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Internationalization: Evolution of a Concept

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DOI: 10.1177/030630708801400203

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34/ Journal of General Management

Internationalization: Evolution of a Concept

Lawrence S. Welch and Reijo Luostarinen

Over the last two decades there has been growing interest in the
international operations of business companies. Academic activity in the
area has both stimulated and been stimulated by the many strands of concern
- for example, the business iirms themselves, with a concern to make such
operations more effective and efficient in a more competitive global
environment; governments, with a concern to ensure that the overall process
has a positive effect on the national interest; and trade unions, with a
concern about the impact on working conditions, wages and their own
power.
At the outset much academic interest and analysis focused on the
multinational corporation. Studies s\lch as Servan Schreiber's [1] American
Challenge alerted governments and others to the already extensive inter-
national operations of these companies. Much of the academic research in
the early stages was involved with documenting and explaining the spread of
multinational corporations, and assessing their impact, with an emphasis on
their foreign investment activities. This was retlected in a spate of studies of
foreign investment in various recipient countries [2J [3] [41.
However, much of the early research took the multinational, or at least
foreign investment, as a starting point in the analysis, leaving many
questions unanswered regarding the development process which preceded
this stage, and undoubtedly affected the later steps. Horst [5], for example,
after finding that finn size was a significant factor in the firm's decision to
invest abroad concluded that: The principal clcliciency in this line of
analysis, I believe, is the absence of dynamic considerations. Nowhere is

[1] Servan~Schrcibcr, LT., Le Deji American, Editions de Noel, Paris, 1967.

121 Brash, D.T., American Investment in L'illslralian Industry, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Mass., 1966.
[3] Safariun, A.E.. Foreign Ownership of Canadian lndllstty, McGraw-Hill, Toronto, 1966.
[4] Dunning, J.B., Limaican Investment in British Manufacturing. Allen and Unwin, London, 195H.
[51 Horst, '1'., 'Firm and Industry Determinants of the Decision to Invest Abroad', Review oj"
r;cr)llomics (lnd Statl:vfic.\", Vol. 54, 1972, pp. 164-5.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 19~~ 135

there a description of how a firm came to acquire its current attributes ...
But if we are even to unravel the complexity of the foreign investment
decision process, a systematic study of the dynamic behaviour of firms must
be undertaken.' In essence a more longitudinal view, a process perspective,
was called for.
Already, though, a shift in this direction had begun with Aharoni's [6] study
of the various steps involved in the foreign investment decision process. As
well, Wilkins [7] [8] had begun to delineate some of the dynamic factors
contributing to the historical evolution of American multinational corporations.
This developing longitudinal approach was takcn a stage further with a
number of studies of the international operations of Nordic-based companies,
studies which considered the expansion activity as an internationalization
process [9] [101 [11]. Specifically, their research was important in advancing
our knowledge of the process not only because of its identification of
patterns of internationalization, and a method for examining them, but also
because of the attempt to outline the key dynamic factors which formed the
basis of forward progress. In the Nordic case the overall pattern was one of
gradual, sequential development of international operations.
At the same time as this overall longitudinal research was developing in
the 1970s, an interest was growing in the analysis of specific steps which
contribute to the ongoing process. Inevitably, the shift to a more
longitudinal approach led to an interest in the earlier steps which formed a
foundation for later moves. For example, considerable analysis of early
exporting activity has been undertaken in a number of countries [12] [13]
[14] [15] [161. While each new step of the development of international
[6] Aharoni, Y., The Foreign Investment Decision Process, Harvard University Press, Boston, Mass,
1966.
[7] Wilkins, M" The F:1I1C1"W:'lIce of Multillatiunal Enterprise, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Mass., 1970.
[8] Wilkins, M., The Maturing 0/ Multinational Enterprise, Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Mass., 1974.
[91 Johanson, J. and Wicdcrsheim-Paul, F., 'The Internationalization of the Firm - Four Swedish
Cases', Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 12, No.3, October, 1()75.
[10] Johanson, .I. and Vahlne, .I.-E., 'The Internationalization Process of the Firm', JUllrnal of
Imemational Business Studies, Vol. X, Spring/Summer, 1977.
[1 J J Luostarinen, R., The Internationalization oIfhe Firm, Acta Academic Oeconomica Heisingien-
sis, Helsinki, 1979.
[121 Biikey, W.J. and Tesar, G., 'The Export Behavior of Smaller Wisconsin Manufacturing Firms',
Jotlmal of It/temalional Rusiness Studies, Vol. 8, Spring/Summer, 1977.
[13] Welch, L.S. and Wiedersheim-Paul, F., 'Initial Exports - A Marketing Failure'?' Journal of
Management Studies, Vol. 17, October, 19XOb.
[14J Joynt, P., 'An Empirical Study of Norwegian Export Behavior', SkriJlserie, No.1, 1981.
[IS} Piercy, N., 'Company Internationlisation: Active and Reactive Exporting', European Joltmal
of Marketing, Vol. 15, No.3, 198J.
[16] Denis, J.-E., and Depelteau, D., 'Market Knowledge, Diversification and Export Expansion'.
Joumal oIInfcmalional Business Studies, Vol. 16, Fall, 1985.
36/ Journal of General Management

operations can be considered unique, each nevertheless provides insight into

the broader longitudinal forces at work,
In general therefore research into the process of internationalization has
tended to be carried on at the level of specific decisions to increase
involvement as well as overall patterns and dynamic causative factors.
Nevertheless, although considerable progress has and is being made in
unravelling the nature and cause of internationalization - much remains to
be accomplished. The various contributions represent an incomplete
patchwork. As Bnckley [17] has noted: 'This development from naive
entrant to established multinational has been inadequately modelled ... and
its implications for theory are as yet unassimilated.'

The Meaning of 'Internationalization"!

At the very outset it is difficult to discuss a 'theory of internationalization'

because even the term itself has not been clearly defined. Although widely
used, the term 'internationalization' needs clarification. It tends to be used
roughly to describe the outward movement in an individual firm's or larger
grouping's international operations [18] [19] [20]. As a starting point this
common usage could be broadened further to give the following definition:
'the process of increasing involvement in international operations.' An
important reason for adopting a broader concept of internationalization is
that both sides of the process, i.e. both inward and outward, have become
more closely linked in the dynamics of international trade.
The growth of countertrade in its many forms, from pure barter to buy-
back arrangements and offset policies, is indicative of the way in which
outward growth has become tied in with inward growth [21] [22]. In effect,
countertrade has meant that, for many companies, success in outward
activities is partly dependent on inward performance. This, in combination
with supportive government action in some cases, has Icd to a number of

[171 Buckley, P.J., 'New 1hc(}ries of International Business', in M. Casson (cd.), The Growth of
International Business, Allen and Unwin, London, 1983, p. 48.
[18] Johanson,.T, and Wicdcrshcim-Paul, F., op. cit.
[19] Piercy, N., or. cit.
[201 Turnbull, P., 'Internationalisation of the Firm - A Stages Process or Not?', paper presented at
the conference on Export Expansion and Market Entry Modes, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
October 15/16, 1985.
[21] Koury, S..1., 'Countertrade: Forms, Motives, Pitfalls, and Negotiation Requisites', lournal of
Busine,\'s Research, Vol. 12, No.2, Junc 1984.
[22J Huszagh, S.M. and Huszagh, F.W., 'International Barter aocl Countertrade', International
Marketing Review, Vo!' 3, No.2, Summer, 1986.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/37

large companies setting up trading arms to facilitate the process [23] 124].
The inward-outward interlink is further illustrated in the growth of
international subcontracting which has played an important role in the
international viability of many companies through the ability to tie in cheap
componentlraw materials imports from international suppliers - from
clothing manufacture through to sophisticated systems selling [25]126J [27J.
From a general perspective therefore, it seems to be inappropriate to restrict
the concept of increasing international involvement merely to the outward
side, given the growing inward-outward interconnection.
Having put forward a working definition of 'internationalization' it should
be stressed that once a company has embarked on the process, there is no
inevitability about its continuance. In fact the evidence indicates that reverse
of 'de-internationalization' can occur at any stage, as the example of
Chrysler and other disinvestments in the late-1970s illustrate, but is
particularly likely in the early stages of export development [28] [29].
So far the concept of 'internationalization' has been couched in relatively
broad terms deliberately, to cover a multitude of possibilities. However, to
apply thc concept, considerable elaboration is required. For example, on
what basis can we assess the degree of internationalization of one firm versus
another? What does the concept mean as an outcome? Perhaps the simplest
objective basis for assessing the degree of internationalization is some
measure of foreign sales relative to total sales. The proportion of total sales
exported has often been used as an indication of export performance despite
its drawbacks [30J. Such a measure can also be extended out to the national
economy as exports/gross domestic product. Although this measure is
attractive because of its simplicity and measurability it provides very little
information about the nature of and capacity to conduct international
operations. Given the diversity of international operations, types of
markets, degree of organizational commitment and types of international

{23] Dlzard, .I.W., 'The Explosion of International Barter', Fortune, Vol. 107. No.3, February 7,
]lJK3.
(24J Cohen, S.S. and Zysman, J., 'Countertrade, Offsets, l3arteL and Buybacks', California
MU/Jagement Review, Yo!. 28, No.2, Winter 11)86. .
1251 Carstairs, R. and Welch, LS., 'Australian Offshore Investment in Asia', M{/!1ug('/nelll
Ill/emational Review, Vol. 20, No.4, 1980.
{26] Hornell, E. and Vahlnc, J ,-E., 'The Changing Structure of Swedish Multinational Companies',
Working Paper 1982112, Centre for International Business Studies, University of Uppsala.
{27J Business Week, 'The Hollow Corporation', March 3, 1~)86.
[281 13oddcwynn, J.J., 'Foreign Divestment: Magnitude and Factors', Jotlmal of International
Business Studies, Vol. 10, Spring/Summer, 1979.
j2lJj Welch, L.S. and Wicdersheim-Paul, F., op. cit., 19ROb.
[301 Cavusgil, S.T. and Godiwalla, Y.M., 'Decision-Making for International Marketing: A
Comparative Review', Management Decision, Vo!' 20, No.4, 1lJ82.
38/ Journal of General Management

offering, there is obviously a need for a broader framework for assessing the
extent of 'increased international involvement' - i.e. on a number of
different dimensions. An example of such a framework is presented in
Figure 1. In general internationalization can be expected to be associated
with, and perhaps dependent upon, developments along each of the
dimensions shown:

Operation Method (How)

Evidence indicates that as companies increase their level of international
involvement there is a tendency for them to change the method/s by whieh
they serve foreign markets [31J [32] [33]. The Nordic studies indicate that
this change occurs in the direction of increasing commitment, a typical
pattern being from no exporting, to exporting via an agent, to a sales
subsidiary and finally to a production subsidiary. One of the reasons for the
considerable attention on the operational method as a means of assessing a
pattern of internationalization is that it docs represent a clearly overt
manifestation of the overall process.
As well as increasing commitment though, the pattern appears to be one
of greater operational diversity as internationalization proceeds [341. This
appears to be related not only to the greater experience, skills, and
knowledge of foreign markets and marketing which develops within the firm,
but also to the exposure of a wider range of opportunities and threats.
Sometimes the sheer success of one method of operation, for example
exporting, Causes the erection of import barriers by a foreign government
thereby necessitating a shift to some other form such as licensing or foreign
investment if a market presence is to be maintained. An Australian study
found that outward foreign licensing was mainly adopted because of various
constraints on the use of other, more preferred methods of operation in
foreign markets [341. The recent strong move by Japanese firms into foreign
investment has been partly stimulated by the various forms of protection
imposed in key markets [35] [361. Tn a similar manner, the exploitation of
market opportunities in the socialist countries, because of the emphasis of
their governments on counter-trade, is likely to force some shift towards

[311 Johanson, J. and Wicdcrsheim-Paul, F., op. cit.

[32] Luostarincn, R., op. cit.
[33] Luostarincn, R., op. cit., rp. 105-124.
[341 Carstairs, R.T. and Welch, L.S., 'Licensing and the Internationalization of Smaller Companies:
Some Australian Evidence', Management International Review, Vol. 22, No.3, 1982, p. 35.
[35] Roscoe, H., 'Getting round protectionism by the direct route', Far Eastern Economh: Review,
June 13, Il)H5, pp. 82-3.
[36] Emmott, 13., 'Japan: A Survey', Ecunomist, December 7,1985, pp. 26-30.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/39

Figure I. Dimensions of Internationalization

40 I Journal of General Management

operational diversity. Clearly, the degree of market diversity has an impact

on the degree of operational diversity.
Thus, on the method of operation dimension we would expect inter-
nationalization to be retlected in both increasing depth and diversity of
operational methods. At a global !evel, this is evident not just in the growth
of foreign investment but also in the rise of countertrade in its various guises,
of the technology trade, of franchising, of management contracts and so on.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to go far in the internationalization process
simply by using one preferred operational method. One can perhaps argue
that the future international success of companies will partly depend on their
ability to master and successfully apply a range of methods of foreign
operation.

Sales Objects (What)

As a company increases its involvement in international operations there is
also a tendency for its offering to foreign markets to deepen and diversify [371.
This may occur at two levels:
• Expansion within an existing, or into a new, product line [38].
• Change in the whole product concept to include 'software' components
such as services, technology, know-how, or some combination. Over
time the blending of hardware and software components is often
developed into more packaged forms, representing project or systems
solutions [391.

Target Markets (Where)

As with sales objects and operation forms, it is difficult to develop
internationally merely by concentrating on a limited number of countries.
Expanded operations and offerings increasingly link with a wider range of
foreign markets - typically more distant over time in political, cultural,
economic and physical terms. There is a basic tendency for companies,
particularly in the early stages of internationalization, to approach markets
which appear simpler, more familiar and less costly to penetrate - and these
arc most commonly those which arc closest in physical and cultural terms [40]

[37J Luostarincn, R., op. ciL, pp. 95-105.

[38] Price Waterhouse Associates, Succe.14111 Exporting, Australian Government Puhlishing
Service, Canberra, 1982, pp. 30-34.
[39] Hornell, E. and Vahlne, J.-E., op. cit. p. 8.
[40J Vahlne, J.-E, and Wiedershcim-Paul, F., 'Psychic Distance - An Inhibiting Factor in
International Trade', Working Paper, 1977/2, Centre for International Business Studies,
University of UppsaJa, Sweden.
 Vol. 14No.2Winter 1988/41

[41]. It is not uncommon for Australian firms to view operations in New

Zealand as merely an extension of domestic activities, as also for Finnish
firms moving into Sweden. A company's shift of activities to more 'distant'
locations call therefore be seen as one indication of greater maturation in its
internationalization process.

Organisational Capacity
The internationalization process of a company is perhaps most overtly
demonstrated by the preceding three dimensions: the further advanced a
firm is along them the more 'internationalized' it may be regarded as being.
For example, a Finnish company with a high export/total sales ratio of say 80
per cent but which is selling only one product, via an agent, to one country,
Sweden would be regarded, according to the above framework, as still being
only in the earliest stages of international development.
Nevertheless, although providing a broader-based assessment of inter-
nationalization, the first three dimensions concentrate on the components of
actual foreign market activity. Sueh an approach leaves aside the variety of
internal company changes which are consequent upon, and therefore refiect,
the degree of internationalization but also form the foundation for additional
steps forward in the overall process [42J. In the resources area finance and
personnel afe obviously important, but so also is the organisation structure
developed for handling foreign activities. In Figure I, three of these areas-
finance, personnel and organisation structure - are noted because of their
importance, but they are by no means exclusively so.

Personnel
The success of internationalization in any company depends heavily on the
type of people both initiating and carrying through the various steps in the
process, and on overall personnel policies. Lorange [43] has recently argued
that 'the human resource function is particularly critical to successful
implementation of (such) co-operative ventures (joint ventures, licensing
agreements, project co-operation, ... )'. In the initial exporting phase the
background of the decision-maker, in such areas as work and foreign
experience, education and language training, has been shown to be
potentially important in the preparedness to commit a finn to the exporting

[41] Luostarincn, R., op. cit., pp. 124-172.

[42] Cavusgil, S.T. and Godiwalla, Y.M., op. cit.
[43] Lorange, P., 'IIuman Resource Management in Multinational Cooperative Ventures', /luman
Resource Management, Vo!' 25, No.1, Spring, 1986, p. 133.
421 Journal of General Management

activity [44] [45]. At a generallevcl though. internationalization both feeds

upon and contributes to the development of international knowledge, skills
and experience of the people involved [46]. While learning-by-doing appears
to be a key part of the whole process, it is also possible to obtain some
assistance through effective training and recruitment policies. Tung [47], for
example, concluded from a study of a number of US, European and
Japanese companies that 'the more rigorous the selection and training
procedures used, the less the incidences of poor performance or failure to
work effectively in a foreign cOLmtry.' Clearly, unless the people involved.
through whatever fl1eans, become more international in their capacities and
outlook, the ability to carry through any international strategy is bound to be
severely constrained. International personnel development therefore remains
as a prime indication of the internal extent to which a company has
effectively become internationalized, although it is perhaps more difficult to
measure than the preceding three dimensions.

Organisational Structure
As the administrative and organisational demands generally of carrying out
international operations grow and diversify, the organisational structure for
handling such demands ultimately needs to respond. A variety of formal and
informal organisational arrangements have hecn used by companies in
different countries to cope with the increasing amount and complexity of
continuing internationalization [48] [49] [50]. The changes, and their
sophistication, as the company secks to improve the organisational mcchanism
and focus of international operations, provide a further signpost of the state
of intcrnationalization. Organisational changes are oftcn a clear statement of
commitment to the objectives of international involvcluent. Tn an Australian
study the shift from experimental to committed exporting was often marked
by the establishment of an export section or division in some form [51].
[44] Reid, S.D., 'The Decision-Maker nnd Export Entry and Expansion, Journal of II/tema/ional
flu.\'iness Studies, Vol. 12, Fall, 1981.
1451 Welch, L.S., 'Managerial Decision-Making: The Case of Export Involvement', Scandinaviall
Journal of Maierial.I' Administration, Vol. 9, No.2, 1983.
[46] Johanson, J. and Vahlne, .I.-E., op. cit.
[47] Tung, R.L., 'Selection and Training of U.S., European, and Jap,mese Multin3tionals',
C(/I~/ornia Managemellt Review, Vo\. 25, No.1, Fall 1982, p. 70.
14K] Stop ford, .LM. ancl Wells, L.T., lY!liflaging the i¥/lIllinalional Enterprise, Basic Books, New
York, 1972.
[49] Bartlett, C.A" 'Multinational Structural Change: Evolution Versus Reorganization', in L.
Otterbeck (ed.), The Management of lIeadquarters - Suhsidiary Relationships in Muftinatiotwl
Corporatiolls, (lower, Aldershot, 1981.
[501 Hedlund, G., 'Organization Tn-Betwccn', Journal of Inlemalionall3l1sil/ess Studies, Vol. 15,
Fall, 19H4.
[51] Welch, L.S. and Wiedershcim-Paul, F., op. cit., 19ROb.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/43

Finance
The growth of international operations inevitably also places increasing
demands on the availability of funds to support the various activities. The
nature and extent of the company's financing activities for international
operations provide a further indicator of the degrce of internationalization.
We might expect that the range of finance sources (both local and
international) and the sophistication of financing techniques would develop
with international growth. However, the relationship is by no means clcar-
cut - depcnding on such aspects as the type of product/service, operation
methods and payment method, as well as the extent of government support
[52].

Framework Overview
By cxamining the above six dimensions it is possiblc to derive a substantial
overview of the state of internationalization of a given company, which could
then form the basis of comparison to others. It is not the intention at this
stage to consider scales of measurement along the different dimensions,
although work has already taken place in this area - as for example in
Luostarinen's [53] composite of business distance (including cultural,
economic and physical distance). At a general level though it is possible to
forcsee the development of more precise composite measures along the
various dimensions, providing a better basis for relative assessment of the
internationalization progress of different companies. For example, the
hypothetical patterns for two companies are presented in Figure 2.
Comparing the two patterns it is clear that company 1 has gone further than
company 2 in its foreign market activities, yet its internal development to
support these is less developed than company 2. Perhaps this is a sign of
potential problems for company 1.

Patterns of Internationalization

From the discussion so far it is clear that there is a wide range of potential
paths any firm might take in internationalization. Nevertheless, are there
any consistent patterns observable from thc research? In answering this
qucstion a major contribution has he en made by Nordic researchers [541 [55]

[52J Price Waterhouse Associates, op. ciL, pp. 56-62.

[53J Luostarincn, R., op. cit., p. 151.
[54J Johanson, J. and Wiedershcim-Paul, F., op. cit.
[55J Luostarincn, R., op. cit.
441 Journal of General Management

Figure 2. Hypothetical Company Comparison

[56j. Their work points generally to a process of evolutionary, sequential

build-up of foreign commitments over time. Johanson and Wiedersheim-
Paul studied the establishment chains of four large Swedish multinationals
from the beginning of their operations. Typically the growth of foreign
establishments was distinguished by a series of small, cumulative steps over

[56] JUlIl, M. <:ind Walters, P., op. cit.

 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/45

time: the setting-up of a sales subsidiary was preceded by an agency

operation in about three-quarters of cases.
This general pattern of evolutionary development was perhaps most
strongly confirmed in Finnish research. In a study of around three-quarters
of the population of Finnish industrial companies with foreign operations of
any type Luostarinen found that, in 1976,65 per cent of the companies had
only non-investment marketing operations abroad, 33 per cent had
production operations abroad which had been preceded by non-investment
marketing operations, whereas in only 2 per cent of the total had production
operations abroad begun without preceding operations. This result has
apparently continued, although being less pronounced, according to a more
recent examination of the shift to foreign direct manufacturing investment
during the period 1980-82 by Finnish companies [571. In only 13 per cent of
cases did the shift occur without preceding alternative operations in the
country concerned.
Luostarinen's research revealed a process of evolutionary development
not only in terms of the depth of operational mode, but also in terms of the
diversity of modes used, as well as in product offerings and the range of
markets penetrated. For example, product offerings were divided into four
categories: goods, services, systems and know-how. The offering to foreign
markets consistently began in the simplest form - i.e. goods (for 99 per cent
of companics) - while sales of services, systems and know-how came later,
and approximately in that order [58]. The gradual development towards
systems or package selling has also been noted in the growth of Swedish
multinational corporations where skills and knowledge (software) were
added to the hardware sale until a more complete problem-solving package
was on offer [59]. This trend has broader implications as a growing software!
service component clearly places greater stress on effective communication
skills and understanding of user needs and the user's environment, which is a
more demanding exercise once cultural and other distance barriers have to
be surmounted, thereby reinforcing the impact of such distance variables on
internationalization.
Research in other countries, although differing in sample size, period of
study and subject of analysis, nevertheless has revealed a degree of
consistency with the results of Nordic research. In examining Japanese

[571 Larimo, J., 'The Foreign Direct Manufacturing Investment Behaviour of Finnish Companies',
paper presented at the 11th European International Business Association Conference,
Glasgow, December \5-17, 19!)5.
lSN] Luostarinen, R., op. cit., pp. 95-105.
[59] Hornell, E. and Vahlne, J.-E., op. cit., p. R.
461 Journal of General Management

foreign investment in South-East Asia, Yoshihara [60J found that 'the

pattern of investment seems to substantiate the evolutionary theory of
foreign investment'. This echoes a similar conclusion drawn from a
longitudinal study of American direct investment abroad [611. Small sample
studies of first time UK smaller firm direct investors and of Continentai
European direct investors in the UK have confirmed the pattern of
intermediate steps being used as a build-up to foreign investment [62J [63J.
While 15.4 per cent of cases involved a direct move to foreign investment,
'over half of these firms were prevented from exporting by the nature of their
product - transport cost barriers or a high 'service' element effectively ruled
out exporting as a means of servicing the foreign markets' [641.
The pattern is not completely consistent though as an Australian study of
228 outward direct investment cases revealed that in 39 per cent of these
cases there was no pre-existing host country presence [65J. To some extent
this can be explained by the high proportion (43.g per cent) of service
companies involved in the investment activity, given that it is often more
difficult to operate with intermediate steps to the foreign investment stage in
the services sector. However, service companies were only slightly under-
represented (40.7 per cent) amongst those affiliates with a pre-existing
presence [66J. Of particular note though is the fact that 65.5 per cent of the
investments were undertaken during the period 1970-79. This is perhaps
suggestive of a change in the rate at which firms have been accomplishing
internationalization in more recent times, through leapfrogging of inter-
mediate steps to the foreign investment stage in some countries. Further
support for this development has been forthcoming in the more direct move
to foreign investment by Swedish companies into the Japanese market from
the early 1970s [67]. Perhaps a more general indication of the desire by
[60J Yoshihara, K" 'Dctcrminant~ of Japanese Investment in South-East Asia', Infemaliof/al Social
Science Journal, Vol. 30, No.2, 1978, p. 372.
[61] Wilkins, M., 1974, op. eit., p. 414.
[62] Buckley, P.l., Newbould, G.D. and Thurwell, J., 'Going Intcrnational- The Foreign Direct
Investment Behaviour of Smaller U.K. Firms' in L.G. Mattsson and F. Wiedersheim-Paul,
(cds), Recent Research on the Internationalization of Business, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis,
U ppsaia, 1tJ79.
[63J Buckley, P.l., Newbould, G.D. and Bcrkova, Z., 'Direct Investment in the U.K. by Smaller
Continental European Firms', Working Paper, University of Bradford, 1981.
[641 Buckley, P,l., 'The Role of Exporting in the Market Servicing Policics of Multinational
Manufacturing Enterpriscs', in M. Czinkota and G. Tesar (eds), Export Management, Praeger,
New York, 1982, pp. 178-9.
[65] Bureau of Industry Economics, AlI...,.tru!ian Direct Investment Abroad, Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra, 1984, p. 115.
[6()] Bureau of Industry Economics, op. cit., p. 128.
[671 Hedlund, G. and Kvcrneland, A., 'Are Establishments and Growth Strategies For Foreign
Markets Changing?', paper presented at the 9th European International Business Association
Conference, Oslo, December 18-20, 1983.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/47

companies to short-circuit the process of gradually building-up activities in

foreign markets over time has been the switch in foreign investment towards
acquisition and away from greenfield ventures [68] [69117Dj. Acquisition is
not only a path to more rapid establishment in a given foreign market, which
has beeome a more important consideration in the light of stronger global
competition, but it is also potentially a means of obtaining faster access to a
developed international network. For example, when the Australian
company Wormald International purchased Mather and Platt in the UK it
obtained as well a network of subsidiaries in Europe, Japan, Brazil, South
Africa and New Zealand. The managing director commented that to have
built such a network from scratch would have taken 20-3D years [7l] [72].
Of course, it should be expected that observed patterns of international-
ization will vary from country to country, and over time, because of
environmental differences at the outset, as well as the inevitable changes in
the environment. A combination of the more competitive international
environment of the 1980s and the general demonstration effects of other
companies' increased international efforts from different national environ-
ments has probably contributed to a less cautious approach to international-
ization, at least in the latter stages.
It should also be stressed that the concept of a sequential, cumulative
process of internationalization does not necessarily mean some smooth,
immutable path of development. The actual paths taken are often irregular.
Commitments are frequently lumpy over time, with plateaux while previous
moves arc absorbed and consolidated. Particular steps are affected by the
emergence of opportunities ancl/or threats which do not usually arrive in a
continuous or controlled manner. The outcome tends to be derived from a
mixture of deliberate and emergent strategies [73].
In fact, some of the argument which appears to be developing about the
evolutionary or stages model of internationalization [741 seems to have
occurred because of a lack of specification of what this process actually
means for an individual c0111pany: does it mean evolution or a stepwise
process for each individual foreign market or rather development of
[68] Hornell, E. and Vahlnc, J.-E., op. cit.
[69] Larirno, J., op. cit.
[70] OEeD, 'International Direct Investment: A Change in Pattern', OECD Observer, No. 112,
September, 19R1.
[71] Korporaal, G. Yankee Dollars: AUsfraliall/lJl'eslmenl ill America, Allen and Unwin, 1986, ch.
i2.
[72] Department of Trade, 'Fire Protection firm sparks new sales in China, U.S.S.R.', Overseas
Trading, Vol. 31, No. 10,25 May, 1979, p. 345.
[73] Mintzbcrg, H. <wd McIIugh, A., 'Strategy Formation in an Adhocracy', Admilli.l"/mlive Science
Quarterly, Yo!. 30, June, 1985.
174] Turnbull, P., op. cit.
4S / Journal of General Management

involvement in an overall sense? So far concentration has been on the

former situation where the number and type of steps up to, for example,
foreign investment are considered. A reduction in, or absence of, intervening
steps in a foreign market is taken as some indication that the evolutionary or
stages model is not functioning [75], Such (-J result is of course more likely in
particular markets where unique circumstances might apply, perhaps in the
form of government policy. More importantly though it is probably more
appropriate to analyse the process of international involvement at the
company level, looking across total foreign market activities. As skills,
experience and knowledge in the use of a more advanced form of operations
are developed in some foreign markets we might expect that this will
eventually allow a company to leapfrog some intermediate steps in others [76].
This proposition is illustrated in Figure 3. Taken on its own, company X's
move directly to foreign investment in Foreign Market No. 6 might be
regarded as a shift away from the sequentialist pattern revealed in other
markets. However, when taken in the overall context of the steps taken in
other markets it is certainly far removed from a leap into the unknown.
Thus, leapfrogging moves in given markets should be examined as part of
the overall operational pattern of the company before any definitive
conclusions can be drawn about a 'shift' from the evolutionary pattern.
Likewise the concept of what is evolutionary could be related back to the
type of preceding experience of international operations that key individuals
in the company might have had. For example an Australian company with
four years of operating and marketing experience in a small Australian city
(Toowoomba) considered its first 'export' move as an attempt to penetrate a
large Australian city 130 kilometres away (Brisbane). By contrast a Sydney
company was exporting within three months of beginning operations and to
52 countries in three years. The differences in behaviour were strongly
related to the owner-managers of each company. [n the Toowoomba
example the individual had very limited personal or company experience
beyond the local area, whereas in the second case the manager was a migrant
with over 20 years of international experience in the industry concerned
which had exposed an unexploited market niche. His perception of the
market place was international in character from the outset. In this context,
the international moves of the Sydney company were less startling than at
first sight. One person's (or company's) evolution often appears as a
revolution to others [77[ [781.
[75] Hedlund, G. and Kverneland, A., op. cit.
[76] Buckley, P.J., op. cit.
[771 Welch, L.S. and Win!crshcim-Paul, F., 'Domestic EXJ1ansion: Internationalization At flome',
t;.'isays in International Business, No.2, Decemher 19ROa.
 Vol. 14No. 2Winter 1988/49

Figure 3. Company X - Foreign Operations

50 I Journal of Genera! Management

Overall then, the research has revealed a reasonable degree of consistency,

at least lip to the mid-1970s, that the pattern of internationalization for most
firms has been marked by a sequential, stepwise process of development.
More recently, limited evidence has been emerging of a departure from the
gradualist path as some firms seek to by-pass the steps to deeper
commitment, resulting in a speeding up of the whole process. Just how
widespread the change is can only be determined from further research, but
pattern variation should be expected in response to the many environmental
changes, both nationally and globally, which have occurred in the 1970s and
1980s.

Why Internationalization?

While we can expect continued debate on the nature of the shifting pattern
of internationalization, an important question remains to be settled: why
internationalization? What is it that drives the process, leading a firm from
little or no involvement to, in some cases, widespread multinational
investments'? Obviously, if we arc to understand the process then we have to
explain why a company undertakes each particular step in an overt pattern.
As Starbuck [79] has noted, growth is not spontaneous, it is the result of
decisions. As such, the separate analysis of these distinct steps contributes to
our understanding of why and how the internationalization process is
initiated and maintained. For example, the recent research on the export
involvement decision has considerably elucidated how and why a company's
internationalization begins, and what sort of base is established for
subsequent forward moves, if any [80] [81J [82]. However, each of the
decision points inevitably has a variety of unique causative elements as well
as bearing the impact of any general on-going influential factors, as noted in
Figure 4. In developing any overall explanation of internationalization it is
important to examine those continuing influences which play such a key role
in maintaining forward momentum - in building the company to the point
where it is more receptive to the possibilities of increased involvement, and
[78] Layton, R. (eu.), 'Magna Alloys and Resc<I[ch Ply. Ltd.', Australian Marketing Projects,
Halstead Press, Sydney, 1969.
[79] Starbuck, W.IL, 'Organizational Growth and Development', in W.H. Starbuck (cd.),
Organizational Growth and Development, Penguin, Harrnondsworth, 197t.
[80] Welch, L.S. and Wiedcrshcim-Paul, F., or. eit., 19NOh.
181J Cavusgil, S.T., 'Organization a! Characteristics Associated With Export Activity', Journal of
Management Studies, Vol. 21, No.1, Jan. ltJ84.
[821 Yaprak, A., 'An Empirical Study of the Differences Between Small Exporting and NOIl-
Exporting US Firms', intenwtiollat Marketillg Review, Vol. 2, No.2, Summer, 1985.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/51

Figure 4. Determinants of Forward Momentum

better prepared to respond to them. These dynamic factors also help to

explain why there is some degree of consistency of internationalization
patterns across countries because of their general effect. At the same time
they represent reasons why so many companies feel constrained to a more
gradual, sequential path of development, as revealed in the research noted
earlier.

Overall Pattern Explanatory Faclors

Resources Availability
The ability to undertake any form of international operations is clearly
limited by the means accessible to the firm to carry it out. For smaller firms,
given their limitations in many areas, this is an obvious reason why less
demanding directions of international development can be undertaken first,
with major commitments only occurring well into the longer run. By the
same token, this means that we should expect larger firms, based in largc
domestic markets, to reveal more advanced involvement far earlier, and
generally to move through the overall process at a faster rate. While there is
some argument about the research results which consider the impact of size,
there does not appear to be any clear relationship between size of firm and
export performance [83]184]. Instead of size, Czinkota and Johnston 185]
lS3j Czinkota, M.R. and Johnston, W ..I., 'Exporting: Docs Sales Volume Make a Difference',
JOllmal of International Business Studies, Vol. 14, Spring/Summer, 1983.
[84] Cavusgil, S.T., op. cit.
fX5j Czinkota, M.R. and Johnston, W.J., op. dt., p. 153.
521 Journal of General Management

concluded that 'what really does seem to make for export success is the
attitude of management'. Some of the constraints which face companies of
whatever size, when considering international expansion, particularly
financial ones, are sometimes more apparent than real. Outside financial
sources and creative funding of takeovers, have been used by some
companies to permit faster expansion than directly accessible means would
imply [86J. While resource availability may limit expansion at any given
point in time, the constraint is not static, so that any action or developments
which widen availability provide the basis for increased foreign operations
over time.

Knowledge Development
Clearly, there is something more to the resources question than just physical
or financial capacity. A critical factor in the ability to carry out chosen
international activities is the possession of appropriate knowledge: this
includes knowledge about foreign markets, about techniques of foreign
operation, about ways of doing business, about key people in buyer
organisations, and so on. Such information and understanding is not easily,
cheaply or rapidly acquired. Much of it is not readily acquired 'off-the-shelf'
as it is developed through the actual experience of foreign operations [87J.
The learning· by-doing process explains much in the evolutionary patterns of
internationalization revealed in research [881.

Communication Networks
Personal contact and social interaction play an important part in the
development of international markets - especially where more complex
industrial products are concerned [89J. Networks between buyers and sellers
which form the basis of effective communication must be established.
Network establishment can be a demanding and time consuming process
where the gap between buyer and seller is large clue to an initial lack of
knowledge of each other and is accentuated by physical and cultural distance
barriers. There is considerable inertia amongst buyers who feel more secure
with suppliers from familiar sources and locations. While this constrains the
development of operations at the outset, the initial gaps are not necessarily
static: they are susceptible to reduction over time. With wider experience,

l86J Euromoney, 'Elders IXL', Supplement, August, 1985.

[87J Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J.-E., op. cit.
[88J Carlson, S., Huw Forei!?" Is Foreign Trade, Acta Universitatis Upsaiiensis, Uppsala, 1975.
[89] Hakansson, H. (eel.), international Marketing and Purchasing of Industrial Goods, John Wiley,
Winchester, 1982.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/53

greater contact at all levels and more diverse cultural exposure on both sides,
there is a potential for deeper and more long-standing relationships to
evolve, forming the basis for deeper commitments [90].

Risk and Uncertainty

As foreign buyers are loath to establish networks with unknown foreign
suppliers at the outset so too the foreign suppliers, because of initial lack of
knowledge and experience, tend to feel uncertainty about taking on
additional or new foreign operations, especially in unfamiliar locations.
Inevitably there is a response of seeking ways to reduce the uncertainty
exposure. It is not surprising therefore to find the pattern noted earlier that
companies arc attracted to foreign operations first in more familiar
(culturally) and closer locations and that only small steps in operational
commitments are undertaken initially thereby limiting exposure. This also
allows experimentation without high risk and the time required to gather
relevant knowledge and experience, before any deeper commitment is
contemplated.
In general therefore the need to develop relevant knowledge and skills
and communication networks, as well as to reduce risk and uncertainty
exposure, interact and play a key role at given points in constraining
international moves. Over time, however, the inevitable changes in these
areas consequent upon foreign activities also change the capacity of the
company to contemplate and carry through more involving commitments [91].

Control
Given the limited foreign market knowledge and experience of many
companies during the early stages of internationalization it is not surprising
that they will often look to outside foreign intermediaries to assist in market
penetration. With more experience, however, if a company's knowledge
about a given market increases through active involvement, there is a
tendency for it to scrutinise the activities of its foreign intermediary more
closely, especially when sales potential has been proven by preceding
operations. The concern about control is reflected in a variety of efforts to
more closely direct the operations of the intermediary on its behalf.
Sometimes this will result in 'positive' steps such as training or the provision
of promotional materials. In other cases a more 'negative' approach will be
adopted, leading to more stringent checks and guidelines. Under these
[90j Ford, D., 'The Development of Buyer-Seller Relationships in Industrial Markets', European
Journal of Markeling, Vol. 14,5/6,1980.
[91J Johanson, J. and Vahlnc, J.-E., op. cit.
541 Journal of General Management

changing circumstances, with the power positions being subtly reversed and
the principal fceling less dependent on its foreign intermediary, it is not
uncommon for dissatisfaction about perceived under-performance to grow.
Ultimately, perhaps sparked by other developments, the principal may feel
that the effective way or uealing with the 'probiem' is for it to take over the
running of the foreign operation itself, in some altered form. Inevitably this
will mean increasing its commitment in the given foreign market. Thus, the
control factor, interacting with knowledge development and risk perception,
tends to be a growing influence over time which pushes a company towards
increasing involvement in foreign operations. Tn general, increasing market
control means increasing involvement and thereby greater cost and risk [92].
Cornmitment
As international operations arc developed there is necessarily a commitment
of resources, and by people, to the process. This commitmcnt is particularly
strong when key management staff arc involved in developing the inter-
national strategy [93]. It creates a need for fulfilment and provides strong
forward momentum whereby justification is sought in further operations and
deeper involvement along the same line [94]. The commitment factor
therefore represents a further dynamic driving force in the overall
internationalization process.
The above factors taken together help to explain the continued forward
momentum of the internationalization process of individual companies and
also why the evolutionary pattern has been found in so many studies in
different countries [951. In essence, these factors, apart from any general
market size and potential considerations, help us to understand why for
example a given environmental change - such as protectionist action by a
foreign government or a change in foreign investment rules - is unlikely to
cause a shift to foreign investment by a company with limited foreign
experience but is more likely to do so at a later stage after the development
of market knowledge, contacts, a sales organization, etc., as illustrated in
Figure S.

Conclusion

Taken overall the concept of internationalization has yet to be clearly

developed as a research object. Nevertheless, considerable progress has
In] Luostarinen, R., op. cit., p. 117.
[931 Aharoni, Y., or. cit.
[941 Johanson,.I. and Vahlnc, J.-E., op. cit.
[95] Cavusgil, S.T. and Godiwalla, Y.M., op. cit.
 Vol. 14 No.2 Winter 1988/55

Figure 5. Response to Environmental Change

been made in establishing its conceptual and empirical foundations, while

the emerging debate about the 'stages thesis' or 'gradual internationalization'
can be considered a healthy step in clarifying the subject.
Given the focus of the concept, a development process through time,
much research remains to be conducted that is responsive to its longitudinal
character. Inevitably this is a difficult activity [96]: take for example the
attempt to trace the impact of individuals and the evolution of communication
patterns in the past. It can be expect~d however that research will continue
along the dual lines of analysis of particular decisions or steps in the overall
process and those clements which tie together total progress.

196] Mintzbcrg, H. and McHugh, A., op. cit.

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