Database System Environment or components of Database system:

Database system refers to a set of components that define and control the collection, storage, management and use of
data. It is composed of five major parts hardware, software, people, procedures and data.

1.       Hardware: Hardware refers to all of the system's physical devices; for example, computers storage devices, printers,
network devices and etc.

2.       Software: To make the database system work properly, three types of software are needed: operating system, DBMS
software, and application programs.

a)       Operating system:  It  manages all hardware components and allows other software to run on the computers.
Examples of operating system software include Windows, Linux and etc.
b)       DBMS software:  It manages the database within the database system. Some examples of DBMS software include
Oracle, Access, MySql and etc.
c)       Application programs: These  are used to access and manipulate data in the DBMS and to manage the computer
environment in which data access and manipulation take place. Application programs are most commonly used to
access data to generate reports.  Most of the application programs provide GUI.

3.       People:  This component includes all users of the database system. According to the job nature, five types of users can
be identified: systems administrators, database administrators, database designers, systems analysts and programmers,
and end users.
a)       System administrators: They supervise the database system's general operations.
b)       Database administrators:  They are  also known as DBAs. They manage the DBMS and ensure that the database is
functioning properly.  
c)       Database designers: They design the database structure. They are the database architects. As this is very critical, the
designer's job responsibilities are increased.
d)       Systems analysts and programmers:  They  design and implement the application programs. They design and create
the data entry screens, reports, and procedures through which end users can access and manipulate the data.
e)       End users: They are the people who use the application programs to run the organization's daily operations. For
example, sales-clerks, supervisors, managers are classified as end users.  

4.       Procedures:  Procedures are the instructions and rules that supervise the design and use of the database system.
Procedures are a critical component of the system. Procedures play an important role in a company because they
enforce the standards by which business is conducted in an organization

5.       Data: Data refers the collection of facts stored in the database. Because data are the raw material from which
information is generated, no database can exist without database.
Dr. E.F. Codd's Rules
Every database has tables, and constraints cannot be referred to as a rational database system. And if any database has
only relational data model, it cannot be a Relational Database System (RDBMS). So, some rules define a database to be
the correct RDBMS. These rules were developed by Dr. Edgar F. Codd (E.F. Codd) in 1985, who has vast research
knowledge on the Relational Model of database Systems. Codd presents his 13 rules for a database to test the concept
of DBMS against his relational model, and if a database follows the rule, it is called a  true relational database (RDBMS).
These 13 rules are popular in RDBMS, known as Codd's 12 rules.

Rule 0: The Foundation Rule

The database must be in relational form. So that the system can handle the database through its relational capabilities.

Rule 1: Information Rule

A database contains various information, and this information must be stored in each cell of a table in the form of rows
and columns.

Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule

Every single or precise data (atomic value) may be accessed logically from a relational database using the combination of
primary key value, table name, and column name.

Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of Null Values

This rule defines the systematic treatment of Null values in database records. The null value has various meanings in the
database, like missing the data, no value in a cell, inappropriate information, unknown data and the primary key should not
be null.

Rule 4: Active/Dynamic Online Catalog based on the relational model

It represents the entire logical structure of the descriptive database that must be stored online and is known as a database
dictionary. It authorizes users to access the database and implement a similar query language to access the database.

Rule 5: Comprehensive Data SubLanguage Rule

The relational database supports various languages, and if we want to access the database, the language must be the
explicit, linear or well-defined syntax, character strings and supports the comprehensive: data definition, view definition,
data manipulation, integrity constraints, and limit transaction management operations. If the database allows access to the
data without any language, it is considered a violation of the database.
Rule 6: View Updating Rule
All views table can be theoretically updated and must be practically updated by the database systems.

Rule 7: Relational Level Operation (High-Level Insert, Update and delete) Rule
A database system should follow high-level relational operations such as insert, update, and delete in each level or a single
row. It also supports union, intersection and minus operation in the database system.

Rule 8: Physical Data Independence Rule

All stored data in a database or an application must be physically independent to access the database. Each data should
not depend on other data or an application. If data is updated or the physical structure of the database is changed, it will
not show any effect on external applications that are accessing the data from the database.

Rule 9: Logical Data Independence Rule

It is similar to physical data independence. It means, if any changes occurred to the logical level (table structures), it should
not affect the user's view (application). For example, suppose a table either split into two tables, or two table joins to create
a single table, these changes should not be impacted on the user view application.

Rule 10: Integrity Independence Rule

A database must maintain integrity independence when inserting data into table's cells using the SQL query language. All
entered values should not be changed or rely on any external factor or application to maintain integrity. It is also helpful in
making the database-independent for each front-end application.

Rule 11: Distribution Independence Rule

The distribution independence rule represents a database that must work properly, even if it is stored in different locations
and used by different end-users. Suppose a user accesses the database through an application; in that case, they should
not be aware that another user uses particular data, and the data they always get is only located on one site. The end users
can access the database, and these access data should be independent for every user to perform the SQL queries.

Rule 12: Non Subversion Rule

The non-submersion rule defines RDBMS as a SQL language to store and manipulate the data in the database. If a system
has a low-level or separate language other than SQL to access the database system, it should not subvert or bypass
integrity to transform data.

What is Relational Model?

Relational Model (RM) represents the database as a collection of relations. A relation is nothing but a table of values.
Every row in the table represents a collection of related data values. These rows in the table denote a real-world entity or
relationship.
The table name and column names are helpful to interpret the meaning of values in each row. The data are represented as
a set of relations. In the relational model, data are stored as tables. However, the physical storage of the data is
independent of the way the data are logically organized.

Some popular Relational Database management systems are:

 DB2 and Informix Dynamic Server – IBM

 Oracle and RDB – Oracle
 SQL Server and Access – Microsoft
In this tutorial, you will learn

 Relational Model Concepts

 Relational Integrity Constraints
 Operations in Relational Model
 Best Practices for creating a Relational Model
 Advantages of using Relational Model
 Disadvantages of using Relational Model
Relational Model Concepts
1. Attribute: Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which define a relation. e.g.,
Student_Rollno, NAME,etc.
2. Tables – In the Relational model the, relations are saved in the table format. It is stored along with its
entities. A table has two properties rows and columns. Rows represent records and columns represent
attributes.
3. Tuple – It is nothing but a single row of a table, which contains a single record.
4. Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its attributes.
5. Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of the relation.
6. Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
7. Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
8. Relation instance – Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS system. Relation instances
never have duplicate tuples.
9. Relation key – Every row has one, two or multiple attributes, which is called relation key.
10. Attribute domain – Every attribute has some pre-defined value and scope which is known as attribute
domain

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Relational Integrity Constraints

Relational Integrity constraints in DBMS are referred to conditions which must be present for a valid relation.
These Relational constraints in DBMS are derived from the rules in the mini-world that the database represents.

There are many types of Integrity Constraints in DBMS. Constraints on the Relational database management
system is mostly divided into three main categories are:

1. Domain Constraints
2. Key Constraints
3. Referential Integrity Constraints

Domain Constraints
Domain constraints can be violated if an attribute value is not appearing in the corresponding domain or it is not of
the appropriate data type.

Domain constraints specify that within each tuple, and the value of each attribute must be unique. This is specified
as data types which include standard data types integers, real numbers, characters, Booleans, variable length strings,
etc.

Example:
Create DOMAIN CustomerName
CHECK (value not NULL)

The example shown demonstrates creating a domain constraint such that CustomerName is not NULL

Key Constraints
An attribute that can uniquely identify a tuple in a relation is called the key of the table. The value of the attribute
for different tuples in the relation has to be unique.

Example:

In the given table, CustomerID is a key attribute of Customer Table. It is most likely to have a single key for one
customer, CustomerID =1 is only for the CustomerName =” Google”.

CustomerID CustomerName Status

1 Google Active

2 Amazon Active

3 Apple Inactive

Referential Integrity Constraints

Referential Integrity constraints in DBMS are based on the concept of Foreign Keys. A foreign key is an important
attribute of a relation which should be referred to in other relationships. Referential integrity constraint state
happens where relation refers to a key attribute of a different or same relation. However, that key element must
exist in the table.

Example:

In the above example, we have 2 relations, Customer and Billing.

Tuple for CustomerID =1 is referenced twice in the relation Billing. So we know CustomerName=Google has
billing amount $300

Operations in Relational Model

Four basic update operations performed on relational database model are

Insert, update, delete and select.

 Insert is used to insert data into the relation

 Delete is used to delete tuples from the table.
 Modify allows you to change the values of some attributes in existing tuples.
 Select allows you to choose a specific range of data.

Whenever one of these operations are applied, integrity constraints specified on the relational database schema
must never be violated.
Insert Operation
The insert operation gives values of the attribute for a new tuple which should be inserted into a relation.

Update Operation
You can see that in the below-given relation table CustomerName= ‘Apple’ is updated from Inactive to Active.

Delete Operation
To specify deletion, a condition on the attributes of the relation selects the tuple to be deleted.

In the above-given example, CustomerName= “Apple” is deleted from the table.

The Delete operation could violate referential integrity if the tuple which is deleted is referenced by foreign keys
from other tuples in the same database.

Select Operation

In the above-given example, CustomerName=”Amazon” is selected

Best Practices for creating a Relational Model
 Data need to be represented as a collection of relations
 Each relation should be depicted clearly in the table
 Rows should contain data about instances of an entity
 Columns must contain data about attributes of the entity
 Cells of the table should hold a single value
 Each column should be given a unique name
 No two rows can be identical
 The values of an attribute should be from the same domain

Advantages of using Relational Model

 Simplicity: A Relational data model in DBMS is simpler than the hierarchical and network model.
 Structural Independence: The relational database is only concerned with data and not with a structure.
This can improve the performance of the model.
 Easy to use: The Relational model in DBMS is easy as tables consisting of rows and columns are quite
natural and simple to understand
 Query capability: It makes possible for a high-level query language like SQL to avoid complex database
navigation.
 Data independence: The Structure of Relational database can be changed without having to change any
application.
 Scalable: Regarding a number of records, or rows, and the number of fields, a database should be enlarged
to enhance its usability.

Disadvantages of using Relational Model

 Few relational databases have limits on field lengths which can’t be exceeded.
 Relational databases can sometimes become complex as the amount of data grows, and the relations
between pieces of data become more complicated.
 Complex relational database systems may lead to isolated databases where the information cannot be
shared from one system to another.