1

PETROPHYSICS – FMEV 2003

Capillary Pressure
 OBJECTIVES

• Understand the concept of capillary pressure

• Basic equations to calculate capillary pressure
• Understand the dependance of capillary pressure on rock and fluid
properties such as wettability and saturation history
• Average capillary pressure data using the Leverette J-function.
• Describe the various laboratory measurements of capillary pressure
including Leverett’s, porous diaphragm, mercury injection and
centrifuge methods.
• Describe the characteristics of capillary pressure curves
• Understand how laboratory data is converted to reservoir
conditions.
• Calculate permeability from capillary pressure.
• Describe the practical applications of capillary pressure including
pore throat distribution, pore throat sizing and connate water
saturation. 2
 INTRODUCTION

We have seen that the viability of a reservoir depends upon three critical
parameters. The first two of these are the porosity of the reservoir rock, which
defines the total volume available for hydrocarbon saturation, and the
permeability, which defines how easy it is to extract any hydrocarbons that
are present. The final critical parameter is the hydrocarbon saturation, or how
much of the porosity is occupied by hydrocarbons. This, and the related gas
and water saturations are controlled by capillary pressure.

3
 FLUID SATURATION

The pore space in a rock is occupied by fluids. In

hydrocarbon reservoirs these fluids are hydrocarbon gasses,
oil and an aqueous brine. We define the pore fraction of
each of these as Sg, So and Sw, respectively.
Hence, Sg + So + Sw = 1.

The amount of each of these fluids present at a given level

in the reservoir depends upon gravity (buoyancy) forces,
which tend to stratify the reservoir fluids according to their
density, external hydrodynamic forces such as flow from a
remote aquifer, and interfacial forces that act between the
various reservoir fluids and between the fluids and the rock
matrix.
4
 5

The interfacial forces either take the form of (i) forces on the interface
between two fluids, or (ii) between the fluid and the solid matrix of
the rock. Both effects rely upon differences in the relative strength of
inter-molecular forces between gasses, liquids and solids.
This can be observed in:
• Liquid-gas or liquid-vapour forces result from the differences in
molecular attraction of each of the gas and liquid molecules for
molecules of the same fluid compared to the molecular attraction
for molecules of the other fluid.
• The liquid-liquid forces result from the differences in molecular
attraction of each of the liquid molecules for molecules of the
same liquid compared to the molecular attraction for molecules of
the other liquid.
• The fluid-solid forces result from the preference for fluid molecules to
be attracted to the solid mineral surface rather than to molecules
of the same fluid.
The interfacial forces give rise to what is known as a capillary pressure.
Capillary pressure is the difference in fluid pressure across an
interface between two fluids in a confined volume.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS TO
UNDERSTAND
In dealing with multiphase systems, it is necessary to consider the effect of the
forces at the interface when two immiscible fluids are in contact. When these
two fluids are liquid and gas, the term surface tension is used to describe the
forces acting on the interface. When the interface is between two liquids, the
acting forces are called interfacial tension.

1. Surface Tension comes about by the interaction of the fluids present.

If we consider / imagine a drop of liquid suspended in a gas. In the interior of
the liquid drop, a molecule is completely surrounded by other liquid molecules.
On average it is equally attracted to the molecules surrounding it in every
direction. By contrast, a molecule that occupies the surface of the drop is
strongly affected by the attractive forces of its fellow molecules inside the drop,
but only weakly attracted to molecules outside the drop. This is because there
are much fewer molecules in the vapour phase that surrounds the drop.
Hence, the molecules on the surface of the drop experience net inward
attraction.

6
 • This attraction ensures that
the drop attains the
shape with least surface
area in any given
environment.

• For example, in zero

gravity, the drop will float
and will be perfectly
spherical; the sphere
being the geometry with
the least surface area per
volume.

For further details, see link:

http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~earpwjg/PG_EN/CD%20Contents/GGL-
66565%20Petrophysics%20English/Chapter%204.PDF
7
• To summarize; in the liquid drop there are attractive forces
between the molecules. The molecules inside the liquid drop
are surrounded by balanced attractive forces. The
molecules at the surface experience a net inward force,
which results in the liquid drop contracting to the smallest
surface area. The fluid pressure inside the liquid drop is
higher than that outside it, therefore the drop behaves as
though it was contained in a skin.
• If we have a drop of liquid suspended in a gas, and we
want to increase the surface area of the drop, we must do
work to move molecules from the interior of the drop to the
surface. This is equivalent to saying that the surface possess
free surface energy.

8
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS TO
UNDERSTAND
2) Wettability: If two fluids occupy a solid surface, the fluid
whose molecules display the greatest attraction for the
atoms that compose the solid will be the fluid that
occupies most of the surface, displacing the other fluid.
The wettability of a surface is the type of fluid which is
preferentially attracted to that surface.

9
• Looking at the figure on slide 9, it shows a general case of a single
solid inmersed in two immiscible fluids at an unstable initial state.
Now, Let imagine that the molecules of fluid A are attracted to the
solid molecules more than those from fluid B are.
• Fluid A will then displace Fluid B on the surface. However, the
molecules of Fluid A and Fluid B are contemporaneously also
experiencing attractions from their fellow molecules and, to a
smaller extent, the molecules of the other fluid. Consequently, Fluid
A cannot displace all of Fluid B from the surface unless the
attraction between the molecules on the surface of the solid and
those in Fluid A is very great. In the general case a stable state will
be encountered where Fluid A occupies the majority of the
surface. At this equilibrium state, the contact angle θ characterizes
the balance between the various cohesive forces (Seen in the
figure on slide 9 (b))

10
 CONTACT ANGLE
This contact angle described in the slide above
can be used as a measure of wettability.

11
12
VARIOUS WETTING
CONDITIONS THAT
MAY EXIST FOR
WATER AND OIL IN
CONTACT IN A
CAPILLARY, USING
THE CONTACT
ANGLE METHOD.

13
 CAPILLARY PRESSURE
DEFINITION 14

Capillary pressure is the difference in pressure between two immiscible fluids across

a curved interface at equilibrium. Curvature of the interface is the consequence

of preferential wetting of the capillary walls by one of the phases.

The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the combined effect
of the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock and fluids, the pore size and
geometry, and the wetting characteristics of the system. Any curved surface
between two immiscible fluids has the tendency to contract into the smallest
possible area per unit volume. This is true whether the fluids are oil and water,
water and gas (even air), or oil and gas. When two immiscible fluids are in
contact, a discontinuity in pressure exists between the two fluids, which depends
upon the curvature of the interface separating the fluids. We call this pressure
difference the capillary pressure and it is referred to by Pc.
 CAPILLARY PRESSURE
EQUATION
The displacement of one fluid by another in the pores of a porous medium is
either aided or opposed by the surface forces of capillary pressure. As a
consequence, in order to maintain a porous medium partially saturated with
non-wetting fluid and while the medium is also exposed to wetting fluid, it is
necessary to maintain the pressure of the non-wetting fluid at a value greater
than that in the wetting fluid.

Denoting the pressure in the wetting fluid by Pw and that in the non-wetting
fluid by Pnw, the capillary pressure can be expressed as:

15
 16

That is, the pressure excess in the non-wetting fluid is the capillary pressure,
and this quantity is a function of saturation. This is the defining equation for
capillary pressure in a porous medium.

There are three types of capillary pressure:

• Water-oil capillary pressure (denoted as Pcwo)
• Gas-oil capillary pressure (denoted as Pcgo)
• Gas-water capillary pressure (denoted as Pcgw)

Applying the mathematical definition of the capillary pressure as expressed

by Equation 4-24, the three types of the capillary pressure can be written as:

Pcwo = Po – Pw
Pcgo = Pg - Po
Pcgw = Pg - Pw

where Pg, Po, and Pw represent the pressure of gas, oil, and water,
respectively.
17
18
19
20
21
That is for capillary rise, h, the height to which the fluid rises depends
inversely upon the tube radius (pore throat radius) i.e. the larger the
tube (pore throat) the less the fluid rises.

22
 APPLICATIONS OF
CAPILLARY PRESSURE

• Predicts Sw distribution in reservoir

• Predicts free water level
• Predicts rock types, quality and pore geometry
• Assists in interpretation/calculation of relative
permeability
• Calculates pore size distribution.

23
 CAPILLARY PRESSURE
J-FUNCTION
The Leverett J-function was originally an attempt to convert all
capillary pressure data to a universal curve. A universal capillary
pressure curve does not exist because the rock properties affecting
capillary pressures in reservoir have extreme variation with lithology
(rock type). But, Leverett’s J-function has proven valuable for
correlating capillary pressure data within a lithologic rock type.

The J-function accounts for changes of permeability, porosity and

wettability of the reservoir as long as the general pore geometry
remains constant. Therefore, different types of rocks exhibit different
J-function correlations. All the capillary pressure data from a specific
formation usually can be reduced to a single J-function versus
saturation curve.

24
 TYPICAL BEHAVIOUR OF
DIMENSIONLESS
J-FUNCTION VERSUS
SATURATION FOR CORES
FROM SANDSTONE

25
Leverett J-Function versus water saturation for West Texas Carbonates showing moderate
spread of saturation data - rock type is not really very uniform (varying pore geometry).
However, the J-function curve may be suitable for reservoir simulation purposes
26
27
28
A laboratory capillary pressure test was conducted on a core sample
taken from the Nameless Field. The core has a porosity and permeability
of 16% and 80 md, respectively. The capillary pressure-saturation data
are given as follows:

The interfacial tension is measured at 50 dynes/cm. Further reservoir

engineering analysis indicated that the reservoir is better described at a
porosity value of 19% and an absolute permeability of 120 md.
Generate the capillary pressure data for the reservoir.
29
30
 IMPLICATIONS OF CAPILLARY
PRESSURE IN RESERVOIRS
• Real rocks contains an array of different pore sizes
connected together by pore throats of different sizes.
• Each pore or pore throat size can be considered
heuristically to be a portion of a capillary tube. Real rocks
may be completely water-wet, and indeed are commonly
so. They may, however be oil-wet or neutrally wet or have a
mixed wettability, where some mineral grain surfaces are
water-wet and some are oil-wet. For the purposes of this
discussion we will consider only water-wet rocks.
• The wettability of the pore surface varies from point to point
within the rock due to the variation in the mixture of
minerals in contact with the fluids. This leads to a variation
of the capillary pressure as a function of fluid saturation and
an overall mean description of the rock wettability.

31
 THE MEASUREMENT OF
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES
FOR ROCKS

32
 POROUS PLATE
(SEMI-PERMEABLE DISK)
• The sample is saturated completely with a wetting fluid (usually
water), and its effective porosity is measured.
• It is then placed on a porous plate in a pressure vessel. Gas or oil is
introduced into the vessel around the sample at a low pressure
(Fig. 4.15). The porous plate is constructed so that it will only let
through water.
• The pressurized oil or gas displaces some of the water from the
sample (throughout the whole sample) and the displaced water
passes through the porous plate, whereupon it is collected and its
volume is measured.
• The vessel is left at the set pressure until no more water evolves,
which may take several days. The pressure of the gas or oil is then
increased, and more water evolves and is measured. The procedure
is repeated usually about 7 times at increasing pressures (e.g.,1, 2, 4,
8, 16, 32, 64 psi).
• A capillary curve can then be constructed with pressure versus the
water saturation in the sample (Fig. 4.16). 33
 POROUS PLATE SET UP

34
• The maximum pressure is limited by
the pressure at which the porous
plate begins to let the gas or oil
pass through with the water.
• There is also a range of specialized
dynamic and semi-dynamic
versions of the porous plate
technique that can be used on
confined cores together with
direct measurement of sample
fluid saturations using X-Ray, CT
and gamma radiometric imaging
techniques.

Advantages: Can use actual

reservoir fluids for the measurements.
Accurate.

Disadvantages:
Slow.
Only provides a few data points on
the capillary pressure curve.

35
 CENTRIFUGE METHOD

The sample is saturated completely with a wetting fluid (usually water),

and its effective porosity is measured. It is placed in a centrifuge and
rotated at progressively higher speeds. The speed of rotation
generates a centripetal force that displaces the wetting fluid from the
sample replacing it with air or oil (if an oil reservoir is attached to the
inside of the rotating sample). The volume of the evolved fluid is
measured by collecting it in a graduated vial attached to the outside
of the spinning arrangement, and read using a stroboscope. At slow
rotation speeds, the force is only sufficient to displace water from the
largest pores. At higher speeds the force is able to displace water
from smaller and smaller pores in the sample. The pressures on the
fluids can be calculated from an equation based upon the rotary
motion of the centrifuge. This is plotted against the water saturation in
the sample calculated from the measured volume of evolved fluids
for each spin speed (Fig. 4.17).

36
Advantages:
• Fast.
Disadvantages:
• Commonly only used with air as
the displacing fluid.
• Only provides a few data points
on the capillary pressure curve.
• As pressure is a function of
distance from the spin centre,
the fluid saturation across the
sample varies, and the
measured values are taken as
the mean value.

37
 MERCURY POROSIMETRY
A dry sample of any shape, but of known weight, is placed in a
chamber which is filled with mercury. The mercury is a non-wetting
fluid and does not spontaneously enter the pores of the rock. This the
bulk volume of the rock can be measured. The pressure on the
mercury is increased in a step-wise fashion. At each step, the mercury
enters smaller and smaller pores overcoming the capillary pressure
operating against the non-wetting fluid (Fig. 4.18). At each stage the
amount of mercury intruded is measured. A graph can be
constructed of mercury pressure at each step against volume of
mercury intruded. This is the capillary pressure curve. This data can
also be inverted to provide the pore size and grain size distributions of
the rock, and the raw data also provides a rough estimate of the
connected porosity of the rock.

38
39
Advantages:
• Fast.
• Provides porosity of sample.
• Provides pore size distribution.
• Provides grain size distribution.
• Can be used on small, irregular samples, such as cuttings.
• Gives many data points for intrusion.
Disadvantages:
• Cannot be used with reservoir fluids.
• Data must be corrected to give reservoir values.
• Can only be used in imbibition cycle.

40
41
 FIG 5.12 ANALYSIS
• The incremental pore volume of mercury injected are plotted as a
function of the injection pressure to obtain the injection capillary
pressure curve (Figure 5.12, curve 1).
• When the volume of mercury injected reaches a limit with respect to
pressure increase (Simax), a mercury withdrawal capillary pressure
curve can be obtained by decreasing the pressure in increments
and recording the volume of mercury withdrawn (Figure 5.12, curve
2).
• A limit will be approached where mercury ceases to be withdrawn
as the pressure approaches zero (Swmin).
• A third capillary pressure curve is obtained if mercury is re-injected
by increasing the pressure incrementally from zero to the maximum
pressure at Simax (curve 3)

42