2/41

Motor torque,
load torque and
2 selection of
motors
Contents

2.1 Motor speed–torque curve 2/43

2.2 NEMA rotor designs 2/43
2.3 Special designs of rotors 2/44
2.3.1 Double squirrel cage motors 2/44
2.3.2 Other designs of rotor cage 2/45
2.4 Effect of starting current on torque 2/46
2.4.1 NEMA recommendations on starting currents 2/47
2.5 Load torque or opposing torque 2/47
2.6 Selection of motors 2/47
2.7 Time of start-up and its effect on motor performance 2/47
2.7.1 Motor heating during start-up 2/49
2.7.2 Heating during a no-load start-up 2/50
2.7.3 Heating during an on-load start-up 2/50
2.8 Thermal withstand time 2/50
2.8.1 Heating phenomenon in a motor during a stalled
condition 2/51
2.8.2 Plotting thermal withstand characteristics of the
motor 2/52
2.9 Braking 2/54
2.9.1 Types of braking 2/54
2.10 Inching or jogging 2/58
2.11 Number of starts and stops 2/59
Relevant Standards 1/60
List of formulae used 2/60
Further Reading 2/61
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/43

2.1 Motor speed–torque curve

Refer to Figure 2.1 where
Tst = starting torque or breakaway torque.
Tm = minimum, pull-in or pull-up torque. Tst
Tpo = pull-out, breakdown or maximum torque, obtainable
over the entire speed range. In a good design this Tm
should occur as close to the rated slip as possible to
ensure that the motor runs safely, even during
momentary overloads, load fluctuations exceeding
the load torque, or abrupt voltage fluctuations,
without harmful slip losses (Equation (1.9)). In some

Torque
specially designed rotors, however, to achieve a high Tr Tr
starting torque sometimes the pull-out torque Tpo Tpo = Tst
may not be available on the speed–torque curve. It
is possible that in such cases the Tst may be the
highest torque developed by the motor in the entire
speed range (Figure 2.2).
Tr = rated or the full-load torque and should occur as
near to the synchronous speed as possible to reduce S
slip losses. Speed Nr
S = rated slip at which occur the rated torque and current.
Figure 2.2 Tst too high to have Tpo on the speed–torque curve
2.2 NEMA rotor designs
As a further step towards standardization and to achieve
more harmony in motor sizes and designs, for better NEMA,* in its publication MG-1 for Induction Motors,
interchangeability in the motors produced by different has prescribed four rotor designs, A, B, C, and D, covering
manufacturers, in the same country or by other countries, almost all sizes of LV motors, to possess a prescribed
minimum Tst, Tpo and pull-up torques. These torques are
generally as drawn in Figure 2.3 to meet all normal
industrial, agricultural or domestic needs. (Refer to the
said publication or IEC 60034-12 for values of these
torques. IEC 60034-12 has also provided similar
stipulations.)
However, motor manufacturers may adopt more flexible
designs with more reserve capacity and better speed–
Tpo torque characteristics to suit the requirements of a
particular sector. These are particularly for installations
where the distribution system may have wider voltage
fluctuations or the load itself may have varying load
Tst demands. It is possible that the same motor may have to
Tm drive more than one type of loads at different times. An
agricultural pump motor may be one such application
where it may also have to drive a thrasher or a winnower
at different times. A motor with higher flexibility would
be more desirable for such applications.
Torque

Tr Manufacturers, depending upon market needs, may

adopt all or a few such designs or even have their own
designs, still conforming to such stipulations. Special
applications may, however, call for a custom-built motor
as noted later. As a standard practice all MV motors are
S
custom-built for each application and no rotor designs
Speed are prescribed for these.
Nr
Tst : Starting torque
Tm : Pull-in or pull up torque
Tpo : Pull-out or breakdown torque (maximum torque)
Tr : Rated torque

Figure 2.1 Defining a motor torque *NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association, USA.
2/44 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

% Speed and the rotor current is carried into two parallel paths
0 20 40 60 80 100 made of these two cages, having a low effective resistance,
280 being in parallel. In such designs, therefore, the speed–
260 torque curve can be achieved to take any desired shape
De
240
sig
n
by suitably choosing the resistances of the two cages, the
D width of the slot opening and the depth of the inner cage.
nA
220 sig The equivalent circuit diagram of a motor with a single
De
200 De and a double cage rotor is illustrated in Figure 2.4(a) and
s ign
C (b) respectively. To draw the speed–torque curve for such
180
a motor theoretically, consider the two cages developing
160 nB two different torques separately. The effective torque will
sig
De be the summation of these two, as shown in Figure 2.5.
140
% Torque

120
Notes
100 1 The inner and outer cages are separated by a narrow slit to
facilitate linking of the main flux with the inner bars which are
80
quite deep.
60 2 MV motors are also manufactured with double cage rotors.
They are designed especially to match a particular load
40 requirement when the load characteristics are known, or as in
20 NEMA class C, or as the manufacturer’s own practice, when
the starting torque requirement exceeds 150% of the full-load
0 torque (FLT). The likely applications for a high starting torque
100 80 60 40 20 0 may be induced-draught fans, blowers, coal crushers, mill
% Slip motors and coal conveyor motors.
3 Generally, depending upon the type of load, different
Figure 2.3 Speed–torque characteristics of motors as per manufacturers may adopt to different design practices, such as
NEMA standard high Tst and low thermal withstand time or moderate Tst and
high thermal withstand time.

2.3 Special designs of rotors

Ir R1 X1

2.3.1 Double squirrel cage motors In

If the torque requirement of a load is high, an ordinary
squirrel cage motor, even on a DOL* switching, may not S ◊ SS X 2¢
be suitable to meet the stringent starting requirements.
Vr
If, however, the resistance of the rotor circuit is increased
the starting torque can be improved as discussed in Section ¢
Im Im R 2¢
1.2 (Equation (1.3)). But high rotor resistance will mean S
high running slip, causing greater rotor losses and heat
in the rotor circuit. The solution to this problem is found
in a double squirrel cage motor. In such motors the rotor
has two cages, one closer to the periphery of the rotor Figure 2.4(a) Equivalent circuit diagram of a single squirrel
and the other deeper and nearer to the core. cage motor
The one closer to the periphery has a high resistance
and the one nearer to the core a low one. To accomplish Ir R1 X1
a high rotor resistance, high-resistivity materials such as
brass is generally used. The inner cage has a high leakage In

reactance due to its depth, while the outer one has a high
resistance and a low reactance like an ordinary squirrel S ◊ SS X 2¢ S ◊ SS X 2¢
cage rotor.
During start-up the inner cage has a very high impedance Vr
and thus, the larger portion of the current passes through
the outer cage only. Because of high resistance and high ¢
Im Im R 2¢ R 2¢
I2R loss in the rotor circuit, it develops a high starting S S
torque and accomplishes an analogue to a slip-ring motor.
When the rotor reaches the rated speed, the reactances of
both the cages are almost negligible because of low slip
1st cage 2nd cage

–––––––––––– Figure 2.4(b) Equivalent circuit diagram of a double squirrel

* DOL – Direct On-Line. cage motor
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/45

Leakage
Leakage
flux
flux

Tst > Tpo

Tst c=a+b

Cumu
lative torq
ue c
Torque

Outer ca
ge high R b

Tr (a) Deep bar (b) Taper bar (c) Double cage

Inner cage low R a

Figure 2.6 Different types of rotor slots, making use of skin

effect

Speed Nr

Figure 2.5 Speed–torque characteristics of a double squirrel

cage motor Outer cage,
– High R 2
– Low X2
Performance
In such motors the pull-out torque is normally less than Inner cage,
the starting torque. This is because the pull-out torques – Low R2
by the two cages occur at different speeds. Such motors – High X2
would possess a low power factor and efficiency compared
to an ordinary squirrel cage motor, because of the high Figure 2.7 Other designs of a few double cage slots
leakage reactance of inner cage and comparatively higher
I2R losses. Such motors would have a slightly higher slip
than an ordinary squirrel cage motor due to higher rotor in inductive reactance (S · ssX2), which in an induction
resistance. motor varies with rotor frequency (i.e. speed). This effect
of change of resistance is termed the ‘skin effect’. For
more details, see Section 28.7. To make use of this effect,
Limitations the slot, irrespective of its configuration, may be made
During start-up since only the outer cage is in the circuit deep to create higher eddy currents and correspondingly
with a very high current, the motor is heated up quickly higher eddy current losses, to add to the effective resistance
by every start and may not be suitable for frequent starts of the rotor during start-up and to diminish this with
and reversals. speed. (See also Section 2.4.) In this way the depth, in
There are several other designs available to achieve a deep bars, and depth and taper, in tapered bars, can be
considerably high staring torque and yet overcome the varied to achieve the desired performance. For the same
above limitation. It is possible by employing a deep cage, torque characteristics either of these types of cages can
tapered cage or special types of rotor materials such as be employed which, for one characteristic, will require
brass and selenium to increase the starting resistance of the same area of cross-section but the depth will vary
the rotor circuit, and hence the starting torque. These depending upon the type. The deep bars will be deeper
methods are discussed briefly below. than a taper bar. Moreover, the taper slot will have a
better grip for rotor conductors during a run than a deep
parallel bar and also better cooling properties.
2.3.2 Other designs of rotor cage
Use of skin effect Angle of skew in squirrel cage rotors
The basic concept used in the design and selection of The movement of rotor teeth around the stator produces
other types of rotors to provide better starting a clogging effect, resulting into vibrations and noise. To
characteristics is the high rotor resistance during start- reduce this effect, the common practice is not to provide
up. Other than the double cage rotors, this can also be the rotor slots parallel to the shaft axis but at an angle.
achieved by making deep or taper rotor bars as shown in This practice is known as ‘rotor bar skew’. A proper
Figure 2.6. (See also Figure 2.7.) At different frequencies, skewing can also improve the starting torque and reduce
the rotor has different effective resistances, due to a change the starting current, in addition to the effects of space
2/46 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

harmonics and slot losses. The angle of twist (skew) is a Ist3

matter of experience, by results obtained over the years. For
T
The most common skew angles, for various combinations st3

of stator and rotor slots in practice, are given in Table Ist2 For T
st2
2.1.
For T
Ist1 st1
Table 2.1 Typical angles of skew for cage rotors

Current
Number Number Number Skew angle
of poles of stator of rotor (degrees)
slots slots

Ï 18 14 26 Tst3 > Tst2 > Tst1

2 Ì 24 16 20
Ó 36 28 16

4 Ï 24 18 20
Ir
Ì 36 28 13 to 14
Ó
6 36 33 11 to 14 S
Speed
Slip Nr
2.4 Effect of starting current on torque
Figure 2.8 Starting (locked rotor) currents corresponding to
Ignoring the friction and core losses, the torque developed different starting torques
in synchronous watts,

Tr = 3 ◊ I rr2 ◊ R2 ◊ 1 – S corroborating this statement.) The Tst and Ist are, therefore,
S a matter of compromise to achieve a good Tpo, a better
power factor and a lower slip. Figure 2.9 shows for
I rr2 ◊ R2 different starting torques the corresponding pull-out
or
3◊
S torques and their occurrence of slip, maintaining the same
full-load slip.
I rr2 ◊ R2
i.e. Tr µ (2.1)
S
Since the stator current is a function of the rotor current,
the motor torque is proportional to the square of the
stator current. Generalizing,
2 Tpo1
Tst ÊI ˆ
= Á st ˜ ◊ S (slip at start = 1) (2.2)
Tr Ë Ir ¯ Tpo3 Tpo2

2 Tst3
Tst1 ÊI ˆ
= Á st1 ˜ (for the same rotor resistance R2) Tst2
Tst2 Ë I st2 ¯
Tst1
Torque

(2.3)
2
Tst1 ÊI ˆ R2
or = Á st1 ˜ ◊
(for different rotor resistances)
Tst2 Ë I st2 ¯ R2¢
(2.4)
Analyzing Equation (2.2), the higher the starting torque,
the higher will be the starting current for the same motor Tr
parameters (Figure 2.8). An attempt to keep the starting
current low and yet achieve a higher starting torque may S
be feasible, but only up to a certain extent, by suitably S3 S2 S1
redesigning the rotor with a higher resistance (Equation Speed Nr
(2.1)). However, the results of such an attempt may Slip
adversely affect the other performance of the motor. For Tst3 > Tst2 > Tst1
example, the Tpo will be reduced due to a higher rotor Tpo1 > Tpo2 > Tpo3
resistance and may occur at a higher slip, even if the S3 > S 2 > S1
full-load slip is the same. The increased slot leakage,
due to the skin effect, will also diminish the full-load
power factor. (See the circle diagram, Figure 1.16, Figure 2.9 Effect of starting torque on Tpo and slip
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/47

2.4.1 NEMA recommendations on starting 2.5 Load torque or opposing torque

currents
With a view to achieve yet more standardization in motor For smaller loads, say up to 20/30 kW, it may not be
design, NEMA Standard MG-1 has also recommended the essential to pre-check the load curve with that of the
maximum locked rotor current of single-speed three-phase motor. But one should ensure that working conditions or
motors for the various rotor designs A, B, C, and D, for the load demand are not so stringent that they may cause
various recommended torque values. These have been derived a lock-up of rotor during pick-up due to a very low applied
for a 415 V a.c. system and are shown in Table 2.2. voltage or accelerating torque, or a prolonged starting
time as a consequence or due to a very large inertia of
Table 2.2 Recommended maximum locked rotor currents for rotating masses etc. For critical applications and for larger
various rotor designs
motors it is essential to check the speed–torque requirement
HP Approx. maximum Rotor design
of the load with that of the motor. Loads can generally
locked rotor current be classified into four groups. Table 2.3 indicates the
more common of these and their normal torque
1 18 B.D. requirements, during start-up and variation with speed.
1.5 25 B.D. The corresponding curves are also drawn in Figures 2.10–
2 31 B.D. 2.13. To ascertain the output requirement of a motor, for
3 39 B.C.D. different applications a few useful formulae are given in
5 56 B.C.D.
7.5 77 B.C.D.
Appendix I at the end of Part I of this book.
10 98 B.C.D.
15 141 B.C.D.
20 178 B.C.D. 2.6 Selection of motors
25 222 B.C.D.
30 265 B.C.D.
40 354 B.C.D. The recommended practice would require that at each
50 441 B.C.D. point on the motor speed–torque curve there should be a
60 529 B.C.D. minimum 15–20% surplus torque available, over and
75 661 B.C.D. above the load torque, for a safe start (Figure 2.14). The
100 884 B.C.D. torque thus available is known as the accelerating torque.
125 1105 B.C.D.
150 1319 B.C.D.
200 1764 B.C.
2.7 Time of start-up and its effect on
Note motor performance
For motors beyond 200 h.p., NEMA has not covered these data. It
is, however, recommended that larger motors may be designed to
have even lower locked rotor currents than the above to reduce the This depends upon the applied voltage, i.e. type of
starting transient effects on the distribution system as well as on switching, starting torque of the motor, counter-torque
the motor windings. of the load and the inertia of the rotating masses etc. It is
expressed by
Table 2.3 Types of loads and their characteristics

Serial Load Characteristics of Starting torque Opposing torque with Figure no.
no. load speed

1 Presses, punches, latches – Light duty 20–30% Torque remains constant 2.10
and drilling machines and at a very low value,
since the load is applied
when the motor has run to
speed
2 Fans, blowers, centrifugal The power is Medium duty 10–40% Torque rises with square of 2.11
pumps and compressors proportional to the the speed (T µ N2)
third power of the
speed (P µ N3)
3 Rolling mills, ball mills, The power is Heavy duty 30–40%. Near full-load torque 2.12
hammer mills, calendar proportional to the May be more and have to
drives and sugar square of the speed accelerate large masses
centrifuges (P µ N2) of heavy moment of
inertia, requiring a
prolonged time of start-up
4 Conveyors and hoists The power is Heavy duty 100–110% Torque remains constant 2.13
proportional to the throughout the speed range
speed (P µ N) and at almost the full-load
torque
2/48 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

M = mass and
GDT2 ◊ N r g · M = W (weight in kg)
ts = (2.5)
375 ◊ Ta K = radius of gyration in m
where Ta = average accelerating torque in mkg (Figure 2.14),
ts = time of start-up in seconds i.e. average (Tst – TL) in mkg
TL = opposing torque (load torque)
GDT2 = total weight moment of inertia of all the rotating
masses, referred to the motor speed in kg.m2
GD L2 at motor speed
= GDM2 + GDL2
(GDM2 is motor and GDL2 is load weight moment If the load is driven through belts or gears at a speed
of inertia referred to the motor speed) different from that of the motor, the effective value of
GD2 of the load, as referred to the motor speed, will be
where different. Equating the work done at the two speeds:
GD2 = 4 · g · M · K2
g = 9.81 m/s2 GDL2 ◊ N r2 = GD12 ◊ N L2

100 100
Load torque

80 80
% Torque

% Torque

60 60

40 40

rque
L o ad t o
20 20

0 0
% Speed % Speed
Figure 2.10 Light duty Figure 2.12 Heavy-duty start

100

80 100
ue
1. Load torq

80
60
d
ire
Load
% Torque

e qu
rr
% Torque

60
Load

we
e

u
rq Po
40 to 2.
ad
Lo
1. 40
d
re
ui

20
eq

rr 20
we
Po
2.
0 0
% Speed % Speed
1. Torque µ (speed)2 1. Torque constant
2. Power µ (speed)3 2. Power µ speed

Figure 2.11 Medium duty Figure 2.13 Heavy duty

 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/49

3 also H = W ·d · q (2.8)

or q= H ∞C
W◊d
where
W = weight of heated portion in kg
2 d = specific heat of the material of windings, in watt · s/
Minimum
kg/∞C
15–20% of Tr q = temperature rise in ∞C (Table 11.1)
Torque

Accelerating torque, Ta A possible way to restrict the temperature rise is the

use of a material having a high specific heat. An increase
1 Tr in the weight would require more material and prove to
Motor torque be a costly proposition. A motor’s constructional features
should be such as to provide good heat dissipation through
its body. Motors for high inertia will be longer.
Load torque
Sharing of heat
Speed Nr The rotor and stator heats, during start-up and run, are
Figure 2.14 Accelerating torque (Ta)
interrelated and vary in the same proportion as their
respective resistances. (See circle diagram Figure 1.16
in Section 1.10.)
If Hr = the heat of rotor in W · s.
2
or GDL2 = GD12 ◊ Ê L ˆ
N
(2.6) and Hs = the heat of stator in W · s.
Ë Nr ¯
where Hs R
Then = 1 (2.9)
GD12 = weight moment of inertia of load at a speed NL. Hr R2¢
While the total heat generated in the rotor is
Example 2.1 comparatively higher than the stator, there is a significant
A 100 kW, 750 r.p.m. motor drives a coal mill, having GD 12 as difference in the temperature rise of the respective parts
600 kg.m2 through belts, at a speed of 500 r.p.m. Then its as a result of the bulk of their active parts and area of
effective GD L2 at motor speed will be heat dissipation. For the same material, the rotor will
have a much higher temperature rise compared to the
2
Ê 500 ˆ stator, in view of its weight, which may be several times
GD L2 = 600 ¥ Á ˜ less than the stator. During start-up, therefore, the rotor
Ë 750 ¯
will become heated quickly and much more than the
= 600 ¥ 0.445 stator. Repeated start-ups may even be disastrous. During
a run, however, when the temperature has stabilized, an

267 kg m2 overload will render the stator more vulnerable to damage
than the rotor. The rotors, as standard can withstand much
Note higher temperature rises (200–300∞C) and may be suitable
For simplicity, the synchronous speed of the motor is consid- to withstand such marginal overloads.
ered, which will make only a marginal difference in calcula-
tions.
Corollary
2.7.1 Motor heating during start-up During start-up the rotor, due to its lighter weight compared
to the stator, and during a run, the stator, due to overload
Irrespective of the type of switching adopted or the load are more vulnerable to damage through excessive heat.
driven by the motor, each time it is switched it generates
heat, in both the rotor and the stator components. The Example 2.2
magnitude of the start-up heat will depend upon the inertia A rotor fails during start-up, possibly due to a lower supply
of the rotating masses, the type of switching, the torque voltage than desired or a smaller accelerating torque than
developed by the motor and the opposing (load) torque required or reasons leading to similar conditions. In such
etc., as can be inferred from Equation (2.5). The higher cases the rotor fails first, due to higher rotor currents and a
the time of start-up, the higher will be the heat generated. prolonged acceleration time or a locked rotor. At this instant,
unless the motor controlgear trips, the stator may also fail
The corresponding temperature rise of the stator or the due to excessive heat. Instances can be cited where even
rotor windings can be measured as below: the short-circuit end rings of a squirrel cage rotor melted, and
Heat generated: the molten metal, through its centrifugal force, hit the stator
overhangs and damaged that also through its insulation, caus-
H = I st2 ◊ R ◊ t s watt · s · (W · s.) (2.7) ing an inter-turn fault.
2/50 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

2.7.2 Heating during a no-load start-up 300%

During a no-load start-up, i.e. when the motor shaft is
free, half the energy drawn from the supply appears as L’
n ‘ DO
heat in the rotor and the stator windings. In slip-ring eo
o r qu
motors the bulk of the rotor heat is shared by the external Motor t
resistance, a feature which makes it a better choice for 200%
frequent starts and stops, and for driving loads that possess
large inertia. It has been seen that most of the stringent
load requirements can also be met with high torque squirrel Ta on ‘DOL’

Torque
cage motors, manufactured with a judicious design of
stator and rotor resistances, an efficient means of heat
dissipation and a proper choice of active material. The 100%
heat generated during a no-load start-up can be expressed Motor torque on Y
by:
Ta on Y

GDM2
◊ N r2 Load curve
H nl = W·s (2.10)
730
0
This expression, except for the mechanical design, is
Speed Nr
totally independent of the type of start and the electrical
design of the motor. Electrically also, this is demonstrated
in the subsequent example. The expression, however, Figure 2.15 Variation in Ta with Y / D switching
does not hold good for an ON-LOAD start. On load, the
accelerating torque diminishes substantially with the type
of load and the method of start, as can be seen from
Figure 2.14, and so diminishes the denominator of starting heat. Care should therefore be taken when selecting
Equation (2.5), raising the time of start. a motor for a particular type of switching and magnitude
of the opposing torque. This is to avert possible damage
Example 2.3 to the motor due to prolonged starting time, as a
A squirrel cage motor is started through an auto-transformer consequence of an inadequate accelerating torque.
starter with a tapping of 40%. Compare the starting heat with Maintaining a minimum accelerating torque at each
a DOL starting when the motor shaft is free. point, during the pick-up may also not be adequate
With DOL Ta = 100%
sometimes. In which case the starting time may exceed
the locked rotor or thermal withstand time of the motor,
With an auto-transformer Ta = (0.4)2 or 16%
as discussed below.
GD M2 N
Starting time with DOL, t s = ¥ r
375 Ta 2.8 Thermal withstand time
GD M2 Nr
and with auto-transformer, t s1 = ¥ This is also known as safe stall time or the locked rotor
375 0.16T a
withstand capacity of the motor. This is the time during
i.e. 6.25 times of DOL which the motor can safely withstand electromagnetic
effects and consequent heating in a locked condition.
Since the heat during start-up µ (I st)2 · t These are drawn for the cold and hot conditions of the
motor in Figure 2.16. Evidently, the motor must come to
\ Heat during start on a DOL µ (I st)2 · ts
speed within this time, irrespective of type of load or
and on an auto-transformer µ (0.4I st)2 · ts1 method of switching. In a reduced voltage start-up or
slip-ring motors the starting current would be low and
or µ 0.16(I st)2 ¥ 6.25ts these curves would signify that for any reason if the
rotor becomes locked during start or run, or takes a
i.e. µ (I st)2 · ts prolonged time to come up to speed, the protective device
Thus at no-load, irrespective of the motor torque and the type must operate within the safe stall time. Generally, these
of switching, the starting heat would remain the same. curves are drawn for the stator to monitor the actual
running condition and not the condition during start-up.
2.7.3 Heating during an on-load start-up The rotor can withstand much higher temperatures during
a run. With the help of these curves, knowing the starting
Against an opposing torque, the accelerating torque of time and the starting current of the motor, one can ascertain
the motor, which hitherto had varied in proportion to the the number of starts and stops the motor would be capable
type of switching, will now diminish disproportionately of undertaking. These curves also help in the selection of
with a switching other than DOL (Figure 2.15). The the protective relays and their setting as discussed in
starting time rises disproportionately and so does the Chapter 12.
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/51

7 C = heat capacity of the motor

Locked rotor current
= heat required to raise the temperature of the windings
by 1 ∞C in Joules
6
=W·d
where
5 W = weight of the stator windings in kg
= volume of stator windings ¥ specific gravity of
the metal of the windings
4
= Lmt · Zs · Acu · d
Current (Ist /Ir )

Co

Lmt = length of a mean turn of the winding in metres

ld

on
c

3 dit Zs = number of stator turns per phase

io n
Acu = area of the whole windings in m2
Ho d = specific gravity of the winding material in kg/m3
2
tc
on
diti
d = specific heat of winding metal in watt · s/kg/∞C
on
Note 1
1 In Equation (2.11) it is presumed that the heating of the windings is
adiabatic, i.e. whatever heat is generated during a stalled condition
is totally consumed in raising the temperature of the stator windings
by q. An adiabatic process means that there is no heat transfer from
A the system to the surroundings. This is also known as the heat sink
Safe stall time ‘tst’ (seconds)
B process. The presumption is logical, because the duration of heating
C is too short to be able to dissipate a part of it to other parts of the
D machine or the surroundings.

\ t st
= q ◊ C = q 2◊ W ◊ d
A – Maximum withstand time under hot condition (on DOL)
B – Maximum withstand time under cold condition (on DOL) H st
I st
◊ R

C – Maximum withstand time under hot condition during Y
D – Maximum withstand time under cold condition during Y
q ◊ ( L mt ◊ Z s ◊ Acu ◊ d ) ◊ d
=
Figure 2.16 Thermal withstand curves I st2
◊ R

r ◊ L mt ◊ Z s
where R
=
Acu
2.8.1 Heating phenomenon in a motor during a and r = r40(1 + µ h)
stalled condition
where µ = temperature coefficient of resistivity
(a) For the stator 1 ∞C
=
234.5
Stalling is a condition in which the rotor becomes locked
due to excessive load torque or opposing torque. Stalling r40 = resistivity of copper at 40∞C
is thus a replica of a locked rotor condition and can h is known as the middle temperature during the entire temperature
variation in the locked rotor condition.
occur at any speed below the Tpo region, as illustrated in
Figure 2.17. The figure also shows that the stator current
during stalling will generally correspond to Ist only, due Ist Motor current
to the characteristic of the motor speed–current curve.
Whenever the rotor becomes locked in a region that almost
corresponds to the Ist region of the motor (Figure 2.17) it
will mean a stalling condition. Tpo
In such a condition, if the heat generated in the windings
raises the temperature of the windings by q above the Motor torque at Vr
temperature, the motor was operating just before stalling.
Current Ir

Tst
Then by a differential form of the heat equation:
Torque

Starting torque
Hst
· tst
= q · C (2.11) at reduced voltage
Tr

Hst
= heat generated during stalled condition per second

Ir
in watts Load torque
= power loss
= I st2
◊ R
Speed Nr
Stalling
Ist
= current at the point of stalling in Amps (Locked rotor
R
= resistance of the stator windings per phase in W condition)
tst
= time for which the stalling condition exists in
seconds Figure 2.17 Stalled or locked rotor condition
2/52 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

q ◊ L mt ◊ Z s ◊ Acu ◊ d ◊ d Limiting temperature for rings 100∞C

\ t st
= Operating temperature for bars 150∞C
L ◊Z
I st2
◊ r40 (1 + µ h ) ◊ mt s Operating temperature for rings 70∞C
Acu
2
Therefore the permissible rise in temperature in a stalled
ÊA ˆ d◊d condition will be as follows:
= Á cu ˜ ◊q◊
Ë I st
¯ r40 (1 + µh )
q for bars in cold conditions = 450 – 40 = 410∞C
I q for bars in hot conditions = 450 – 150 = 300∞C
and st
= J ss
current density during start in A/cm2 and q for rings in cold conditions = 100 – 40 = 60∞C
Acu
q for rings in hot conditions = 100 – 70 = 30∞C
r40 (1 + µh )
=k
d◊d 2.8.2 Plotting thermal withstand characteristics
where of the motor
k = material constant for the metal;
(i) for aluminium = 0.016 Calculate the thermal withstand times tst
’s under cold and
(ii) for copper = 0.0065 hot conditions and also at different Ist, say 200%, 300% and
(iii) for brass = 0.0276 400% etc. of Ir as shown below. After determining the
\ t stl = 12 ◊ q ◊ 1 (for copper windings) corresponding safe thermal withstand times, according to
J ss 0.0065 the above formula, draw the graph (Figure 2.16), Ist vs tst:
Note 2
Since no system can be heat adiabatic in practice there is a certain Stalled current Ist
Thermal withstand time, tst
in seconds
amount of heat dissipation from the impregnated windings to the as % of Ir
stator core and housing. This heat dissipation is considered as 15%
of the total heat generated as in IEC 60079-7. 200 t5
300 t4
\ actual Hs = 85% of what has been calculated above 400 t3
500 t2
and t st
= q 600 t1
J ss2 ¥ 0.0065 ¥ 0.85 I st

and for J ss (for D windings) =
q 3 ◊ (Area of windings/turn) ◊ Z s
or t st
= seconds (s) (2.12)
J ss2 ¥ 0.00552 Note
Jss is a design parameter and more details may be obtained from the
motor manufacturer.
Application
For safe stall conditions t st
should be less than the
thermal withstand time of the motor under locked or Example 2.4
short-circuit condition. A 250 kW motor has a cold thermal withstand time of 30
seconds and a hot thermal withstand time of 25 seconds. If
(i) q is called the permissible rise in temperature in the the starting time is 7 seconds, determine the consecutive
stalled condition. cold or hot starts that the motor will be able to sustain safely.
(ii) For class B insulation, the maximum limiting
temperature is 185∞C and for class F 210∞C (short- Number of consecutive cold starts = 30 = 4.3
7
time permissible temperature). The permissible rise i.e. 4 starts
in temperature in class B is 80∞C above an ambient and number of hot starts =
25 = 3.6
of 40∞C. i.e. 3 starts
7

\ q = 185 – (40 + 80) The period after which this can be repeated will depend upon
= 65∞C for hot conditions the heating curve and the thermal time constant of the motor,
i.e. the time the motor will take to reach thermal equilibrium
and q = 185 – 40 after repeated starts (see Chapter 3).

= 145∞C for cold conditions Example 2.5

A centrifugal compressor driven through V belts at a speed of
4500 r.p.m. having the torque curve as shown in Figure 2.18
(b) For the rotor and a moment of inertia MK 2 of 2.50 kgm2 employs a squirrel
cage motor with the following parameters:
To ascertain whether the stator or the rotor would fail
first during a stalled condition, the thermal withstand kW = 350
time of the rotor should also be determined separately
Nr = 1485 r.p.m.
for the rotor bars and the end rings. The lowest values
for the stator or the rotor will be the safe stall time for speed–torque characteristic as in Figure 2.18
the entire motor. The limiting temperatures in rotor GD M2 = 30 kgm2
components may be considered as follows:
Safe stall time ˝
¸ hot – 30 s.
Limiting temperature for bars 450∞C
˛ cold – 40 s.
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/53

180
175
170

Curve-1
150

Mo 130
125 tor
torq 115.2 120
120 ue at ra
ted vol ta ge
% Torque

108.8
110 110
100 100
0.96Tr Curve-2
95
Mo
tor t 83.2 85
orq ue at 80% voltage
75 80
76.6
70.4
70.4 70
que 60
r tor
50 presso 50
Com
40
35
25

Speed Nr Figure 2.18 Determining the accelerating

(1485 rpm) torque

2
Calculate the starting time and consecutive cold and hot starts Ê ˆ
for which the motor will be suitable with a DOL starting. (e) Total GD T2 at motor speed = 30 + (4 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 2.5) Á 4500 ˜
Ë 1485 ¯
Solution where [GD L2 = 4 ◊ g ◊ MK 2 ] (at the compressor speed)
To determine the exact accelerating torque, measure the
ordinates of torque as shown at different speeds and calculate
i.e. GD T2 = 30 + 901
the average torque as follows:
(a) Average load torque = 931 kgm2
931 ¥ 1485
T L = 35 + 40 + 50 + 60 + 70 + 80 + 85 + 95 + 100 (f) Stating time t s =
375 ¥ 146.9
9
= 25.1 seconds
= 615
9 Take roughly 10% more to account for any tolerance and
= 68.33% variations,
(b) Average motor torque \ ts = 25.1 ¥ 1.1

150 + 120 + 110 + 110 + 130 + 170 + 180 + 120 + 100
27.6 seconds
T=
9 This motor is therefore suitable for only one cold or one
hot start at a time until the temperature rise stabilizes
= 1190 again.
9
If this motor is started with an auto-transformer with a

132.2% tapping of 80%, the motor average torque will be
(c) \ Average accelerating torque = 132.2 ¥ 0.64 (curve 2, Figure 2.18)
Ta = 132.2 – 68.33
or T = 84.6%
= 63.87%
and accelerating torque Ta = 84.6 – 68.33
(d) Motor rated torque
= 16.27%
T r = 350 ¥ 974 i.e. 230 ¥ 0.1627 = 37.42 mkg.
1485

230 mkg 931 ¥ 1485
and ts =
375 ¥ 37.42
\Ta = 230 ¥ 0.6387
= 98.52 seconds
= 146.9 mkg which is much more than the safe stall-withstand time.
2/54 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

Inference Note
On an ON-LOAD start, the starting time increases Friction braking may be employed for all sizes of drives, either as
disproportionately, depending upon the type of switching. This the only braking means as noted below, or as a supplementary
load therefore cannot be accelerated within a safe stall time safety means to keep the drive locked stationary when required.
through an auto-transformer, even with a tapping as high as
80% although the motor possesses some accelerating torque 1 AC solenoid brakes These are employed for small
at each point during pick-up (curve 2 of Figure 2.18). motors, say, up to 15–20 h.p. They are suitable for
applications such as conveyors, hoists, cranes, machine
tools, lock gates and dumb waiters (Figure 2.19).
2.9 Braking The brakes are spring loaded and mounted on two
mechanically opposing brake shoes. They grip a brake
Braking results in heating, irrespective of the method drum or disc, coupled rigidly at the NDE of the motor
used. When the braking is external, the heat will appear shaft. The brakes are applied mechanically and released
in the external circuit and the motor windings will remain electrically. The braking action takes place by
unaffected. But when it is internal, the entire braking deenergizing the spring. The brakes are normally
heat will be generated within the motor windings. Due applied in the OFF position for reasons of safety in
consideration of this must be made when selecting the the event of a power failure. They are released only
motor rating, particularly when the loads are heavy and when the solenoid is energized.
the braking frequent. An analogue to the starting time 2 Electromagnetic shoe-brakes These are similar to the
gives the braking time tb as above, but are used for still higher motor ratings, say,
5–800 h.p. (Figure 2.20.) In this case instead of a
GDT2 ◊ N solenoid coil, an electromagnetic coil is employed.
tb = seconds (s) (2.13)
375 ◊ Tb This releases the brakes and develops a torque at
least equal to the motor torque, to brake or hold the
where full load. In this case also, the brakes are applied on
N = Nr – Nr1, i.e. speed reduction in r.p.m. the motor shaft when the holding coil (electromagnet)
Tb = braking torque in mkg is de-energized and is released only when the
electromagnet is energized to make it safe against
An analogue to starting heat (Equation (2.10)) gives the failure. Possible applications include cranes, hoists,
braking heat Hb as elevators, conveyors, machine tools, rolling mills and
ball mills, etc. and also holding of loads in conveyors,
GDT2 hoists and elevators, etc.
Hb = ◊ ( N r2 – N r12 ) watt-seconds (W · s) (2.14)
730
Notes
The wider the speed range of braking, the greater will be (i) In both the above types of braking systems, a hand-operated
the heat generated. device is also provided, to release the mechanical brakes in
applications such as lifts, elevators, cranes, and winders. This
lowers the load to the ground loading station or the desired
2.9.1 Types of braking
There are several methods of braking, external or internal,
and they are briefly discussed below. Any of them can be
employed, depending upon the torque requirement, i.e.
size of motor, its speed, the type of load, etc.

A. External: mechanical or friction braking

This type of braking is suitable for small motors and can
be achieved through

1 Solenoid-operated brakes,
2 Electro-magnetically operated brakes, or
3 Magnetic particle brakes.

In the first two types a brake shoe, operated by an external

auxiliary supply, is mounted on the extended shaft at the
NDE (non-driving end) of the motor. These brakes are
normally operated after the motor is switched OFF. The
heat of braking appears in the external circuit and the
motor windings are not affected. For motors with this
braking, only the starting heat need be considered,
depending upon the frequency of starts and not the heat
of braking. Figure 2.19 AC solenoid brake (Courtesy: BCH)
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/55

in either of the above types of mechanical brakes, the

torque shown in Equation (1.10) may be used, i.e.
Pr ◊ 974
Tr = mkg
Nr
The brakes must develop at least this amount of torque
or slightly more, i.e.
Pr ◊ 974
Tb ≥ mkg (2.15)
Nr
where Tb is the torque of braking
B. Internal type
1 Electrodynamic or d.c. electrical braking When a
d.c. voltage is applied to the motor windings, a steady
flux is produced since f = 0. The theoretical
synchronous speed of the motor, Ns, now reduces to
Figure 2.20 Electro-magnetic shoe brake (Courtesy: BCH) zero. When this steady flux is cut by the rotor
conductors, as the rotor is rotating, it induces a steady
platform, as the situation may require in the event of a power (d.c.) e.m.f. in the rotor circuit, which produces the
failure. required braking effect. In slip-ring motors, the
(ii) The ratings of the brakes noted above are only indicative.
(iii) The braking torque of the shoe brakes may diminish with the
number of operations. The heat of braking wears out the brake
linings. The extent of fading will depend upon the braking
torque to decelerate the heavy loads and frequency of its
operations. They may also need replacement of the brake linings,
similar to an automotive vehicle.

3 Magnetic particle brakes One type of these brakes is

illustrated in Figures 2.21(a) and (b). They are also
known as powder brakes and have a main body (stator)
that houses a drive cylinder, forming the main rotating
part of the brake. Through its extended shaft is coupled
the main drive that requires the braking facilities. Within
and concentric to the drive cylinder is a rotor rigidly
fixed with the housing. There is a space between the
drive cylinder and the rotor, which is filled with small
granules of steel in the form of powder, with excellent
magnetic properties. This powder, when magnetized,
condenses into a solid mass between the drive cylinder
and the rotor and provides the required braking effect. Figure 2.21(a) A magnetic particle brake (Courtesy: Dynaspede)
This is possible with the help of a magnetic field
which is provided through a stationary magnetic coil 1 Field coil
placed in the main housing outside the periphery of
the drive cylinder as shown. The field strength of 2 Housing (stator)
this coil can be varied with the help of a variable 3 Magnetic powder
current source to obtain a variable braking torque
4 Static rotor
and thus achieve more precise braking control, even
remotely. Depending upon the type of application 5 Bearings
and accuracy of the speed control desired, extremely
precise and accurate electronic controls are available.
These can infinitely vary the torque and hence the
speed of the motor. Such braking devices are available
in the range 0.1 kW–60 kW.
6 Drive cylinder

Strength of brakes
The brakes should be suitable to counter at least the
torque developed by the motor. They must therefore
develop at least this amount of torque. To find the least Figure 2.21(b) Cross-section of a typical magnetic particle
braking torque, the brake drums must be able to develop, brake
2/56 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

braking torque can be controlled by inserting suitable

resistance in the rotor circuit and varying the
excitation voltage (Figure 2.23), keeping the
excitation current the same. Braking in slip-ring R R R R idc
idc
motors by this method is more accurate and simple.
Some typical braking curves are shown in Figure e e
2.22 for a slip-ring motor. R R
In squirrel cage motors, in the absence of external
resistance, the stator windings can be arranged in
different configurations such as series, parallel, star i dc = e k = 1.225 i dc = 2e k = 1.41
2R 3R
or delta, as shown in Figure 2.23, to achieve the (a) (b)
varying effects of excitation voltage. This type of
braking is useful for both squirrel cage and slip-ring idc idc
motors, but is rarely used.
For applying the brakes, the stator is disconnected R R R R
from the supply and a d.c. excitation voltage is applied e e
to the windings as shown in Figure 2.23. The windings R R=0
can be arranged in any configuration, as illustrated, to
obtain the required braking torque. If the ampere turns
during braking are maintained as during normal running, Shorted
the braking torque curve will almost take the shape i dc = 3e k = 2.12 i dc = e
k = 2.45
of the motor’s normal speed–torque curve. 2R 0.5R
If an independent d.c. source is not available a (c) (d)
single phase transformer and a rectifier bridge as
shown in Figure 2.24 can also be used to obtain the
required d.c. voltage. Although the requirement of e = Excitation voltage
d.c. excitation voltage is not high, the rating of the idc = Excitation or braking current
rectifier transformer and the bridge should be R = Stator resistance per phase. For slip-ring motors,
commensurate with the braking force required. This external resistance can be added and R varied
braking force would depend upon the size of the Figure ki Required
motor and the time of braking. If the braking current, dc voltage
idc, is known, which is a measure of the braking e
torque necessary to fulfil a particular load duty a 1.225 idc · 2R
requirement, the excitation voltage e can be
b 1.41 i dc ◊ 3R
determined for different winding configurations, as 2
indicated in Figure 2.23. The idc can be determined c 2.12 i dc ◊ 2R
3
i dc ◊ R
d 2.45
2
100 R1

Figure 2.23 Stator or rotor connections for d.c. electric braking

75 from the following equation, considering the same

ampere turns as for a standard motor:
R2
T1 + Tb – Tex
i dc = k1 ◊ I st(ph) ◊
% Braking torque

(2.16)
k 2 ◊ Tst
50
R3 where
idc = braking current
R1 > R2 > R3
Ist(ph) = phase value of the starting current
25
I st
= (for a delta-connected stator or rotor)
3
k1 = factor to determine the equivalent ampere
turns for a particular configuration, as
0 25 50 75 100
% Speed
indicated in Figure 2.23. To avoid over-
heating and excessive electromagnetic forces,
idc is normally not allowed to exceed Ist(ph)
Figure 2.22 Typical braking torque curves for a wound rotor T
= average load torque between the running
for different external resistances but same excitation current speed and the final speed (Figure 2.25)
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/57

Tb = average braking torque between the running the rated voltage, and slip as 2S, for the changed
speed and the final speed (Figure 2.25). This magnetic field. With these changed parameters, the
will depend upon the braking duty the motor is current and torque curves can be approximately
required to perform such as the final speed, Nr1 determined from Equations (1.7a) and (1.3a)
(which we have considered as zero in Figure respectively, for high slip conditions.
2.25), and the duration within which the motor Current and voltage will both give a transitory kick
must brake to this speed from Nr. This can be at the instant of plugging, depending upon the effective
determined from Equation (2.13) voltage across the windings, under the influence of
Tex = braking torque of the external brakes, if provided the motor’s self-induced e.m.f. and the applied voltage.
otherwise it may be considered to be zero The transitory state will last only a few cycles and
Tst = locked rotor (starting) torque of the motor then the curves will generally take the shape as in the
k2 = a factor to account for the average braking torque. equations noted above and illustrated in Figure 2.26.
This may be considered to be 1.3–1.7 (consult Generally, except for the initial kick, there will be no
the manufacturer for a more accurate value) significant variation in the current and torque values
In addition to electrical braking, a mechanical brake, compared to their starting values at S = 1. These
as discussed in Section 2.9.1(A) may also be essential values can be varied in slip-ring motors by altering
if the motor is required to be stopped completely the rotor’s circuit resistance. During plugging, if the
because, at any value of excitation current, the motor supply is not switched OFF at the instant of reaching
will never reach a standstill condition. The heat of the standstill position, the motor will start rotating in
braking up to the standstill condition (Nr1= 0) is roughly the reverse direction, tracing the same speed–torque
equal to one start and is expressed by Equation (2.14). and speed–current curves as in the forward direction.
But a reverse direction may damage the driven load.
2 Plugging By changing any two of the phases the motor Precautions are essential to prevent such a situation
will develop a torque in the reverse direction and by providing an electrical interlocking and/or a reverse
provide the necessary braking. The voltage across ratchet arrangement in the load coupling.
the windings at the instant of plugging becomes twice The windings may, however, be subject up to twice
the rated voltage and must be suitable to withstand
this voltage repeatedly when necessary. The heat
generated during braking will be roughly three times
R the heat generated during start-up as determined below:
Y
B

Sw

e
c ur v
(Tr)
Motor running torque
Tst

Tr
) curve
Load torque (T

T

OCR
Torque

Nr1 = 0 Ns
A
Nr

Tb
DC
supply
Mechanical or electrical
C1 C2
interlocking or both
Motor braking torq
ue (T
b ) cu
rve

Speed
M Total braking torque at point A = T
+ Tb

Figure 2.24 Obtaining d.c. voltage through a bridge rectifier Figure 2.25 Braking torque during d.c. electric braking
2/58 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

urrent
Motor c
I st I st

que
r tor
Motor torque (T ) Moto
T st b T st

Current
1.0
Torque

Tr
ue (T
)
Tb Load torq

A
0
200% 100% Nr0
T
Slip
Load torqu
e (T
)

Plugging (braking) Running

Total braking torque at point A = T
+ Tb

Figure 2.26 Approximate motor torque and current characteristic curves during plugging

Rotor losses per phase W = I rr2 ◊ R2 than the former. Figure 2.26 illustrates this. But in view of the
high current during plugging the ratio of heat as noted above is
I rr2 ◊ R2 a near approximation.
Rotor torque per phase T =
S
3 Regenerative braking If the motor be run beyond
synchronous speed by some external means it will
\ Rotor loss per unit torque W = S work as a generator and feed back useful energy to
T
the supply system. It will draw only the necessary
( S1 + S 2 ) excitation current, Im, for the generator action from
Average loss between slip S1 and S 2 = ◊T
2 the source of supply. In such a condition, the motor
(i) During a normal running, will exert a counter torque, the magnitude of which
will depend upon the motor speed above synchronous.
when S1 = 1 and S2 = 0 Such braking conditions may occur automatically in
downhill conveyors, lifts and hoists etc. while
starting heat µ starting loss µ T descending with the load, i.e. operating as an induction
2 motor while ascending and as an induction generator
(ii) During plugging, while descending. The generator and the braking action
ceases at synchronous speed. For speed control below
when, S1 = 2 and S2 = 1 synchronous speed, therefore, it will be essential to
Heat generated during plugging employ a multi-speed motor which, at a higher speed,
can be switched to the lower speed winding to make
(1 + 2) the motor work as a generator between the high and
µ T or µ 3T the low speeds. Such a braking method, however,
2 2
has only limited commercial applications, as in a sugar
Therefore the heat of the motor during plugging is centrifuge motor (Section 7.4).
three times that of during a normal start. Stator heat With the application of solid-state technology,
and thus the total motor heat is a function of the rotor however, as discussed in Chapter 6, the potential energy
heat (see also Section 2.7.1). Such a method is therefore of the loads in hoists, lifts and conveyors during
not suitable for larger motors or for frequent brakings. descents can be saved and fed back to the source.

Note
This is an approximate derivation for a simple illustration of 2.10 Inching or jogging
the ratio of heats. The time of start and braking is not considered
in the above derivation, whereas both would be different and
so will be the heat generated. The time of start would be much This means repeated short-duration application of power
higher than the time of braking, as the latter is much higher to the motor to cause small movements of the shaft from
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/59

rest to perform certain load requirements. The motor may placing no strain on the motor. This factor will
normally not reach its full speed, nor at times complete depend upon the electrical and mechanical design
even one full revolution, and can be rotated in either of a motor and will vary from one manufacturer to
direction. Likely applications may relate to lifting or another. The cooling capacity, its effectiveness,
hoisting which may call for delicate handling and a rather i.e. heating and cooling characteristics and starting
slow, smooth and more accurate final movement for exact torque of a motor, are the parameters that would
positioning, lifting or unloading etc. Similarly in torque determine this factor. The smaller the motor, the
motors or actuator motors (Section 7.8) for throttle and greater number of starts it will be capable of
vane controls. performing. For a lower-speed motor, the average
This is a severe duty for the switching contactors as starting torque will be normally less and the inertia
they have to endure repeated arcing of the interrupting more. Therefore the permissible number of
contacts every time they make or break. (Select only switching operations will be comparatively less
AC–4 duty contactors: see Section 12.10.) for a low-speed motor than for a high-speed motor
of similar rating. As a rough guide, small motors,
say, up to 20 h.p., may have a factor as high as
2.11 Number of starts and stops 1000–2000.
Kb = factor of braking, which depends upon the type of
Due to excessive starting and braking heat losses it is not braking used, such as
advisable to switch an induction motor ON and OFF (a) Mechanical braking Kb = 1
frequently. The number of starts and stops a motor is (b) D.C. braking Kb = 0.6–0.5
capable of performing will depend upon its working (c) Plugging Kb = 0.3–0.4
conditions such as type of switching, braking and load (d) Regenerative braking Kb = 0.4–0.5
demand etc. and can be determined from
KL = mean load factor, i.e. the ratio of the average load
K torque to the motor torque which depends upon
Z L = Z NL ◊ b ◊ KL (2.17) the loading on the motor during start-up.
FI
For most applications (e.g. cranes, lifts or machine
where tools) this factor is based on a loading of 0.5 or
ZL = number of starts and equivalent stops per hour on 0.75. This factor is also determined by the
load. For example, in plugging one start and one manufacturer and may have a shape as shown in
stop will mean four starts and if reversal is also Figure 2.27
involved then five starts.
ZNL = permissible number of starts per hour for a motor GDM2 + GDL2
FI = (3.1)
with a free shaft, using mechanical braking, thus GDM2

1.0

0.8

0.6
KL

0.4

0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Loading T
/Tr

Figure 2.27 Average load factor K L when started against load

2/60 Electrical Power Engineering Reference & Applications Handbook

Relevant Standards
IEC Title IS BS

60034-12/2002 Rotating electrical machines. Starting performance of 8789/2002 BS EN 60034-12/2002 –

single-speed three-phase cage induction motors for
voltages up to and including 660 V.

60079-7/2004 Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres. 6381/2001 BS EN 50019/1977 –

Increased safety motors type ‘e’.

Related US Standards ANSI/NEMA and IEEE

NEMA/MG-1/2003 Motor and generators ratings, construction, testing and performance.

NEMA/MG-2/2001 Safety standards (enclosures) for construction and guide for selection, installation and use of rotating
machines.
Notes
1 In the table of relevant Standards while the latest editions of the Standards are provided, it is possible that revised editions have become
available or some of them are even withdrawn. With the advances in technology and/or its application, the upgrading of Standards is a
continuous process by different Standards organizations. It is therefore advisable that for more authentic references, one may consult the
relevant organizations for the latest version of a Standard.
2 Some of the BS or IS Standards mentioned against IEC may not be identical.
3 The year noted against each Standard may also refer to the year it was last reaffirmed and not necessarily the year of publication.

List of formulae used also, H = W · d · q (2.8)

W = weight of heated portion in kgm
d = specific heat of the material of windings, in
Effect of starting current on torque watt · s/kg/∞C.
q = temperature rise in ∞C
I rr2 ¥ R2
Tr µ (2.1)
S Sharing of heat
2
Tst Ê I st ˆ Hs R
= Á ˜ ¥S (2.2) = 1 (2.9)
Tr Ë Ir ¯ Hr R2¢
2 Hr = rotor heat in W · s.
= Ê st1 ˆ (for the same rotor resistance R2)
Tst1 I Hs = stator heat in W · s.
Tst2 Ë I st2 ¯
(2.3) Heating during a no-load start
◊ N r2
2
= Ê st1 ˆ
Tst1 I R2 2
GDM
or ¥ (for different rotor resistances) Hn
= W ◊ s. (2.10)
Tst2 Ë I st2 ¯ R2¢ 730
(2.4)
Heating in a motor during a stalled condition:
Time of start-up for the stator

GDT2 ◊ N r Hst
· tst
= q · C (2.11)

ts = (2.5)
375 ◊ Ta Hst
= heat generated during stalled condition per second
in watts
ts = time of start in seconds
GDT2 = GDM2 + GDL2 tst
= time for which the stalling condition prevails in
seconds
G DM2 = motor and
C = heat capacity of the motor
G DL2 = load weight moment of
inertia referred to the motor speed or t st
= q seconds (2.12)
2
J ss2 ¥ 0.00552
GDL2 = GD12 ◊ Ê L ˆ
N
or
Ë Nr ¯
(2.6) Jss
current density during start in A/cm2
GD12 = weight moment of inertia of load at a speed NL
Braking time
Motor heating during start-up GDT2 ◊ N
H = I st2 ◊ R ◊ t s watt · s. (W·s.) tb = seconds(s) (2.13)
(2.7) 375 ◊ Tb
 Motor torque, load torque and selection of motors 2/61

N = Nr – Nr1 (i.e. speed reduction in r.p.m.) Tb = average braking torque between running speed
Tb = braking torque in mkg and the final speed
Tex = braking torque of the external brakes, if provided;
Braking heat otherwise this may be considered as zero
Tst = starting torque of the motor
GDT2 k2 = a factor to account for the average braking torque
Hb = ◊ ( N r2 – N r1
2
)W.s (2.14)
730 Number of starts and stops
Minimum braking torque Kb
Z L = Z NL ◊ ◊ KL (2.17)
P ◊ 974 FI
Tb ≥ r mkg (2.15)
Nr
Z L = Number of starts and equivalent stops per hour
Electrodynamic or d.c. electric braking on load.
Z NL = Permissible number of starts per hour with a free
T1 + Tb – Tex shaft
idc = k1 ◊ I st(ph) ◊ (2.16) Kb = Factor of braking
k 2 ◊ Tst
KL = Mean load factor
idc = braking current FI = Factor of inertia
Ist(ph) = phase value of the starting current
= I st / 3
k1 = factor to determine the equivalent ampere turns Further Reading
for a particular configuration
T1 = average load torque between running speed and Machinery Hand Book, Industrial Press Inc., 200 Madison
the final speed Avenue, New York, USA.
 Electric Motor DATA Library

I have presented this informtion for your educational and entertainment use only. You can, and should,
compare it with other data that you have, from other sources, and other formulas you may have acquired or use.
The Astro Flight, Inc. Electric Motor Handbook, by Bob Boucher is an invaluable asset in helping you to
understand, and use, the following data. Astro Flight, Inc., 13311 Beach Ave., Marina Del Rey, CA 90292 or (310) 821-6242

If you have any motor data, like the following, that you could give to me to enter here, I'd love to share it
with the rest of the folks in the world.

via KRESS JETS, INC.

800 Ulster Landing Road
Saugerties, NY 12477
(914) 336-8149
FAX: (914) 336-5975

Electro Flight Design: $79.50

Electric Prop Model Design: $69.50
Ducted Fan Performance Prediction Program: $69.50

Mfg'r Name/Use No. Type Kv Kt Inl Ra Turns/Pole

Astro Marine 425(25) F 825 1.6 1 .17 10
Astro Marine 440(40) F 643 2.1 1 .20 10
Astro Boat 304 C 4390 .31 6.5 .016 4
Astro Racing 306 C 4090 .33 6.5 .018 4
Astro " 326 C 1914 .71 4.5 .027 4
Astro " 341 C 1364 .99 4.5 .034 4
Astro Sport 603(035) C 2765 .49 2.5 .040 7
Astro Aircraft 605 C 2125 .64 2.5 .045 7
Astro " 615 C 1488 .91 2.0 .069 10
Astro " 625 C 971 1.39 2.0 .093 8
Astro " 640 C 682 1.99 2.0 .121 8
Astro " 661 C 347 3.61 2.5 .103 11
Astro " 662 C 293 4.27 2.0 .150 13
Astro " 690 C 230 5.89 2.5 .150 11
Astro " 691 C 256 5.35 3.0 .111 10
Astro FAI 604(035) C 4285 .31 5.0 .017 5
Astro Aircraft 608(05) C 3214 .42 5.0 .021 5
Astro " 627(25) C 1592 .85 4.5 .039 5
Astro " 642 C 1161 1.17 4.5 .050 5
Astro " 643 C 1452 .93 5.5 .034 4
Astro " 660 C 651 2.08 4.5 .045 6
Kyosho Aircraft AP-29 F 3282 .412 2.48 .0806
Kyosho " AP-36 F 3521 .384 2.90 .0669
Kyosho Truck Mega-360 F 2188 .618 1.37 .0667 22
Trinity Car Procar F 2858 .473 1.59 .0573 21
Trinity Ducted Fan KR-5 16.8V F 2003 .675 1.35 .0568 30
Trinity P-38 KR-3 9.6V F 3440 .393 2.01 .0353 17
Kyosho Ducted Fan KR-6 21.6V F 1550 .872 1.07 .0887 32 (rewound Mega-360)
Graupner Speed 400 6V 3321 F 2672 .506 .89 .254
Graupner Speed 400 4.8V 3320 F 4492 .301 1.72 .111
Graupner Speed 400 7.2V 1794 F 2227 .607 .72 .357
Graupner Speed 600 12V 3302 F 1800 .751 1.01 .334
Graupner Speed 700 9.6V 3307 F 1602 .844 2.58 .198
Graupner Speed 600 8.4V 3316 F 1860 .727 1.26 .0939
Trinity Car Slot Machine F 3530 .383 3.47 .132 27
Robbe Power 700 9.6V 4470 F 1756 .770 2.0 .143 13
Robbe Power 600 8.4V 4471 F 1965 .688 1.8 .120 24
Robbe Power 600 7.2V 4472 F 3196 .423 2.0 .085 19
Robbe Power 600 7.2V 4473 F 3258 .415 1.8 .085 19
Robbe Starmax 40 12V 4130 F 1357 .996 .9 .231
Robbe Starinax 48 16V 4131 F 814 1.661 .8 .314
Robbe Starmax 48 8.4V 4132 F 639 2.117 .7 .311
Robbe Power 500 7.2V 4465 F 2759 .490 1.9 .075 21
Robbe Navy S 4.8V 4109 F 2490 .543 .15 1.37
Robbe Navy S 6.0V 4102 F 1102 1.227 .18 1.00
Robbe Navy M 6.0V 4108 F 940 1.439 .45 .462
Robbe RS-380S 6.0V 3405 F 2770 .488 .6 .400
Robbe RS-540S 7.2V 3425 F 2513 .538 1.2 .153
Robbe RS-540SD 7.2V 4076 F 3038 .445 1.8 .131
Robbe Starmax-540 4096 F 3929 .344 2.6 .0626
SEHS 7.2V
Robbe Turbo Std. 7.2V 4092 F 2053 .658 .6 .257
Robbe EF 76II 8.4V 4013 F 1635 .827 1.0 .175
Robbe EF 76IIS 8.4V 4011 F 1978 .683 1.1 .142
Robbe PRO 325/4 8.4V 4730 N 2190 .617 2.98 .023
Robbe PRO 330/4 12V 4731 N 1900 .712 3.05 .026
Robbe PRO 330/6 12V 4732 N 1380 .980 2.73 .045
Robbe PRO 525/4 12V 4750 N 1530 .884 2.40 .030
Robbe PRO 536/4 12V 4751 N 1050 1.288 2.45 .035
Robbe PRO 536/7 28.8V 4752 N 615 2.198 2.60 .130
Robbe PRO 736/5 24V 4770 N 690 1.959 2.50 .055
Robbe PRO 740/6 32.4V 4771 N 535 2.527 2.02 .060
Robbe PRO 744/5 32.4V 4773 N 605 2.23 3.25 .057
Robbe PRO 744/4 36V 4772 N 735 1.84 3.33 .050
Robbe PRO 736/8 33.6V 4774 N 430 3.14 3.27 .140
Robbe Power 1000 12V 4474 F 620 2.18 .65 .480
Keller KE 5403 8.4V 4300 N 3020 .448 4.34 .05
Keller KE 540M 8.4V 4301 N 2610 .518 4.03 .07
Keller KE 540T 8.4V 4302 N 2250 .601 4.29 .09
Keller KE 22/5 8.4V 4310 N 2180 .620 5.36 .05 5
Keller KE 22/9 12V 4311 N 1290 1.048 2.14 .100 9
Keller KE 22/12 12V 4312 N 1000 1.352 1.68 .140 12
Keller KR 25/4 8.4V 4320 N 2250 .601 5.36 .050 4
Keller KE 25/5 8.4V 4321 N 1870 .723 4.46 .06 5
Keller KE 25/6 8.4V 4322 N 1540 .878 3.81 .08 6
Keller KE 25/8 8.4V 4323 N 1220 1.108 2.22 .095 8
Keller KE 25/10 12V 4324 N 960 1.408 2.04 .125 10
Keller KE 25/12 14.4V 4325 N 790 1.711 1.80 .180 12
Keller KE 25/14 16.8V 4326 N 670 2.02 1.49 .250 14
Keller KE 35/5 8.4V 4330 N 1430 .945 3.72 .05 5
Keller KE 35/6 8.4V 4331 N 1210 1.117 3.41 .065 6
Keller KE 35/8 12V 4332 N 950 1.423 2.06 .110 8
Keller KE 35/10 16.8V 4333 N 770 1.756 1.61 .160 10
Keller KE 35/12 19.2V 4334 N 620 2.18 1.65 .220 12
Keller KE 40/6 14.4V 4344 N 1200 1.127 2.14 .070 6
Keller KE 40/8 16.8V 4342 N 860 1.572 1.01 .100 8
Keller KE 40/10 19.2V 4340 N 700 1.931 1.13 .150 10
Keller KE 40/14 24V 4341 N 490 2.76 .72 .270 14
Keller KE 50/5 12V 4350 C 1150 1.18 3.95 .065 5
Keller KE 50/6 12V 4351 C 990 1.37 3.53 .080 6
Keller KE 50/7 16.8V 4352 C 860 1.57 2.38 .100 7
Keller KE 50/8 19.2V 4353 C 740 1.83 2.19 .130 8
Keller KE 50/10 25.2V 4354 C 600 2.25 1.56 .200 10
Keller KE 50/11 25.2V 4355 C 520 2.60 1.48 .220 11
Keller KE 70/4 16.8V 4370 C 1190 1.14 3.86 .05 4
Keller KE 70/5 19.2V 4371 C 980 1.38 3.28 .07 5
Keller KE 80/6 21.6V 4380 C 750 1.80 2.04 .10 6
Keller KE 80/7 21.6V 4381 C 620 2.18 i.92 .115 7
Keller KE 80/8 28.8V 4382 C 550 2.41 1.69 .150 8
Keller KE 80/9 28.8V 4383 C 500 2.70 1.61 .160 9
Keller KE 100/5 24V 4410 C 630 2.15 2.25 .080 5
Keller KE 100/6 24V 4411 C 550 2.46 1.50 .100 6
Keller KE 100/8 32.4V 4412 C 410 3.30 1.42 .180 8
Keller KE 100/9 32.4V 4413 C 360 3.75 1.32 .190 9
Keller KE 240/4 36V 4420 C 850 1.59 5.50 .065 4
Keller KE 240/5 24V 4421 C 680 1.90 8.74 .095 5
Keller KE 240/6 32.4V 4422 C 560 2.41 5.68 .115 6
Fine Mfg. Cordite 19.2V KR-7 Fan C 1733 .78 1.98 .057 30
Fine Mig. Cordite 19.2V KR-8 Fan N 1756 .77 1.88 .057 30
Fine Mig. Cordite 19.2V KR-9 Fan F 1727 .78 1.03 .101 40
Fine Mfg. Cordite 19.2V KR-10 Fan N 1349 1.00 1.52 .101 40
AVEOX l409/3D D=delta C 2775 .487 .60 .015 3
AVEOX 1409/4D wired C 2055 .658 .50 .024 4
AVROX 1409/5D C 1660 .814 .40 .037 5
AVEOX 1412/5D C 1225 1.104 .60 .044 5
AVEOX l4l2/7D C 870 1.554 .45 .075 7
AVEOX l412/9D C 675 2.003 .35 .096 9
AVEOX 1406/2Y Y=Wye C 3000 .451 .80 .018 2
AVEOX 1406/3Y wired C 2000 .676 .60 .037 3
AVEOX 1406/4Y C 1500 .901 .45 .060 4
AVEOX 1409/2Y C 2000 .676 .85 .022 2
AVEOX 1409/3Y C 1333 1.014 .65 .040 3
AVEOX 1409/4Y C 1000 1.352 .50 .069 4
AVEOX 1412/2Y C 1550 .872 .95 .027 2
AVEOX 1412/3Y C 1033 1.309 .65 .047 3
AVEOX 1412/4Y C 775 1.745 .50 .079 4
AVEOX 1412/5Y C 620 2.18 .40 .128 5
AVEOX 1817/2Y N 650 2.08 1.20 .027 2
AVEOX 1817/3Y N 433 3.12 .90 .060 3
AVEOX 1817/4Y N 325 4.16 .75 .108 4
AVEOX 2310/6Y N 360 3.76 .117 6
AVEOX 2315/6Y N 248 5.45 .083 6
AVEOX 2315/8Y N 185 7.31 .147 8

The Following Is the Data on the MaxCim Max15 Brushless

provided by: Tom Cimato
57 Hawthorne Dr.
Orchard Park, NY 14127-1958
76331.3712@compuserve.com

Mfg'r Name/Use No. Type Kv Kt Inl Ra

MaxCim Max15-13Y 1457 0.945 1.1 .075
MaxCim Max15-13D 2520 0.545 2.5 .025

The Following Data is from "Model Electronics Corp. Turbo 10 Plus" - Product Review - Model Airplane News -
Tom Hunt - May 1995

Mfg'r Name/Use No. Type Kv Kt Inl Ra

MEC Turbo 10 Plus 4700 0.288 4.4 0.018
 From KAN Kerken Airfield News
Your favorite R/C soaring pages from Germany
Speed 500 & 600 motor data
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/gbongartz

modified by Ken Myers

General information about the SPEED 500 & 600 series

Identify your motor

Graupner (and others) are using some special terms to identify their motors:
SPEED 500 length 50 mm (just shy of 2 in.), shaft diameter 3.17 mm (1/8 in.)
SPEED 600 length 60 mm (about 2 3/8 in.), shaft diameter 3.17 mm (1/8 in.)
ECO or E low amature cuuent
BB shaft bearing with ball race(s)
TURBO 5 slot armature
RACE high speed motor
COMPETITION high speed motor, tuned exchangeable brushes, ball race bearings
EXPERT for competition and expert use

Speed 500
The SPEED 500 series has two classes. The high performance and high quality group consisting of the motors no.
1740, 3305, 3315 and 3317. The other motors are the economy group for general purpose use. This group consists of motor
no. 1788, 1789, 1799 and 3322.
All motors of the Speed 500 series have a 3-slot armature. Graupner recommends the SPEED 500 motors for sport
models with an all up weight of about 1000 - 1250g (35 - 44 oz.), the span shouldn't exceed 1200 mm (47 in.).

Symbols used in the following tables:

Un nominal voltage (V)
Ri armature resistance (Ohm)
Io armature current idle, no load (A)
Eta = efficiency (%)
I_Eta = armature current at best efficiency
n = revolutions / minute n/V = typical motor speed per volt

SPEED 500 Series Overview

SPEED RX SPEED
Type 540 RB VZ SPEED 500 E 12V 500 RACE SPEED 500
Cat.-No. 1740 1788 1789 1799
Un (V) 7.2 12 7.2 7.2
Ri (Ohm) 0.007 1.2 0.075 0.122
Io (A) 1.7 0.4 2 1.5
n/V 2740 1040 2850 2360
Eta (%) 82 67 76 66
I_Eta(A) 14 2 14 9
Weight(g) 170(6 oz.) 158 (5.6 oz.) 164 (5.75 oz.) 162 (5.7 oz.)

SPEED 500 SPEED 500 SPEED 500

Type BB RACE VS BB Competition BB Competition Speed 500
Cat-No. 3305 3315 3317 3322
Un (V) 7.2 8.4 8.4 8.4
Ri (Ohm) 0.0064 0.08 0.07 0.16
Io(A) 1.4 1.7 2.7 1.2
n/V 3100 2750 3050 2000
Eta (%) 82 89 87 69
I_Eta(A) 17 13 16 9
Weight (g) 166 (5.85 oz.) 196 (6.9 oz.) 196 (6.9 oz.) 160 (5.65 oz.)

SPEED 600 Series

SPEED 600 SPEED 600 SPEED 600 SPEED 600 SPEED 600
Type BB 9.6V 9.6V BB 7.2V 7.2V 8.4V
Cat-No. 1780 1786 1787 1793 3301
Ri (Ohm) 0.194 0.265 0.096 0.085 0.125
Io (A) 1.8 1.37 2.8 2.8 2.3
n/V 1584 1979 2638 2526 1890
Eta (%) 66 65 65 67 66
I_Eta(A) 9.4 7 14.5 15.9 12.5
Weight(g) 201 (7 oz.) 198 (7 oz.) 197 (7 oz.) 198 (7 oz.) 220 (7.75 oz.)
Flux-ring no no no no yes

SPEED 600 BB SPEED 600 BB SPEED 600 SPEED 600 RB

Type TURBO 12V 8.4V ECO 7.2V TURBO 14.4V
Cat.-No. 3302 3316 3323 6314
Ri(Ohm) 0.285 0.125 0.156 0.44
Io (A) 1.1 1.95 1.5 0.7
n/V 1491 1932 1583 993
Eta (%) 70 69 67 73
I_Eta(A) 6.8 11.5 8.3 4.8
Weight(g) 212 221 221 217
Flux-ring yes yes yes yes

Some Math
How to calculate the motor parameters
There are various ways to calculate the motor para-meters. The formulas shown below are close approxi-mations
of the actual motor performance.
Motor constant K
K = Uk/n
Uk (V) and n (rev/min) motor data from data sheet - Example: 8.4 Volt /16000 rev/min = 0.000525 (data for SPEED 600
BB 8.4V No. 3316)
Note: This is the inverse of n/V which is rpm per volt

Motor series resitance Ri

Ri (Ohm) =(UkL - nL x K)/Im

UkL (V), nL (rev/min) and Im (A) measured under load conditions - Example: (6.5 Volt -11600 rev/min x 0.00036)/24.3
Ampere = 0.093 Ohm (data for SPEED 500 BB No. 3315)
Remark: In case you use a reduction gear, multiply prop speed and gear ratio to calculate the motor speed under load!

Motor back EMF Uemk

Uemk(V) = nL x K
Example: 11600 rev/min x 0.0003636 = 4.218 Volt (data for SPEED 500 BB No. 3315)
 Motor resistor voltage drop Uri

Uri(V) = UkL - nL x K
Example: 6.5 Volt - 11600 rev/min x 0.0003636 = 2.282 Volt (data for SPEED 500 BB No. 3315)

Power consumption Pin

Pin (W) = Uk x Im
Example: Pin = 6.5 Volt x 24.3 Ampere = 157.95 Watt (data for SPEED 500 BB No. 3315)

Power at motor shaft Pw

Pw(W) =(Uk - Ri x Im) x (Im-Io)

Example: (6.5 Volt - 0.093 Ohm x 24.3 Ampere) x (24.3 Ampere - 1.7 Ampere) = 95.82 Watt
Remark: measurments show a result about 10% below this value! 84 Watt (data for SPEED 500 BB No. 3315)

Efficiency Eta
Eta (%) =Pw/Pin x 100
Example: 95.82 Watt /157.95 Watt x 100=60.66 %
Remark: measurments show a result about 10% below this value! 54 % (data for SPEED 500 BB No.3315)

Power Loss PLo

PLo (w) =Pin - Pw or PLo (w) = Pin x (100 - Eta)/100

Example: 157.95 Watt - 95.82 Watt = 62.13 Watt or 157.95 Watt x (100 - 60.66) / 100 = 62.13 Watt (data for SPEED
500 BB No. 3315)

Maximum amature curent for SPEED 600 motors

Imax (A) = SQR(40 Watt / Ri)

SQR = sqare root: Example: SQR(40 Watt / 0.125 Ohm) = 17.88 Ampere
40 Watt as power loss PL was measured an acceptable value, you can increase it to PL = 60 Watt. 60 Watt will wear out
the motor much faster than 40 Watt. For a SPEED 500 motor it is about the same, I guess (GB).

Model weight Wm as result of power at motor shaft Pw

Wm (g) =Pw x l0 (factor can be 10 to 15)

Weight in oz. = (Pw x 10)/28.35
Example: 73.44 x 10 = 734 g or 73.44 x 10 / 28.35 = 25.89 oz. You can increase the factor up to 15 for a duration glider.
A sports model shouldn't exceed a weight limit of 735 g for some sort of dynamic flying, gliders can have a higher weight -
power ratio but the factor shouldn't exceed 15. This equation is based on practical tests and experience.

Figuring Power Absorbed in Static condition by Various Props (several common formulas)

(The easiest way to see what is happening is to enter the following in a spread sheet)

Note that the Abbott, Boucher and Young formulas give about the same power out to the prop;

Abbott: = inches of pitch * inches of diameter4 * RPM3 * 5.33 * 10-15

Boucher: = 1.31 * pitch in feet * diameter in feet4 * RPM in thousands3 (for Master Airscrew, Top Flite,
Zinger), for Rev-up subtract 1/2" from the pitch, for folding use 1.18 instead of 1.31, for APC use 1.11 instead
of 1.31
Young: = inches of pitch * inches of diameter4 * RPM3 * 746/(1.4 * 10^17)

Note the large difference these Australian formulas give, compared to the above formulas;
Stevenson/Tapp: Fixed = 1.1 * 10-15 * pitch in inches * diameter in inches4 * RPM3.15
Folding = 9.5 * 10-16 * pitch in inches * diameter in inches4 * RPM3.15
Unknown: Fixed = 5.525 * 10-6 * pitch in inches1.03 * diameter in inches3.86 * RPM in thousands3.03
Folding =3.395 * 10-6 * pitch in inches0.96 * diameter in inches3.94 * RPM in thousands3.14

From EFI May/June 1996

Using a "prop constant" to get power out

Power out = prop constant x (RPM in thousands)3.15

or
Thousands of RPM = (power/prop constant)0.31746
Prop Constants for Graupner Speed Props
5x5 0.016
6 x 5.5 0.023
6.5 x 6.5 0.036
7x7 0.047

Sanyo Battery Data from Doug Ingraham & Bob Kress

Just Added from Sanyo 1996 Catalog
N-270AA IR=0.015 ohms Weight = 14 g or 0.49 oz.
N-270AA IR=0.015 ohms Weight = 14 g or 0.49 oz.
N-500A IR=0.009 ohms Weight = 22 g or 0.78 oz.
N-500A IR=0.009 ohms Weight = 19 g or 0.67 oz.
N-500AR IR=0.009 ohms Weight = 19 g or 0.67 oz.
N-500AR IR=0.009 ohms Weight = .67 oz.
N-500A IR=0.009 ohms Weight = 19 g or 0.67 oz.
N-600AA IR=0.012 ohms Weight = 26 g or 0.92 oz
N-600AA IR=0.012 ohms Weight = 23 g or 0.805 oz
KR-600AE IR=0.010 ohms Weight = 21 g or 0.74 oz.
KR-600AE IR=0.0085 ohms Weight = 18 g or 0.63 oz
N-600SCR IR=0.0055 ohms Weight = 29 g or 1.02 oz.
N600SCR IR=0.0055 ohms Weight = 0.998 oz..
N-600SCR - NOT LISTED IN 1996 CATALOG
N-650SC IR=0.006 ohms Weight = 29 g or 1.02 oz.
N-650SC IR=0.006 ohms Weight = 29 g or 1.015 oz.
N-700AR IR=.007 ohms Weight = 0.988 oz.
N-700AR - NOT LISTED IN 1996 CATALOG
N-800AR IR=0.006 ohms Weight = 34 g or 1.20 oz.
N-800AR IR=0.006 ohms Weight = 1.165 oz.
N-800AR - NOT LISTED IN 1996 CATALOG
KR-800AAE IR=0.012 ohms Weight = 24 g or 0.85 oz.
KR-800AAE IR=0.012 ohms Weight = 23 g or 0.805 oz.
KR-1000AE IR=0.008 ohms Weight = 31 g or 1.09 oz.
KR-1000AEL IR=0.008 ohms Weight = 27 g or 0.945 oz.
N-1000SCR IR=0.0045 ohms Weight = 42 g or 1.48 oz.
N-1000SCR IR=0.0045 ohms Weight = 1.48 oz.
N-1000SCR IR=0.0045 ohm Weight = 41 g or 1.435 oz.
N-1100SCR IR=0.0043 ohms Weight = 1.518 oz.
N-1100SCR IR=0.0043 ohms Weight = 43 g or 1.505 oz.
KR-1200AE IR=0.0076 ohms Weight = 34 g or 1.20 oz.
KR-1200AE IR=0.0076 ohms Weight = 30 g or 1.05 oz.
N-1300SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 1.836 oz.
N-1300SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 52 g or 1.82 oz.
N-1400SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 53 g or 1.87 oz.
N-1400SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 1.871 oz.
N-1400SCR IR= 0.004 ohms Weight = 53 g or 1.855 oz.
N-1700SCRC IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 56 g or 1.98 oz.
N-1700SCRC IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 1.906 oz
N-1700SCRC - NOT LISTED IN 1996 CATALOG
N-1700SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 54 g or 1.89 oz.
N-1800SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 2.118 oz.
N-1800SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 60 g or 2.1 oz.
N-1900SCR IR=0.004 ohms Weight = 56 g or 1.96 oz.
N-2000CR IR=0.0038 ohms Weight = 2.859 oz.
N-2000CR IR=0.0038 ohms Weight = 81 g or 2.835 oz.
N-2500CR IR=0.0034 ohms Weight = 81 g or 2.835 oz.