EXPERIMENTAL AND INVESTIGATION OF AL-SI

WITH MAGNESIUM COMPOSITE MATERIAL HEAT

TRANSFER BY USING PIN-FIN APPARATUS
ABSTRACT
 ABSTRACT

The aim of the present study is to improve the heat transfer characteristics and
to investigate the performance of fin efficiency by using fins of different
materials in pin fin apparatus. Here the system follows forced convection as the
mode of heat transfer and it is the principle used in it.

Engine cylinder can be cooled by fluids like oil and air as media. To
improve the efficiency of air cooling, fins will be provided as they provide the
more surface area for heat dissipation. But when we keep increasing the surface
area, there are other factors like weight & size will shoot up which will
complicate the design of fins and engine cylinder.

This paper discussed composite of Aluminium alloy, Silicon and

magnesium material and to evaluate the heat transfer properties through PIN-
FIN apparatus.
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINE

A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine includes the
following highlights:

 1680 - Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens designed (but never built) an

internal combustion engine that was to be fueled with gunpowder.
 1807 - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal
combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel.
Rivaz designed a car for his engine - the first internal combustion
powered automobile. However, his was a very unsuccessful design.
 1824 - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old new comen steam
engine to burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooter's
Hill in London.
 1858 - Belgian-born engineer, Jean Joseph Étienne Lenoir invented and
patented (1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal
combustion engine fueled by coal gas. In 1863, Lenoir attached an
improved engine (using petroleum and a primitive carburetor) to a three-
wheeled wagon that managed to complete an historic fifty-mile road trip
 1862 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patented but
did not build a four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16,
1862).
 1864 - Austrian engineer, Siegfried Marcus, built a one-cylinder engine
with a crude carburetor, and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-
foot drive. Several years later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran
 at 10 mph that a few historians have considered as the forerunner of the
modern automobile by being the world's first gasoline-powered vehicle
 1873 - George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an
unsuccessful two-stroke kerosene engine (it used two external pumping
cylinders). However, it was considered the first safe and practical oil
engine.  1866 - German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August
Otto improved on Lenoir's and de Rochas' designs and invented a more
efficient gas engine.
 1876 - Nikolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four
stroke engine, known as the "Otto cycle".

TYPES OF ENGINES

There are two major cycles used in internal combustion engines: Otto and
Diesel. The Otto cycle is named after Nikolaus Otto (1832 – 1891) who
developed a four stroke engine in 1876. It is also called a spark ignition (SI)
engine, since a spark is needed to ignite the fuel-air mixture. The Diesel cycle
engine is also called a compression ignition (CI) engine, since the fuel will auto-
ignite when injected into the combustion chamber. The Otto and Diesel cycles
operate on either a four- or two stoke cycle. Since the invention of the internal
combustion engine many pistons-cylinder geometries have been designed. The
choice of given arrangement depends on a number of factors and constraints,
such as engine balancing and available volume:

 in line
 horizontally opposed
 radial
 V
HEAT ENGINES

Any type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the combustion
of fuel or any other source and coverts this energy into mechanical work is
termed as a heat engine. Heat engines may be classified as:

 External Combustion Engines

 Internal Combustion Engines

1. External combustion engines (e.c. engines)

In this case, combustion of fuel takes place outside of the cylinder as in case of
steam engines where the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam
which is used to move a piston in a cylinder.

2. Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines)

In this case, combustion of the fuel with oxygen of the air occurs within the
cylinder of the engine. The internal combustion engines group includes engines
employing mixtures of combustible gases and air, known as gas engines, those
using lighter liquid fuel or spirit known as petrol engines and those using
heavier liquid fuels, known as oil compression or diesel engines. Even though
internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly complex
machines. There are hundreds of components which have to perform their
functions satisfactorily to produce output power. There are two types of engines

 Spark ignition engine (S.I engine)

 Compression ignition engine (C.I engine)

According to the cycle of operations again these engines are classified as

 Two-stroke engines
 Four-stroke engines
Two-stroke S.I engine

Dugald Clark invented the two stroke engine in the year 1878. The two strokes
are literally “suction” and “exhaust”. In two stroke engine the cycle is
completed in one revolution of the crank shaft. The main difference between
two stroke and four stroke engines is in the method of filling the fresh charge
and removing the burnt gases from the cylinder. In the four stroke engines these
operations are performed by the engine piston during the suction and exhaust
strokes respectively. In a two stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished
by the charge compressed in the crankcase or by a blower. The induction of the
compressed charge moves out the product of combustion through exhaust ports.
Therefore no piston strokes are required for these two operations. Two strokes
are sufficient to complete the cycle, one for compressing the fresh charge and
the other for expansion or power stroke.

The cylinder/piston fit is one of the most important factors governing the
success of a home-built model engine. Material selection wise, the home
constructor has a number of choices but each has their own characteristics,
advantages, and disadvantages. The most common choices, in ascending order
of experience required, are:

 Steel liner, Cast Iron piston

 Cast Iron liner, Cast Iron piston
 Steel liner, Steel piston
 Steel liner, Aluminium piston, Cast Iron ring(s)

The normal temperature of gasoline engine exhaust is approximately 650ºC

(923ºK). This is also approximately the melting point of most aluminium alloys
and it is only the constant influx of ambient air that prevents the piston from
deforming and failing.
FOUR-STROKE ENGINE

The engine is an air-cooled one-cylinder 4-stroke Diesel engine. Front and side
views of the engine respectively. The engine is mounted on a base plate which
is installed in the seat of the internal combustion engine basic module. The
speed of the engine is set with a controller. To measure the exhaust temperature,
the engine is equipped with a temperature sensor, which is installed in the area
of the exhaust muffle. The connection for the exhaust hose is also located at the
exhaust muffler the engine can be started with a recoil starter. A pulley is
mounted on the output shaft of the engine, which is used to couple the engine to
the dynamometer in the brake unit.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF ENGINE:

The cross section of engine. A brief description of these parts is given below.

Engine fin

In Engine When fuel is burned heat is produced. Additional heat is also

generated by friction between the moving parts. Only approximately 30% of the
energy released is converted into useful work. The remaining (70%) must be
removed from the engine to prevent the parts from melting. For this purpose
Engine have cooling mechanism in engine to remove this heat from the engine
some heavy vehicles uses water-cooling system and almost all two wheelers
uses Air cooled engines, because Air-cooled engines are only option due to
some advantages like lighter weight and lesser space requirement

Cylinder

The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion of the
engine power unit. Its major function is to provide space in which the piston can
operate to draw in the fuel mixture or air (depending upon spark ignition or
compression ignition), compress it, allow it to expand and thus generate power.
The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some cases, to give
greater strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and
molybdenum are added to the cast iron.

Piston

The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit
power to the crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the
combustion of the fuel. The piston is closed at one end and open on the other
end to permit direct attachment of the connecting rod and its free action. The
materials used for pistons are grey cast iron, cast steel and aluminium alloy.
However, the modern trend is to use only aluminium alloy pistons in the tractor
engine

Piston Rings

A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that
is used to retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the
ring groove which function as the sealing surface for the piston ring. A piston
ring is an expandable split ring used to provide a seal between the piston an the
cylinder wall. Piston rings are commonly made from cast iron. Cast iron retains
the integrity of its original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces.
Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the
cylinder wall, and return oil to the crankcase. Piston ring size and configuration
vary depending on engine design and cylinder material. Piston rings commonly
used on small engines include the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A
compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the
piston head. The compression ring seals the combustion chamber from any
leakage during the combustion process. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited,
pressure from combustion gases is applied to the piston head, forcing the piston
toward the crankshaft. The pressurized gases travel through the gap between the
cylinder wall and the piston and into the piston ring groove. Combustion gas
pressure forces the piston ring against the cylinder wall to form a seal. Pressure
applied to the piston ring is approximately proportional to the combustion gas
pressure. A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring
groove between the compression ring and the oil ring.

The wiper ring is used to further seal the combustion chamber and to
wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess oil. Combustion gases that pass by the
compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring. An oil ring is the piston ring
located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase. The oil ring is used to wipe
excess oil from the cylinder wall during piston movement. Excess oil is returned
through ring openings to the oil reservoir in the engine block. Two-stroke cycle
engines do not require oil rings because lubrication is supplied by mixing oil in
the gasoline, and an oil reservoir is not required.

Piston rings seal the combustion chamber, transferring heat to the

cylinder wall and controlling oil consumption. A piston ring seals the
combustion chamber through inherent and applied pressure. Inherent pressure is
the internal spring force that expands a piston ring based on the design and
properties of the material used. Inherent pressure requires a significant force
needed to compress a piston ring In addition to inherent pressure, a piston ring
seals the combustion chamber through applied pressure. Applied pressure is
pressure applied from combustion gases to the piston ring, causing it to expand.
Some piston rings have a chamfered edge opposite the running surface. This
chamfered edge causes the piston ring to twist when not affected by combustion
gas pressures.

The piston acts as the movable end of the combustion chamber and must
withstand pressure fluctuations, thermal stress, and mechanical load. Piston
material and design contribute to the overall durability and performance of an
engine. Most pistons are made from die- or gravity-cast aluminum alloy. Cast
aluminum alloy is lightweight and has good structural integrity and low
manufacturing costs. The light weight of aluminum reduces the overall mass
and force necessary to initiate and maintain acceleration of the piston. This
allows the piston to utilize more of the force produced by combustion to power
the application. Piston designs are based on benefits and compromises for
optimum overall engine performance
Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is a major link inside of a combustion engine. It connects

the piston to the crankshaft and is responsible for transferring power from the
piston to the crankshaft and sending it to the transmission. There are different
types of materials and production methods used in the creation of connecting
rods. The most common types of connecting rods are steel and aluminum. The
most common type of manufacturing processes are casting, forging and
powdered metallurgy. The connecting rod is the most common cause of
catastrophic engine failure. It is under an enormous amount of load pressure and
is often the recipient of special care to ensure that it does not fail prematurely.
The sharp edges are sanded smooth in an attempt to reduce stress risers on the
rod. The connecting rod is also shotpeened, or hardened, to increase its strength
against cracking. In most high-performance applications, the connecting rod is
balanced to prevent unwanted harmonics from creating excessive wear. The
most common connecting rod found in production vehicle engines is a cast rod.
This type of rod is created by pouring molten steel into a mold and then
machining the finished product. This type of rod is reliable for lower
horsepower-producing engines and is the least expensive to manufacture. The
cast rod has been used in nearly every type of engine, from gasoline to diesel,
with great success.
Crankshaft

This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the
linear motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The
journals of the crankshaft are supported on main bearings, housed in the
crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft help in the
smooth running of the engine. The crankshaft is the part of an engine which
translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert the
reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has crankpins, additional
bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the “big
ends” of the connecting rod from each cylinder attach. It typically connects to a
flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four stroke cycle, and
sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the
torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the
cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsion elasticity of the
metal
Camshaft

Camshaft is frequently called “brain” of the engine. This is so because its job is
to open and closed at just the right time during engine rotation, so that the
maximum power and efficient cleanout of exhaust to be obtained. The camshaft
drives the distributor to electrically synchronize spark ignition. Camshafts do
their work through eccentric "lobes" that actuate the components of the valve
train. The camshaft itself is forged from one piece of steel, on which the lobes
are ground. On single-camshaft engines there are twice as many lobes as there
are cylinders, plus a lobe for fuel pump actuation and a drive gear for the
distributor. Driving the camshaft is the crankshaft, usually through a set of gears
or a chain or belt.

The camshaft always rotates at half of crank rpm, taking two full
rotations of the crankshaft to complete one rotation of the cam, to complete a
four-stroke cycle. The camshaft operates the lifters (also called tappets or cam
followers) that in turn operate the rest of the valve train. On "overhead valve"
engines the lifters move pushrods that move rocker arms that move valve stems.
Lifters can be of several types. The most common are hydraulic, mechanical
and roller lifters. Hydraulic lifters fill with oil that acts as a shock absorber to
eliminate clearance in the valve train. They are quiet and don't require periodic
adjustment. Mechanical lifters are solid metal and require scheduled adjustment
for proper valve clearance. These are used in high-rpm applications. Roller
lifters use a roller device at one end and can be hydraulic or mechanical.

They are used in applications where a very fast rate of valve lift is
required. Overlap is the point in crank rotation when both the intake and exhaust
valves are open simultaneously. This happens at the end of the exhaust stroke
when the exhaust valve is closing and the intake is opening. During the period
of overlap, the intake and exhaust ports can communicate with each other.
Ideally, you want the scavenge effect from the exhaust port to pull the air/fuel
mixture from the intake port into the combustion chamber to achieve more
efficient cylinder filling. A poorly designed cam and port combination,
however, can cause reversion, where exhaust gases push their way past the
intake valve and into the intake tract.

Several factors influence how much overlap is ideal for your engine.
Small combustion chambers typically require minimal overlap, as do engines
designed to maximize low-rpm torque. Most current stock car racing engines
depend on high rpm to take advantage of better gear ratios, so more overlap is
normally helpful. When the revolutions per minute increase, the intake valve is
open for a shorter period of time. The same amount of air and fuel must be
pulled into the combustion chamber in less time, and the engine can use all the
help it can get to fill the chamber. Increasing the overlap can help here.
Duration: The amount of time (in degrees of rotation of the camshaft) that the
lobe holds the valve off its seat. Duration also affects the total lift of the valve
because of the inherent limitations to the rate-of-lift of the lifter itself. Duration
is generally the most important thing to consider when choosing a camshaft.

The point where the intake valve opens is critical to an engine's running
properly. If it opens too early, exhaust gases can get forced into the intake
manifold. This causes soot build up on the intake runners, low engine vacuum
and low power. If the valve opens too late, less of the fuel/air mixture gets into
the combustion chamber and exhaust gases won't be as efficiently removed. If
the exhaust valve closes too early the desired "scavenging effect" will be less
and some exhaust gases can get trapped in the cylinder. If the valve closes too
late an excessive amount of fuel/air mixture will escape into the exhaust port
and the combustion chamber will not be optimized. The camshaft material
should combine a strong shaft with hard cam lobes. The most widely used
material at present is chilled or forged cast iron.
SELECTION OF COMPONENTS

ENGINE FINS

The heat transferring fins plays a vital role as heat sink in various equipment
and machines. Fins increases surface area for increased heat dissipation to
system or surrounding. It has a particular shape of geometry. Fins experience
thermal loads from source and even some time static loads from external
sources at time of cleaning or during finishing. The design and development of
fins has always been a challenging task for weight, shape and design
consideration. These improvements result in lighter parts with better heat
transferring rate. This comparison was conducted on a rectangular pin fin with
one side as a source of heat and also fixed onto that side of fin. Two different
materials are analysed in same model and their results are compared. The heat
transferring fins are modelled.

Scientists are continuously trying to improve various properties of

engineering materials. This led to new category of materials called composite
materials. They are composed of a combination of distinctly different two or
more micro or macro constituents that differ in the form of composition and it is
insoluble in each other. Composite materials have a continuous, phase called the
matrix and a dispersed, non-continuous, phase called the reinforcement. The
reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibers, particles, or flakes. The
matrix phase materials are generally continuous. In a composite, each material
retains its original properties but when composited it yields superior properties
which cannot be obtained separately. Heat transfer inside flow passages can be
enhanced by using passive surface modifications such as rib tabulators,
protrusions, pin fins, and dimples. These heat transfer enhancement techniques
have practical. Application for internal cooling of turbine airfoils, combustion
chamber liners and electronics cooling devices, biomedical devices and heat
exchangers. The heat transfer can be increased by the following different
Augmentation Techniques. They are

Broadly classified into three different categories:

 Passive Techniques
 Active Techniques
 Compound Techniques.

A. Passive Techniques

These techniques generally use surface or geometrical modifications to the flow

channel by incorporating inserts or additional devices. They promote higher
heat transfer coefficients by disturbing or altering the existing flow behavior
(except for extended surfaces) which also leads to increase in the pressure drop.
In case of extended surfaces, effective heat transfer area on the side of the
extended surface is increased. Passive techniques hold the advantage over the
active techniques as they do not require any direct input of external power.
These techniques do not require any direct input of external power; rather they
use it from the system itself which ultimately leads to an increase in fluid
pressure drop. They generally use surface or geometrical modifications to the
flow channel by incorporating inserts or additional devices. They promote
higher heat transfer coefficients by disturbing or altering the existing flow
behaviour except for extended surfaces.

B Active Techniques
These techniques are more complex from the use and design point of view as
the method requires some external power input to cause the desired flow
modification and improvement in the rate of heat transfer. It finds limited
application because of the need of external power in many practical
applications. In comparison to the passive techniques, these techniques have not
shown much potential as it is difficult to provide external power input in many
cases. In these cases, external power is used to facilitate the desired flow
modification and the concomitant improvement in the rate of heat transfer.

C. Compound Techniques
A compound augmentation technique is the one where more than one of the
above mentioned techniques is used in combination with the purpose of further
improving the thermo-hydraulic performance of a heat exchanger. When any
two or more of these techniques are employed simultaneously to obtain
enhancement in heat transfer that is greater than that produced by either of them
when used individually, is termed as compound enhancement. This technique
involves complex design and hence has limited applications.
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Al-Mg-Si alloys are being increasingly used in automotive and aerospace

industries for critical structure applications because of their excellent castability
and corrosion resistance and, in particular, good mechanical properties in the
heat treated condition. These are known as 4xxx series of wrought alloys and
3xx.0 and 4xx.0 series of casting alloys. In these alloys, Mg is intentionally
added to induce age hardening through precipitation of Mg2Si, metastable
phases or Guinier Preston zones.

In the research of J. Ajay Paul and Sagar Chavan Vijay Parametric Study
of Extended Fins in the Optimization of Internal Combustion Engine they found
that for high speed vehicles Engines thicker fins provide better efficiency. When
fin thickness increases, the gap between the fins reduces that resulted in swirls
being created which helped in increasing the heat transfer. Large number of fins
with less thickness can be preferred in high speed vehicles than thick fins with
less numbers as it helps inducing greater turbulence.

Author plotted the experimental results, it shows the variation of the heat
Transfer with respect to velocity. Ansys fluent software was used to predict the
behavior or wind flow and analysis. At zero velocity it is seen that the heat
transfer from the 4mm and 6mm fins are the same. When the velocity is
increased it can be seen that the heat transfer is increased with due to forced
convection and also due to the swirl generated between two fins which induces
turbulences and hence higher heat transfer. For a larger fin thickness, the
corresponding fin spacing is comparatively small. As a consequence, the
generated swirled flow may mingle with the main flow and result in a higher
heat transfer performance.

Pradeep singh et al, stated that the rectangular shaped extended surfaces
shows the high rate of heat transfer when compared to other extensions at same
length. Kang Hiechan, has made many experiments to find the fin efficiency
and concluded that the efficiency of fin is useful when the value of NTU is zero
otherwise the fin efficiency is high when the NTU is high and is used in air
conditioning systems.

Shivdas S Kharche et al, explained that the when a notch is provided on

the surface of fin with a rectangular shape the fin supports for much heat
transfer and compared the heat transfer rate of fins by changing the material
from Aluminium to copper and found that copper shows much heat transfer
value than aluminum. Sandhya Mirapalli, et al, had made a conclusion that for a
triangular fin when the length is increased the heat flow percentage also
increases at constant base temperature compared to rectangular fin.

I.Lakshmi Anusha et al, concluded that total weight of the system made
of splayed pin fins can be reduced to the minimum level by using the advanced
composite materials like polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), carbon foam, graphite
epoxy at the same thermal inputs. Zhang, H.S et al., resulted that a fabric heat
sink temperature distribution is so nearer to common pin fin heat sink but the
temperature decreases in axial direction by increasing the pin fin length. The
temperature of the common pin fin heat sink is lower than the fabric pin fin heat
sink at the root level (base), while the temperature increased at the length of pin
fin because of the presence of base plate at the fin root level.
Sampath SS et al., compared the temperature distribution of a cylindrical
element at various points is carried out by providing the thermal conductivity
and heat transfer coefficient and with prescribed boundary conditions and
analysed with the help of simulation software and DOT NET software and the
results are almost equal expect at the middle of the specimen it is just deviated..

Amol B. Dhumne et al. resulted that to achieve high thermal performance

the cylindrical perforated pin fins are used they leads to high heat transfer than
the cylindrical pin fins. The efficiency varies depending upon clearance ratio
and inter-spacing ratio and also lower clearance ratio, lower inter-fin spacing
ratio and lower Reynolds numbers are suggested. M. P. Shah et al., compared
the study of cylindrical pin fin was done by changing the material conductivity
and heat transfer coefficient for copper ,AA1100,AA2011 materials and
concluded that the heat transfer rate increases when thermal conductivity of
material increases.

Y. Pratapa Reddy et al., had made an experimental analysis on a pin fins

made of different materials (aluminum, copper) and composite bars (brass and
aluminum, copper and aluminum) and concluded that the composite made of
copper and aluminum shows higher efficiency than the solid pin fin and from
these the values of base temperatures are considered as input source for
simulation analysis on different materials.
 Chapter-3

COMPOSITE MATERIAL
 Chapter-3

COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Introduction of composites

 Composite is a combination of two or more chemically distinct and

insoluble phases.
 Constituent materials or phases must have significantly different
properties for it to combine them: thus metals and plastics are not
considered as composites although they have a lot of fillers and
impurities
 The properties and performance of composites are far superior to those of
the constituents
 Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases (reinforcement)
embedded in a continuous phase (matrix)

Examples: –

 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)

 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from a synthesized
composite)

Some examples of composite materials:

 ply wood is a laminar composite of layers of wood veneer,

 Fiber glass is a fiber-reinforced composite containing stiff, strong glass
fibers in a softer polymer matrix and concrete is a particulate composite
containing coarse sand or gravel in a cement matrix (reduced 50%).
CLASSIFICATION

BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATRIX MATERIAL

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
 Carbon/Carbon Composites (C/Cs)

BASED ON THE GEOMETRY OF REINFORCEMENT

 Particulate reinforced Composites

 Whisker/Flakes reinforced composites
 Fiber reinforced composites

HYBRID:

A composite laminate comprising of laminae of two or more composite material

systems or a combination of two or more different fibers such as C and glass or
C and aramid into a structure

I) POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

(PMCs) Are prominent class of composites compared to other composite

materials in commercial applications

Fiber Materials: Boron, Graphite, Carbon

Most of the PMCs use either carbon-graphite or aramid fibers, which are the
main commercial fibers
Matrix Materials:

Thermoplastic, Epoxy and Thermo-set materials.

 Thermoplastics offer the advantages of good mechanical and tribological

properties.
 Epoxy resin remains the most important matrix polymer.

2. METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (MMCS)

 MMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of non

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the metallic matrix.
 MMCs are widely used in engineering applications where the operating
temperature lies in between 250 ºC to 750 ºC.

Matrix materials:

Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Magnesium and Super alloys.

Reinforcement materials:

Silicon carbide, Boron, Molybdenum and Alumina

3. CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCS)

CMCs are advanced class of structural materials consisting of metallic/non-

metallic reinforcements incorporated into the ceramic matrix CMCs are widely
used in engineering applications where the operating temperature lies in
between 800ºC to 1650ºC

4. CARBON/CARBON COMPOSITES (C/CS)

C/Cs are developed specifically for parts that must operate in extreme
temperature ranges. Composed of a carbon matrix reinforced with carbon yarn
fabric, 3-D woven fabric, 3-D braiding, etc.
Applications:

C/C composites meet applications ranging from rockets to aerospace because of

their ability to maintain and even increase their structural properties at extreme
temperatures.

Advantages:

 Extremely high temperature resistance (1930°C – 2760°C).

 Strength actually increases at higher temperatures (up to 1930°C).
 High strength and stiffness.
 Good resistance to thermal shock.

Uses of composites

The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as
well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design
flexibility because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The
downside is often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the
raw materials are often expensive.

Merits of composite materials composites

Can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight, so ratios of strength-to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater than steel or aluminium

 High specific strength and

 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
  Better wear resistance Improved corrosion resistance
 Better temperature dependent behavior

Advantages of Composite Materials

 Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature and

above, while maintaining the minimum ductility or rather toughness
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures compared to that of
conventional alloys Increase in friction resistance Increase in fatigue
strength, especially at higher temperatures,
 Improvement of thermal shock resistance
 Improvement of corrosion resistance
 Increase in Young’s modulus
 Reduction of thermal elongation.

APPLICATIONS

Space craft: Antenna structures, solar reflectors, Satellite structures, Radar,

Rocket engines, etc.

Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades,

Airfoil surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay
doors, Rotor shafts in helicopters, Helicopter transmission structures, etc.

Miscellaneous: Bearing materials, Pressure vessels, Abrasive materials,

Electrical machinery, Truss members, Cutting tools, Electrical brushes, etc.

Automobile: Engines, bodies, Piston, cylinder, connecting rod, crankshafts,

bearing materials, etc.
 Chapter-4
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
 Chapter-4

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TWO WHEELER AIR COOLING FIN

In case of internal combustion engines, combustion of air and fuel takes place
within the engine cylinder and hot gases air generated. The temperature of gases
is going to be around 2300-2500°C. This is often a awfully hot temperature and
will result into burning of oil film between the moving components and will
result into seizing or fastening of a similar. So, this temperature should be
reduced to concerning 150-200°C at that the engine can work most
expeditiously. An excessive amount of cooling is additionally not fascinating
since it reduces the thermal potency. So, the item of cooling system is to stay
the engine running at its most effective operational temperature.

It's to be noted that the engine is kind of inefficient once it's cold and
thence the cooling system is intended in such how that it prevents cooling once
the engine is warming up and until it attains to most economical operational
temperature, then it starts cooling. It’s conjointly to be noted that: a) 20-25% of
physical property generated is employed for manufacturing brake power (useful
work). b) Cooling system is intended to get rid of 30- 35% of physical property.
Remaining heat is anxious by exhaust gases. The aim of this review is to seek
out out the impact of fin pure mathematics and fin pitch on cooling of the
engine.
 FIN ALUMINUM ALLOY

Properties

The major advantages of using aluminium are tied directly to its’ remarkable
properties. Some of these properties are outlined in the following sections

Strength to weight ratio

Aluminium has a density around one third that of steel and is used
advantageously in applications where high strength and low weight are
required. This includes vehicles where low mass results in greater load capacity
and reduced fuel consumption.

Corrosion resistance

When the surface of aluminium metal is exposed to air, a protective oxide

coating forms almost instantaneously. This oxide layer is corrosion resistant and
can be further enhanced with surface treatments such as anodising.
Electrical and thermal conductivity

Aluminium is an excellent conductor of both heat and electricity. The great

advantage of aluminium is that by weight, the conductivity of aluminium is
around twice that of copper. This means that aluminium is now the most
commonly used material in large power transmission lines. The best alternatives
to copper are aluminium alloys in the 1000 or 6000 series. These can be used
for all electrical conduction applications including domestic wiring. Weight
considerations mean that a large proportion of overhead, high voltage power
lines now use aluminium rather than copper. They do however, have a low
strength and need to be reinforced with a galvanised or aluminium coated high
tensile steel wire in each strand.

Light and heat reflectivity

Aluminium is a good reflector of both visible light and heat making it an ideal
material for light fittings, thermal rescue blankets and architectural insulation.
TOXICITY Aluminium is not only non-toxic but also does not release any
odours or taint products with which it is in contact. This makes aluminium
suitable for use in packaging for sensitive products such as food or
pharmaceuticals where aluminium foil is used.

Recycling

The recyclability of aluminium is unparalleled. When recycled there is no

degradation in properties when recycled aluminium is compared to virgin
aluminium. Furthermore, recycling of aluminium only requires around 5 percent
of the input energy required to produce virgin aluminium metal. The
combination of two remarkable properties of aluminium makes the need to
recycle the metal obvious. These first of these factors is that there is no
difference between virgin and recycled aluminium. The second factor is that
recycled aluminium only uses 5% of the energy required to produce virgin
material. Currently around 60% of aluminium metal is recycled at the end of its
lifecycle but this percentage can still be vastly improved.

THE BENEFITS OF ALUMINUM

 Aluminium is a light metal, about the third of the density of steel,

copper, and brass.
 Aluminium has good corrosion resistance to common atmospheric and
marine atmospheres. Its corrosion resistance and scratch resistance can
be enhanced by anodizing.
 Aluminium has high reflectivity and can be used for decorative
applications.
 Some aluminium alloys can match or even exceed the strength of
common construction steel.
 Aluminium retains its toughness at very low temperatures, without
becoming brittle like carbon steels.
 Aluminium is a good conductor of heat and electricity. When measured
by equal cross-sectional area, electrical grade aluminium has
conductivity which is approximately 62% of electrical grade annealed
copper. However, when compared using equal weight, the conductivity
of aluminium is 204% of copper.
 Aluminium is readily worked and formed using a wide variety of
forming processes including deep- drawing and roll forming.
 Aluminium is non-toxic and is commonly used in contact with
foodstuffs.
 Aluminium can be readily recycled
 HEAT TRANSFER

Radiation

Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three methods: conduction
in solids, convection of fluids (liquids or gases), and radiation through anything
that will allow radiation to pass. The method used to transfer heat is usually the
one that is the most efficient.

convection
Heat Convection. Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as
air or water when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source
of heat, carrying energy with it. ... Hot water is likewise less dense than cold
water and rises, causing convection currents which transport energy.
Conduction

Heat transfer is the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. The
rate of heat transfer is dependent on the temperatures of the systems and the
properties of the intervening medium through which the heat is transferred. The
three fundamental modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and
radiation.

SELECTION OF MEETRIALS

This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
materials used in this work are

1. Aluminium alloy

2. Silicon carbide

3. magnesium

ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is a light metal ( = 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable has wide variety
of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective
to heat and light.

 Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed,

hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes. Aluminium can be
riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded.
 Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it is often
anodized to improve surface finish, appearance.
 Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight ratio (high specific strength)
owing to low density.
  Such materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive applications
where weight savings are needed for better fuel efficiency and
performance.
 Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys and find wide applications in
the aerospace industry.

History, properties and alloys

The history of the light metal industry, as that of many other industries in this
century, is one of notable and ever accelerating expansion and development.
There are few people today who are not familiar with at least some modern
application of aluminium and its alloys.

The part it plays in our everyday life is such that it is difficult to realise
that a century ago the metal was still a comparative. The excellent corrosion
resistance of pure aluminium is largely due to its affinity for oxygen; this results
in the production of a very thin but tenacious oxide film which covers the
surface as soon as a freshly cut piece of the metal is exposed to the atmosphere.
This oxide coating is of great significance in the production of practically every
type of surface finish for the metal. It is, of course, the basis of what is probably
the most corrosion-resistant finish of all, namely, that group of finishes which
involves the technique of anodic oxidation in its varied forms.

Development of aluminium alloys

The chief alloying constituents added to aluminium are copper, magnesium,

silicon, manganese, nickel and zinc. All of these are used to increase the
strength of pure aluminium. Two classes of alloys may be considered. The first
are the 'cast alloys' which are cast directly into their desired forms by one of
three methods (i.e., sand-casting, gravity die casting or pressure die casting),
while the second class, the 'wrought alloys', are cast in ingots or billets and hot
and cold worked mechanically into extrusions, forgings, sheet, foil, tube and
wire. The main classes of alloys are the 2000 series (Al-Cu alloys), which are
high-strength materials used mainly in the aircraft industry, the 3000 series (Al-
Mn alloys) used mainly in the canning industry, the 5000 series (Al-Mg alloys)
which are used unprotected for structural and architectural applications, the
6000 series (Al-Mg-Si alloys) which are the most common extrusion alloys and
are used particularly in the building industry, and the 7000 series (Al-Zn-Mg
alloys) which are again high strength alloys for aircraft and military vehicle
applications. The alloy used in any particular application will depend on factors
such as the mechanical and physical properties required, the material cost and
the service environment involved.

If a finishing treatment is to be applied, then the suitability of the alloy

for producing the particular finish desired will be an additional factor to be
taken into account. The great benefit of aluminium is that such a wide variety of
alloys with differing mechanical and protection properties is available, and
these, together with the exceptional rang e of finishes which can be used, make
aluminium a very versatile material

Aluminium alloy selection and applications

This monograph contains an outstanding introductory description of the

properties of wrought and cast aluminium alloys and the enormous variety of
their applications. From transportation and packing to construction,
infrastructure and aerospace, the versatility of aluminium as a practical material
is amply documented.
The text is richly illustrated with numerous applications which demonstrate the
enormous flexibility and the wide range of applications for aluminium alloys.
This publication will be invaluable to engineers, designers and students
unfamiliar with the variety of aluminium alloys and to those faced with an alloy
selection decision. It outlines many of the issues to consider in selecting an
alloy for a specific application and environment. Starting with a description of
the aluminium alloy designation system, the text describes the major alloy
series, outlines their primary chemical constituents, mechanical properties and
major characteristics, and provides numerous examples of specific alloys in use.
In summary, this monograph provides a lot of clarity to the process of selecting
alloys for various applications.

Effect of aluminium

Aluminium and aluminium alloy are gaining huge industrial significance

because of their outstanding combination of mechanical, physical and
tribological properties over the base alloys. These properties include high
specific strength. High wear and seizure resistance, high stiffness, Better high
temperature strength, controlled thermal expansion coefficient and improved
damping capacity.

Corrosion of aluminium

Whilst aluminium and its alloys generally have good corrosion resistance,
localised forms of corrosion can occur, and it is important to understand the
factors contributing to these of corrosion. Corrosion may be defined as the
reaction between a metal and its immediate environment, which can be natural
or chemical in origin. The most recognisable form of corrosion is, perhaps, the
rusting of iron. All metals react with natural environments but the extent to
which this happens can vary; for noble metals like gold the amount is
insignificant whereas for iron it is considerable. Aluminium is no exception but,
fortunately, it has the propensity of self passivation and for many applications
corrosion is not a problem.

PROPERTIES OF AL-ALLOY

(i) Heat treatable and age hardenable.

(ii) High strength efficiency due to high strength to weight ratio

(iii) Good weldability

(iv) Good corrosion resistance

(v) Good thermal conductivity

APPLICATIONS OF AL- ALLOY

Alloy 6063 is perhaps the most widely used because of its extrudability, it is not
only the first choice for many architectural and structural members, but it has
been the choice for the Audi automotive space frame members. A good example
of its structural use was the aluminum bridge. (Gilbert Kaufman, 2000). The
alloy has versatile application as given below

 Pressure vessels
 Pipelines
 Cryogenic tanks
 Door beams, seat tracks, racks, rails
 Electrical cable towers
 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Components (The excellent
combination of high strength combined with superior corrosion resistance
 plus weldability makes a number of aluminum alloys ideal for chemical
industry applications, even some involving very corrosive fluids)

MATERIAL PROPERITIES OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

Properties value

Elastic Modulus 69000 N/mm2

Poisson's Ratio 0.33

Thermal Expansions Co-efficient 2.4x10-5 /K

Thermal Conductivity 170 w/mk

Specific Heat 1300 J/kg k

2. SILICON

THE SIC SYSTEM

The formation of SiC from the reaction between silicon and carbon can take
place at temperatures below the melting point of silicon. The phase diagram of
the Si-C system. It can be seen that SiC is the only compound of silicon and
carbon to occur in the condensed state in addition to elemental silicon and
carbon. A eutectic point between silicon and SiC exists at 1402˚C and 0.75
atom % carbon. The liquid us curve between Si and SiC is shown up to 2600˚C
and 27 atom % C. A peritectic point is located at 2540˚C and 27 atom % C
under normal conditions. There are numerous (~200) poly types for SiC, but
only a few are common. All of the structures may be visualized as being made
up of a single basic unit, a layer of tetrahedra, in which each silicon atom is
tetrahedrally bonded to four carbon atoms and each carbon atom is tetrahedrally
bonded to four silicon atoms. The differences among the existing polytypes are
the orientational sequences by which such layers of tetrahedra are stacked.
Successive layers of tetrahedra may be stacked in only one of two ways or
orientations but with many possible sequential combinations, each of which
represent a different crystal poly type.

A common system of nomenclature used to describe the different

crystalline poly types assigns a number corresponding to the number of layers in
the unit cell followed by a letter suffix designating the crystal symmetry; “C”
for cubic, “H” for hexagonal and “R” for rhombohedral. The most common SiC
poly types are the 3C, 4H, 6H, 15R and 9T. The cubic 3C is commonly referred
to as beta silicon carbide, β-SiC, which has the zinc blend structure, while all
other poly types are referred to as alpha silicon carbide, α-SiC. In general, α-SiC
phase is mainly 6H, which is a wurtzite structure. An illustration of the two
major crystal structures, zinc blend and wurtzite, exhibited by the two SiC
phases. Phase transformation of SiC occurs from β-SiC to α-SiC upon heating.
Undoped β-SiC transforms to 6H and 15R above 2000°C, with the 15R being a
metastable phase that transforms to 6H. Doping β-SiC with boron lowers the
transformation temperature and results in the formation of 4H polytype.

On the other hand, doping with nitrogen prevents the formation of 4H and
stabilizes the 6H. The β → α phase transformation is irreversible under ambient
atmosphere. However, under pure nitrogen atmosphere, the transformation can
be reversed and β-SiC phase can be stabilized up to 2500°C by applying a
nitrogen pressure. Under atmospheric pressure, silicon carbide does not melt
when heated to elevated temperatures rather, it sublimes and/or dissociates. In
addition, incongruent melting of SiC was reported at 2829°C under >500 psi
pressure of argon and is also possible when it is heated rapidly in an arc-image
furnace at atmospheric pressure. Silicon carbide is considered one of the few
lightweight covalently bonded ceramics. The theoretical density of β-SiC is
only 3.210 g/cm3 and that of α-SiC (6H polytype) is 3.208 g/cm3 . Combining
it’s lightweight and, strong covalency with other properties, such as low thermal
expansion coefficient and high thermal conductivity, strength and hardness,
make SiC a promising ceramic for the replacement of conventional metals,
alloys and ionicbonded ceramic oxides.

PRODUCTION OF SIC

The most common forms of SiC include powders, fibers, whiskers, coatings and
single crystals. There are several methods to produce SiC depending on the
product form desired and its application. Purity of the product imposes certain
restrictions on the selection of the method of production. SiC powders are
produced predominantly via the traditional Acheson method where a reaction
mixture of green petroleum coke and sand is heated to 2500°C using two large
graphite electrodes. Due to the high temperatures, the Acheson process yields
the alpha form of SiC, i.e. hexagonal or rhombohedral (α-SiC).

The SiC product, usually in the form of a large chunk, is broken, sorted,
crushed, milled, and classified into different sizes to yield the commercial
grades of SiC powder. To produce ultrafine SiC powder, the finest grade of the
Acheson product is further milled, typically for days, and then acid-treated to
remove metallic impurities. Fine SiC powder can also be produced using a
mixture of fine powders of silica and carbon reacted at lower temperatures for
short periods of time followed by quenching to prevent grain growth. The
product, however, is agglomerates of SiC and needs to be attrition milled to
break up the agglomerates and reduce the particle size to submicron range. SiO2
powder can be replaced with SiO (silicon monoxide) powder which, when
mixed with nano-scale carbon and heated to moderate temperatures, produces
nano crystalline SiC powder with particle size in the range 20-100 nm. The SiC
particle characteristics, such as size, shape and surface chemistry, are very
important for the subsequent densification processes of the SiC powder. For this
reason, some post processes may be needed, such as the addition of certain
elements as sintering aids, to achieve high density during hot pressing or
pressure less sintering. SiC fibers are produced via the pyrolysis of organo
silicon polymers, such as poly carbosilane, and are commercially available.
Briefly, the process consists of melt-spinning the polycarbosilane at
approximately 300°C, un fusing with thermal oxidation at 110-200°C, and
baking at 1000-1500°C under a flow of inert gas. Nicalon fibers are known for
their excellent mechanical properties when used as reinforcement in ceramic
matrix composites (CMC). The drawback of Nicalon fibers has been their
oxygen and free-carbon contents, which limit their high temperature
applications. Recently, however, Hi-Nicalon SiC fibers have been introduced
with much lower oxygen content. At present, much of the work in the SiC fiber
reinforced CMC development is using Hi-Nicalon SiC fibers. Another method
for producing SiC fibers is via the CVD method. In this process, SiC is
deposited from the gas phase on a tungsten wire used as the substrate.

These fibers are stronger and have higher thermal stability due to their
higher stoichiometry and purity. SiC whiskers, which are nearly single crystals,
are produced (grown) using different methods, including the heating of coked
rice hulls, reaction of silanes, reaction of silica and carbon, and the sublimation
of SiC powder. In some cases a third element used as a catalyst, such as iron, is
added to the reacting materials to facilitate the precipitation of the SiC crystals.
In this arrangement, the mechanism for the SiC whisker growth is called the
vapour liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism. SiC whiskers are in the order of microns
in diameter and grow several hundred microns in length. The VLS process,
developed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory to produce longer SiC
whiskers with larger diameters, did not show promise for production due to the
extremely low yield. Currently, commercially available SiC whiskers are
produced using the rice-hull process with the whisker growth being largely of
VS mechanism due to the absence of a catalyst. Because of their excellent
mechanical properties, SiC whiskers are very desirable as reinforcements of
metal and ceramic matrix composites for structural applications where fracture
toughness and strength are significantly improved.

FABRICATION OF SIC PRODUCTS

In addition to the efforts and significant development in the production of

different forms of SiC (powders, fibers, whiskers, etc.), more efforts have been
devoted to the fabrication of SiC parts as a final product with the desired
properties. The densification of the SiC powders has been the largest part of
these efforts. Analogous to powder metallurgy techniques, SiC powders have
been densified using hot pressing, hot isostatic pressing, and pressure less
sintering, in addition to wet processing, such as slip casting of SiC powder
slurries. Sintering of SiC powders requires the addition of sintering aids and
heating to elevated temperatures.

The addition of boron and carbon elements to SiC powder assists in the
densification of SiC during pressure less sintering. Carbon is added to remove
surface oxygen present as a film of SiO2 on the SiC particles. Boron, on the
other hand, is added to prevent grain growth at lower temperatures before
reaching the sintering point. A density of 97% of the theoretical density can be
reached depending on the temperature and characteristics of the SiC powder.
Other sintering aids include oxides, such as alumina, zirconia and yttria. In this
system, the oxide phase melts at relatively low temperatures enhancing SiC
particle flow, resulting in shrinkage and densification. However, due to the
presence of the liquid phase, there are limits to the high temperature
applications of the densified parts. For the fabrication of SiC/SiC composites, a
preform is first prepared from continuous SiC fibers with 20-30% loading by
volume. A SiC matrix can be applied via the CVI process, or slurry processing,
to make SiC/SiC composite.

The SiC matrix can also be produced by impregnating the SiC preform
with liquid carbon precursor, such as a resin, followed by pyrolysis and silicon
infiltration to form reaction-bonded SiC/SiC composite. The SiC fiber preforms
can also be impregnated with silicon powder in the form of slurry, followed by
nitridation to form SiC-fiber reinforced Si3N4 matrix composites. SiC-fiber
reinforced ceramic composites are used in high-temperature structural
applications due to their high strength and fracture toughness. The processes
discussed above produce SiC materials that contain high levels of impurities
associated with the processing steps. Impurities, such as metal-based sintering
additives, are not acceptable in the semiconductor industry. Conventional
purification by high-temperature chlorination results in the depletion of silicon
from the SiC and carbon enrichment. In addition, the presence of impurities in
SiC may become an issue in high temperature applications depending on the
type and level of these impurities.

Typical silicon characteristics include:

 Low density
 High strength
 Good high temperature strength (Reaction bonded)
 Oxidation resistance (Reaction bonded)
 Excellent thermal shock resistance
 High hardness and wear resistance
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity
Typical silicon applications include:

 Fixed and moving turbine components

 Seals, bearings, pump vanes
 Ball valve parts
 Wear plates
 Kiln furniture
 Heat exchangers
 Semiconductor wafer processing equipment

Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon. It was
originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of sand and
carbon. Silicon carbide is an excellent abrasive and has been produced and
made into grinding wheels and other abrasive products for over one hundred
years. Today the material has been developed into a high quality technical grade
ceramic with very good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives,
refractories, ceramics, and numerous high-performance applications. The
material can also be made an electrical conductor and has applications in
resistance heating, flame igniters and electronic components. Structural and
wear applications are constantly developing

SILICON PROPERTIES

Properties Value .

Poisson’s Ratio 0.17

Coefficient of Thermal -0.5 (K)

Expansion
Young's Modulus 150 GPa

Density 2330 kg/m3

3. MAGNESIUM

The mechanical properties, especially of die cast alloys, depend strongly on the
actual fabrication route and the fabrication variables involved. Properties of die
cast alloys are based on separately die cast test bars, if not otherwise stated. The
given property values must be understood, as examples, of what might be
expected when casting parts with cross-sections, structure and quality
comparable to those used bars. Magnesium belongs to group 2 of the periodic,
along with Be, Ca, Sr and Ba. The element has an atomic number of 12, an
atomic mass of 24, one main oxidation state (+2) and three naturally occurring
isotopes (24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg), of which 24Mg is the major isotope at 79%
of the total mass. Magnesium is the seventh most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust with a quoted average of 2.76% (Fyfe 1999), and the Mg2+ ion is
the second most abundant cation in sea water, after Na +. Its chemistry is
intermediate between that of Be and the heavier alkali earth elements.
Magnesium is a lithophile metallic element and a major constituent of many
mineral groups, including silicates, carbonates, sulphates, phosphates and
borates. It forms several important minerals, including magnesite MgCO3,
dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2, pyrope garnet Mg2 Al2 (SiO4)3 and kieserite
MgSO4.H2O. It is a major component of many mafic rock-forming minerals,
such as olivine, e.g., forsterite Mg2SiO4, pyroxene, amphibole, spinel
MgAl2O4, biotite mica, chlorite, serpentine, talc, and clay minerals, such as
montmorillonite, as well as less common mineral groups, such as arsenates,
halides, nitrates and oxalates (Wedepohl 1978). In magmatic systems, Mg is
concentrated in high temperature minerals like olivine and pyroxene, which
precipitate relatively early. However, if water and oxygen fugacity reach critical
limits, the precipitating phases are more likely to be amphibole or mica.
Magnesium displays a steady decrease in concentration within the calc-alkali
rock series, with MgO concentrations ranging from >40% in some ultra mafic
rock types, e.g., dunite, through to

History and properties of magnesium alloys

In the past, magnesium was used extensively in World War I and again in
World War II but apart from use in niche applications in the nuclear industry,
metal and military aircraft, interest subsequently waned. The most significant
application was its use in the VW beetle but even this petered out when higher
performance was required. The requirement to reduce the weight of car
components as a result in part of the introduction of legislation limiting
emission has triggered renewed interest in magnesium. In 1944 the consumption
had reached 228 000 t but slumped after the war to 10 000 t per annum. In 1998
with renewed interest it has climbed to 360 000 t per annum at a price of
US$3.6 per kg. The growth rate over the next 10 years has been forecast to be
7% per annum

The advantages of magnesium and magnesium alloys are listed as follows

 lowest density of all metallic constructional materials;

 high specific strength;
 good cast ability, suitable for high pressure die-casting;
 can be turned/milled at high speed;
 good weld ability under controlled atmosphere;

One of the reasons for the limited use of magnesium has been some poor
properties exacerbated by a lack of development work. The disadvantages of
magnesium are presented based on the following: low elastic modulus; limited
cold workability and toughness; limited high strength and creep resistance at
elevated temperatures; high degree of shrinkage on solidification; high chemical
reactivity; in some applications limited corrosion resistance. It is not possible to
use conventional alloying techniques to improve some of the properties, e.g.
elastic constants. Here one must resort to fibre reinforcement. The solubility of
alloying elements in magnesium is limited, restricting the possibility of
improving the mechanical properties and chemical behaviour.

Structure of magnesium is hexagonal which limits its inherent ductility.

The only alloying element, which causes a useful phase change to bcc, in this
respect, is lithium. The lack of large-scale applications of magnesium alloys in
the past has resulted in limited research and development. Consequently, there
are few optimised casting alloys available and even fewer wrought alloys. The
production techniques have been adapted from those for other low melting point
alloys aluminium. No experience is available on new production and working
techniques and the know-how accumulated in the past has largely disappeared.
The renewed demand has recently started to change this. The number of
primary producers has increased and it is hoped that, when demand increases
further, magnesium will be available the magnesium apportioned to
metallurgical applications. Magnesium alloys are in use around the world in a
variety of different applications. It is a preferred material when looking for
weight reduction without compromising overall strength. The vibration
damping capacity is also beneficial in applications in which the internal forces
of high-speed components must be reduced.

Alloy development

The property profiles demanded by automobile and other large-scale potential

users of magnesium have revealed the need for alloy development. A straight
transfer of ‘high performance’ aircraft alloys is not possible not only on
economic grounds but often the property profiles do not coincide. Fig. 3 shows
the different trends in alloy development depending on the main requirement.

Specific strength

The vast majority of magnesium applications are covered by AZ91, a die-

casting alloy. This alloy has insufficient creep resistance for many desirable
applications at temperatures above 130°C. The aluminium system forms the
basis albeit with much lower Al contents for the development of high specific
strength wrought alloys. A binary alloy of 6% Al provides the optimum
combination of strength and ductility. Fig. 3shows further development of Mg–
Al for die-casting Mg–Al–Mn and for wrought alloys Mg–Al–Zn and for sand
casting alloys with Mg–Si, Mg–Al–Ca–(RE). The development of Mg–Li–X is
a development of super light alloys. Addition of Li decreases strength but
increases ductility. Mg–Li alloys can be aged hardened, although they tend to
average at about 60°C. Alloy additions aim at improving the strength and delay
overaging. There are numerous applications for high specific strength materials
as automobile constructional parts, components and machine tool parts
undergoing rapid acceleration and retardation.

Ductility

The previous section emphasised the need for improving ductility but
concentrated on a combination of high strength with reasonable ductility. There
is a need for a series of alloys with very high ductility capable of being formed
by thermo mechanical treatment. Ductility is determined by the number of
operative slip systems. Mg being hexagonal slips at room temperature on the
base plane (0001) 112(0• and secondary slip on vertical face planes (101(0) in
the Ž112 (0• direction. This limits ductility at low temperatures.

At elevated temperatures slip also occurs in the Ž112 (0• direction on the
(101(1) pyramidal planes. This behaviour is influenced by alloying, but as long
as the structure remains hexagonal the effect is limited. In addition to the
development of new alloys based on Mg–Si and Mg–Al–Ca–(RE) and Mg–Li–
X, which offer the possibility of having a phase mixture of bcc and hcp phases,
there has been punch work into the development of fine grain material. One
such technique, which has been proved successful in the case of aluminium and
copper based alloys and steels, is spray forming fine grain material. This has the
additional advantage of being homogeneous and can be further worked at high
temperatures by forging or extrusion. It was possible to extrude Al–25Si alloys
in this state without difficulties

Creep resistance

Magnesium melts at 650°C. Consequently, it is to be expected that there will be

problems preventing creep in stressed components. Alloys containing Thorium,
e.g. HZ22 show at 623K the highest service temperatures of magnesium alloys
and, incidentally, compared to melting point, the highest of any material. The
radioactivity of thorium has however resulted in its exclusion as an alloying
element. There are various upper limits for service requirements, e.g. max.
150°C, 175°C, 200°C etc.

This problem can be reduced by achieving creep resistance without room

temperature strength and ductility at an acceptable price and without making
fabrication difficult. The castability (fluidity) of die-casting alloys, for example,
is impaired by using rare earth (RE) elements to improve the creep resistance. In
all probability some solutions will be found in the paths suggested for the lower
temperature applications, otherwise replacing die-casting by other methods, e.g.
squeeze casting will be necessary. The development with scandium containing
alloys is proving to be successful but despite reducing the amount of scandium
required, a dramatic fall in the price of the alloys remains expensive.
Process development

Although pressure die casting dominates the techniques currently used,

magnesium can be produced by virtually all other gravity and pressure casting
methods viz. sand, permanent and semi-permanent mould and steel and
investment casting. The choice of a particular method depends upon many
factors, e.g. the number of castings required, the properties required, dimensions
and shape of the part and the castability of the alloy. Nevertheless, there is a
need to develop conventional techniques further and also develop new
techniques. At present, the use of pressure die cast alloys is increasing rapidly
(Fig. 4). Of all casting techniques in 1997, 81% was pressure die cast AZ91D.
As a result of alloy development this will be reduced to 67% by 2002. The
properties of AM alloys will increase from 19 to 28% and AS21–AE42 from 0.1
to 5%. The advantages of pressure die cast Mg alloys are

 high productivity
 high precision;
 high quality surface
 fine cast structure; and
 Thin wall and complex structure possible.
 In comparison to aluminium:
 50% higher casting rate
 can use steel ingots — longer life
 lower heat content — energy saving
 good machineability
 requires 50% of tooling costs; and
 High fluidity of melt. Fig. 7.
THE MOST COMMON APPLICATIONS ARE

 Aircraft and missile components

 Aircraft engine mounts, control hinges, fuel tanks, wings
 Automotive wheels, housings, transmission cases, engine blocks
 Bicycles and other sporting goods equipment
 Equipment for material handling
 Ladders
 Laptops, televisions, cell phones
 Luggage
 Portable power tools, chainsaws, hedge clippers, weed whackers
 Printing and textile machinery
 Steering wheels and columns, seat frames
 Magnesium alloys have also been used as a replacement to some
engineering plastics due to their higher stiffness, high recycling
capabilities, and lower cost of production.

HEAT TRANSFER FIN

The heat conducted through solids, walls or boundaries has to be continuously

dissipated to the surroundings or environment to maintain the system in steady
state conduction. In many engineering applications large quantities of heat have
to be dissipated from small areas. Heat transfer by convection between a surface
and the fluid surroundings it can be increased by attaching to the surface thin
strips of metals called fins. The fins increase the effective area of the surface
thereby increasing the heat transfer by convection. The fins are also referred as
“extended surfaces”. Fins are manufactured in different geometries, depending
up on the practical applications Most of the engineering problems require high
performance heat transfer components with progressively less weights,
volumes, accommodating shapes and costs. Extended surfaces (fins) are one of
the heat exchanging devices that are employed extensively to increase heat
transfer rates. The rate of heat transfer depends on the surface area of the fin. It
increases the contact surface area, for example a heat sink with fins.

The heat transferred through the fins provides the problem of

determination of heat flow through a fin requires the knowledge of temperature
distribution through it. This can be obtained by regarding the fin as a metallic
plate connected at its base to a heated wall and transferring heat to a fluid by
convection. The heat flow through the fin is by conduction. Thus the
temperature distribution in a fin will depend upon the properties of both the fin
material and the surrounding fluid. In this section, we will analyze certain basic
forms of fins, with respect to heat rate, temperature distribution and
effectiveness. The experiment is conduct to investigate the effect of the pressure
loss and heat transfer characteristics in pin-fin channel, where dimples are
located on the pin-fins.

An aluminium fin of rectangular cross section with various dimple depth

is fitted in a long rectangular duct. In the present work aluminium & brass plate
were used as a test surface. Variation of Nusselt Number with Reynolds
Number is investigated, with various parameter combinations. The experimental
results gives heat transfer coefficient & efficiency of aluminium fin is greater
than brass fin Most of the engineering problems require high performance heat
transfer components with progressively less weights, volumes, accommodating
shapes and costs. Extended surfaces (fins) are one of the heat exchanging
devices that are employed extensively to increase heat transfer rates. The rate of
heat transfer depends on the surface area of the fin. In this the heat transfer rate
and efficiency for circular and elliptical annular fins were analyzed for different
environmental conditions
METHODS

STIR CASTING PROCESS STUDIES

Fabrication techniques affect the microstructure, the distribution of the

reinforcing materials and interfacial bond condition between reinforcing phase
and matrix. These techniques has to ensure uniform distribution of the
reinforcing material in the matrix and formation of good bond between matrix
and reinforcing material, to obtain MMCs with optimum properties. There are
several fabrication techniques available to manufacture different MMC.
Depending on the choice of matrix and reinforcement material, the fabrication
techniques can vary considerably. According to fabrication methods can be
divided into three types. These are solid phase process, liquid phase process and
semi solid fabrication process. Among the variety of manufacturing processes
available for discontinuous metal matrix composite, stir casting is generally
accepted as a particularly promising route, because of low cost. lie in its
simplicity, flexibility and applicability to the large quantity production. This
semi solid metallurgy technique is the most economical of all available routes
for MMC Production. It allows very large sized components to be fabricated,
and is able to sustain high productivity rates. Has shown that the cost of
preparing composite materials using a casting method is about one third to one
half that of competing methods

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases

(matrix phase and reinforcing phase) and having bulk properties significantly
different from those of any of the constituents. The reinforcements can be in the
form of continuous fibers, discontinuous fibers, particulates or whiskers.
Continuous ceramic fibers and single-crystal ceramic whiskers are the
reinforcements which provide the largest increases in strength and stiffness.
Particulate-reinforced Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite is driven by the
combination of improved mechanical and physical properties imparted by the
reinforcement of the metal matrix while still maintaining the favorable metal
working characteristics and predominantly metal-like behavior.

Production and processing of metal matrix composites

Metal matrix composite materials are produced by many different techniques.

The selection of suitable process engineering depends upon the distribution of
the reinforcement (particles/ fiber) and the cost effectiveness. Some of the
production methods discussed by Karl Ulrich Kainer (2006) and Froyen et al
(1994) has been discussed the different production methods of composites.
Some different production methods of composites were given below
1. Melting metallurgical processes

 infiltration of short fiber-, particle- or hybrid preforms by squeeze

casting, vacuum infiltration or pressure infiltration
 reaction infiltration of fiber- or particle preforms
 processing of precursor material by stirring the particles in metallic melts,
followed by sand casting, permanent mold casting or high pressure die
casting

2. Powder metallurgical processes

 pressing and sintering and/or forging of powder mixtures and composite

powders
 extrusion or forging of metal-powder particle mixtures
 extrusion or forging of spraying compatible precursor materials
3. Hot isotactic pressing of powder mixtures

Melting metallurgy for the production of Metal Matrix Composites is at present

of greater technical importance than powder metallurgy. It is more economical
and has the advantage of being able to use well proven casting processes for the
production of Metal Matrix Composites. There are three melting metallurgical
processes for composite materials. They are
 compo-casting or melt stirring
 gas pressure infiltration
 Squeeze casting or pressure casting.

Melt stirring is used to stir the reinforcement particles into an alloy melt. The
particles often tend to form agglomerates, which can only be dissolved by
intense stirring. Atmospheric gas access into the melt is avoided as it leads to
unwanted porosities or reactions. To avoid dissolution of the reinforcement
components attention must be paid to the dispersion of the reinforcement
components, temperature of the melt and the duration of stirring, as it could lead
to dissolution of the reinforcement component. Because of the lower surface to
volume ratio of spherical particles, reactivity is usually less critical with stirred
particle reinforcement than with fibers. The melt can be cast directly or
processed with alternative procedures such as squeeze casting.

STIR CASTING

The composites were prepared by stir casting process. Shows schematic

diagram the original setup of the stir casting process. Resistance furnace with a
temperature range of 3000 C was used to melt the matrix material. The furnace
has a temperature controller with k type thermocouple to control and measure
the temperature. An electric motor is fixed at the top of the furnace to provide
stirring motion to the stirrer. The speed of the stirrer can be varied as the setup
has a speed controller attached to it.

Figure Schematic Diagram of Stir Casting

Melting of Aluminium Alloy
In stir casting process the following procedure was adopted for the preparation
of composites. Explains the stir casting process in detail. Aluminium alloy 6063
is cut and weighed to obtain the correct weight as per the stoichio metric
calculations. The metals are then taken in to a crucible along with the coverall.
The furnace is heated to a temperature of 800 C and is constantly maintained at
that temperature throughout the process.

Preheating of Silicon Carbide Particles and mg

Heat treatment of the particles before dispersion into the melt aids their transfer
by causing desorption of adsorbed gases from the particle surface. Heating
silicon carbide particles to 1000 C. Preheating of SiC particles removing surface
Impurities and in the desorption of gases, and alters the surface composition by
forming an oxide layer on the surface. The addition of pre-heated SiC particles
in Al and Mg melt has been found to improve the wettability property. A clean
surface of SiC provides a better opportunity for melt particles interaction, and
thus, enhances wetting.

Addition of Coverall Powder

The flux used is Coverall. It is the composition of Potassium chloride (KCl) +

Nitric acid (HNO3), its function is to avoid oxidation. Coverall powder is added
twice during the casting process. Initially, when the ingots are placed in the
crucible, later while stirring of preheated SiC particles. The recommended
amount that is to be added is 250gm for a melt of 50kg.

Addition of Degasser Powder

Degasser powder is added to the molten metal when it reaches a temperature of

800 C. The recommended amount to be added is 250gm for a melt of 50Kg.
Degasser powder reduces blow holes formed during the casting process. The
reasons for adding degasser powder are as below
 When magnesium is in the molten state, it tries to absorb hydrogen from
the atmosphere.
 When the absorbed hydrogen is unable to escape from the molten metal,
it results in the formation of blow holes.
 When coverall 65 is added, it forms a thin film over the molten metal and
prevents contact of molten metal with the atmosphere.
 When degasser tablets is added to molten metal, the chlorine present in
these tablets react with hydrogen in the molten metal and form
hydrochloric acid which dissolves in the molten metal, thereby reducing
blow holes.
Pouring of Molten Metal
The material is stirred with 300 rpm for thirty minutes. The stirred metal is then
slowly poured into the die which is preheated to a temperature of 973 C. The die
is allowed to cool in air for two hours and then the specimen is removed.

Solution Treatment
During casting low cooling rate of the alloy allows for the strengthening of AL-
Mg-Si phase to precipitate out of solution and grow into large incoherent phases
within the matrix. In the as cast structure, the large, incoherent nature of the
AL-Mg-Si phase does little to increase the strength of the alloy. To obtain finely
dispersed AL-Mg-Si, a solution heat treatment should be conducted on the
alloy.
 Chapter-5

MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

 Chapter-5
MECHANICAL PROPERTY TEST

HEAT TRANSFER FROM A PIN FIN

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the fin effectiveness for various
pin fins with natural or forced convection, and to compare the measured and
predicted temperature distributions along the length of the fin. Heat transfer
coefficients for each of the pin fin configurations will be obtained
experimentally. Heat transfer theory provides a direct means of developing
engineering estimates of the rate of heat transfer in various practical situations.
For forced or natural convective heat transfer, empirical correlations are
developed with a theoretical basis, but with experimentally determined
parameters. Such empirical correlations can represent idealizations that are not
typically realized, even in the laboratory. It is often not appreciated that
convection correlations are seldom better than 20% accurate, and can frequently
be even worse. Thus, although the correlations can be used for engineering
estimates, more exact information is obtained by the construction and testing of
a prototype. In this experiment, the temperature distributions for four different
pin fins are measured with natural or forced convection.

APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of four different fin configurations. At the base of each
fin is a threaded section, which is used to attach the fin base to a heater. The
heater and base of the fin are surrounded by insulation to reduce heat loss. Five
to seven type K thermocouples (chromel/alumel) are embedded at the base and
along the length of each pin fin. The heater is powered from a reduced line
source by a VARIAC. Fluke multi-meters are used to measure the voltage and
current drawn by the heater. Note: the current is actually measured as a voltage
drop across a 1-Ohm resistor. A data acquisition system (DAQ) is used to
acquire the temperature data, and also for a redundant measurement of the
heater power.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

With the fin securely installed and the VARIAC set to the proper voltage, the
fin temperature measurements are monitored until a steady state condition has
been reached. Steady state temperatures are then recorded along with the
measured power. The procedure is then repeated with the fan blowing on the fin
(forced convection).

 Turn on the power supply to the electric heater. Do not change the setting
on the power supply. Use the multi-meters to obtain the voltage and
current. (The current is determined indirectly by measuring the voltage
across a 1-ohm resistor.)
 Measure the dimensions of the fin including length and diameter.
 Measure the locations of the thermocouples.
 Determine whether the fin is made of silicon carbide, aluminum, or
stainless steel.
 Measure the room air temperature.
 Use the DAQ system to monitor the temperatures along the length of the
fin. When the system has reached steady-state, record the temperatures.
Turn on the fan, monitor the temperatures and then record steady state
readings for the forced convection boundary condition. Use the handheld
anemometer to measure the air velocity.
2. KNOOP HARDNESS TEST

The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test - a test for mechanical
hardness used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets, where only a
small indentation may be made for testing purpose.

Introduction

Metallurgists have long used various types of indenters for testing the hardness
(defined as resistance to deformation) of metals. Attempts to apply to minerals
the Rockwell, Vickers, and other types of machines which measure hardness in
terms of deformation of the specimen by penetration of a standard-shaped point
applied by a specified machine, have met with little success because of the
tendency of minerals to fracture during the penetration of the indenter. Since the
fracture represents displacement and deformation of other material than that
immediately adjacent to the point of the indenter, greater penetration takes place
than is proper for the indenter and its associated machine. Moreover, the
displacement due to fracture cannot be measured readily, and therefore
introduces an unknown factor into the measurement. Experiments conducted at
the Research Laboratories of the Hamilton Watch Company have suggested that
of all the various machines for measuring hardness by indentation, the Knoop
micro hardness tester may be the only tool that can give valid, or at least
consistent, readings of the hardness of minerals.

KNOOP INDENTER

Knoop, Peters, and Emerson (1939) described an unusually sensitive pyramidal-

diamond indenter which is known as the micro hardness tester, or Knoop
indenter. The Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company manufactures a
machine, the Tukon tester, which utilizes this indenter. In measuring the
hardness of a specimen, a polished flat surface is first prepared. The Knoop
indenter is then brought into contact with this surface for 20 seconds (the
minimum time found adequate to assure consistent results), with a known load.
The indentation thus produced is measured with a microscope, and the hardness
number 1 is proportional to the load divided by the area of the indentation. For
relatively heavy loads-say 1 to 3 kilograms-the hardness number is essentially
independent of the load. Tate (1944) showed, however, that this is not strictly
true for loads of 100 grams or less the concluded that the applied load should
always be reported with the hardness number: that practice is followed here.

The Tukon tester is provided with several weights corresponding to loads

from 100 grams up. Our instrument is not provided with smaller loads, but
slight changes could easily be made which would accomplish the purpose if
necessary. The latest model of the Tukon testing machine embodies an
electromagnetic device for applying the load without overloading by impact
between the specimen and the diamond indenter. The Hamilton instrument was
rebuilt to afford that protection against shock after about half of the corundum
tests reported here had been completed. The error due to impact before
installation of the device is believed to be mostly the result of fractures in brittle
specimens, although there must have been some decrease of the hardness
number due to impact of the unguarded indenter in the old form of the
instrument. The K.noop indenter possesses advantages over other similar
hardness measuring tools, and these are exactly the advantages that make it
suitable for testing minerals. An extremely shallow penetration is sufficient to
produce an indentation long enough to be measured with a relative accuracy of
about t/o. The, for an indentation 100 microns (0.1 mm.) long, the penetration is
only about 3 microns. The smallness of the penetrtaion was demonstrated by
Peters and Knoop (1940) when they showed that a valid reading of the hardness
of electrolytic chromium plate can be obtained,
Regard less of the nature of the base metal upon which the chromium was
deposited, if the thickness of the plating is greater than 0.001 inch or 25
microns. The validity of extending this conclusion to cover small grains in a
polished section of a mineral assemblage is not debatedh ere, but does not seem
unreasonable for roughly equant grains which appear about 100 microns in
diameter in the plane of the section, especially if several such grains are tested
and found to give consistent results. By reducing the Ioad applied to the
indenter, the length of the indentation can always be kept small.
APPLICATION
 Chapter-6
APPLICATIONS

 Automobile components

 Corrosion resisting areas

 Tidal power plant components.

 Marine logistics components.

CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION

Micron-sized SiC particles were incorporated into a melt of aluminium with

magnesium the aid of addition as a wetting agent to fabricate aluminium matrix
composite. Two casting temperatures and stirring time were applied to focus on
the ceramic particle incorporation, porosity formation, agglomeration of
ceramic particles, and interfacial reactions between Composite materials
especially aluminum and silicon composites having good mechanical properties
compared with the conventional materials. It is used in various industrial
application these materials having light weight along with high hardness. It with
stand high load compare with the existing materials are most applicable in the
engineering products instead of existing materials. Finally it was concluded that
the percentage of al-si-mg increases automatically the hardness strength and
heat transfer rate increased.
REFERENCE
 REFERENCE

 Wilkins J.E., Jr., "Minimizing the Mass of Thin Radiating Fins", J.

Aerospace Science, Vol. 27, 1960, 145-146.

 S. Sunil Kumar and S.P. Venkateshan, "Optimized Tubular Radiator with

Annular Fins on a Non-Isothermal Base, Int. J.

 Heat and Fluid Flow", Vol.15, 399-409, 1994.

 R.L. Webb, Principles of Enhanced Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1994.

 1. Levi, A. Heredity in cast iron. The Iron Age 1927, 6, 960–965. 2.

Frank, F.

 Super cooling of liquids. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A 1952, 215, 43–46.

 Vertman, A. Samarin, A.; Yakobson, A. Structure of liquid eutectics. Izv.

Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otd. Tekhn. Nauk. Met. Toplivo 1960, 3, 17–21. 4.