SQL Tutorial - What is a Database?

(Book Definition) – A Data Base is an Organized Collection of Data which can be easily accessed,
managed and updated.

In today’s World, Data plays a vital role in every business. In our day to day life, we see or interact
with many applications and Software’s, every application that we see or work with will have two parts:

1. GUI (Graphical User Interface / Front end)

2. Database

To keep it simple GUI is the part where user interacts with (like Facebook application’s – look and feel)
and the Data that we see in the application (like Facebook profile, messages, images and videos) are
pulled from Database.

End User who interacts with the application may not know how the data is being fetched and where so
much of information is stored. Internally all the dynamic content that we see in the application is
fetched from Database.
 Database and all its components should be designed and configured at the time of application
development. Once the application is developed we will not be able to make changes to the database
structure as every change will hugely affect the business application GUI code.

It is very important to make sure that data is securely maintained and accurately stored. So to
maintain security and accuracy in database a set of rules / software system is defined and that we call
it as DBMS (Data Base Management System – which performs all the operations on the database)

SQL Tutorial - What is DBMS?

DBMS (Database Management System) is a software tool that is used to store and manage data in the
Database.

A database management system contains a set of programs that control the creation, maintenance,
and use of a database. Like:

 Adding new data to the table.

 Modifying existing data.
 Deleting unwanted data.

DBMS allows different user application programs to concurrently access the same database.

Before Database and DBMS were introduced, traditional approach was to store data in flat files
(physical files in system) but there were some disadvantages with it.

Following are some of the advantages of using a database over a traditional file-processing system:

 Potential for enforcing standards.

 Flexibility.

 Fast response to information requests.

 Availability of up-to-date information to all users.
 Less storage.

Architecture of the DBMS

The architecture of the DBMS can be viewed as a 3-level system comprising the following:

 The external level (this is where application developer or end user interacts with database)

 The conceptual level (At this level all the DBMS functions resides, that is functions for
adding , modifying and deleting data)

 The internal or the physical level is the level where the data resides. (the physical storage
happens)
 Facts about DBMS:
 DBMS came into picture when database was introduced (i.e. just a simple software to interact with
database)

 According to DBMS data can be stored in any format. (not necessary that data should be stored in
form of tables)

 DBMS was a simple system to access database. There were issues for huge data.

 In DBMS, there were no proper set of rules defined on how data should be stored, how to avoid
redundancy (duplicate records) and how to maintain data relationships.

As the time progressed data complexity increased as usual, time and technology brains have
introduced RDBMS and came up with some set of rules.

SQL Tutorial - What is RDBMS?

A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a Database Management System (DBMS) that
is based on the relational model introduced by E. F. Codd and most popular databases currently in use
are based on the relational database model. To put in different words RDBMS is built on top of in
which data is stored in tables and the relationships among the data are maintained. The data stored in
a table is organized into rows and columns. Each row in a table represents an individual record and
each column represents a field. A record is an individual entry in the database.

Difference Between DBMS and RDBMS

For example, consider the database which stores employee information. In DBMS, all details like
empno, ename, job, salary, deptno, dname, location, street, city, state, phone will be stored in a
single table. But in RDBMS, the data model will be designed in such a way that like the empno,
ename, job, salary and deptno will be stored in emp table and deptno, dname, location will be stored
in dept table and location, street, city, state, phone will be stored under locations table. Any
information to be obtained is done by properly relating the ‘emp’, ‘dept’ and ‘locations’ tables.
E. F. Codd Rules : Codd’s twelve rules are a set of thirteen rules (numbered zero to twelve)
proposed by Edgar F. Codd, a pioneer of the relational model for databases, designed to define what
is required from a database management system in order for it to be considered relational, i.e., a
relational database management system (RDBMS). As a beginner it might be little difficult to
understand all the rules defined below but however once we start using the database and database
programming languages it will be very easy to correlate the rules and understand better.

The rules:

Rule (0): The system must qualify as relational, as a database, and as a management
system.
For a system to qualify as a relational database management system (RDBMS), that system must use
its relational facilities (exclusively) to manage the database.

Rule 1: The information rule:

All information in a relational database (including table and column names) is represented in only one
way, namely as a value in a table.
 Rule 2: The guaranteed access rule: All data must be accessible. This rule is essentially a
restatement of the fundamental requirement for primary keys. It says that every individual scalar
value in the database must be logically addressable by specifying the name of the containing table,
the name of the containing column and the primary key value of the containing row.

Rule 3: Systematic treatment of null values: The DBMS must allow each field to remain null (or
empty). Specifically, it must support a representation of “missing information and inapplicable
information” that is systematic, distinct from all regular values (for example, “distinct from zero or any
other number”, in the case of numeric values), and independent of data type. It is also implied that
such representations must be manipulated by the DBMS in a systematic way.

Rule 4: Active online catalog based on the relational model:

The system must support an online, inline, relational catalog that is accessible to authorized users by
means of their regular query language. That is, users must be able to access the database’s structure
(catalog) using the same query language that they use to access the database’s data.

Rule 5: The comprehensive data sub language rule:

The system must support at least one relational language that

1. Has a linear syntax

2. Can be used both interactively and within application programs.
3. Supports data definition operations (including view definitions), data manipulation operations
(update as well as retrieval), security and integrity constraints, and transaction management
operations (begin, commit, and rollback).

Rule 6: The view updating rule:

All views that are theoretically updatable must be updatable by the system.

Rule 7: High-level insert, update, and delete:

The system must support set-at-a-time insert, update, and delete operators. This means that data can
be retrieved from a relational database in sets constructed of data from multiple rows and/or multiple
tables. This rule states that insert, update, and delete operations should be supported for any
retrievable set rather than just for a single row in a single table.

Rule 8: Physical data independence:

Changes to the physical level (how the data is stored, whether in arrays or linked lists etc.) must not
require a change to an application based on the structure.

Rule 9: Logical data independence:

Changes to the logical level (tables, columns, rows, and so on) must not require a change to an
application based on the structure. Logical data independence is more difficult to achieve than physical
data independence.

Rule 10: Integrity independence:

Integrity constraints must be specified separately from application programs and stored in the catalog.
It must be possible to change such constraints as and when appropriate without unnecessarily
affecting existing applications.
Rule 11: Distribution independence:
The distribution of portions of the database to various locations should be invisible to users of the
database. Existing applications should continue to operate successfully:
1. when a distributed version of the DBMS is first introduced; and
2. when existing distributed data are redistributed around the system.

Rule 12: The nonsubversion rule:

If the system provides a low-level (record-at-a-time) interface, then that interface cannot be used to
subvert the system, for example, bypassing a relational security or integrity constraint.

As a result of this CODD rules a RDBMS (relational database management system) ensures and
enforce the database to follow ACID properties.
Now let’s see what ACID rules are?

What are ACID Rules?

ACID (atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that database
transactions are processed reliably. In the context of databases, a single logical operation on the data
is called a transaction. For example, a transfer of funds from one bank account to another, even
though that might involve multiple changes (such as debiting one account and crediting another), is a
single transaction.

Atomicity:- Atomicity requires that each transaction is “all or nothing”: if one part of the transaction
fails, the entire transaction should fails, and the database state is left unchanged. An atomic system
must guarantee atomicity in each and every situation, including power failures, errors, and crashes.
Consistency states that only valid data will be written to the database. If, for some reason, a
transaction is executed that violates the database’s consistency rules, the entire transaction will be
rolled back and the database will be restored to a state consistent with those rules. On the other hand,
if a transaction successfully executes, it will take the database from one state that is consistent with
the rules to another state that is also consistent with the rules.

Isolation:- The isolation property ensures that the concurrent execution of transactions results in a
system state that could have been obtained if transactions are executed serially i.e. one after the
other.[citation needed] The isolation property ensures that the concurrent execution of transactions
should not impact each other’s execution.
For example, if Mark issues a transaction against a database at the same time that Scott issues a
different transaction; both transactions should operate on the database in an isolated manner. The
database should either perform Mark’s entire transaction before executing Scott’s or vice-versa. This
prevents Mark’s transaction from reading intermediate data produced as a side effect of part of Scott’s
transaction that will not eventually be committed to the database. Note that the isolation property
does not ensure which transaction will execute first, merely that they will not interfere with each
other.

Durability:- Durability means that once a transaction has been committed, it will remain so, even in
the event of power loss, crashes, or errors. In a relational database, for instance, once a group of SQL
statements execute, the results need to be stored permanently (even if the database crashes
immediately thereafter).
 SQL Tutorial - What is SQL?
SQL is a standard language designed for accessing and managing data in Relational Database
Management Systems (RDBMS).
SQL is based on ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard introduced in 1986 and there
are many SQL database software’s available in the market which follows the ANSI standard like:

 Oracle
 Mysql
 Sqlserver
 DB2 ……etc
Note: Most of the SQL database programs currently available in the market also have their own
proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard.

What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database
 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

Using SQL we execute different commands on RDBMS software’s to perform different operations on
the data available in the database.
Whenever we execute a SQL command the RDBMS software translates our command into
understandable format of the database and do the necessary operation on data.

To make it simple SQL Commands are divided into five categories, depending upon what they do.

1. Data Retrieval Language (DRL)

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
3. Data Definition language (DDL)
4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
5. Data Control Language (DCL)
SQL has a special version named PL/SQL, which is sometimes termed as a superset of SQL. It bridges
the gap between database technology and procedural languages as programmers can use PL/SQL to
create programs for validation and manipulation of table, something that was not possible with SQL.

Newton Apples has separate training course for PL/SQL, Please go through PL/SQL content for more
details.

SQL Tutorial - RDBMS Products In The

Market
Starting from 1980′s there are many RDBMS products introduced in the market. However I would
like to introduce top 10 products available in today’s market. All these products are highly
competitive, and come packed with advanced features. These database systems range in price from
free to thousands of dollars.

1. Oracle
Oracle began its journey in 1979 and it is the first commercially available relational database
management system (RDBMS). There is no doubt that Oracle ranks top among all the enterprise
database systems as it delivers industry leading performance, scalability, security and reliability
and handles complex database solutions with ease.
 Most of the ERP systems that are available in the market use Oracle as the database because of it
performance and ability to handle huge data.

roduct Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Release Date

Oracle Corporation Nov-1979 11g Release 2 Aug-2009

2. SQL Server

SQL server is a Microsoft. Microsoft SQL Server is widely used for small and mid level industries. SQL
server is mostly used in developing countries because of it easy to use and easy to maintain features.
SQL Server has tight Windows operating system integration and makes it an easy choice for firms that
choose Microsoft products for their enterprises.

roduct Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Release Date

Microsoft 1989 v11 2012

3. DB2

DB2 is an IBM product and it is mostly used in IBM products like IBM Tivoli TSM etc. DB2 runs on
Linux, UNIX, Windows and mainframes. IBM pits its DB2 9.7 system squarely in competition with
Oracle’s 11g, via the International Technology Group, and shows significant cost savings for those that
migrate to DB2 from Oracle.

roduct Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Release Date

IBM 1983 10.1 Apr-2012

4. Sybase

Sybase, an SAP company, is an enterprise software and services company offering software to
manage, analyze, and mobilize information using relational databases. Although its market share
slowed for few years, it’s returning with powerful positioning in the next-generation transaction
processing space. Sybase has also thrown a considerable amount of weight behind the mobile
enterprise by delivering partnered solutions to the mobile device market. Sybase now works with
other industry leaders in infrastructure, data storage and virtualization to optimize technologies for
delivery into public and virtual private cloud environments that provide greater technology availability
and flexibility to Sybase customers looking to unwire their enterprise.

roduct Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Release Date

SAP 1987 Sybase 365 Feb-2012

5. MySQL

MYSQL is most preferred choice for Web based and low cost products, this is an open source product.
Using a free / open source minimize a product cost by significant amount. MySQL sold to Sun
Microsystems in 2008 and now MySQL is currently part of the Oracle empire (January 2010) as Sun
Microsystems is acquired by Oracle. More than just a niche database now, MySQL powers commercial
websites by the hundreds of thousands and a huge number of internal enterprise applications.
Although MySQL’s community and commercial adopters had reservations about Oracle’s ownership of
this popular open source product, Oracle has publicly declared its commitment to ongoing
development and support.

Product Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest R

Sun Microsystems(now Oracle Corporation) Nov-1995 5.5.17

6. PostgreSQL

PostgreSQL is an open source database and widely used in online gaming applications, data center
automation suites and domain registries. The vast majority of Linux distributions have PostgreSQL
available in supplied packages. Mac OS X, starting with Lion, has PostgreSQL server as its standard
default database in the server edition and PostgreSQL client tools in the desktop edition.

Product Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest

PostgreSQL Global Development Group Jun-1989 9.1.3

7. Teradata

Teradata is mainly used for for data warehouses and analytic applications because its products are
meant to consolidate data from different sources and make the data easily available for analysis and
reporting. Teradata was incorporated in 1979 and was formerly a division of NCR Corporation, with the
spinoff from NCR on October 1, 2007.

Product Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Re

Teradata (now NCR corp) 1984 13.10

8. Informix

Informix is another IBM product. The Informix products were originally developed by Informix
Corporation, whose Informix Software subsidiary was acquired by IBM in 2001. IBM has continued
active development and marketing of the key Informix products and offers several Informix. Informix
database is often associated with universities and colleges. Informix customers often speak of its low
cost, low maintenance and high reliability.
 Product Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Rele

IBM 1980 11.70.xC5 Ma

9. Ingres

Ingres Database is fully open source with a growing global community of contributors. Ingres is all
about choice and choosing might mean lowering your total cost of ownership for an enterprise
database system. Ingres was first created as a research project at the University of California,
Berkeley, starting in the early 1970s and ending in the early 1980s. Ingres prides itself on its ability to
ease your transition from costlier database systems. Ingres also incorporates security features
required for HIPPA and Sarbanes Oxley compliance.

roduct Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Release Date

gres Corp. 1974 Ingres Database 10 Oct-2010

10. MaxDB

MaxDB is an ANSISQL-92 (entry level) compliant relational database management system (RDBMS)
from SAP AG. MaxDB is targeted for large SAP environments e.g. mySAP Business Suite and other
applications that require enterprise-level database functionality. It is able to run terabyte-range data
in continuous operation.

roduct Owner First Public Release Date Latest Stable Version Latest Release Date

SAP AG May-2003 7.6 Jan-2008