Bernabe, Benedict

Mabanag, Rially Kate

Zambrano, Albert

The endocrine system includes all of the

glands of the body and the hormones
produced by those glands. The glands are
controlled directly by stimulation from the
nervous system as well as by chemical
receptors in the blood and hormones
produced by other glands. By regulating the
functions of organs in the body, these glands
help to maintain the body’s homeostasis.
Cellular metabolism, reproduction, sexual
development, sugar and mineral homeostasis,
heart rate, and digestion are among the many
processes regulated by the actions of
hormones.

1. Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located superior and anterior to the brain stem and inferior to
the thalamus. It serves many different functions in the nervous system, and is also responsible for the
direct control of the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains special
cells called neurosecretory cells—neurons that secrete hormones:
 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
 Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
 Oxytocin
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
All of the releasing and inhibiting hormones affect the function of the anterior pituitary gland. TRH
stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone. GHRH and GHIH work to
regulate the release of growth hormone—GHRH stimulates growth hormone release, GHIH inhibits its
release. GnRH stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone while
CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The last two hormones—oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone—are produced by the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary,
where they are stored and later released.

2. Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea-sized lump of tissue connected to the
inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain. Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to
carry the hormones it releases throughout the body. Situated in a small depression in the sphenoid
bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary gland is actually made of 2 completely separate structures:
the posterior and anterior pituitary glands.
 a) Posterior Pituitary
The posterior pituitary gland is actually not glandular tissue at all, but nervous tissue instead.
The posterior pituitary is a small extension of the hypothalamus through which the axons of
some of the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus extend. These neurosecretory cells
create 2 hormones in the hypothalamus that are stored and released by the posterior pituitary:
 Oxytocin triggers uterine contractions during childbirth and the release of milk during
breastfeeding.
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents water loss in the body by increasing the re-uptake
of water in the kidneys and reducing blood flow to sweat glands.

b) Anterior Pituitary
The anterior pituitary gland is the true glandular part of the pituitary gland. The function of the
anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing and inhibiting hormones of the
hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary produces 6 important hormones:
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), as its name suggests, is a tropic hormone
responsible for the stimulation of the thyroid gland.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex, the outer part of the
adrenal gland, to produce its hormones.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the follicle cells of the gonads to produce
gametes—ova in females and sperm in males.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the gonads to produce the sex hormones—
estrogens in females and testosterone in males.
 Human growth hormone (HGH) affects many target cells throughout the body by
stimulating their growth, repair, and reproduction.
 Prolactin (PRL) has many effects on the body, chief of which is that it stimulates the
mammary glands of the breast to produce milk.

3. Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue found just posterior to the
thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin that helps to regulate the
human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian rhythm. The activity of the pineal gland is inhibited by
stimulation from the photoreceptors of the retina. This light sensitivity causes melatonin to be produced
only in low light or darkness. Increased melatonin production causes humans to feel drowsy at
nighttime when the pineal gland is active.

4. Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck and wrapped around the
lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces 3 major hormones:

 Calcitonin
 Triiodothyronine (T3)
 Thyroxine (T4)

Calcitonin is released when calcium ion levels in the blood rise above a certain set point. Calcitonin
functions to reduce the concentration of calcium ions in the blood by aiding the absorption of calcium
into the matrix of bones. The hormones T3 and T4 work together to regulate the body’s metabolic rate.
Increased levels of T3 and T4 lead to increased cellular activity and energy usage in the body.

5. Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are 4 small masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior side of the thyroid
gland. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in
 calcium ion homeostasis. PTH is released from the parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels in the
blood drop below a set point. PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the calcium containing
bone matrix to release free calcium ions into the bloodstream. PTH also triggers the kidneys to return
calcium ions filtered out of the blood back to the bloodstream so that it is conserved.

6. Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly triangular glands found immediately superior to the kidneys.
The adrenal glands are each made of 2 distinct layers, each with their own unique functions: the outer
adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla.

a) Adrenal cortex
The adrenal cortex produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes: glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, and androgens.

 Glucocorticoids have many diverse functions, including the breakdown of proteins and lipids
to produce glucose. Glucocorticoids also function to reduce inflammation and immune
response.
 Mineralocorticoids, as their name suggests, are a group of hormones that help to regulate
the concentration of mineral ions in the body.
 Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low levels in the adrenal cortex to
regulate the growth and activity of cells that are receptive to male hormones. In adult males,
the amount of androgens produced by the testes is many times greater than the amount
produced by the adrenal cortex, leading to the appearance of male secondary sex
characteristics.

b) Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla produces the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine under stimulation
by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Both of these hormones help to
increase the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve the “fight-or-flight” response to
stress. These hormones also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure
while decreasing the flow of blood to and function of organs that are not involved in responding
to emergencies.

7. Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located in the abdominal cavity just inferior and posterior to the stomach.
The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland as it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue.
The endocrine cells of the pancreas make up just about 1% of the total mass of the pancreas and are
found in small groups throughout the pancreas called islets of Langerhans. Within these islets are 2
types of cells—alpha and beta cells. The alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is
responsible for raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon triggers muscle and liver cells to break down the
polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the bloodstream. The beta cells produce the hormone
insulin, which is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after a meal. Insulin triggers the
absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen molecules for storage.

8. Gonads
The gonads—ovaries in females and testes in males—are responsible for producing the sex hormones
of the body. These sex hormones determine the secondary sex characteristics of adult females and
adult males.

 Testes: The testes are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of males that produce the
androgen testosterone in males after the start of puberty. Testosterone has effects on many
parts of the body, including the muscles, bones, sex organs, and hair follicles. This hormone
causes growth and increases in strength of the bones and muscles, including the accelerated
growth of long bones during adolescence. During puberty, testosterone controls the growth and
 development of the sex organs and body hair of males, including pubic, chest, and facial hair. In
men who have inherited genes for baldness testosterone triggers the onset of androgenic
alopecia, commonly known as male pattern baldness.
 Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in the pelvic body cavity
lateral and superior to the uterus in females. The ovaries produce the female sex hormones
progesterone and estrogens. Progesterone is most active in females during ovulation and
pregnancy where it maintains appropriate conditions in the human body to support a developing
fetus. Estrogens are a group of related hormones that function as the primary female sex
hormones. The release of estrogen during puberty triggers the development of female
secondary sex characteristics such as uterine development, breast development, and the
growth of pubic hair. Estrogen also triggers the increased growth of bones during adolescence
that lead to adult height and proportions.

9. Thymus
The thymus is a soft, triangular-shaped organ found in the chest posterior to the sternum. The thymus
produces hormones called thymosins that help to train and develop T-lymphocytes during fetal
development and childhood. The T-lymphocytes produced in the thymus go on to protect the body from
pathogens throughout a person’s entire life. The thymus becomes inactive during puberty and is slowly
replaced by adipose tissue throughout a person’s life.

Endocrine Disorders

1. Adrenal insufficiency. The adrenal gland releases too little of the hormone cortisol and sometimes,
aldosterone. Symptoms include fatigue, stomach upset, dehydration, and skin changes. Addison's
disease is a type of adrenal insufficiency.
2. Cushing's disease. Overproduction of a pituitary gland hormone leads to an overactive adrenal gland. A
similar condition called Cushing's syndrome may occur in people, particularly children, who take high doses
of corticosteroid medications.
3. Gigantism (acromegaly) and other growth hormone problems. If the pituitary gland produces too much
growth hormone, a child's bones and body parts may grow abnormally fast. If growth hormone levels are
too low, a child can stop growing in height.
4. Hyperthyroidism. The thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, leading to weight loss, fast heart
rate, sweating, and nervousness. The most common cause for an overactive thyroid is an autoimmune
disorder called Grave's disease.