Unit 1: Coal Based thermal (Steam) power plant

Layout of steam power plant:

Introduction:
In thermal power plants, steam is an important medium for producing
mechanical energy. Steam is used to drive steam engines and steam turbines.
Steam has the following advantages.
1. Steam can be raised quickly from water which is available in plenty.
2. It does not react much with materials of the equipment used in power
plants.
3. It is stable at temperatures required in the plant.

Equipment of a Steam Power Plant:

A steam power plant must have the following equipment.

1. A furnace for burning the fuel.

2. A steam generator or boiler for steam generation.
3. A power unit like an engine or turbine to convert heat energy into
mechanical energy.
4. A generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
5. Piping system to carry steam and water.

Figure 1.1: shows a schematic layout of a steam power plant. The working of a
steam power plant can be explained in four circuits.

Figure 1.1 Layout of a steam power plant

1. Fuel (coal) and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit
4. Cooling water flow circuit

1. Coal and Ash circuit:

This includes coal delivery, preparation, coal handling, boiler furnace, ash
handling and ash storage. The coal from coal mines is delivered by ships, rail or
by trucks to the power station. This coal is sized by crushers, breakers etc. The
sized coal is then stored in coal storage (stock yard). From the stock yard, the coal
is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of conveyors, elevators etc.

The coal is burnt in the boiler furnace and ash is formed by burning of coal, Ash
coming out of the furnace will be too hot, dusty and accompanied by some
poisonous gases. The ash is transferred to ash storage. Usually, the ash is
quenched to reduced temperature corrosion and dust content.

There are different methods employed for the disposal of ash. They are hydraulic
system, water jetting, ash sluice ways, pneumatic system etc. In large power
plants hydraulic system is used. In this system, ash falls from furnace grate into
high velocity water stream. It is then carried to the slumps. A line diagram of coal
and ash circuit is shown separately in figure1.2.

Figure 1.2 Fuel (Coal) and ash circuit

2. Water and Steam circuit

It consists of feed pump, economizer, boiler drum, super heater, turbine,

condenser etc.

Feed water is pumped to the economizer from the hot well. This water is
preheated by the flue gases in the economizer. This preheated water is then
supplied to the boiler drum. Heat is transferred to the water by the burning of
coal. Due to this, water is converted into steam.

The steam raised in boiler is passed through a super heater. It is superheated by

the flue gases. The superheated steam is then expanded in a turbine to do work.
The turbine drives a generator to produce electric power. The expanded (exhaust)
steam is then passed through the condenser. In the condenser, the steam is
condensed into water and recirculated. A line diagram of water and steam circuit
is shown separately in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Water and steam Circuit

3. Air and Flue gas circuit

It consists of forced draught fan, air pre-heater, boiler furnace, super heater,
economizer, dust collector, induced draught fan, chimney etc. Air is taken from
the atmosphere by the action of a forced draught fan. It is passed through an air
pre-heater. The air is pre-heated by the flue gases in the pre-heater. This pre-
heated air is supplied to the furnace to aid the combustion of fuel. Due to
combustion of fuel, hot gases (flue gases) are formed.

Figure 1.4: Air and flue gas circuit

The flue gases from the furnace pass over boiler tubes and super heater tubes. (In
boiler, wet steam is generated and in super heater the wet steam is superheated
by the flue gases.) Then the flue gases pass through economizer to heat the feed
water. After that, it passes through the air pre-heater to pre-heat the incoming air.
It is then passed through a dust catching device (dust collector). Finally, it is
exhausted to the atmosphere through chimney. A line diagram of air and flue gas
circuit is shown separately in figure 1.4.

4. Cooling water circuit:

The circuit includes a pump, condenser, cooling tower etc. The exhaust steam
from the turbine is condensed in condenser. In the condenser, cold water is
circulated to condense the steam into water. The steam is condensed by losing its
latent heat to the circulating cold water.

Figure 1.5 Cooling water circuit

Thus, the circulating water is heated. This hot water is then taken to a cooling
tower, in cooling tower, the water is sprayed in the form of droplets through
nozzles. The atmospheric air enters the cooling tower from the openings provided
at the bottom of the tower. This air removes heat from water. Cooled water is
collected in a pond (known as cooling pond). This cold water is again circulated
through the pump, condenser and cooling tower. Thus, the cycle is repeated again
and again. Some amount of water may be lost during the circulation due to
vaporization etc. Hence, make up water is added to the pond by means of a pump.
This water is obtained from a river or lake. A line diagram of cooling water circuit
is shown in figure 1.5 separately.

Merits (Advantages) of a Thermal Power Plant

1. The unit capacity of a thermal power plant is more. The cost of unit
decreases with the increase in unit capacity.
 2. Life of the plant is more (25-30 years) as compared to diesel plant (2-5
years).
3. Repair and maintenance cost is low when compared with diesel plant.
4. Initial cost of the plant is less than nuclear plants.
5. Suitable for varying load conditions.
6. No harmful radioactive wastes are produced as in the case of nuclear plant.
7. Unskilled operators can operate the plant.
8. The power generation does not depend on water storage.
9. There are no transmission losses since they can be located near load
centres.

Demerits of thermal power plants

1. Thermal plant are less efficient than diesel plants

2. Starting up the plant and bringing into service takes more time.
3. Cooling water required is more.
4. Space required is more
5. Storage required for the fuel is more
6. Ash handling is a big problem.
7. Not economical in areas which are remote from coal fields
8. Fuel transportation, handling and storage charges are more
9. Number of persons for operating the plant is more than that of nuclear
plants. This increases operation cost.
10. For large units, the capital cost is more. Initial expenditure on structural
materials, piping, storage mechanisms is more.

Type of Basic Boilers thermodynamic cycles process of the Rankine cycle

A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on

Rankine cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the
condenser and fed into the boiler again.

Boiler cycles

In general, two important area of application for thermodynamics are:

1. Power generation
2. Refrigeration

Both are accomplished by systems that operate in thermodynamic cycles such as:
a. Power cycles: Systems used to produce net power output and are often
called engines.
 b. Refrigeration cycles: Systems used to produce refrigeration effects are
called refrigerators

Vapour power cycles

In this case, the working fluid exists in the vapour phase during one part of the
cycle and in the liquid phase during another part.

Vapour power cycles can be categorized as

a. Carnot cycle
b. Rankine cycle
c. Reheat cycle
d. Regenerative cycle
e. Binary vapour cycle

Steam cycles (Rankine cycle)

The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle. Like other thermodynamic cycle,

the maximum efficiency of the Ranking cycle is given by calculating the
maximum efficiency of the Carnot cycle.

Process of the Rankine Cycle

Figure 1.6 Schematic representation of Rankine cycle

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle, each changing the state of the
working fluid. These states are identified by number in the diagram above.

Process 3-4:

First, the working fluid (water) enters the pump at state 3 at saturated liquid and
it is pumped (ideally isentropic) from low pressure to high (operating) pressure
of boiler by a pump to the state 4. During this isentropic compression water
temperature is slightly increased. Pumping requires a power input (for example,
mechanical or electrical). The conservation of energy relation for pump is given
as

Wpump = m (h4 - h3)

Process 4-1:

The high pressure compressed liquid enters a boiler at state 4 where it is heated
at constant pressure by an external heat source to become a saturated vapour at
state which in turn superheated to state 1 through super heater. Common heat
source for power plant systems are coal (or other chemical energy), natural gas,
or nuclear power. The conservation of energy relation for boiler is given as

Qin =m (h1 - h4)

Process 1 –2:

The superheated vapour enters the turbine at state 1 and expands through a turbine
to generate power output. Ideally, this expansion is isentropic. This decreases the
temperature and pressure of the vapour at state 2. The conservation of energy
relation for turbine is given as
Wturbine = m (h1 –h2)

Process 2 –3:

The vapour then enters a condenser at state 2. At this state, steam is a saturated
liquid-vapour mixture where it is cooled to become a saturated liquid at state 3.
This liquid then re-enters the pump and the cycles are repeated. The conservation
of energy relation for condenser is given as

Qout = m (h2 –h3)

The exposed Rankine cycle can also prevent vapour overheating, which reduces
the amount of liquid condensed after the expansion in the turbine
Description

Rankine cycles describe the operation of steam heat engines commonly found in
power generation plants. In such vapour power plants, power is generated by
alternatively vaporizing the fluid in this case water. Water vapour seen billowing
from power plants is evaporating cooling water, not working fluid. (NB: steam
is invisible until it comes in contact with cool, saturated air, at which point it
condenses and forms the white billowy clouds seen leaving cooling towers).

Pulverised Coal
Coal is pulverised (powdered) to increase its surface exposure thus permitting
rapid combustion. Efficient use of coal depends greatly on the combustion
process employed.
For large scale generation of energy, the efficient method of burning coal is
confined still to pulverised coal combustion. The pulverised coal is obtained by
grinding the raw coal in pulverising mills. The various pulverising mills used
are:

i. Ball mill
ii. Hammer mill
iii. Ball and race mill and
iv. Bowl mill

The essential functions of pulverising mill are

i. Drying of the coal

ii. Grinding and
iii. Separation of particles of the desired size.

Pulverised Coal Firing System:

Pulverised coal firing is done by two systems:
i) Unit system or Direct System.
ii) Bin or Central system

Unit System:

In this system, the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder.
 Figure 1.12: Unit system

Hot air is passed through coal in the feeder to dry the coal. The coal is then
transferred to the pulverising mill where it is pulverised. Primary air is supplied
to the mill, by the fan. The mixture of pulverised coal and primary air then flows
to burner where secondary air is added. The unit system is so called from the fact
that each burner or a burner group and pulveriser constitute a unit.

Advantages:

1. The system is simple and cheaper than the central system

2. There is direct control of combustion from the pulverising mill.
3. Coal transportation system is simple.

Central or Bin System

It is shown in figure 1.13. Crushed coal from the raw coal bunker is fed by gravity
to a dryer where hot air is passed through the coal to dry it. The dryer may use
waste flue gasses, preheated air or bleeder steam as drying agent. The dry coal is
then transferred to the pulverising mill. The pulverised coal obtained is
transferred to the pulverised coal bunker (bin). The transporting air is separated
from the coal in the cyclone separator. The primary air is mixed with the coal at
the feeder and the mixture is supplied to the burner.

Figure 1.13: Central or Bin system

Advantages

1. The pulverising mill grinds the coal at a steady rate irrespective of boiler
feed.

2. There is always some coal in reserve. Thus, any occasional breakdown in

the coal supply will not affect the coal feed to the burner.

3. For a given boiler capacity pulverising mill of small capacity will be

required as compared to unit system.

Disadvantages

1. The initial cost of the system is high

2. Coal transport system is quite complicated
3. The system requires more space.

Super Critical Boilers

The ever-increasing fuel costs with decreasing fuel quantity have constantly made
power engineers to search for more economical methods of power generation.
The most recent method to produce economical thermal power is by the use of
super-critical steam cycle.

Between the working ranges of 125 bar and 510 oC to 300 bar and 600oC, large
numbers of steam generating units are designed which are basically characterised
as sub-critical and super-critical. Usually a sub-critical boiler consists of three
distinct sections as preheater (economiser), evaporator and superheater while in
case of super-critical boiler, the only preheater and superheaters are required.

The constructional layouts of both types of boilers are practically identical. With
the recent experience gained in design and construction of super-critical boilers,
it has become a rule to use super-critical boilers above 300 MW capacity units.

The advantages of super-critical boilers over sub-critical boilers are:

1) The heat transfer rates are considerably large compared to sub-critical

boilers
2) The pressure level is more stable due to less capacity of the generator and
therefore gives better response.
3) Higher thermal efficiency (40-42%) of power station can be achieved with
the use of super critical steam.
 4) The problems of erosion and corrosion are minimised in super-critical
boilers as two-phase mixture does not exist.
5) The turbo generators connected to super critical boilers can generate peal
loads by changing the pressure of operation.
6) There is a great ease of operation and their comparative simplicity and
flexibility make them adaptable at load fluctuations.

Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC)

Burning of pulverised coal has some problems such as, particle size of coal used
in pulverised firing is limited to 70-100 microns, the pulverised fuel fired
furnaces designed to burn coal particle of a particular size can not be used for
other type with same efficiency, the generation of high temperature about
(16500 C) in the furnace creates number of problems like slag formation on
super heater, evaporation of alkali metals in ash and its deposition on heat
transfer surfaces, formation of SO2 and NOx in large amount.
Fluidised bed combustion system can burn any fuel including low grade coal,
oil, gas or municipal waste. Improved desulphurisation and low NOx emission is
its main characteristics. Basic principle of Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC)
system is shown in Fig. 1.14 below.

Figure 1.14 Basic principle of Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC)

The fuel and inert material dolomite are fed on a distribution plate and air is
supplied from the bottom of distribution plate. The air is supplied at high
velocity so that solid feed material remains in suspension condition during
burning. The heat produced is used to heat water flowing through the tube and
covert water into steam. During burning SO2 formed is absorbed by the
dolomite and thus prevent its escape with the exhaust gases. The molten slag is
taped from the top of the bed. The bed temperature is nearly 800-9000 C which
is ideal for sulphur retention, addition of limestone or dolomite to the bed brings
down SO2 emission level to about 15% of that in conventional firing methods.
FBC Boilers
Fluidized bed boilers produce steam from fossil fuels and water by using the
fluidized bed combustion technique. These are of two types:

1. Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Boilers

2. Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Boilers

Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Boilers

In BFB boilers, crushed coal (6-20mm) is injected into the fluidized bed of
limestone jus above an air-distribution grid at the bottom of the bed Fig. 1.15.

Figure 1.15 Schematic diagram of bubbling fluidized bed boiler

The air flows upwards through the grid from the air plenum into the bed, where
combustion of coal occurs. The products of combustion leaving the bed contain
a large proportion of unburnt carbon particles which are collected in cyclone
separator and fed back to the bed. The boiler water tubes are located in the
furnace.
Since most of the sulphur in coal is retained in the bed by the material used
(limestone), the gases can be cooled to a lower temperature before leaving the
stack with less formation of acid (H2SO4). As a result of low combustion
temperatures (800-900oC), inferior gases of coal can be used without slagging
problems and there is less formation of NOX.
Cheaper alloy materials can be used, resulting in economy of construction.
Further economies are achieved since no pulveriser is required. The volumetric
heat release rates are 10 to 15 times higher and the surface heat transfer rates are
2 to 3 times higher than a conventional boiler. This makes the boiler be
compact.
Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Boiler
The CFB boiler is said to be the second-generation fluidized bed boiler Fig.
1.16. It is divided into two sections. The first section consists of:

a) Furnace or fast fluidized bed

b) Gas-solid separator (cyclone)
c) Solid recycle device (loop seal or L-valve)
d) External heat exchanger.

These components form a solid circulation loop in which fuel is burnt. The
furnace enclosure of a CFB boiler is generally made of water tubes as in
pulverised coal fired boilers. A fraction of the generated heat is absorbed by
these heat transferring tubes.

Figure 1.16 Circulating fluidised bed (CFB) boiler

The second section is the back-pass, where the remaining heat from the flue gas
is absorbed by the reheater, economizer and air preheater surfaces (as in a
conventional boiler).
The lower part of the first section (furnace) is often tapered. Its walls are lined
with refractory up to the level of secondary air entry. Beyond this the furnace
walls are generally cooled by evaporative, superheater, or reheater surfaces. The
gas-solid separator and the non-mechanical valve are also lined with refractory.
In some designs, a part of hot solids recycling between the cyclone and the
furnace is diverted through an external heat exchanger, which is a bubbling
fluidized bed in a similar manner. Coal burns when mixed with hot bed solids.
Coal is generally injected into the lower section of the furnace. It is sometimes
fed into the loop-seal, from which it enters the furnace through an air distributor
or gate at the furnace floor. The secondary air is injected at some height above
the grate to complete the combustion. Bed solids are well mixed throughout the
height of the furnace. Thus, the bed temperature is nearly uniform in the range
of 800-900oC, though heat is extracted along its height.
Relatively coarse particles of sorbent (limestone) and unburned char, larger than
the cyclone cut-off size, are captured in the cyclone and recycled back near the
base of the furnace. Finer solid residues (ash and spent sorbent) generated
during combustion and desulphurisation leave the furnace, escaping through the
cyclones, but they are collected by a bag-house or electrostatic precipitator
located further downstream.
TURBINES
Steam turbine is a heat engine which uses the heat energy stored in steam and
performs work. The main parts of a steam turbine are:

i. A rotor on the circumference of which a series of blades or buckets are

attached.

To a great extent of performance of the turbine depends upon the design

and construction of blades.

The blades should be so designed that they are able to withstand the
action of steam and the centrifugal force caused by high speed.

As the steam pressure drops the length and size of blades should be
increased in order to accommodate the increase in volume. The various
materials used for the construction of blades depend upon the conditions
under which they operate. Steel or alloys are the materials generally used.
 ii. Bearing to support the shaft.
iii. Metallic casing which surrounds blades, nozzles rotor etc.
iv. Governor to control the speed.
v. Lubricating oil system.

Steam from nozzles is directed against blades thus causing the rotation. The
steam attains high velocity during its expansion in nozzles and this velocity
energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy by the turbine.
As thermal prime mover, the thermal efficiency of turbine is the usual work
energy appearing as shaft power presented as a percentage of the heat energy
available.
High pressure steam is sent in through the throttle valve of the turbine. From it
comes torque energy at the shaft, exhaust steam, extracted steam, mechanical
friction and radiation.
Depending upon the methods of using steam arrangement and construction of
blades, nozzle and steam passages, the steam turbines can be classified as
follows:

1. According to the action of steam

i. Impulse turbine
ii. Reaction turbine
iii. Impulse and reaction turbine.

In impulse turbine, Fig. 1.17 the steam expands in the stationary nozzles and
attains high velocity. The resulting high velocity steam impinges against the
blades which alter the direction of steam jet thus changing the momentum of jet
and causing impulsive force on the blades.
 Figure 1.17 Impulse Turbine
In reaction turbine, steam enters the fast-moving blades on the rotor from
stationary nozzles. Further expansion of steam through nozzles, blades changes
the momentum of steam and causes a reaction force on the blades.
Commercial turbines make use of combination of impulse and reaction forces
because steam can be used efficiently by using the impulse and reaction blading
on the same shaft. Fig. 1.18 shows reaction turbine
 Figure 1.18 Reaction Turbine

2. According to the direction of steam flow

i. Axial
ii. Radial
iii. Mixed

3. According to pressure of exhaust

i. Condensing
ii. Non-condensing
iii. Bleeder

4. According to pressure of entering steam

i. Low pressure
ii. High pressure
iii. Mixed pressure

5. According to step reduction

i. Single-stage
 ii. Multi-stage

6. According to method of drive such as

i. Direct connected
ii. Geared

CONDENSERS
The thermal efficiency of a closed cycle power developing system using steam
as working fluid and working on Carnot cycle is given by an expression (T1-
T2)/T1. This expression of efficiency shows that the efficiency increases with an
increase in temperature T1 and decrease in temperature T2.
The maximum temperature T2 (temperature at which heat is rejected) can be
reduced to the atmospheric temperature if the exhaust of the steam takes place
below atmospheric pressure. If the exhaust is at atmospheric pressure, the heat
rejection is at 100oC.
Low exhaust pressure is necessary to obtain low exhaust temperature. But the
steam cannot be exhausted to the atmosphere if it is expanded in the engine or
turbine to a pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure. Under this condition,
the steam is exhausted in a vessel known as condenser where the pressure is
maintained below the atmospheric by continuously condensing the steam by
means of circulating cold water at atmospheric temperature.
A closed vessel in which steam is condensed by abstracting the heat and
where the pressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure is known as a
condenser. The efficiency of a steam plant is considerably increased by the use
of a condenser.
The steam is one of the essential components of all modern steam power plants.
Steam condensers are of two types:

1. Surface condenser

a) Down flow type

b) Central flow type
c) Evaporation condenser

2. Jet condenser

a) Low level jet condenser (parallel flow type)

b) High level or barometric condenser
c) Ejector condenser
Surface condensers
In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam and cooling
water and the condensate can be re-used in the boiler. In such condensers, even
impure water can be used for cooling purpose whereas the cooling water must
be pure in jet condensers. Although the capital cost and the space needed is
more in surface condensers but it is justified by the savings in running cost and
increase in efficiency of plant achieved by using this condenser. Depending
upon the position of condensate extraction pump, flow of condensate and
arrangement of tubes the surface condensers may be classified as follows:

a) Down flow type

Fig. 1.19(a) shows a sectional view of down flow condenser. Steam

enters at the top and flows downward. The water flowing through the
tubes in one direction lower half comes out in the opposite direction in
the upper half. Fig. 1.19(b) shows a longitudinal section of a two pass
down down-flow condenser.

Figure 1.19 Down flow condenser

b) Central flow condenser

Fig. 1.20 shows a central flow condenser. In this condenser, the steam
passages are all around the periphery of the shell. Air is pumped away
from the centre of the condenser.
 The condensate moves radially towards the centre of tube nest. Some of
the exhaust steam which moves towards the centre meets the
undercooling condensate and pre-heats it thus reducing under cooling.

Figure 1.20 Central flow condenser

c) Evaporation condenser

In this condenser Fig. 1.21 steam to be condensed is passed through a

series of tubes and the cooling water falls over these tubes in the form of
spray. A stream of air flows over the tubes to increase evaporation of
cooling water which further increases the condensation of steam.

Figure 1.21Evaporation condenser

Advantages:

i. The condensate can be used as boiler feed water

ii. Cooling water of even poor quality can be used because the cooling water
does not come in direct contact with steam.
iii. High vacuum (about 73.5 of Hg) can be obtained in the surface
condenser. This increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.

Disadvantages:

i. The capital cost is more

ii. The maintenance cost and running cost of this condenser are high
iii. It is bulky and requires more space.

Jet condensers
In jet condensers the exhaust steam and cooling water come in direct contact
with each other. The temperature of cooling water and the condensate is same
when leaving the condensers.
Elements of the jet condenser are as follows:

i. Nozzles or distributors for the condensing water

ii. Steam inlet
iii. Mixing chambers: They may be (a) Parallel flow type (b) Counter flow
type depending on whether the steam and water move in the same
direction before condensation or whether the flows are opposite.
iv. Hot well

In jet condensers, the condensing water is called injection water.

a) Low level jet condensers (Parallel flow type)

In this condenser Fig, 1.22 water is sprayed through jets and it mixes with
steam. The air is removed at the top by an air pump.

In counter flow type of condenser, the cooling water flows in the

downward direction and the steam to be condensed moves upward.
 Figure 1.22 Low level jet condenser

b) High level or Barometric condenser

Fig… shows a high-level jet condenser. The condenser shell is placed at a

height of 10.33m (barometric height) above the hot well. As compared to
low level jet condenser this condenser does not flood the engine if the
water extraction pump fails. A separate air pump is used to remove the
air.

Figure …High level jet condenser

 c) Ejector condenser

Fig… shows an ejector condenser. In this condenser, cold water is

discharged under a head of about 5 to 6m through a series of convergent
nozzles. The steam and air enter the condenser through a non-return
valve.

Steam gets condensed by mixing with water. Pressure energy is partly

converted into kinetic energy at the converging cones. In the diverging
cone the kinetic energy is partly converted into pressure energy and a
pressure higher than atmospheric pressure is achieved so as to discharge
the condensate to the hot well.

Figure…Ejector condenser

Steps involved in coal handling

Fuel Handling System

Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The
various steps involved in coal handling are as follows:
1. Coal delivery.
2. Unloading
3. Preparation
4. Transfer
5. Outdoor storage
 6. Covered storage
7. In plant handling
8. Weighing and measuring
9. Feeding the coal into furnace.

Figure: Steps involved in fuel handling system

i) Coal delivery

The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stations
situated near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power
stations which are situated away from sea or river. The transportation of coal by
trucks is used if the railway facilities are not available.

ii) Unloading
The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the power
station depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal delivered by
trucks, there is no need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to
the outdoor storage. Coal is easily handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used.
In case the coal is brought by railways wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may
be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal
accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for unloading
closed wagons.

(iii) Preparation

When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size,
the preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers,
driers and magnetic separators.

iv)Transfer

After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the

following systems.

1. Belt conveyors
2. Screw conveyors
3. Bucket elevators
4. Grab bucket elevators
5. Skip hoists
6. Flight conveyor
Belt Conveyor
Figure: Belt Conveyor
Figure… shows a belt conveyor. It consists of an endless belt moving over a pair
of end drums (rollers). At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the
centre. The belt is made up of rubber or canvas. Belt conveyor is suitable for the
transfer of coal over long distances. It is used in medium and large power plants.
The initial cost of system is not high and power consumption is also low. The
inclination at which coal can be successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about
20 . Average speed preferred than other types.

Advantages of belt conveyor

1. Its operation is smooth and clean

2. It requires less power as compared to other types of systems
3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously.
4. Material can be transported on moderate inclines.

2. Screw Conveyor

It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft (figure). The screw while
rotating in a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.

Figure: Screw conveyor

This system is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and
space limitations exist. The initial cost of the consumption is high and there is
considerable wear o screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m

3. Bucket elevator

It consists of buckets fixed to a chain (figure). The chain moves over two wheels.
The coal is carried by the bucket from bottom and discharged at the top.
4. Grab bucket elevator

It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to the other. The
coal lifted by grab buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. This
system requires less power for operation and requires minimum maintenance.

The grab bucket conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown in Fig…
Although the initial cost of this system is high but operating cost is less.

Figure: Grab bucket elevator

5. Skip hoist
It consists of a vertical or inclined hoist way bucket or car guided by a frame
and cable for hoisting the bucket. It is simple and compact method of elevating
coal or ash. Fig… shows a skip hoist.

Figure … Skip hoist

7. Flight conveyor

It consists of one or two strands of chain to which steel scrapes or flights

are attached, which scraps the coal through a trough having identical
shape. This coal is discharged in the bottom of trough. It is low in cost
first but has large energy consumption. There is considerable water.

Skip hoist and bucket elevators lift the coal vertically while belts and
flight conveyors move the coal horizontally or on inclines. Fig… shows a
flight conveyor.

Figure… Flight conveyor

Flight conveyors have advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:

i. They can be used to transfer coal as well as ash

 ii. The speed of conveyor can be regulated easily
iii. They have a rugged construction
iv. They need little operational care.

Disadvantages:

i. There is more wear due to dragging action

ii. Power consumption is more
iii. Maintenance cost is high
iv. Due to abrasive nature of material handled, the speed of conveyors is low
(10 to 30m/min)

Storage of Coal

It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored. Storage of coal

gives protection against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in
transportation of coal or due to strike in coal mines.

Also, when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and stored for future
use. The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for
storage, transportation facilities, the amount of coal that will whether away and
nearness to coal mines of the power station.

Usually coal required for one-month operation of power plant is stored in case of
power stations are situated at longer distance from the collieries whereas coal
need for about 15 days is stored in case of power station situated near to collieries.
Storage of coal for longer periods is not advantageous because it blocks the
capital and results in deterioration of the quality of coal.

The coal received at the power station is stored in dead storage in the form of
piles laid directly on the ground.

Coal has the tendency to weather (to combine with oxygen of air) and during this
process coal has some of its heating value and ignition quality. Due to low
oxidisation, the coal may ignite spontaneously. This is avoided by storing coal in
the form of piles which consists of thick and compact layers of coal so that air
cannot pass through the coal piles which in turn minimises the reaction between
coal and oxygen.

The other alternative is to allow the air to pass through layers of coal so that air
may remove the heat of reaction and avoid burning. In case the outer coal is to be
stored for longer periods, the outer surface of piles may be sealed with asphalt or
fine coal.
Coal is stored by the following methods.

i. Stocking the coal in heats

The coal is piled on the ground up to 10-12m height. The pile top should
be given a slope in the direction in which the rain may be drained off.

The sealing of stored pile is desirable in order to avoid the oxidation of coal
after packing an air-tight layer of coal.

Asphalt, fine coal dust and bituminous coating are the materials commonly
used for this purpose.

ii. Under water storage

The possibility of slow oxidation and spontaneous combustion can be

completely eliminated by storing the coal under water.

Coal should be stored at a site located on solid ground, well drained, free
of standing water preferably on high ground not subjected to flooding.

In plant Handling
From the dead storage, the coal is brought to covered storage (live storage)
namely bins or bunkers. A cylindrical bunker is shown in Fig…

Figure… Cylindrical bunker

In plant handling may include the equipment such as belt conveyors, screw
conveyors, bucket elevators etc., to transfer coal.
Coal Weighing Methods
Weigh lorries, hoppers and automatic scales are used to record the quantity of
coal delivered to the furnace. The commonly methods used to weigh the coal
are:

i. Mechanical
ii. Pneumatic
iii. Electronic

The mechanical method works on a suitable lever system mounted on

knife edges and bearing connected to a resistance in the form of a
spring of pendulum.

The pneumatic weighing uses a pneumatic transmitted weight head

and the corresponding air pressure determined by the load applied.

The electronic weighing machine make use of load cells that produce
voltage signals proportional to the load applied.

The important factors considered in selecting fuel handling systems are:

i. Plant flue rate

ii. Plant location in respect to fuel shipping
iii. Storage area available.

Ash Handling System:

Boilers burning pulverized coal (PC) have bottom furnaces. The large ash
particles are collected under the furnace in a water-filled ash hopper. Fly ash is
collected in dust collectors with either an electrostatic precipitator or a baghouse.
A PC boiler generates approximately 80% fly ash and 20% bottom ash. Ash must
be collected and transported from various points of the plants as shown in
figure… Pyrites, which are the rejects from the pulverisers, are disposed of with
the bottom ash system. Three major factors should be considered for ash disposal
systems.

1. Plant site
2. Fuel source
3. Environmental regulation

Needs for water and land are important considerations for many ash handling
systems. Ash quantities to be disposed of depend on the kind of fuel source. Ash
storage and disposal sites are guided by environmental regulations.
 Figure: Layout of ash collection and transportation

The sluice conveyor system shown in Fig… is the most widely used for bottom
ash handling, while the hydraulic vacuum conveyor Fig … is the most frequently
used for fly ash systems.

Figure… Bottom ash sluice conveyor

 Figure… Fly ash hydraulic vacuum conveyor

Bottom ash and slag may be used as filling material for road construction. Fly ash
can partly replace cement for making concrete. Bricks can be made with fly ash.
These are durable and strong.

Draught System

Draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure at any point
in a gas flow passage and the ambient (same elevation) atmospheric pressure.

Draught is plus if Patm < Pgas and it is minus if Patm > Pgas. Draught is achieved by
small pressure difference which causes the flow of air or gas to take place. It is
measured in millimetre (mm) of water.

The purpose of draught is as follows:

i) To supply required amount of air to the furnace for the combustion of fuel.

The amount of fuel that can be burnt per square root of grate area depends
upon the quantity of air circulated through fuel bed.

ii) To remove the gaseous products of combustion.

Classification of Draught:
If only chimney is used to produce the draught, it is called natural draught.

Artificial Draught

If the draught is produced by steam jet or fan it is known as artificial

draught

Steam jet Draught:

It employs steam to produce the draught

Mechanical draught

It employs fan or blowers to produce the draught.

Induced draught

The flue is drawn (sucked) through the system by a fan or steam jet

Forced draught

The air is forced into system by a blower or steam jet.

Natural Draught system

Natural draught system employs a tall chimney as shown in Fig… The chimney
is a vertical tubular masonry structure or reinforced concrete. It is constructed for
enclosing a column of exhaust gases to produce the draught. It discharges the
gases high enough to prevent air pollution. The draught is produced by this tall
chimney due to temperature difference of hot gases in the chimney and cold
external air outside the chimney.

Figure … Natural draught system

Where H- Height of the Chimney (m)

pa –Atmospheric pressure (N/m2)

p1 –Pressure acting on the grate from chimney side (N/m2)
p2 –Pressure acting on the grate from atmospheric (N/m2)

Due to this pressure difference (p), the atmospheric air flows through the furnace
grate and the flue gases flow through the chimney. The pressure difference can
be increased by increasing the height of the chimney or reducing the density of
hot gases.

Merits of Natural Draught

1. No external power is required for creating the draught.

2. Air pollution is prevented since the flue gases are discharged at a higher
level
3. Maintenance cost is practically nil since there are no mechanical parts.
4. It has longer life.
5. Capital cost is less than that of an artificial draught

Demerits of natural draught

1. Maximum pressure available for producing draught by the chimney is less.

 2. Flue gases have to be discharged at high temperature since draught
increases with the increase in temperature of flue gases.

3. Heat cannot be extracted from the flue gases for economizer, superheater,
air pre-heater, etc. since the effective draught will be reduced if the
temperature of the flue gases is decreased.

4. Overall efficiency of the plant is decreased since the fluid gases are
discharged at higher temperatures.

5. Poor combustion and specific fuel consumption is increased since the low
velocity of air affects thorough mixing of air and fuel.

6. Not flexible under peak loads since the draught available for a particular
height of a chimney is constant.

7. A considerable amount of heat released by the fuel (about 20%) is lost due
to flue gases.

Applications

Natural draught system is used only in small capacity boilers and it is not used in
high capacity thermal plants.

Artificial Draught
It has been seen that the draught produced by chimney is affected by the
atmospheric conditions. It has no flexibility, poor efficiency and tall chimney is
required. In most of the modern power plants, the draught used must be
independence of atmospheric condition, and it must have greater flexibility
(control) to take the fluctuating loads on the plant.

Today’s large steam power plants requiring 20 thousand tons of steam per hour
would be impossible to run without the aid of draft fans. A chimney of a
reasonable height would be incapable of developing enough draft to remove the
tremendous volume of air and gases (400 × 103 m3 to 800 × 103 m3 per minutes).
The further advantage of fans is to reduce the height of the chimney needed.

The draught required in actual power plant is sufficiently high (300 mm of water)
and to meet high draught requirements, some other system must be used, known
as artificial draught. The artificial draught is produced by steam jet or a fan and
it is known as fan (mechanical) draught.
Steam jet draught

Steam jet draught may be induced or forced draught depending upon the location
of steam jet producing the draught.

Induced draught is produced by steam as shown in Fig… This system is used in

locomotive boilers. Exhaust steam from the engine enters the smoke box through
a nozzle to create draught. The air is induced through the flues, the grate and ash
pit to smoke box.

Figure … Steam jet induced draught system

Fig… shows a forced draught developed by steam jet. Steam from the boiler is
passed through a throttle valve, throttle pressure being 1.5 to 2kg/cm2 gauge.

Then the steam passes through a nozzle projecting in diffuser pipe. The steam
comes out of nozzle with great velocity and drags a column of air along with it
thus allowing the fresh air to enter.

The mixture of steam and air possesses high kinetic energy and passes through
the diffuser pipe. The kinetic get converted into pressure energy and thus air is
forced through the coal bed, furnace and flows to the chimney. Steam jet is
simple, requires less space and is economical. But it can be used only if steam at
high pressure is available.
 Figure … Steam-jet forced draught system

Mechanical draught system

Mechanical draught is preferred for central power stations.

Forced Draught

In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler and
air is forced to pass through the furnace, flues, economizer, air-preheater and to
the stack. This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced
draught system because the pressure and air is forced to flow through the system.
The arrangement of the system is shown in Fig… A stack or chimney is employed
in this system as but its function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to
prevent the contamination. It is not much significant for producing draught
therefore height of the chimney may not be very much.

Figure: Forced draught

Induced Draught:

In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near
the grate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the
system below atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the burned gases from
the furnace and the pressure inside the furnace is reduced below atmosphere and
induces the atmospheric air to flow through the furnace. The action of the induced
draught is similar to the action of the chimney. The draught produced is
independent of the temperature of the hot gases therefore the gases may be much
heat as possible in air-preheater and an economizer are incorporated in the
temperature of the gas handled by them and its function is similar as mentioned
in forced draught but total draught produced in induced draught system is the sum
of the draughts produced by the fan and chimney. The arrangement of the system
is shown in figure.

Figure … Induced draught system

Balanced Draught:

It is always preferable to use a combination of forced draught and induced draught

instead of forced or induced draught alone.

If the forced draught is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened either for
firing or inspection because the high, pressure air inside the furnace will try to
blow out suddenly and there is every chance of blowing out the fire completely
and furnace stops.

If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace cannot be opened either
for firing or inspection because the cold air will try to rush into the furnace as the
pressure inside the furnace is below atmospheric pressure. This reduces the
effective draught and dilutes the combustion.
 Figure… Balanced draught system

To overcome both difficulties mentioned above due to either using forced

draught or induced draught alone, a balanced draught is always preferred. The
balanced draught is a combination of forced and induced draught. The forced
draught overcomes the resistance of the fuel bed therefore sufficient air is
supplied to the fuel bed for proper and complete combustion. The induced
draught fan removes the gases from the furnace maintaining the pressure in the
furnace just below atmosphere. This helps to prevent the blow –off of flames
when the doors are opened as the leakage of air is inwards.

The arrangement of the balanced draught is shown in figure. Also, the pressure
inside the furnace is near atmospheric therefore there is no danger of blowout or
there is no danger of inrushing the air into the furnace when the doors are opened
for inspection.

Feedwater Treatment

Boiler make-up water to the extent of 1.5 – 2 percent of the total flow rate is
required to replenish the losses of water through leakage from fittings and
bearings, boiler blow down, escape with non-condensable gases in the deaerator,
turbine glands, and other causes. This make-up water needs to be treated prior
to feeding it to the boiler for:

i. Prevention of hard scale formation on the heating surface

ii. Elimination of corrosion
iii. Control of carry-over to eliminate deposition on superheater tubes, and
iv. Prevention of silica deposition and corrosion damage to turbine blades.

Raw water is therefore, first pre-treated and then demineralised. For once
through boilers and boiling water nuclear reactors, which require high water
purity, a condensate polishing system is used to further polish the water. Raw
water contains a variety of impurities such as
 a) Suspended solids and turbidity
b) Organics
c) hardness (salts of calcium and magnesium)
d) alkalinity (bicarbonates, carbonates and hydrates)
e) Other dissolved ions (sodium, sulphate, chloride, etc.,)
f) Silica and
g) Dissolved gas (O2, CO2).

The extent of pre-treatment depends on the source of raw water.

1. External treatment

The first step of pre-treatment of boiler feedwater is clarification, in

which the water is chlorinated to prevent biofouling of the equipment.
The suspended solids and turbidity are coagulated by adding special
chemicals (like aluminium sulphate) and agitated. The coagulated matter
settles at the bottom of the clarifier and is removed.

If the turbidity of clarified effluent is high, positive filtration is needed.

Both gravity filters and pressure-type filters are used, but the latter is
preferred. A granular medium like sand is commonly used for filtration.
The pressure difference across the filtering medium is an indication of
solid accumulation. When it reaches a given limit, the solids are removed
from the bed by backwashing. Further filtration by activated carbon can
absorb organics and remove residual chlorine from the chlorination
process.

The dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium give to water a quality

called hardness. Hardness is characterised by the formation of insoluble
precipitates or curds with soaps, and is usually measured with a standard
soap test. All-natural waters are hard and contain scale-forming
impurities which are mainly the salts of calcium and magnesium in the
form of carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates. The hardness is
expressed in ppm of dissolved salts. Softening of water, i.e. removal of
hardness from water, can be done by lime-soda process, phosphates
process, zeolite process and demineralisation.

2. Lime-soda process

In lime-soda softening, calcium and magnesium salts are removed using

lime (calcium hydroxide) and soda ash (sodium carbonate). When tis
process is carried out at normal raw-water temperature, it is called a “cold
process” softening; and when carried out at or near boiling point, it is
referred to as a “hot process” softening.
 Since heating greatly accelerates the necessary reactions, the hot process
is preferred for boiler water treatment, where most of the energy used in
heating the water may be retained in cycle.

The products, calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are insoluble

in water and settle to the bottom of the vessel. The softened effluent is the
passed through sand or charcoal filters before usage.

3. Hot-phosphate softening

In the hot phosphate softening process, calcium and magnesium hardness

is removed using phosphate and caustic soda, tricalcium phosphate and
magnesium hydroxide are precipitated. The process is carried out at a
temperature of 100oC or above. Since the hot phosphate process requires
more expensive chemicals than the lime-soda process, it is used where the
initial water hardness is 60 ppm or less. Where hardness is greater than
this, a lime-soda process may be used first, followed by a phosphate
clean-up.

4. Sodium Zeolite softening

Water can be softened by passing it through a bed of sodium zeolite,

which may be natural compounds of sodium aluminium silicate, with the
cations of calcium and magnesium removed in the process.

The softening capacity of the bed gets exhausted in course of time, and
the bed can be regenerated by flushing it with brine (NaCl).

Zeolite softening is not ideal for the following reasons:

i. Water of high or low pH have a deleterious effect on zeolite

ii. High temperatures also have a bad effect
iii. Turbid waters coat the zeolite material, reducing its efficiency
iv. There is no reduction in alkalinity or total solids
v. There can be silica gain in water from the zeolite
vi. With low content of calcium, the water can be corrosive.

5. Hydrogen Zeolite softening

When water containing calcium, magnesium and sodium ions is passed

through a hydrogen zeolite, these ions are exchanged for hydrogen and
the bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride and nitrate radicals are converted to
their respective acids.
 When the hydrogen zeolite becomes exhausted, it is backwashed and
regenerated with acid. After being rinsed, it is ready for use again.
Sulphuric acid is generally used for regeneration because of its relatively
low cost.

6. Anion exchangers

Anion exchangers can remove the anions like chlorides, sulphates and
nitrates (acid forms) present in hydrogen zeolite effluent by resinous
material which absorb them.

Carbonic acid is removed by aeration. When the acidic water is sprayed

in a shower to expose large surface area, the carbon dioxide gas is
released.

When the anion exchanger is exhausted, it is regenerated by backwashing

wit soda ash.

7. Demineralising plant

The process of removing dissolved solids in water by ion exchange is

called demineralisation. Two types of resins, cations and anions are used.
The cation resin is the hydrogen zeolite where the hydrogen ion is
exchanged for the cation calcium, magnesium and sodium, and the anion
resin adsorbs the anions chlorides, nitrates and sulphates as discussed
above. Both ion-exchange processes are reversible, and the resins are
restored to their original form by regeneration.

A typical demineralising plant consisting of a cation exchanger, an anion

exchanger, a degasifier and a silica adsorbed in series is shown in Fig…
in the degasifier, carbon dioxide gas is removed by aeration. Silica in
water is very detrimental at high pressure. It vaporises at high pressure
and flows with steam, condenses on turbine blades in the form of hard
glassy scales which are difficult to remove. Magnesium hydroxide is
often used to adsorb silica from water.

The membrane treatment for removing the total dissolved solids from
make-up water is also an energy efficient process and is gradually gaining
more acceptance. It uses the principle of reverse osmosis or electro
dialysis. The driving force for reverse osmosis is the application of
counter pressure to normal osmotic pressure, driving water molecules
through the membranes in preference to dissolved salts.
 Figure … A typical Demineralising plant

8. Condensate polishing

A high-quality make-up water can be produced for the plant by using

demineralising systems as discussed above. However, this treated water
while flowing through the cycle can pick up impurities due to condenser
leakage from the circulating water through the tubes as well as metallic
ions, such as iron and copper, from pipelines.

Condensate polishing is accomplished by passing the condensate through

large demineralising vessels, called mixed bed units, which contain both
cation and anion resins. The resins not only remove dissolved salts in the
above manner, but also acts as filters for impurities or suspended solids.
Power plants using once -through boilers and nuclear reactors generally
require high quality water and use condensate polishing systems.

Binary Cycles
The most important desirable characteristics of the working fluid suitable for
vapour cycles are:

i. A high critical temperature and a safe maximum pressure.

ii. Low- triple point temperature
iii. Condenser pressure is not too low.
iv. High enthalpy of vaporization
v. High thermal conductivity
vi. It must be readily available, inexpensive, inert and non-toxic.
No single fluid can meet all the requirement as mentioned above. Although in
the overall evaluation water is better than any other working fluid at high
temperatures. However, there are a few better fluids and notable among them
are:

i. Diphenyl ether (C6H5)2O

ii. Aluminium bromide AlBr3
iii. Liquid metals like mercury, sodium, potassium and so on. Among these
only mercuries has actually been used in practice.

Figure … Flow diagram of mercury-steam binary cycle

Diphenyl ether could be considered but it has not been used because like most
organic substances, it decomposes gradually at high temperatures. Aluminium
bromide is a possibility and yet to be considered.
As at pressure of 12 bar, the saturation temperatures for water, aluminium
bromide and mercury are 187oC, 482.5oC and 560oC.
The critical pressure and temperature for mercury are 1080 bar and 1460oC
respectively. In low temperature range, mercury is unsuitable because its
saturation pressure becomes exceedingly low, and it would be impractical to
maintain a high vacuum in the condenser.
At 30oC the saturation pressure of mercury is only 2.7x10 -4 cm Hg. Its specific
volume at such a low pressure is very large, and it would be difficult to
accommodate such a large volume flow.
For this reason, to make advantage of the beneficial features of mercury in the
high temperature range and get rid of it deleterious effects in low temperature
range, mercury vapour leaving the mercury turbine is condensed at a higher
temperature and pressure, and the heat released during the condensation of
mercury is utilised in evaporating water to form steam to operate on a
conventional turbine.
Thus, in binary (or two fluid) cycle, two cycles with different working fluids are
coupled in series, the heat rejected by one is being utilised in the other.

Figure … T-S diagram of mercury-steam binary cycle

The flow diagram of mercury-steam binary cycle and the corresponding T-S
diagram are shown in Fig… and Fig… respectively.
The mercury cycle a – b – c – d is a simple Rankine cycle saturated vapour. The
heat rejected by mercury during condensation (process b – c) is transferred to boil
water and form saturated vapour (process 5 – 6).
The saturated vapour is heated from the external source (furnace) in the super
heater (process 6 – 1). Super-heated steam expands in the turbine and is then
condensed. The condensate is then pumped to the economiser where it is heated
till it becomes saturated liquid by the outgoing flue gases (process 4 – 5).
The saturated liquid then goes to the mercury condenser-steam boiler, where the
latent heat is absorbed. In an actual plant, the steam cycle is always a regenerative
cycle with feed water heating, but for the sake of simplicity, this complication
has been omitted.
Cogeneration Systems
There are several industries such as paper mills, textile mills, chemical factories,
jute mills, sugar factories rice mills and so on where saturated steam at the desired
temperature is required for heating, drying etc.
For constant temperature heating (or drying), steam is a very good medium since
isothermal condition can be maintained by allowing saturated steam to
condensate at that temperature and utilising the latent heat released for heating
purposes.
Apart from the process heat, the factory also needs power to drive various
machines, for lighting and other purpose.
Earlier, steam of power purposes was generated separately at a pressure which
gave the desired heating temperature.
Having two separate units for process heat and power is wasteful, for the total
heat supplied to the steam generator for power purposes, a greater part will
normally be carried away by the cooling water in the condenser.
Back pressure turbine
By modifying the initial steam pressure and exhaust pressure, it is possible to
generate the required power and make available the required quantity of exhaust
steam at the desired temperature for process work.
In Fig… the exhaust steam from the turbine is utilised for process heating, the
process heater replacing the condenser of the ordinary Rankine cycle.
 Figure … Cogeneration plant with a back-pressure turbine
The pressure at exhaust from the turbine is the saturation pressure corresponding
to the temperature desired in the process heater, such a turbine is called a back-
pressure turbine.
A plant producing both electrical power and process heat simultaneously is called
a cogeneration plant.
When the process steam is the basic need, and the power is produced incidentally
as a by-produce, the cycle is often called a by-product power cycle.
Back pressure turbines are quite small with respect to their power output because
they no great volume of exhaust to cope with, the density being high. They are
usually single cylinder and hence, cheap in terms of cost per MW compared to
condensing sets of the same power.
Besides their use in process industries and petrochemical installations, back
pressure turbines are used for desalination of sea-water, district heating, and also
for driving compressors and feed pumps.