Real Analysis by R.

Vittal Rao

Lecture 1: March 01, 2006

We denote by Am×n the set of all m × n matrices whose entries are

from the set A. Thus for example, Rm×n denotes the set of all m × n
real matrices, Cm×n denotes the set of all m × n complex matrices,
1.1 Sets while Zm×n denotes the set of all m × n integer matrices.

Definition 1.1 Standard Sets

• N: The set of all natural numbers {1,2,3,...}
• Z: The set of all integers {0, ±1, ±2, ...}
1.2 Functions
• Z+ : The set of all non-negative integers {0,1,2,3,...} = N ∪ {0}
• Z∗ : The set of all non zero integers {±1, ±2, ...} = Z \ {0} We shall use the following symbolism to denote a function f from
a set A to a set B
• Q: The set of all rational numbers
f : A −→ B
• Q∗ : The set of all non-zero rational numbers
f is a function which associates with every a ∈ A a unique element
• Q+ : The set of all non-negative rational numbers
f (a) ∈ B. (By this, we exclude ’multiple valued functions’). We
• (Q+ )∗ : The set of all positive rational numbers stress the following facts about a function:
It has three important parts associated with it:
Similarly we use the notations R, R∗ , R+ , (R+ )∗
We also use 1. Domain of f , namely the set A
C: The set of all complex numbers

2. Codomain of f , namely the set B

We use the cartesian product notation An to denote the cartesian 3. The rule which associates a to f (a), which we write as
product of a set A with itself n times, i.e., a 7−→ f (a)

Definition 1.2 Cartesian Product Even if one of these above is changed, we get a different function.
An = {(a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an ) : a j ∈ A, 1 ≤ j ≤ n)}

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1.2 Functions 1.2 Functions

Example 1.1 Example 1.2 Extension

Consider A = R3 ; B = R
f : Z −→ R defined as Let
f (a) = a2 − 2 A1 = {(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ∈ R3 : a2 = a3 = 0}
A2 = {(a1 , a2 , a3 ) ∈ R3 : a3 = 0}
and the function
Let f : A1 −→ R be defined as f (a1 , 0, 0) = 3a1
g : R −→ R defined as
Let g : A2 −→ R be defined as g(a1 , a2 , 0) = 3a1 + 2a2
g(a) = a2 − 2
Clearly A1 ⊆ A2 and for any a = (a1 , 0, 0) ∈ A, we have
For f and g , the codomain and the a to f (a) assignment rule
are the same, but their domains are different. These two f (a) = 3a1 , g(a) = 3a1
‘functions’ are therefore different functions. Thus f (a) = g(a), ∀a ∈ A1 i.e., g|A1 = f
The domain of f ⊂ the domain of g Hence g is an extension of f
The codomain of f = the codomain of g
f (a) = g(a), ∀a ∈ domain f
In the above example, for every x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 let us define

|xk1 = |x1 | + |x2 | + |x3 |

When such a situation arises, we call g an ‘extenstion’ of f . We and
have
p
kxk2 = |x1 |2 + |x2 |2 + |x3 |2
then it is easy to see that
Definition 1.3 Extension | f (x)
Let k f k1 = sup =3
f : A1 −→ B x∈A1 ;x,0 kxk1
g : A2 −→ B
It turns out that
be any two functions where |g(x)
kgk1 = sup =3
x∈A2 ;x,0 kxk1
1. A1 ⊆ A2
Thus g is an extension of f such that
2. f (a) = g(a), ∀a ∈ A1
(We write this as g | A1 = f ) k f k1 = kgk1
Then we say that g is an extension of f We leave it as an exercise to find some conditions on the real con-
stants a, b, c such that any

We illustrate this by an example h : R3 −→ R

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1.2 Functions 1.2 Functions

of the form Example 1.3 Consider a set A={a,b,c}

Let B be the power set of A; namely the set of all subsets of
h(x) = ax1 + bx2 + cx3 A. We have

B = {φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}}
satisfies
Consider the function f : A −→ B defined as
|h(x)|
khk1 = sup = k f k1 = 3 f (a) = {b, c} = {a}0 , f (b) = {b}0 = {a, c}, f (c) = {c}0 = {a, b}
x∈R ;x,0 kxk1
3

Now clearly f is one-one, because distinct elements are

How many such extensions can we find? What will be the answer mapped to distinct elements. But, this is not onto; since
to this question if we replace k · k1 by k · k2 ? we find that there are 5 ‘elements’ of B which do not have
mappings in A under f .
Range
Let us consider
If f : A −→ B is a function from A to B, the ‘set’ of values X = {x ∈ A : x < f (x)}
of f is called the range of f .
Clearly X ∈ B; in fact, X = {a, b, c} = A.
There is no x ∈ A 3 f (x) = X
Let us consider same A,B as above. Define f : A −→ B now
Definition 1.4 Range as
f (a) = {a}, f (b) = {a, b}, f (c) = {a, c}
Range( f ) = { f (a) : a ∈ A}
= {b ∈ B : ∃a ∈ A 3 f (a) = b} and in general
f (x) = {x} ∪ {a}
then if we have as before

Definition 1.5 Isomorphisms X = {x ∈ A : x < f (x)}

A function f : A −→ B is said to be
 what is X? Clearly
a,b 
 =⇒ f (a) , f (b) a ∈ f (a) = {a}; b ∈ f (b) = {a, b}; and c ∈ f (c) = {a, c}

One-one (injective) if

a, b ∈ A 

Therefore
Onto (surjective) if ∀b ∈ B, ∃a ∈ A 3 f (a) = b X=φ
One-one correspondence if both one-one and onto There is no x ∈ A 3 f (x) = X
(bi jective)(isomorphism) This is not an accident. This is what we want to see in general.