Richards, J.P.

, 2005 - Cumulative Factors in the Generation of Giant Calc-alkaline

Porphyry Cu Deposits; in Porter, T.M. (Ed.), Super Porphyry Copper & Gold Deposits:
A Global Perspective; PGC Publishing, Adelaide, v. 1, pp 7-25.

CUMULATIVE FACTORS IN THE GENERATION OF

GIANT CALC-ALKALINE PORPHYRY Cu DEPOSITS
Jeremy P. Richards

Department of Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.

Abstract - The formation of porphyry Cu deposits in calc-alkaline magmatic arcs is considered to be the
cumulative product of a wide range of processes beginning with dehydration of the subducting oceanic slab.
No single process is key to the formation of large deposits, but the absence or inefficient operation of any
contributory process, or the action of a deleterious process, can stunt or prevent deposit formation.
A starting premise is that normal calc alkaline arc magmas have the potential ultimately to form a porphyry
Cu deposit (i.e., arc magmas are inherently “fertile”). This characteristic is ascribed to the relatively high
oxidation state and high H2O, Cl, and S contents of typical arc magmas (metal contents do not need to be
anomalously enriched). Given the availability of such magma, the next most important factor in the formation
of large porphyry Cu deposits is the flux of this magma reaching the upper crust. The supply of magma must
be sufficiently voluminous and localised to maintain an active upper crustal magma chamber of ≥100 km3 in
order for enough Cu (and S) to be available for extraction by magmatic hydrothermal fluids. These
requirements imply a long-lived magmatic system rooted in the supra-subduction zone mantle wedge, with
the formation of an extensive lower-crustal melting and assimilation (MASH) zone. Compressional tectonic
regimes are thought to favour the formation of such magma bodies as sill complexes deep in the lithosphere.
Relaxation of compressional stress permits the voluminous rise of buoyant, evolved magmas to upper crustal
levels, and explains the common occurrence of porphyry Cu deposits at the end of protracted tectono-
magmatic events. Pre-existing zones of structural weakness in the crust facilitate magma ascent, and dilational
volumes at transpressional jogs and step-overs in strike-slip fault systems provide optimal conditions for
focused flow and emplacement. The geometry of the upper crustal magma chamber so formed includes a
cupola zone (commonly ≤2 km depth) into which bubble-rich, buoyant magma rising from depths of >5 km
convectively circulates, releasing its volatile load into the overlying carapace. This fluid dynamic mechanism
enables efficient partitioning of metals from a large volume of magma into the exsolving hydrothermal
fluid, and achieves focused delivery of that fluid into the carapace zone. Cooling of the fluid and wallrock
reactions result in efficient precipitation of metals in association with potassic and, in some deposits, phyllic
alteration.
Ore-forming potential may be spoiled by tectonic conditions and histories that do not focus magma generation
and emplacement, crustal conditions (such as the presence of reduced lithologies in the deep crust) that
cause early sulphide saturation and segregation, or catastrophic explosive volcanism that destroys the
magmatic-hydrothermal ore-forming process by venting fluids directly to the surface.
Exploration indicators for large porphyry Cu deposits include the development of a well-established magmatic
arc with concentrations of sub-volcanic plutonic centres, localised by large-scale structural features.

Introduction occur in island arc settings where the crust is thinner

(implying less differentiation and crustal interaction), and
Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) deposits, henceforth referred to as
more alkaline (shoshonitic) intrusions occur in back-arc
porphyry Cu deposits, are formed by hydrothermal fluids
settings where rapid magma ascent from depth is facilitated
exsolved from subduction-related arc magmas. Porphyry
by extensional tectonics. There is a general tendency, with
Cu deposits are found in association with magmatic arcs
many exceptions, for the latter two deposit associations to
worldwide, but large deposits tend to be clustered in both
be relatively Au-rich (Kesler, 1973; Kesler et al., 1977;
space and time (Clark, 1993). The host magmatic systems
Jones, 1992; Sillitoe, 1989, 1993, 1997, 2000; Lang et al.,
tend to be of felsic to intermediate calc-alkaline
1995).
composition, although these upper crustal magmas are
derivative from more mafic, ultimately mantle-derived, A fundamental tenet of this paper is that the formation of
sources. Indeed, more mafic (dioritic) host rocks commonly calc-alkaline porphyry Cu deposits is a normal, if rare,

7
8 General

product of arc tectono-magmatic processes (Burnham, such as uplift, erosion, and weathering history. These
1981; Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Cline, 1995). The rarity of secondary aspects of ore deposit evolution are beyond the
large porphyry Cu deposits is interpreted to be not so much scope of this paper.
a function of unique events, as a fortuitous convergence of
common processes that act together or cumulatively to Sources and Characteristics of Primary
optimise conditions for ore formation. In this paper the
terms “large” and “giant” deposits are used in a general
Arc Magmas
sense to describe unusually large systems in terms of their Slab Dehydration, Mantle Metasomatism, and Partial
metal content. Note, however, that the word “giant” has Melting
been given specific meaning by Clark (1993; following the Calc-alkaline arc magmas are believed to be derivative from
National Academy of Sciences, 1975), and refers to deposits primary melts generated in the asthenospheric mantle
containing 3.2 to 10 Mt (ie. million tonnes) of Cu (“super- wedge above a subducting oceanic plate (Fig. 1; Tatsumi
giant” deposits contain 10 to 31.2 Mt Cu, and et al., 1986; Peacock, 1993; Arculus, 1994). The unique
“behemothian” >31.2 Mt Cu). Examples of porphyry Cu chemical characteristics of arc magmas, such as their high
deposits containing >10 Mt Cu include Chuquicamata, El H2O and sulphur contents, high large-ion lithophile element
Abra, La Escondida and El Teniente in Chile, Cerro (LILE: Rb, K, Cs, Ba and Sr) concentrations, enrichments
Colorado in Panama, Grasberg in Indonesia, Sar Cheshmeh in Li, B, Pb, As and Sb, and relative depletions in Ti, Nb
in Iran, Cananea in Mexico, and Bingham Canyon in the and Ta, are attributed to metasomatism of the mantle wedge
USA (Clark, 1993). by fluids released from the subducting slab (e.g., Davidson,
This paper reviews the range of processes that affect arc 1996; Noll et al., 1996; de Hoog et al., 2001). High-pressure
magmas and their exsolved hydrothermal fluids from (~3 GPa), low-temperature (700-800°C) metamorphic
magmagenesis to mineral precipitation, and discusses how conversion of the oceanic crust from blueschist to eclogite
these factors contribute to ore-forming potential. Such facies rock at a depth of ~100 km involves the breakdown
processes control the total metal content of the deposits, of hydrous minerals such as serpentine, amphibole, zoisite
and also the hypogene grade and metal ratios. Ultimately and lawsonite (Tatsumi, 1986; Schmidt and Poli, 1998;
however, the economic value of a porphyry Cu deposit may Winter, 2001; Forneris and Holloway, 2003) with the release
have little to do with the size of the hypogene system, but of a fluid phase enriched in water-soluble elements (LILE,
instead may be controlled by post-emplacement processes sulphur, halogens). These fluids infiltrate and hydrate the

Figure 1: Structure and processes in a subduction zone and continental arc (modified from Winter, 2001, and
Richards, 2003a). Primary arc magmas are derived from partial melting of the metasomatised mantle wedge. Pooling
of these mafic magmas at the base of the overlying crust results in crustal melting and assimilation, with storage and
homogenisation in large lower crustal sill complexes (MASH process). After evolution to less dense compositions,
intermediate-composition magmas rise to upper crustal levels. 20% of these magmas may erupt at the surface.
 Generation of Giant Porphyry Deposits - J.P. Richards 9

overlying mantle, thereby lowering its solidus temperature Primary Arc Magmas: Factors Affecting Metallogenic
and making it more susceptible to melting. Convection of Potential
this hydrated material into warmer parts of the mantle Porphyry Cu deposits are typically associated with suites
wedge (>1000°C), or direct fluid infiltration, results in of normal calc-alkaline arc magmas, for which partial
partial melting to form primary arc magma. melting of the metasomatised mantle wedge is the generally
Analyses of primitive (minimally evolved) magmas from accepted origin. Dilles (1987) and Cline and Bodnar (1991)
island arcs suggest that the primary magma composition is have argued that such magmas are inherently capable of
a high-Mg basalt with 1.2-2.5 wt. % H2O (Arculus, 1994; forming economic porphyry Cu deposits (i.e., they are
Sobolev and Chaussidon, 1996). “fertile”), and that special magmas or special magmatic
processes are not required.
Slab Melting (Adakites)
The chief characteristics that make calc-alkaline arc
Primary magmas in subduction zones may also be generated magmas fertile derive ultimately from the slab dehydration
under certain conditions by direct melting of subducting process, which transfers water, sulphur, halogens, LILE,
oceanic crust, producing adakites. Adakitic magmas have and possibly metals into the mantle wedge. Porphyry Cu
recently been implicated in porphyry Cu deposit formation deposits are characterised primarily by extreme enrichments
by some authors (e.g., Thiéblemont et al., 1997; Oyarzun in sulphur and potassium (Hunt, 1991) introduced by
et al, 2001). Normally, the geothermal gradient followed exsolved saline magmatic fluids, and as such the primary
by the slab does not reach high enough temperatures at enrichment of arc magmas in these metasomatic
shallow enough depths for melting to occur, and the slab components gives them an obvious advantage as potential
instead undergoes dehydration (as described above). sources over other common magma types, such as relatively
However, under conditions of high-temperature, shallow, alkali- and volatile-poor mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB)
or stalled subduction, wherein the slab resides at shallow or ocean island basalts (OIB).
depths for extended periods of time and warms more
extensively, melting of the metamorphosed basaltic crust In addition to these elemental characteristics, arc magmas
has been proposed to occur (Defant and Drummond, 1990). are also relatively oxidised, commonly up to two log fO2
Such conditions are favoured by the subduction of young units above the fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer (FMQ+2;
(≤25 m.y.-old) and therefore buoyant oceanic lithosphere Brandon and Draper, 1996; Parkinson and Arculus, 1999;
(Defant and Drummond, 1990; Peacock et al., 1994), where Einaudi et al., 2003). Oxidation of the mantle wedge is
the plate is torn at discontinuities in subduction angle another product of aqueous fluid metasomatism. Oxidation
(Yogodzinski et al., 2001), or during tectonic state is important because it affects the speciation and
reconfigurations such as subduction zone reversal, arc solubility of sulphur in the melt, as well as the stability of
migration, or arc collision. residual sulphide phases in the mantle. Under oxidising
conditions, sulphide phases are increasingly destabilised,
Slab melts have been modelled as having high-alumina and sulphur solubility, as dissolved sulphate species,
andesitic to dacitic bulk composition, and are characterised increases in the melt (Carroll and Rutherford, 1985). For
by low Y and heavy rare earth element (HREE), and high example, Jugo et al., (2001, 2003) have shown
Sr concentrations, due to the presence of residual experimentally that the solubility of S as sulphate in basaltic
hornblende and garnet in the eclogitic source rock melts at mantle pressures can be as high as 1.5 wt. % S
(e.g., SiO2 ≥ 56 wt.%, Al2O3 ≥ 15 wt.%, MgO usually < 3 under oxidising conditions (≥FMQ+2). The effect is that
wt.%, Y ≤ 18 ppm, Yb ≤ 1.9 ppm, Sr ≥ 400 ppm; Defant chalcophile elements (e.g., Cu and Au, which normally
and Drummond, 1990). partition strongly into sulphide phases relative to silicate
magma) will behave as incompatible elements and will
Defant and Drummond (1990) based their model of adakite
dissolve into the melt. Thus, primary arc magmas should
petrogenesis primarily on island arc magmas where
contain relatively high concentrations of chalcophile metals
contamination from continental crustal sources was absent.
compared with other more reduced mantle-derived
However, these same geochemical characteristics can be
magmas.
generated by partial melting of garnetiferous (eclogitic or
garnet amphibolitic) lower continental crust, and so the Mungall (2002) has taken this argument a step further and
identification of rocks with adakitic chemical signatures in has proposed that adakitic slab melts are particularly
continental arcs is not a proof of origin by slab melting. effective mantle oxidising agents because they might
Oyarzun et al. (2001) proposed that magmas involved in contain a high content of ferric iron derived from oxidised
the formation of large Eocene-Oligocene porphyry Cu sea floor basalts. Although this model seems unlikely to
deposits in northern Chile were derived from slab melts be a general cause of metal enrichment in normal calc-
because of their high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios, but Rabbia alkaline porphyry Cu deposit-forming magmas for the
et al., (2002) and Richards (2002) argued that these reasons outlined above (i.e., slab melts are of rare and
geochemical signatures were imparted by deep crustal restricted occurrence), such a mechanism may well apply
processes resulting from progressive thickening of the to the formation of unusually Au-rich porphyry deposits
Andean crust (see also Haschke et al., 2002; Garrison and formed in atypical arc settings, such as during arc reversal
Davidson, 2003). At present, there is no clear indication or arc collision, where stalled slabs might undergo partial
that slab melts are critical to the formation of porphyry Cu melting (cf. Solomon, 1990; McInnes and Cameron, 1994;
deposits. Richards, 1995; Sillitoe, 1997).
10 General

Deep Lithospheric Processing of Arc Richards et al., 1991; Spooner, 1993; Wyborn and Sun,
1994; Richards, 1995; Sillitoe, 1997, 2000).
Magmas
Just as MASH-zone processes may affect metal ratios in
Porphyry Cu deposits form both in island arcs with derived magmas, they may also affect the mass of metals
relatively thin mafic crust, and continental arcs with variable available for later mineralisation. The build-up and storage
to thick felsic crust. This first order relationship suggests of large volumes of magma at the base of the crust during
that the composition and character of the upper plate prolonged MASH episodes increases the overall volume
lithosphere is not a primary control on the fertility of arc of fertile magma that can subsequently rise into the upper
magmas (although it may affect ore metal ratios; crust. If it is accepted that the metals and S in porphyry Cu
e.g., Kesler, 1973). Nevertheless, all arc magmas, even deposits are derived primarily from the associated magma,
the most primitive, undergo some degree of interaction with then the more magma available, the larger the potential ore
the lithosphere during their ascent towards the surface, and deposit. Thus, large porphyry Cu districts tend to be
in continental arcs it has been estimated that evolved associated with large, long-lived, magmatic events.
magmas entering the upper crust have undergone tens of
percent of crustal contamination (McBirney et al., 1987; Following Takada (1994) and others, Richards (2003a)
Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988). Thus, it is important to argued that periods of compression in an arc may promote
consider how processes of crustal interaction might affect extensive MASH zone development by favouring deep
the evolution of potentially ore-forming magmas. crustal sill formation over vertical dyke propagation.
Porphyry Cu deposits are commonly observed to form late
In continental arcs, Hildreth and Moorbath (1988) in any given tectono-magmatic cycle in the arc
envisaged primitive basaltic magmas intruding the (e.g., Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988; McKee and Noble, 1989;
overlying dense mantle lithosphere until they reach the base McCandless and Ruiz, 1993; Richards et al., 2001;
of the crust (Fig. 1). Being denser than crustal rocks, the Richards, 2003b), corresponding to periods of stress
magmas pool in sill complexes at this level and conduct relaxation and large-volume ascent of evolved magmas into
heat into the overlying crust as they begin to crystallise. If the upper crust. Although magmas derived at other times
the magmatic flux is sustained, temperatures at the base of in the tectono-magmatic cycle from less well developed
the crust will rise and cause partial melting of crustal rocks. MASH zones are probably still fertile, they may not be
These felsic crustal melts will mix with the evolving mantle- emplaced into the crust with sufficient flux (i.e., volume
derived melts to form hybrid intermediate-composition and rate) to trigger or sustain effective ore-forming systems.
magmas, with densities that are now lower than typical
crustal rocks (see Richards, 2003, for a review). These Arc Magma Ascent and Emplacement
magmas can then rise buoyantly towards the surface.
Hildreth and Moorbath (1988) termed this combination of The MASH process generates evolved (andesitic) magmas
crustal melting and assimilation by primary basaltic that are more buoyant than the surrounding crustal rocks.
magmas, magma storage at the base of the crust, and magma Buoyancy forces will drive magma ascent through the crust,
homogenisation, the MASH process. perhaps initially as diapirs in the hot, ductile lower crust,

The MASH Zone: Factors Affecting Metallogenic

Potential
MASH processing enhances the fertility of arc magmas by
further concentrating volatiles and incompatible elements
(including chalcophile metals in oxidised magmas) in the
evolved melts. It is likely, although not essential, that some
metallic components will also be added to the magma from
assimilated crustal materials, and such processes may
explain second-order variations of metal contents and ratios
in ore deposits derived from contrasting basement terranes,
as observed for example in Arizona (Titley, 1987, 2001).
In addition, fractionation of sulphide melt or minerals at
any point during the evolution of these magmas could have
a significant effect on chalcophile metal ratios due to the
much lower abundance of Au and its higher partition
coefficient in sulphides, compared with Cu (Campbell and
Figure 2: Variation of Cu and Au concentrations in sulphide
Naldrett, 1979). Residual or fractionated sulphide phases melt coexisting with silicate melt as a function of
would thus remove much of the Au from the melt, but would R = (mass of silicate melt)/(mass of sulphide melt)
not significantly affect Cu concentrations unless the volume (Campbell and Naldrett, 1979). Cu is only depleted in the
of sulphide was large (Fig. 2). It may be partly for this magma if large amounts of sulphide remain in the mantle (>0.1
reason that Au-rich porphyry deposits are commonly wt. %; R ≤ 1000), whereas Au-rich magmas can only form
when sulphide abundance falls below ~1 ppm (R ≥ 106).
formed from more mafic and more oxidised magmas, in Assumed sulphide/silicate melt partition coefficients are DCu
which sulphide saturation and fractionation has not occurred = 1000, DAu = 105; assumed metal concentrations in magma
(e.g., Hamlyn et al., 1985; Bornhorst and Rose, 1986; in absence of sulphide: Cu = 50 ppm, Au = 5 ppb.
 Generation of Giant Porphyry Deposits - J.P. Richards 11

but predominantly as dykes in the cooler middle and upper 1998; Simakin and Talbot, 2001). Upon relaxation of
crust (Fig. 3; see review by Richards, 2003a). Dykes are compressional stress or a switch to shear stress, dyke
magma-filled fractures, held open by hydraulic pressure propagation is facilitated and vertical magma flow ensues.
transmitted from the buoyant magma column. Where large Because of the ability of dykes to become self-propagating,
volumes of vertically-connected buoyant magma exist, and due to the progressive warming of the conduit as fresh
these forces can easily exceed the lithostatic pressure plus magma continues to pass through it, this process is likely
the tensile strength of crustal rocks at the top of the dyke, to accelerate so long as a sufficient magma supply exists.
resulting in upward propagation through the crust (Lister Thus, it has been estimated that dyke-supplied mid-to-upper
and Kerr, 1991; Clemens and Mawer, 1992). crustal plutons can be filled on time scales of 104-106 years
Like faults and fractures, dykes propagate in the σ1-σ2 plane (Paterson and Tobisch, 1992; Petford, 1996; de Saint-
perpendicular to σ3. Thus, ideal conditions for vertical dyke Blanquat et al., 2001). These filling rates are comparable
formation are tensile or shear tectonic stress, with σ3 to or exceed the expected convective cooling rates of upper
oriented horizontally. In contrast, horizontal compressional crustal plutons (e.g., ≤104 years; Cathles, 1981), such that
stress (σ3 vertical) will favour sill formation (Parsons et a continuously molten magma chamber can be maintained
al., 1992). It is for this reason that periods of voluminous while magma supply lasts.
upper crustal plutonism tend to follow compressional Although magma buoyancy forces may be sufficient to form
orogenic episodes, during which large volumes of magma self-propagating dykes, suitably oriented pre-existing
are built up in lower crustal sill complexes (McNulty et al., fractures and faults in the crust will provide paths of lower

Figure 3: Schematic cross-section of magma transport

in a trans-lithospheric shear zone; see text for
details. Inspired by Brown (1994) and Vigneresse
and Tikoff (1999); modified from Richards (2003a).
No vertical exaggeration, but note mid-crustal scale
change. PCD = porphyry copper deposit.
12 General

resistance for magma ascent. For this reason, large-scale deposits are less likely to form. It should also be noted
crustal fracture zones, or lineaments, commonly focus the that the surface expressions of deep crustal fault systems
ascent of deeply derived magmas (Richards, 2000, and typically occupy broad structural zones several kilometres
references therein). Especially favourable loci for magma wide, in keeping with the vertical scale (tens of kilometres)
ascent occur at jogs or step-overs on strike-slip fault of such systems (Richards, 2000; Chernicoff et al., 2002).
systems, where vertically-oriented extensional volumes Predicting the locations of porphyry-forming systems
may form (Fig. 3; Brown, 1994). within these fault zones on this basis to better than a few
Magma Ascent: Factors Affecting Metallogenic Potential kilometres is likely, therefore, to be difficult. Nevertheless,
even at this distance one is likely to be able to observe
In sufficiently large trans-lithospheric magmatic systems, distal hydrothermal alteration effects (e.g., propylitic
the mineralising potential of the magma is unlikely to be alteration), which can extend >5 km from the core of a
lost on ascent through the crust, because, once started, the large magmatic-hydrothermal system. Thus, the potential
transfer of mass from the lower to the upper crust is rapid of such structural zones can be rapidly assessed using
(ascent rates of 10-2 to 10-3 m/s have been estimated by remote sensing and field reconnaissance methods.
Clemens and Mawer, 1992, and Petford, 1996). However,
the ability to construct a mid-to-upper crustal magma Upper Crustal Magmatic and
chamber of sufficient volume to sustain an ore-forming Hydrothermal Processes
magmatic-hydrothermal system depends critically on the
magma flux. If the supply rate is too slow, magma will Development of Upper Crustal Magma Chambers
tend to freeze in dykes en route to the surface (Clemens The focus of this review so far has been on the generation
and Mawer, 1992), but if the flux is high and is sustained of fertile magmas at depth and their transport into the upper
over a significant period of time, large, long-lived magma crust. A problem arises, however, if these magmas do not
chambers can be constructed. There is now considerable stop within the crust (as intrusions) but erupt at the surface.
evidence that large porphyry Cu deposits form, perhaps in Voluminous eruption is obviously not conducive to the
pulses, over periods of time significantly greater than that formation of pluton-related ore deposits. However, despite
expected for simple cooling of the small host plutons the impressive appearance of large stratovolcanoes, it has
(diameters commonly <1 km, cooling <<1 m.y.), suggesting been estimated that only ~20% of the magma generated in
that recharge of the underlying mid-to-upper crustal parental an arc actually reaches the surface (Carmichael, 2002). The
magma chamber from a deeply-rooted lower crustal remaining 80% either freezes en route from the lower crust,
magmatic system may be essential to producing large ore- or forms plutons within the upper crust. In addition, the
forming systems (e.g., Damon, 1986; Marsh et al., 1997; most voluminous volcanic eruptions associated with
Richards et al., 1999, 2001; Ballard et al., 2001).
The apparent necessity of a sustained, voluminous magma
supply for formation of large porphyry Cu deposits means
that optimum ore-forming conditions may occur at the end
of prolonged periods of tectonic compression and lower
crustal MASH processing, when stress relaxation facilitates
magma ascent. This timing is consistent with the late
appearance of porphyry Cu deposits in many arc cycles
around the world (e.g., Richards, 2003a,b, and references
therein).
In addition to these timing constraints, the locations of
maximum magma flux into the upper crust may be
controlled by pre-existing crustal-scale faults, and
particularly by fault intersections or deflections in strike-
slip fault systems where pull-apart volumes may be created
by transpression or transtension. The emplacement of large
porphyry Cu deposits at or near such loci has been proposed
in several instances, such as Chuquicamata (Maksaev and
Zentilli, 1988; Lindsay et al., 1995), La Escondida
(Richards, 1999; Richards et al., 1999, 2001; Padilla Garza
et al., 2001), and Bajo de la Alumbrera (Sasso and Clark,
1998; Chernicoff et al., 2002).
In combination, therefore, constraints of timing (at the end
of tectono-magmatic epochs) and location (at or near major
fault intersections or deflections) provide powerful tools
for predicting the locations of large porphyry Cu deposits Figure 4: Variation of densities of magmas and rocks with
pressure (after Herzberg et al., 1983). Whereas basaltic magmas
in magmatic arcs. These considerations do not prohibit
are denser than most crustal rock types, andesitic magmas are
deposits from forming at other times and in other places lighter and may rise to the surface driven by buoyancy forces
within the arc, but under non-optimal conditions large alone.
 Generation of Giant Porphyry Deposits - J.P. Richards 13

magmatic arcs probably do not involve subduction zone feeds a shallower magma reservoir 3-5 km beneath the
magmas or their differentiates, but instead involve crustal volcano. Roof lifting due to magma chamber inflation is
melts formed after prolonged periods of crustal thickening indicated by GPS measurements and seismic records of
and heating (e.g., the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex; normal faulting from 0-5 km depth beneath the edifice.
de Silva, 1989). Such magmatic systems are not prospective If the supply of magma is maintained at a sufficient flux,
for porphyry Cu deposits. the magma chamber will remain molten and the pluton will
Although intermediate composition (andesitic to dacitic) expand. In contrast, a lower flux will result in freezing of
arc magmas are less dense than typical crystalline crustal the pluton, with any later magma injections forming
rocks, unvesiculated magmas are more dense than many separate small intrusions from which heat and fluids will
supracrustal lithologies (Fig. 4; Herzberg et al., 1983). be dissipated ineffectually. Progressive development of a
Thus, in the absence of vesiculation or excess magma large upper crustal magma chamber will likely involve at
pressure (from hydrostatic head), magmas will tend to pool least some volcanism, and also the emplacement of shallow-
at their level of neutral buoyancy, which is typically close level sub-volcanic stocks or apophyses inflated by evolved,
to the basement/supracrustal contact where rock density volatile-rich, low-density magma (Fig. 5; Damon, 1986).
decreases (Fig. 5; Glazner and Ussler, 1988; Walker, 1989; The three-dimensional form of stocks associated with
Lister and Kerr, 1991). Alternatively, their ascent may be porphyry Cu deposits is characteristically vertically
checked by rheological boundaries, such as the brittle- elongate, resembling a narrow finger (1-2 km-diameter)
ductile transition zone (10-15 km depth, or shallower in extending to within ~1 km of the surface from a source
regions of high heat flow such as active magmatic arcs; pluton several kilometres below (Norton, 1982).
Vigneresse, 1995). Plutons will form at these levels by
lateral propagation and inflation of sills to form laccolithic Volatile Exsolution
(by roof lifting) or lopolithic (by floor depression) magma Volatile exsolution is an inevitable result of the cooling
chambers (Cruden, 1998; de Saint-Blanquat et al., 2001). and fractionation of hydrous arc magmas (water contents
Patanè et al. (2003) have recently described such a system in hornblende-phyric andesitic and dacitic magmas exceed
beneath the active Mount Etna volcano, in which a large, 4 wt.% H 2 O; Burnham, 1979, 1997; Naney, 1983;
structurally-located, sill-dyke-complex at 6-15 km depth Hedenquist et al., 1998). The large volume increase

Figure 5: Schematic cross-section through a porphyry Cu forming volcano-plutonic system (modified from Richards,
2003a) After pooling at an upper crustal density or rheological barrier (LNB = level of neutral buoyancy), intermediate
composition magmas continue to evolve and inject apophyses to shallow levels (some magma may erupt). Evolved,
bubble-rich magma is convected into the cupola zone where it releases volatiles, with resultant potassic (K) alteration. As
these fluids cool, they progressively deposit metal sulphide minerals, and alteration becomes hydrolytic (phyllic: Ph).
Intense hydrolytic (advanced argillic: AA) alteration develops near surface. Propylitic alteration (Pr) is developed in the
surrounding country rocks by the convective circulation of heated groundwaters.
14 General

resulting from this process, combined with the greatly for fresh, hot, buoyant magma in a convective process that
lowered bulk density of vesiculating magma, is a major continually releases new volatiles and heat into the
cause of volcanic eruptions (Eichelberger, 1995). These carapace. In this way, Shinohara et al. (1995) and Cloos
same volatiles, however, if separated from the magma (2001) envisage that the exsolution of volatiles from a large
without direct eruption to surface, will cause hydrothermal volume of magma could be spatially focused in the apical
alteration and, potentially, porphyry Cu-style portions of the magma chamber, and, moreover, that this
mineralisation. To form an economic deposit, large cupola zone could be maintained at magmatic temperatures
volumes of this fluid must be channelled through and for as long as convective overturn continues. This condition
reacted with small volumes of rock in order to focus mineral is considered to be a prerequisite for porphyry Cu formation,
deposition. Wide dispersion of fluids, or venting to surface because the volumes of syn-mineralisation intrusive rocks
prior to cooling, will not result in porphyry-type ore exposed in most such mines are insufficient to explain the
formation. large quantities of metals and sulphur if typical magmatic
concentrations of these elements are assumed. These
Volatiles exsolve initially from magma as small bubbles components must instead have been efficiently extracted
(Candela, 1991). Although much less dense than the from much larger volumes of magma at depth, and
magma, escape of these bubbles is hampered by melt transported into the apical zones by convection (Cloos,
viscosity and the presence of crystals (Cloos, 2001). 2001).
Instead, the bubble-rich magma may rise convectively to
the top of the chamber as a buoyant plume (Shinohara et al., The chemical and physical state of the exsolved magmatic
1995). As the magma rises, the bubbles will expand further fluid varies significantly with depth, and is a primary factor
in response to pressure decrease, and may eventually in controlling the partitioning of metals from the magma
coalesce to form a volatile-rich carapace (Whitney, 1975). into the fluid phase. Kilinc and Burnham (1972) showed
The degassed, denser magma will sink away to make room that chloride contents of initially exsolved aqueous fluids

Figure 6: Isotherms in P-X space for the NaCl-H2O system (after Pitzer and Pabalan, 1986). Depth is plotted on the right-hand axis,
assuming lithostatic pressure and a crustal density of 2.7 g/cm3. A supercritical aqueous fluid with 10 wt. % NaCl exsolves from magma in a
chamber at 700°C and 7 km depth (point A). As it rises into the cupola zone in a convecting plume of bubbly magma, it undergoes aqueous
phase separation from ~4.6 km depth (point B), condensing a saline brine (C) from a vapor that rapidly decreases in salinity as it continues to
rise and cool (dashed line B-D). By 2 km depth, the two-phase fluid at 600°C will consist of a low density vapour (~0.6 wt. % NaCl; point D)
and a high salinity brine (~60 wt. % NaCl; point E). Cu is initially transported by the supercritical fluid, and then deposited as the fluid begins
to phase separate and cool. Inset shows fluid inclusions from the Bigham Canyon porphyry, Utah, which have trapped coexisting vapour and
liquid phases similar to fluids D and E.
 Generation of Giant Porphyry Deposits - J.P. Richards 15

increase with pressure, and Candela and Holland (1984) suggested that a magma volume ten times this size would
showed that Cu solubility in these fluids increases with Cl be required to supply all the metal in the El Teniente
content. Thus, optimum conditions for partitioning of Cu porphyry Cu deposit (>93 Mt Cu; Skewes et al., 2002), but
into a saline magmatic hydrothermal phase appear to be at in personal communication Mark Cloos (2003) agrees that
pressures ≥1 kbar (depths ≥4 km; Cline and Bodnar, 1991; there was an order-of-magnitude error in this calculation.]
Cline, 1995). This result implies that initial segregation of A simple mass balance calculation supports this view:
metalliferous fluids from the magma must occur well below Average [Cu] in andesitic magma = 60 ppm Cu
the level of the shallow-level apophyses that typically host ΣCu in super-giant ore deposit = 10 Mt Cu
ore (1-2 km), and that these fluids then rise, in a buoyant Requires 10 Mt / 60 ppm of magma
bubble-rich magma plume, into the cupola zone. Efficient ≈ 1.7 x 1011 t of magma
sequestering of metals by the aqueous phase would be Magma density = 2.7 g/cm3 = 2.7 t/m3
expected during ascent of this intimately mixed bubbly Magma volume required = (1.7 x 1011/ 2.7) m3
plume. ≈ 6.3 x 1010 m3
Phase relationships in the H 2 O-NaCl system and Assuming 100% extraction efficiency = 63 km3
experimental models indicate that fluids exsolved at ~700°C Accepting that extraction efficiencies will be well below
and pressures ≥1.2 kbar will be supercritical (single phase), 100%, minimum volumes of at least 100 km3 of magma
and with salinity near 10 equiv. wt. % NaCl (Fig. 6; are therefore probably required to form super-giant
Sourirajan and Kennedy, 1962; Pitzer and Pabalan, 1986; (>10 Mt Cu) orebodies.
Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Cline, 1995). Upon ascent and
depressurisation however, these fluids will undergo phase Similar mass-balance calculations for sulphur, if based on
separation to form a high salinity brine and a lower salinity typical sulphur solubilities in felsic magmas (100 ppm),
vapour, the latter becoming rapidly more dilute as pressure suggest that volumes in excess of 4800 km3 would be
falls (Fig. 6; Henley and McNabb, 1978). The bulk of the required to form the 30 Mt Cu Bingham Canyon porphyry
Cu is probably transported by the saline brine, although deposit (Hattori and Keith, 2001). However, as these
some metal also appears to be transported in the early high- authors point out, the volume decreases by more than an
temperature vapour phase (Lowenstern et al., 1991; order of magnitude (to 152 km3) if a more mafic source
Heinrich et al., 1999; Williams-Jones et al., 2002, 2003). magma with higher sulphur solubility is used in the
calculation (see also Wallace, 2001). The latter scenario
Magmatic-hydrothermal Processes: Factors Affecting seems logical in the light of the preceding discussion of
Metallogenic Potential arc magma evolution, in which magma compositions were
Maintaining metallogenic potential of the ascending arc shown to evolve from primary high-Mg basalts generated
magmas is, until their arrival in the upper crust, largely a in the mantle wedge (containing up to 1.5 wt. % S; Jugo
function of magma flux (i.e., supply rate and volume). In et al., 2001, 2003), to the intermediate to felsic magmas
other words, a sufficient volume of metal-bearing magma that are ultimately emplaced in the upper crust. The latter
must be delivered into the upper crust, and it must be are derivative compositions, and are not representative of
delivered quickly enough to maintain it in a molten state the bulk magma flux.
while metals are partitioned into a hydrothermal fluid phase. The volumes of magma (102-103 km3) suggested by these
Once the magma is emplaced, a large number of variables calculations imply active connection between the upper
play a role in determining the efficiency of this metal crustal cupola zone (with a volume of only a few km3) and
transfer process, including magmatic volatile content a mid-crustal magma chamber of batholithic proportions.
(especially H2O, Cl, and S), oxidation state, depth of For example, Dilles and Proffett (1995) have shown that
emplacement, form of the sub-volcanic apical region, and the Yerington porphyry district was underlain by a
eruptive history. These are variables that are largely unique differentiating batholith of >1000 km3, and Ballantyne et
to any given body of magma and its crustal environment al. (1995) suggested that the Bingham Canyon porphyry
(including rheological, structural, and tectonic regime), and was underlain by a batholith of >5000 km3. Although
are therefore hard to predict. Nevertheless, these factors batholiths are a common feature of arcs, they are mostly
may all or individually exert absolute control on ore constructed slowly from individual plutons over several
formation. For example, if the aqueous fluid phase is millions of years (e.g., Cobbing, 1982), and so may not
exsolved late or in small volumes, minimal hydrothermal provide the degree of continuous magmatic activity required
transport of metals will occur, and no ore deposit will be to source a large porphyry system. Active magma chambers
formed (Cline and Bodnar, 1991). of sufficient size may be quite rare in the history of an arc,
Of major and overriding importance is the need for the although evidence for the present-day existence of a large
hydrothermal fluid phase to interact with a large volume mid-crustal magma chamber (~20 km depth) has recently
of magma, because Cu concentrations in intermediate been found beneath the Altiplano-Puna region of the central
composition magmas are quite low (10-150 ppm Cu; Gill, Andes (Schilling and Partzsch, 2001; Zandt et al., 2003).
1981). Cline and Bodnar (1991) and Cline (1995) have The rarity of formation of magma sources of this volume
suggested that a moderate-sized porphyry Cu deposit could may partially explain the rarity of large porphyry Cu
be formed from as little as 30-50 km3 of magma, although provinces. However, when conditions are suitable for the
larger volumes (perhaps 300 km3) might be required to form formation of regionally extensive mid-crustal magma
a behemoth such as El Teniente. [Note that Cloos (2001) chambers, then the evolution of multiple porphyry Cu
16 General

systems might be expected. This condition could explain (e.g., Guilbert, 1985; Ballantyne et al., 1995; Luck et al.,
the common clustering of such deposits, both in space and 1999) may have played a similar role in enabling the
time (e.g., Sillitoe, 1988). shallow ascent of primitive Au-rich magmas, which then
mixed with, or “spiked”, more felsic magma chambers in
Summarising the above discussion, the construction of
the upper crust.
large, active magma chambers requires a high magma flux
from depth, which brings us back to the necessity of Porphyry Cu Ore Formation
developing a large-volume MASH zone as a precursor for
giant porphyry Cu deposit formation. General Model

Mafic Magma Recharge Landmark studies by Meyer and Hemley (1967), Lowell
and Guilbert (1970), Gustafson and Hunt (1975), and
Recently, Hattori and Keith (2001) have argued that Hollister (1975) defined the characteristic framework of
recharge of upper crustal felsic magma chambers by hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation in porphyry Cu
primitive mafic melts might be an essential step in the deposits (Fig. 5; see review by Hedenquist and Richards,
formation of large porphyry Cu deposits, because of the 1998). Three decades of additional research have modified
higher concentrations of chalcophile metals and sulphur in these original descriptions only in detail, and have served
mafic magmas compared with felsic melts. In support of to underline the remarkable reproducibility of these large
this theory, Hattori and Keith (2001) pointed to the Bingham ore forming systems. In their simplest form, porphyry Cu
Canyon porphyry Cu deposit and the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo deposits are formed by precipitation of Cu-Fe-sulphide
eruptions, where evidence for mingling of felsic and mafic minerals during cooling, phase separation, and reaction of
magmas can be found. the exsolved magmatic-hydrothermal fluid with wallrocks.
Early high temperature potassic alteration (700-350°C;
Magma mixing is a common feature of eruption products
Einaudi et al., 2003) produces an assemblage similar to
from arc volcanoes, and has been suggested to be a trigger
that present in the igneous source rocks (e.g., quartz, K-
for some explosive volcanic eruptions (Walker, 1989; de
feldspar, biotite, ± magnetite) because the fluid is still close
Silva, 1991; Feeley and Davidson, 1994; Eichelberger,
to equilibrium with the near-solidus magma. As the fluid
1995; Straub and Martin-Del Pozzo, 1996; Murphy et al.,
cools (towards ~350°C), however, disproportionation of
2000; Schmitt et al., 2001). However, in most such cases
sulphur, predominantly dissolved as SO 2 at high
the mafic end-member is not “primitive” in the strict sense
temperature, begins to generate H2S and sulphuric acid:
of the word (i.e., a minimally evolved magma with high Ni
- +
and Cr content), but merely a less evolved mafic-to- 4 SO2 + 4 H2O ⇔ H2S + 3 HSO4 + 3 H (1)
intermediate magma from the same deep-seated magmatic This acidity, combined with the increasing reactivity of
system. The ascent of truly primitive magmas to shallow other species such as HCl and HF (Hedenquist, 1995),
crustal levels is uncommon in volcanic arcs, and is produces hydrolytic alteration of increasing intensity as the
particularly rare in continental arcs, where the thick felsic fluids rise through the carapace and cool. In addition, the
crust acts as a density filter (Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988; generation of H2S combined with falling temperatures leads
Carmichael, 2002). Primitive mafic magma recharge, to rapid precipitation of sulphide minerals (Burnham, 1997).
therefore, seems to be an unlikely and unsystematic The classic alteration zonation from potassic to near-surface
mechanism for forming porphyry Cu deposits, which are advanced argillic alteration (clay, alunite, diaspore;
highly reproducible in form, space, and time within <200°C), with lateral overprinting phyllic alteration
magmatic arcs (Sillitoe, 1988, 1992). It is also not clear (sericite-pyrite; 350-200°C), can be viewed broadly as a
why such a special mechanism should be required, when product of this evolution from hot neutral to cooler highly
normal magmatic evolution of oxidised, hydrous arc acidic fluid conditions (or low to high sulphidation states;
magmas can potentially achieve the same result. Einaudi et al., 2003). In detail however, the situation is
Despite these misgivings about the applicability of this more complex, and fluid evolution must be viewed in both
model for forming normal porphyry Cu deposits, it may space and time.
yet have validity in the formation of less common Au-rich Depending on the depth of exsolution, the magmatic
porphyry systems, of which Bingham Canyon is an hydrothermal fluid will exist initially either as a
example. As discussed above, primitive mafic magmas homogeneous supercritical fluid (e.g., at pressures >1.2
may well retain higher Au/Cu ratios than more evolved kbar, ~700°C), or as separate brine and vapour phases
magmas, especially if the latter have evolved in the presence (pressures <1.2 kbar, ~700°C; Fig. 6). Cline and Bodnar
of, or have fractionated, sulphide phases (Richards, 1995). (1991) and Cline (1995) have shown that this distinction is
Richards (1997) noted that mafic magmas related to alkalic- important, leading to early extraction of Cu from the magma
type Au deposits are commonly emplaced in post- in the first instance, but later and possibly less efficient Cu
subduction, collisional, or back-arc settings. A feature of extraction in shallower systems. The process of retrograde
such settings is the existence of localised extensional or volatile phase separation in deeper systems also appears to
transtensional structural domains, which facilitate the exert an important but poorly understood control on ore
shallow ascent of primitive magmas. Some of the largest deposition, significant sulphide mineralisation commonly
Au-rich porphyry Cu deposits, such as Bingham Canyon, appearing just after the first evidence for immiscibility in
Grasberg, and Bajo de la Alumbrera, also formed in back- the fluid inclusion record (e.g., Gustafson and Quiroga,
arc or off-arc settings. Here, extensional tectonics 1995; Arancibia and Clark, 1996).
 Generation of Giant Porphyry Deposits - J.P. Richards 17

A model for independent physical evolution of the brine broad dissipation throughout a large volume of country
and vapour phases was presented by Henley and McNabb rock, will reduce the porphyry ore-forming potential of the
(1978), who suggested that a low density vapour plume system (although it may enhance epithermal ore formation,
would ascend to shallow levels in the system, leaving the as at Lihir). In contrast, relatively focused flow may be
denser brine at depth. It is this vapour plume, rich in acidic achieved by brecciation of the carapace zone, and highly
volatiles, that gives rise to the shallow level advanced focused flow may correspond to breccia pipe formation.
argillic alteration, broadly coeval with potassic alteration
at depth (Hedenquist et al., 1998). There is mounting The textures of porphyry ores indicate that they were
evidence that these vapours may also be capable of formed near the brittle-ductile transition temperature. Early
transporting significant quantities of metals, particularly K-silicate-stable veins which formed at temperatures over
at depth (Lowenstern et al., 1991; Heinrich et al., 1999; ~400°C (Fournier, 1999) display evidence of plastic
Williams-Jones et al., 2002, 2003). deformation and vuggy cavities are rare (e.g., “A” veins),
whereas later veins associated with lower-temperature
The origin of phyllic alteration has been debated potassic or phyllic alteration are linear, and preserve open
extensively, because of conflicting stable isotope results cavities and breccia textures (“B” and “D” veins of
that indicate an important role for meteoric groundwater Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). Phillips (1973), Burnham
in some systems, but evidence for formation from magmatic (1979), and Burnham and Ohmoto (1980) discussed the
fluids in others (Sheppard et al., 1971; Dilles et al., 1992; mechanics of brittle failure in the partially solidified
Harris and Golding, 2002). Shinohara and Hedenquist carapace zone in response to increasing pressure from the
(1997) and Hedenquist et al., (1998) argued that later fluids expanding fluid volume, and concluded that this was an
to exsolve from the cooling magmatic system might follow effective way of releasing fluid pressure while at the same
a low-temperature path towards the surface that would not time reacting these fluids with large surface areas of cool
intersect the fluid solvus, thus giving rise to moderately overlying rocks. The classic three-dimensional stockwork
saline (~5 equiv. wt. % NaCl) low-temperature (300-350°C) texture of many porphyry ore zones is a product of hydraulic
liquids that could cause sericitic alteration. Stable isotopic fracturing by this expanding, over-pressured fluid (Fig. 7).
indications of the involvement of meteoric groundwater in Pre-existing structures in the cover rocks, or extensional
some systems might then be explained by later overprinting. faults generated by the stress of pluton emplacement, may
further focus the flow of fluids to form vein deposits or
Circulation of groundwater heated by magmatic intrusion
breccia pipes, in which rich pockets of ore may be deposited
causes coeval propylitic alteration in huge volumes of
in response to rapid fluid depressurisation and cooling
country rock extending many kilometres around large
(Perry, 1961; Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; Fletcher, 1977;
systems (Taylor, 1974; Norton, 1982). Continuation of
Skewes et al., 2002). The majority of breccia pipes are
convective groundwater circulation long after solidification
barren, however, suggesting that rapid fluid venting may
of the source pluton commonly results in propylitic
have prevented ore deposition, rather than focusing it.
overprinting of earlier high-temperature alteration styles,
and local formation of argillic alteration (Sheppard et al., Au in Porphyry Cu Deposits
1969).
Zonation of Mo and Cu within porphyry Cu deposits is
Ore minerals such as chalcopyrite, bornite, molybdenite common but not systematic, with higher Mo/Cu ratios
and pyrite are precipitated from the earliest stages of occurring in the cores of some systems and as haloes in
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid evolution, but highest others (e.g., John, 1978; Williams and Forrester, 1985;
concentrations of hypogene Cu and Mo (and Au) tend to Sillitoe, 1997). Of greater current economic interest,
be found towards the outer edges of the potassic alteration however, is the zonation or variation of Au abundance in
zone where temperatures are cooling towards 350°C (the porphyry Cu deposits because, although typically a minor
“ore shell” of Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Giggenbach, component of the ore, Au credits can significantly affect
1997). Ore deposition in this region is primarily a function the overall value of a mining operation. Several recent
of solubility reduction due to cooling, combined with an studies have attempted to explain the anomalous Au-
increase in the activity of aqueous sulphide species due to enrichment of some deposits, and Kesler et al., (2002) have
the disproportionation of SO2 (equation 1). Pyrite is the shown that Cu/Au atomic ratios vary over a wide range
dominant sulphide mineral precipitated from the cooler, from ~5000 to ~5 000 000, with a mode near 40 000. Much
more acidic fluids generating phyllic alteration. of this variability in normal porphyry Cu deposits is likely
to be related to late magmatic or hydrothermal effects, rather
Fluid Pathways than any fundamental source composition difference
In order to deposit an economic concentration of metals, (e.g., Sillitoe, 1979; Muntean and Einaudi, 2000, 2001;
fluid flow must be focused through relatively small volumes Halter et al., 2002; Kesler et al., 2002). However, as noted
of rock where sulphide mineral precipitation is promoted. previously, the supra-subduction zone mantle oxidation
Highest grades of ore may be achieved where these rocks state exerts a strong control on the stability of residual
are also reactive with the fluid, such as carbonate or mafic sulphide phases, which in turn controls the behaviour of
volcanic rocks. Short-circuiting of fluid flow directly to siderophile and chalcophile elements. Under unusually
the surface (e.g., by catastrophic explosive eruption or oxidising conditions or during multi-stage melting events
volcano sector collapse, as occurred at Lihir Island; Moyle in which residual sulphides in the mantle are destroyed
et al., 1990; Müller et al., 2002; see also Sillitoe, 1994), or (e.g., during cessation of subduction, subduction reversal,
18 General

or arc collision), relatively oxidised alkalic magmas may Although such a mechanism is plausible, it remains to be
be generated that have the potential to generate Au-rich shown that this is a necessary and universal step in the
porphyry and alkalic-type epithermal deposits (e.g., Hamlyn formation of Au-rich porphyry Cu deposits.
et al., 1985; Bornhorst and Rose, 1986; Richards et al.,
1991; Spooner, 1993; Wyborn and Sun, 1994; Richards, Conclusions
1995; Sillitoe, 1997; see also Mungall, 2002). Giant Porphyries: Extreme, Not Special, Cases
Muntean and Einaudi (2000, 2001) argued that gold-rich Shallow-level calc-alkaline plutons are common features
porphyry deposits in the Oligo-Miocene Maricunga belt of of subduction-related magmatic arcs, but the majority are
northern Chile formed in response to shallow emplacement not intensely hydrothermally altered, and even fewer are
(<1 km) of magma, resulting in flashing of high temperature mineralised. Economic porphyry-type deposits are rarer
magmatic fluids and deposition of characteristic auriferous still, and “super-giant” porphyries are numbered globally
banded quartz veinlets. Loss of sulphur species to the in the teens (Clark, 1993). There is a temptation to look
vapour phase during flashing would have inhibited Cu-Fe- for a magic bullet that will explain the generation of giant
sulphide precipitation and promoted Au deposition. ore deposits, but from the information reviewed above it
Simon et al., (2000) and Kesler et al., (2002) presented a would seem that Alan Clark was correct when he concluded
different model in which they suggested that initial Cu/Au that “there are no systematic qualitative differences between
ratios in porphyry ores might be a function of temperature outsize and smaller examples of the porphyry clan” (Clark,
(and oxidation state) at the time of initial sulphide mineral 1993, p 213). Instead, it is clear that at every step of the
precipitation. They showed that experimental high- way from initial dehydration of the downgoing slab to
temperature (600°C) bornite-magnetite assemblages exsolution and evolution of a magmatic-hydrothermal fluid,
contain an order of magnitude more Au (>1000 ppm) than multiple and commonly independent processes can either
lower temperature chalcopyrite-pyrite assemblages. The preserve the ore-forming potential of the system, or destroy
extent of formation and preservation of early high- it. The odds are clearly in favour of spoiling, because at
temperature sulphide assemblages may therefore control any stage once the overall process is disrupted it will be
the bulk Cu/Au ratio of the deposit, but overprinting and difficult for it to regain its full potential.
replacement by lower temperature assemblages may Thus, it may be argued that the following criteria and
redistribute Au, or even remove it from the system processes all have to be met or optimised for a giant
altogether (perhaps into the epithermal environment). porphyry to be formed. Omission or partial fulfilment of
In contrast, Halter et al., (2002) argued that Cu/Au ratios any one step can be sufficient either to destroy completely
in magmatic-hydrothermal fluids might be controlled by the system’s ore-forming potential, or to result in the
the presence of a late-stage sulphide melt, into which formation of a more modest-sized deposit:
chalcophile metals would be partitioned. They argued that 1. Subduction must be maintained at a uniform angle
this sulphide melt would rapidly destabilise upon exsolution and relatively rapid rate for a considerable period of
of a volatile phase from the magma, releasing metals to the time (perhaps ≥10 m.y.) to build up a large and
fluid. It is not clear, however, how chalcophile metal ratios localised volume of underplated mafic magma near
are affected by this process, nor why the sulphide the crust-mantle boundary of the overlying plate.
sequestration step is necessary when volatile exsolution can
also effectively scavenge metals from the magma. 2. Development of a mature MASH zone at this level
requires a period of sustained compressional stress
Finally, the possibility that magma chamber recharge by across the arc, which encourages magma pooling in
primitive mafic magmas might “spike” the system with Au lower crustal sill complexes rather than early escape
(e.g., Hattori and Keith, 2001) has been considered above. via dykes.

A B

Figure 7: (A) Weathered outcrop showing stockwork veining in potassic alteration, Kuh-e-Panj porphyry copper deposit, Kerman
belt, Iran. (B) Stockwork quartz veins with chalcopyrite and molybdenite in biotite-rich potassic alteration, Bingham
Canyon porphyry copper deposit, Utah.
 Generation of Giant Porphyry Deposits - J.P. Richards 19

3. Following an extended period of MASH processing, Exploration Indicators

stress relaxation or change to moderate shear There is a significant amount of serendipity involved in
conditions will promote dyke formation, and ascent the discovery of any large ore deposit, and many of the
of large volumes of evolved, volatile-rich (including factors listed above that control the size of porphyry Cu
H2O, Cl, S), metalliferous magma. A high magma deposits are beyond prediction. More difficult still is
flux is perhaps the most critical element in this process prediction of the exact location of a large porphyry system
because it ensures that sufficient heat and ore-forming (i.e., to within 1 or 2 km). Nevertheless, there are some
components are delivered to the upper crust. general features that should characterise prospective arc
4. Pre-existing structures in the crust, especially terranes, and some specific features that might be used to
extensional offset zones along trans-lithospheric focus target selection for first-pass exploration:
strike-slip fault systems, will serve to focus magma 1. Large porphyry Cu deposits are likely to be found in
ascent. well-established arcs, featuring voluminous
5. Magma flux from the lower crust must be sufficient magmatism developed in narrow belts (≤50 km-wide)
and sustained for long enough to construct a large over a significant period of time (>5 m.y.).
3
volume (≥100 km ), at least partially continuously 2. Crustal-scale structural architecture (observed as
molten, mid-to-upper crustal magma chamber. lineaments) may focus the ascent of arc magmas, and
6. Volatile exsolution should begin at depth within this lineament intersections where they form pull-apart
magma chamber (>5 km), causing convection of structures are likely to be particularly prospective.
bubble-rich, buoyant magma into tall apical stocks, Large-scale lineaments commonly represent the
where volatiles can be released. A sustained flux of boundaries of basement domains, and can be
heat and ore-forming components entering the recognised from regional-scale gravity or magnetic
chamber by recharge from depth and convected into surveys and remote sensing (e.g., Chernicoff et al.,
the cupola, will prolong and maximise the magmatic- 2002). Such lineaments and lineament intersection
hydrothermal exchange process. zones may define broad areas of prospectivity, a few
7. Volatiles should be released in a controlled, focused tens of kilometres square.
and prolonged fashion, allowing the progressive build 3. Clusters of shallow-level dioritic plutons (within an
up of large concentrations of economic minerals in area 10-30 km square) indicating voluminous,
depositional sites. focused magma supply, can be recognised from
Conversely, specific processes that can destroy ore-forming regional mapping or airborne geophysics (e.g., Behn
potential include: et al., 2001; Richards et al., 2001). Porphyry Cu
deposits may occur near the centre of such clusters,
1. Tectonic changes that alter the rate or angle of where magmatic flux was greatest.
subduction: reducing or shifting the supply of primary
magma to the base of the overlying crust will hinder 4. Caldera and ignimbrite complexes are probably not
development of an extensive MASH zone (although prospective for porphyry Cu deposits, despite their
the onset of changes in tectonic configuration, if evidently large magma flux. Rhyolitic ignimbrites
accompanied by stress change, may provide are derived predominantly from less fertile crustal
opportunities for voluminous magma ascent from melts (lacking key arc components such as sulphur
previously-developed MASH zones). and chalcophile metals), and large caldera eruptions
likely destroy deeply rooted magmatic-hydrothermal
2. Stress conditions in the upper plate that are not systems.
conducive to MASH zone formation (e.g., tension).
5. Regional erosion and weathering history must be
3. Interaction of ascending magmas with reducing appropriate for exposure and possible supergene
lithologies in the crustal column, which might cause enrichment of shallow level porphyry systems.
early sulphide saturation and removal of chalcophile
metals. Acknowledgements
4. Catastrophic explosive (volcanic) bulk release of This work was supported by a grant from the Natural
volatiles to the surface, which will short-circuit the Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. I
porphyry ore-forming process. Thus, large calderas thank Jeff Hedenquist and Noel White for incisive and
are unlikely to be prospective for porphyry deposits, helpful reviews of the manuscript.
although they may be prospective for epithermal
systems. References
If these various favourable criteria have operated and Arancibia, O.N. and Clark, A.H., 1996 - Early magnetite-
negative influences are absent, it should then be possible amphibole-plagioclase alteration-mineralization in
for an ordinary calc-alkaline arc magmatic system to form the Island Copper porphyry copper-gold-
an economic porphyry Cu deposit, as suggested by Cline molybdenum deposit, British Columbia:
and Bodnar (1991). The formation of a giant porphyry is Economic Geology, v. 91, pp. 402-438.
probably the cumulative result of optimisation of each step, Arculus, R.J., 1994 - Aspects of magma genesis in arcs:
and not of the action of any single or unique process. Lithos, v. 33, pp. 189-208.
20 General

Ballantyne, G., Maughan, C.J. and Smith, T., 1995 - The Carroll, M.R. and Rutherford, M.J., 1985 - Sulfide and
Bingham copper-gold-molybdenum deposit, Utah: sulfate saturation in hydrous silicate melts, in
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26 General