field according to Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Lorentz Law describing the effects of a charged particle moving in a constant magnetic field can
be stated as
F = QvB
where
F is the force acting on the charged particle
Q is charge of particle
v is velocity of particle
B is magnetic field

The MHD System

The MHD generator needs a high temperature gas source, which could be the coolant from a
nuclear reactor or more likely high temperature combustion gases generated by burning fossil
fuels, including coal, in a combustion chamber. The diagram below shows possible system
components.

The expansion nozzle reduces the gas pressure and consequently increases the plasma
speed (Bernoulli's Law) through the generator duct to increase the power output
(SeePower below). Unfortunately, at the same time, the pressure drop causes the plasma
temperature to fall (Gay-Lussac's Law) which also increases the plasma resistance, so a
compromise between Bernoulli and Gay-Lussac must be found.
The exhaust heat from the working fluid is used to drive a compressor to increase the fuel
combustion rate but much of the heat will be wasted unless it can be used in another process.

Power output:
The output power is proportional to the cross sectional area and the flow rate of the
ionised plasma. The conductive substance is also cooled and slowed in this process.
MHD generators typically reduce the temperature of the conductive substance from plasma
temperatures to just over 1000°C. An MHD generator produces a direct current output which
needs an expensive high power inverter to convert the output into alternating current for
connection to the grid.

Efficiency:
Typical efficiencies of MHD generators are around 10 to 20 percent mainly due to the
heat lost through the high temperature exhaust.

Thermo electric Power Generation :

Thermoelectric modules can be used to convert heat energy to electricity. Using a principle
known as "the Seebeck Effect" a temperature differential between the two sides of a
thermoelectric module, electricity can be generated.

thermoelectric power generator, any of a class of solid-state devices that either convert heat
directly into electricity or transform electrical energy into thermal power for heating or cooling.
Such devices are based on thermoelectric effects involving interactions between the flow of heat
and of electricity through solid bodies.

Thermoionic power generator :

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically
emits electrons over a potential energy barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful electric
power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and provide
an ionsupply (by surface contact ionization or electron impact ionization in a plasma) to
neutralize the electron space charge.
A thermionic power converter has two electrodes. One of these is raised to a sufficiently
high temperature to become a thermionic electron emitter, or “hot plate.” The other electrode,
called a collector because it receives the emitted electrons, is operated at a significantly lower
temperature. The space between the electrodes is sometimes a vacuum but is normally filled with
a vapour or gas at low pressure. The thermal energy may be supplied by chemical, solar, or
nuclear sources. Thermionic converters are solid-state devices with no moving parts. They can be
designed for high reliability and long service life. Thus, thermionic converters have been used in

many spacecraft.
Emission of electrons from a hot plate is analogous to the liberation of steam particles when
water is heated. These emitted electrons flow toward the collector, and the circuit can be
completed by interconnecting the two electrodes by an external load. Part of the thermal energy
that is supplied to liberate the electrons is converted directly into electrical energy, while some of
the thermal energy heats the collector and must be removed.