GOLD IN 2000: AN INTRODUCTION

formity U-Au ± Pt and Pd deposits. Au-only deposits are The tectonic setting of Carlin-type deposits is still hotly debated,
structurally similar to the Archean midcrustal deposits; with Hofstra and Cline (2000) suggesting that they formed in the
however, they are closely associated with highly fractionated, mid-Tertiary during the transition from flat subduction of the
reduced, I-type granites which contribute magmatic fluids that Farallon plate, with generation of subduction-related magmas,
dilute and mix with fluids from metamorphic sources. Deposits to delamination of the slab from the base of the crust. They also
occur in linear belts associated with regional ductile structures stress the possible significance of (1) mantle plumes such as the
near the brittle-ductile transition. Gold occurs in all rock types ancestral Yellowstone hot spot which could have provided
and appears to have been derived from surrounding volcanic additional heat, magmatism, metals, and volatiles; and (2) long-
and sedimentary country rocks. The deposits record similar lived deep transcrustal fault zones that define the “trends”
fluid and geochemical associations, and bisulfide complexes are along which the majority of Carlin-type deposits are located.
implicated as the primary transport medium for the gold. Most deposits are hosted in permeable Paleozoic miogeoclinal
Partington and Williams document a broader range of crustal carbonate sequences that are either stratigraphically or
and tectonic environments and structural and host-rock controls structurally capped by less permeable siliciclastic rocks. The
for the Cu-Au-(Fe) deposits. Granites are spatially and moderately acidic, reduced, low salinity, 150° to 250°C ore fluids
temporally related to mineralization although details of the contained sufficient H2S concentration to suppress the
fluid chemistry vary widely. Alteration and metasomatism solubility of Fe, base metals, and silver as chloride complexes
occur both regionally and locally, are commonly intense, and and at the same time carry the gold and associated characteristic
typically remove Na while adding K and Fe. The last 10 years suite of trace elements (As, Sb, Tl, Hg) as bisulfide complexes.
have seen 150 Moz of production and resources identified from Various districts yield conflicting indications as to the source of
Proterozoic deposits, and thus, Proterozoic basins are high- ore fluids although the lack of mid-Tertiary intrusions spatially
priority exploration targets around the world. Better ore deposit associated with any of the ore deposits argues for a
models for these ore types are needed to help guide geo- metamorphic fluid source coupled with variably evolved
physical and geochemical exploration in these terranes. meteoric waters. The breadth of geochemical. petrologic, and
Phanerozoic orogenic gold deposits are associated with structural features observed in Carlin-type ore deposits resist
convergent plate margins in close proximity to major simple classification and further work is required to either refine
translithospheric structures such as shear zones. The deposits a single model or perhaps define multiple variations upon a
are almost entirely structurally controlled, and unlike the theme.
majority of their Archean and Proterozoic analogues; are Most gold-rich epithermal and porphyry systems and asso-
primarily hosted in thick marine sedimentary rock sequences ciated skarns occur in middle Mesozoic to younger continental-
(Bierlein and Crowe. 2000). The largest examples of this ore type and oceanic-arc tectonic settings around the Pacific Rim. Some
are found at or above the ductile- brittle transition in greenschist develop above subduction zones within or distal. to continental
grade terranes. Mineralization closely follows the peak of margins, but during postcollisional extension, whereas others
metamorphism and is tempo- rally associated with uplift and develop in oceanic environments of volcano plutonic island arcs
unroofing of the orogen and lithospheric delamination. Which located above moderately to steeply dipping subduction zones
adds heal to the lower crust by mantle upwelling. Ore fluids are (e.g., Sawkins, 1990: Sillitoe. 1991). White and Hedenquist (1995)
CO2-rich metamorphic fluids that deposit gold at 1 to 3 kbar and emphasize the close spatial relationship of epithermal
250° to 400°C. Alteration halos range in size front centimeters to environments to igneous systems, and the vertical transition
a few tens of meters and reflect local lithologic, permeability, from porphyry style to low-sulfidation epithermal vein-style
porosity, and bedding variations. mineralization within the top 5 km of crust. High-sulfidation
Lithogeochemical data from these alteration halos provide the and hot spring epithermal gold deposits occur in the same
best exploration tool and generally document depletion, of Na tectonic regime but distal to the plutonic rocks, the latter near
and addition of K, S. As. Au and possibly Sb as well as CO2 and the paleosurface. Other epithermal gold deposits are associated
H2O. The limited areal extent of these alteration halos reduces with alkalic, mantle- related rocks that reflect extensional
their usefulness in a regional exploration effort but makes them episodes in a convergent orogen. These could either be in a near-
quite useful during final prospect evaluation or mine site arc region (e.g., Porgera: Richards et al, 1990) or far inland of the
development. accretionary wedge (e.g., Cripple Creek: Kelley et al., 1998).
The fluid chemistry of orogenic gold deposits is the subject of a Cooke and Simmons (2000) and Hedenquist et al. (2000)
summary paper by Ridley and Diamond (2000). These deposits, summarize the characteristics and genesis of epithermal gold
of varying ages and in all settings have in common a low salinity ores and then apply the resulting model to defining an
and mixed aqueous-carbonic fluid, with—in many respects—a exploration strategy for these important ore deposits. Low-
uniform composition and isotopic chemistry. They propose that sulfidation systems are spatially associated with magmas but
for many components the fluids arc in approximate equilibrium generally occur up to several kilometers above the causative
with the host-rock sequence, but the fluid composition varies in
space and time with respect to a number of critical components.
Ore fluid compositions should not be expected to closely reflect
the source; rather, they will reflect fluid-rock interactions along
the fluid pathway or mixed signatures of the source and wall
rocks. With these principles in mind Ridley and Diamond
conclude that either a granitoid magmatic or a metamorphic
devolatilization model for the fluid sources of orogenic gold
deposits is consistent with the data.