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Subject Name: Computer Graphics and Multimedia Subject Code: IT 6003

Subject Notes
Unit-V
Compression & Decompression
Compression Techniques
There are two categories of compression techniques used with digital graphics, lossy and lossless.
Lossless and lossy compression are terms that describe whether or not, in the compression of a file, all original
data can be recovered when the file is uncompressed. With lossless compression, every single bit of data that
was originally in the file remains after the file is uncompressed. All of the information is completely restored.
This is generally the technique of choice for text or spreadsheet files, where losing words or financial data
could pose a problem. The Graphics Interchange File (GIF) is an image format used on the Web that provides
lossless compression.
On the other hand, lossy compression reduces a file by permanently eliminating certain information, especially
redundant information. When the file is uncompressed, only a part of the original information is still there
(although the user may not notice it). Lossy compression is generally used for video and sound, where a
certain amount of information loss will not be detected by most users. The JPEG image file, commonly used
for photographs and other complex still images on the Web, is an image that has lossy compression. Using
JPEG compression, the creator can decide how much loss to introduce and make a trade-off between file size
and image quality.

Figure 5.1: Difference between Lossless VS. Lossy Compression Technique

Image Compression
Image compression is a type of data compression applied to digital images, to reduce their cost for storage or
transmission. Algorithms may take advantage of visual perception and the statistical properties of image data
to provide superior results compared with generic compression methods.
Methods for lossless image compression are:
 Run-length encoding – used in default method in PCX and as one of possible in BMP, TGA, TIFF
 Area image compression
 DPCM and Predictive Coding
 Entropy encoding
 Adaptive dictionary algorithms such as LZW – used in GIF and TIFF
 Deflation – used in PNG, MNG, and TIFF
 Chain codes
Methods for lossy compression:
 Reducing the color space to the most common colors in the image. The selected colors are specified in
the color palette in the header of the compressed image. Each pixel just references the index of a color
in the colour palette; this method can be combined with dithering to avoid posterization.

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 Chroma subsampling. This takes advantage of the fact that the human eye perceives spatial changes of
brightness more sharply than those of color, by averaging or dropping some of the chrominance
information in the image.
 Transform coding. This is the most commonly used method. In particular, a Fourier-related transform
such as the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is widely used: N. Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K.R. Rao,
"Discrete Cosine Transform," IEEE Trans. Computers, 90-93, Jan. 1974. The DCT is sometimes referred
to as "DCT-II" in the context of a family of discrete cosine transforms; e.g., see discrete cosine
transform. The more recently developed wavelet transform is also used extensively, followed by
quantization and entropy coding.
 Fractal compression.

Figure 5.2: Lossless VS. Lossy Compression

Decompression is the process of restoring compressed data to its original form. Data decompression is
required in almost all cases of compressed data, including lossy and lossless compression. Similar to
compression of data, decompression of data is also based on different algorithms. Decompression is
considered important, as compressed data needs to be restored back to standard state for usage.
Decompression is widely used in data communications, multimedia, audio, video and file transmissions.
Multimedia Data & File Format standards
Text File Formats
ASCII
The ASCII standard allows ASCII-only text files (unlike most other file types) to be freely interchanged and
readable on Unix, Macintosh, Microsoft Windows, DOS, and other systems. These differ in their preferred line
ending convention and their interpretation of values outside the ASCII range (their character encoding).
UTF-8
In English context text files can be uniquely ASCII, when in some files are usually 8 bits permissive allowing
storage of native texts. In that international context, a Byte Order Mark can appear in start of file to
differentiate UTF-8 encoding from legacy regional encoding.
MIME
Text files usually have the MIME type "text/plain", usually with additional information indicating an encoding.
Prior to the advent of Mac OS X, the Mac OS system regarded the content of a file (the data fork) to be a text
file when its resource fork indicated that the type of the file was "TEXT". Under the Microsoft Windows
operating system, a file is regarded as a text file if the suffix of the name of the file (the "extension") is "txt".
However, many other suffixes are used for text files with specific purposes. For example, source code for
computer programs is usually kept in text files that have file name suffixes indicating the programming
language in which the source is written.
.TXT is a file format for files consisting of text usually containing very little formatting (e.g., no bolding or
italics). The precise definition of the .txt format is not specified, but typically matches the format accepted by

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the system terminal or simple text editor. Files with the .txt extension can easily be read or opened by any
program that reads text and, for that reason, are considered universal (or platform independent).
The ASCII character set is the most common format for English-language text files, and is generally assumed to
be the default file format in many situations. For accented and other non-ASCII characters, it is necessary to
choose a character encoding. In many systems, this is chosen on the basis of the default locale setting on the
computer it is read on. Common character encodings include ISO 8859-1 for many European languages.
Because many encodings have only a limited repertoire of characters, they are often only usable to represent
text in a limited subset of human languages.
Unicode is an attempt to create a common standard for representing all known languages, and most known
character sets are subsets of the very large Unicode character set. Although there are multiple character
encodings available for Unicode, the most common is UTF-8, which has the advantage of being, backwards-
compatible with ASCII: that is, every ASCII text file is also a UTF-8 text file with identical meaning.
Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation and handling of text
expressed in most of the world's writing systems. Developed in conjunction with the Universal Character Set
standard and published in book form as The Unicode Standard, the latest version of Unicode contains a
repertoire of more than 110,000 characters covering 100 scripts. The standard consists of a set of code charts
for visual reference, an encoding method and set of standard character encodings, a set of reference data
computer files, and a number of related items, such as character properties, rules for normalization,
decomposition, collation, rendering, and bidirectional display order (for the correct display of text containing
both right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic and Hebrew, and left-to-right scripts). As of September 2013, the most
recent version is Unicode 6.3. The standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium.
Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings. The most commonly used encodings are UTF-
8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII characters, which have the same
code values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit
code unit (two 8-bit bytes) for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode
standard. UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using two 16-bit units (4 × 8 bit) to handle each of the additional characters.
Unicode Transformation Format and Universal Character Set
Unicode defines two mapping methods: the Unicode Transformation Format (UTF) encodings, and the
Universal Character Set (UCS) encodings. An encoding maps (possibly a subset of) the range of Unicode code
points to sequences of values in some fixed-size range, termed code values. The numbers in the names of the
encodings indicate the number of bits in one code value (for UTF encodings) or the number of bytes per code
value (for UCS) encodings. UTF-8 and UTF-16 are probably the most commonly used encodings. UCS-2 is an
obsolete subset of UTF-16; UCS-4 and UTF-32 are functionally equivalent.
UTF encodings include:
1. UTF-1 – a retired predecessor of UTF-8, maximizes compatibility with ISO 2022, no longer part of The
Unicode Standard
2. UTF-7 – a 7-bit encoding sometimes used in e-mail, often considered obsolete (not part of The Unicode
Standard, but only documented as an informational RFC, i.e. not on the Internet Standards Track
either)
3. UTF-8 – an 8-bit variable-width encoding which maximizes compatibility with ASCII.
4. UTF-EBCDIC – an 8-bit variable-width encoding similar to UTF-8, but designed for compatibility with
EBCDIC. (Not part of The Unicode Standard)
5. UTF-16 – a 16-bit, variable-width encoding
6. UTF-32 – a 32-bit, fixed-width encoding
7. There are basically four ways to encode Unicode characters in bytes:
UTF−8

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128 characters are encoded using 1 byte (the ASCII characters). 1920 characters are encoded using 2 bytes
(Roman, Greek, Cyrillic, Coptic, Armenian, Hebrew, Arabic characters). 63488 characters are encoded using 3
bytes (Chinese and Japanese among others). The other 2147418112 characters (not assigned yet) can be
encoded using 4, 5 or 6 characters. For more info about UTF−8, do `man 7 utf−8' (manage contained in the
man−pages−1.20 package).
UCS−2
Every character is represented as two bytes. This encoding can only represent the first 65536 Unicode
characters.
UTF−16
This is an extension of UCS−2 which can represent 1112064 Unicode characters. The first 65536 Unicode
characters are represented as two bytes, the other ones as four bytes.
UCS−4
Every character is represented as four bytes. The space requirements for encoding a text, compared to
encodings currently in use (8 bit per character for European languages, more for Chinese / Japanese / Korean),
is as follows. This has an influence on disk storage space and network download speed (when no form of
compression is used).
UTF−8
No change for US ASCII, just a few percent more for ISO−8859−1, 50% more for Chinese / Japanese / Korean,
100% more for Greek and Cyrillic.

Text Files Format Description / Properties Usage and Archival Recommendations

Text file Good for extremely simple files
Simple plain text document Commonly used for introductory “Read me”
.txt
Compatible across software packages files containing basic information on project
Supports very little formatting archives
Microsoft Word document (- 2003)
Accepted for archiving because it is so
Proprietary binary format
.doc widely used
Can be read by OpenOffice
However, will become obsolete
Easily converted into PDF format
Microsoft Word document (2007 )
Good for dissemination and preservation
Human readable XML format
.docx Conversion to .doc file to open with earlier
Stored along with embedded content
versions of MS Word
as zipped file
Formatting issues when using opened in
Rich Text Format (Microsoft) different software
.rtf
Tagged plain text format Large file sizes mean that .docx or. odt file
formats are preferred
Open source format good for use,
dissemination and archiving
Open Document Text (OpenOffice)
Archive files in uncompressed form
.odt ISO standard, human readable XML
Can open .doc files
format
Might not open correctly in other word
processing programs
Portable Document Format (Adobe) Highly suitable for dissemination
.pdf Proprietary binary format PDF creators and readers freely and widely
Aims to retain document formatting available

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Can store embedded data: raster and Retain original text document and
vector images embedded objects (e.g. images, tabular
(e.g. Adobe Illustrator files) data, etc)
Portable Document Format / Archive Widely accepted as viable format for long-
(Adobe) term archiving
PDF/A Open ISO standard format for long- Retain original text file and embedded
term archiving objects separately (e.g. images, tabular
Formatting data self-contained in file data, etc)

Audio file formats

Audio files come in all types and sizes. We are familiar with MP3, but what about AAC, FLAC, OGG, or WMA?
Why do so many standards exist? Which ones should you care about and which ones can you ignore?
It’s actually quite simple once you realize that all audio formats fall into three major categories. Once you
know which category you want, all you have to do is pick the format within that category that best suits your
needs.
File extension Format Codec Note
.mp3 MPEG MPEG1 Audio Layer 3
.m4a
.mpa MPEG 4 AAC
.aac
.flac FLAC FLAC Supports up to 2 channels
.ogg OGG Vorbis Supports up to 2 channels
Supports up to 10 Pro 5.1 channels. WMA
.wma WMA WMA lossless audio is not supported. Supports
up to the M2 profile.
.wav Wav wav
Supports type 0 and type 1.
.mid
Midi midi Seek is not supported.
.midi
Supports USB device only.
.ape Ape ape
.aif
AIFF AIFF
.aiff
.m4a ALAC ALAC
Uncompressed Audio Formats
Uncompressed audio is exactly what it sounds like: real sound waves that have been captured and converted
to digital format without any further processing. As a result, uncompressed audio files tend to be the most
accurate but take up a LOT of disk space — about 34 MB per minute for 24-bit 96 KHz stereo.
PCM
PCM stands for Pulse-Code Modulation, a digital representation of raw analog audio signals. Analog sounds
exist as waveforms, and in order to convert a waveform into digital bits, the sound must be sampled and
recorded at certain intervals (or pulses).
As such, this digital audio format has a “sampling rate” (how often a sample is made) and a “bit depth” (how
many bits are used to represent each sample). There is no compression involved. The digital recording is a
close-to-exact representation of the analog sound.
PCM is the most common audio format used in CDs and DVDs. There is a subtype of PCM called Linear Pulse-
Code Modulation, where samples are taken at linear intervals. LPCM is the most common form of PCM, which
is why the two terms are almost interchangeable at this point.

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WAV
WAV stands for Waveform Audio File Format (also called Audio for Windows at some point but not anymore).
It’s a standard that was developed by Microsoft and IBM back in 1991.
A lot of people assume that all WAV files are uncompressed audio files, but that’s not exactly true. WAV is
actually just a Windows container for audio formats. This means that a WAV file can contain compressed
audio, but it’s rarely used for that.
Most WAV files contain uncompressed audio in PCM format. The WAV file is just a wrapper for the PCM
encoding, making it more suitable for use on Windows systems. However, Mac systems can usually open WAV
files without any issues.
AIFF
AIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format. Similar to how Microsoft and IBM developed WAV for
Windows, AIFF is a format that was developed by Apple for Mac systems back in 1988.
Also similar to WAV files, AIFF files can contain multiple kinds of audio. For example, there is a compressed
version called AIFF-C and another version called Apple Loops which is used by GarageBand and Logic Audio —
and they all use the same AIFF extension.
Most AIFF files contain uncompressed audio in PCM format. The AIFF file is just a wrapper for the PCM
encoding, making it more suitable for use on Mac systems. However, Windows systems can usually open AIFF
files without any issues.
Lossy Compressed Audio Formats
Lossy compression is a form of compression that loses data during the compression process. In the context of
audio, that means sacrificing quality and fidelity for file size. The good news is that, in most cases, you won’t
be able to hear the difference. However, if the audio gets compressed too much or too often, you’ll start
hearing artifacts and other weirdness’s that become more and more noticeable.
MP3
MP3 stands for MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3. It was released back in 1993 and quickly exploded in popularity,
eventually becoming the most popular audio format in the world for music files. There’s a reason why we have
“MP3 players” but not “OGG players”…
The main pursuit of MP3 is to cut out all of the sound data that exists beyond the hearing range of most
normal people and to reduce the quality of sounds that aren’t as easy to hear, and then to compress all other
audio data as efficiently as possible.
Nearly every digital device in the world with audio playback can read and play MP3 files, whether we’re talking
about PCs, Macs, Androids, iPhones, Smart TVs, or whatever else. When you need universal, MP3 will never let
you down.
AAC
AAC stands for Advanced Audio Coding. It was developed in 1997 as the successor to MP3, and while it did
catch on as a popular format to use, it never really overtook MP3 as the most popular for everyday music and
recording. The compression algorithm used by AAC is much more advanced and technical than MP3, so when
you compare a particular recording in MP3 and AAC formats at the same bitrate, the AAC one will generally
have better sound quality.
Again, even though MP3 is more of a household format, AAC is widely used today. In fact, it’s the standard
audio compression method used by YouTube, Android, iOS, iTunes, later Nintendo portables, and later
PlayStations.
OGG (Vorbis)
OGG doesn’t stand for anything. Actually, it’s not even a compression format. OGG is a multimedia container
that can hold all kinds of compression formats, but is most commonly used to hold Vorbis files — hence why
these audio files are called Ogg Vorbis files.

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Vorbis was first released in 2000 and grew in popularity due to two reasons: first, it adheres to the principles
of open source software, and second, it performs significantly better than most other lossy compression
formats (i.e. produces a smaller file size for equivalent audio quality).
MP3 and AAC have such strong footholds that OGG has had a hard time breaking into the spotlight — not
many devices support it natively— but it’s getting better with time. For now, it’s mostly used by hardcore
proponents of open software.
WMA
WMA stands for Windows Media Audio. It was first released in 1999 and has gone through several evolutions
since then, all while keeping the same WMA name and extension. As you might expect, it’s a proprietary
format created by Microsoft.
Not unlike AAC and OGG, WMA was meant to address some of the flaws in the MP3 compression method —
and as such, WMA’s approach to compression is pretty similar to AAC and OGG. In other words, in terms of
objective quality, WMA is better than MP3.
But since WMA is proprietary, not many devices and platforms support it. It also doesn’t offer any real
benefits over AAC or OGG, so in most cases when MP3 isn’t good enough, it’s simply more practical to go with
one of those two instead.
Lossless Compressed Audio Formats
On the other side of the coin is lossless compression, which is a method that reduces file size without any loss
in quality between the original source file and the resulting file. The downside is that lossless compression isn’t
as efficient as lossy compression, meaning equivalent files can be 2x to 5x larger.
This is obviously much harder to do well, but there are a few good formats for this. And don’t confuse lossless
compression with high-resolution audio (which is most likely a scam anyway).
FLAC
FLAC stands for Free Lossless Audio Codec. A bit on the nose maybe, but it has quickly become one of the
most popular lossless formats available since its introduction in 2001.
What’s nice is that FLAC can compress an original source file by up to 60% without losing a single bit of data.
What’s even nicer is that FLAC is an open source and royalty-free format rather than a proprietary one, so it
doesn’t impose any intellectual property constraints.
FLAC is supported by most major programs and devices and is the main alternative to MP3 for CD audio. With
it, you basically get the full quality of raw uncompressed audio in half the file size — what’s not to love about
it?
ALAC
ALAC stands for Apple Lossless Audio Codec. It was developed and launched in 2004 as a proprietary format
but eventually became open source and royalty-free in 2011. ALAC is sometimes referred to as Apple Lossless.
While ALAC is good, it’s slightly less efficient than FLAC when it comes to compression. However, Apple users
don’t really have a choice between the two because iTunes and iOS both provide native support for ALAC and
no support at all for FLAC.
WMA
WMA stands for Windows Media Audio. We covered it above in the lossy compression section, but we
mention it here because there’s a lossless alternative called WMA Lossless that uses the same extension.
Confusing, I know.
Compared to FLAC and ALAC, WMA Lossless is the worst in terms of compression efficiency but only slightly.
It’s a proprietary format so it’s no good for fans of open source software, but it is supported natively on both
Windows and Mac systems.
The biggest issue with WMA Lossless is the limited hardware support. If you want lossless audio across
multiple devices, you should stick with FLAC unless all of your devices are of the Windows variety.

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So Which Format Should You Use?
For most people, the decision is actually pretty easy:
If you’re capturing and editing raw audio, use an uncompressed format. This way you’re working with the
truest quality of audio possible. When you’re done, you can export to a compressed format.
If you’re listening to music and want faithful audio representation, use lossless audio compression. This is why
audiophiles always scramble for FLAC albums over MP3 albums. Note that you’ll need more storage space for
these.
If you’re okay with “good enough” music quality, if your audio file doesn’t have any music, or if you need to
conserve disk space, use lossy audio compression. Most people actually can’t hear the difference between
lossy and lossless compression.
For those who want utmost quality in their music playback, note that high-quality audio files won’t matter if
your playback device can’t faithfully recreate those sounds. Meaning, you need to have good quality speakers
or good quality headphones!
Video and Audio Files
Notes
Format
Waveform Audio (Microsoft)
.wav Uncompressed file
Recommended for long term preservation
Audio Interchange File (Apple)
.aif Uncompressed file
Recommended for long term preservation
MPEG1, 2 Audio Layer 3
.mp3 (Moving Picture Expert Group: Audio group)
Patented ISO standard compressed format
.rm / .ram Read Audio file format used for streaming radio over the internet
Windows Media Audio
.wma
Compressed file used by Windows
.ogg Open standard format for compressed audio files
.avi Audio Video Interleave (Microsoft)
Windows Media Video (Microsoft)
.wmv
Proprietary compression format for hard media delivery (DVD, Blu-Ray)
.mov QuickTime File Format (Apple)
MPEG4 – Digital Video File Format
.mp4 ISO standard
Recommended by DSpace for long term storage
Video File Formats
The MPEG standards consist of different Parts. Each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification.
The standard also specifies Profiles and Levels. Profiles are intended to define a set of tools that are available,
and Levels define the range of appropriate values for the properties associated with them.
Also MPEG-4 part 14 or mp4, a digital multimedia format used to store
MPEG-4
video and audio, but also store subtitles and still images. It will be the best
(.mp4)
video format for IMovie, in case you want a smaller video file size.
This file format specifies a multimedia container file containing one or more
Quick Time Movie
tracks, each of which stores a particular type of data: audio, video, effects,
(.mov)
or text.
aka H.222/H.262 as defined by the ITU. It is the core of most digital
MPEG-2
television and DVD formats.

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Short for Advanced Video Coding High Definition, it is a file based format for
AVCHD
the digital recording and playback of high definition video.
The format for storing digital video recorded by camcorder. If you want
DV & HDV video for better quality, believe it will be the best video format for IMovie as
it is uncompressed.
MPEG has standardized the following compression formats and ancillary standards:
MPEG-1: is the first compression standard for audio and video. It was basically designed to allow moving
pictures and sound to be encoded into the bitrate of a Compact Disc. To meet the low bit requirement, MPEG-
1 downsamples the images, as well as using picture rates of only 24-30 Hz, resulting in a moderate quality. It
includes the popular Layer 3 (MP3) audio compression format.
MPEG-2: Transport, video and audio standards for broadcast-quality television. MPEG-2 standard was
considerably broader in scope and of wider appeal--supporting interlacing and high definition. MPEG-2 is
considered important because it has been chosen as the compression scheme for over-theair digital television
ATSC, DVB and ISDB, digital satellite TV services like Dish Network, digital cable television signals, SVCD, and
DVD.
MPEG-3: Developments in standardizing scalable and multi-resolution compression which would have become
MPEG-3 were ready by the time MPEG-2 was to be standardized; hence, these were incorporated into MPEG-
2 and as a result there is no MPEG-3 standard. MPEG-3 is not to be confused with MP3, which is MPEG-1
Audio Layer 3.
MPEG-4: MPEG-4 uses further coding tools with additional complexity to achieve higher compression factors
than MPEG-2. In addition to more efficient coding of video, MPEG-4 moves closer to computer graphics
applications. In more complex profiles, the MPEG-4 decoder effectively becomes a rendering processor and
the compressed bitstream describes three-dimensional shapes and surface texture. MPEG-4 also provides
Intellectual Property Management and Protection (IPMP) which provides the facility to use proprietary
technologies to manage and protect content like digital rights management.
Several new higher-efficiency video standards (newer than MPEG-2 Video) are included (an alternative to
MPEG-2 Video), notably:
 MPEG-4 Part 2 (or Advanced Simple Profile) and
 MPEG-4 Part 10 (or Advanced Video Coding or H.264). MPEG-4 Part 10 may be used on HD DVD and
Blu-ray discs, along with VC-1 and MPEG-2.
In addition, the following standards, while not sequential advances to the video encoding standard as with
MPEG-1 through MPEG-4, are referred to by similar notation:
 MPEG-7: A multimedia content description standard.
 MPEG-21: MPEG describes this standard as a multimedia framework.
Multimedia I/O technologies
An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control
signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information appliance. Input and
output devices make up the hardware interface between a computer and a scanner. Many input devices can
be classified according to:
 Modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)
 The input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though digitized into a
discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)
 The number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-
dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications)
 Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can further be classified
according to:

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o Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with the
display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the cursor appears.
Touch screens and light pens involve direct input. Examples involving indirect input include the
mouse and trackball. Direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be
either absolute or relative. For example, digitizing graphics tablets that do not have an
embedded screen involve indirect input and sense absolute positions and are often run in an
absolute input mode, but they may also be set up to simulate a relative input mode where the
stylus or puck can be lifted and repositioned.
o Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g. with a
mouse that can be lifted and repositioned).
Output Devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data
processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world.
In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system
(such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are
the signals or data sent by the system to the outside. Examples of output devices: Speakers, Headphones,
Screen (Monitor), Printer.
Digital voice and audio
Audio signal processing or audio processing is the intentional alteration of audio signals often through an
audio effect or effects unit. As audio signals may be electronically represented in either digital or analog
format, signal processing may occur in either domain. Analog processors operate directly on the electrical
signal, while digital processors operate mathematically on the digital representation of that signal.
The five general steps in digital audio signal processing are as follows:
Step 1 Signal Generation: Signal generation is the conversion of the sound waves from the source into
electrical energy which corresponds to the frequency of the original source. The audio signal may be
generated mechanically using a microphone or turntable to create an analog of the original sound signal such
as a phonograph record or audio cassette. Microphones are used to transduce the physical energy of music
and voice into electrical energy. The audio signal may be generated electromagnetically using tape recorders.
The audio signal may also be generated digitally by using laser optics to create a binary or digital equivalent of
the original sound. Television signal generation requires electronic line-by-line scanning of an image using an
electron beam to scan each element of the picture. The image is subsequently retraced by the television
receiver.
Step 2 Signal Amplification and Processing: Audio signals are amplified and mixed using audio consoles. After
the audio signal has been converted from a physical sound wave into an electrical or digital facsimile, the
audio signal must be amplified to boost the signal and processed including the mixing, combining and routing
for broadcast transmission and/or recording. Sound sources are combined at the mixing board. The amplified
sound may be fine tuned using equalizers and special effects. The switcher is used to mix TV signals and put
the desired picture on the air. A special effect generator is used to add transitions, split screen and keying.
Digital video editing and effects can also be produced using computer software such as Adobe Premiere Pro
and After Effects.
Step 3 Signal Transmission: The electronic signal is superimposed by a modulation process on a carrier
wave generated or propagated by the radio station on its assigned frequency. The generated sound wave may
travel by ground, sky and direct waves. Radio waves occupy a segment of the electromagnetic spectrum. AM
radio channel frequencies are divided into three main types: clear channels, regional channels and local
channels. FM channel frequencies are classified by antenna height and power. Stereo broadcasting and other
non broadcast services are accomplished with the wide bandwidth of the FM channel. Digital radio is satellite-

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based or in-band on channel. Television signal transmission includes over-the-air broadcasting using the
electromagnetic radiation on the VHF and UHF portions of the spectrum or by wire through a cable system
using coaxial cable that can carry programming on more than 100 channels. New transmission technologies
used for transmission and distribution include satellite and fiber optics for digital signals.
Step 4 Signal Reception: After the radio signal has been transduced, modulated and transmitted, the radio
waves are picked up on a radio receiver where they are transduced or converted by the speaker system back
into sound waves. The characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum and modulation method used in
transmission determine the type of radio receiver needed to convert the signal back into sound waves.
There are several types of radio receivers including AM, AM stereo, FM, shortwave, and multiband. These
receivers can be equipped with either analog tuners or a digital system. For moving images both large and
small-screen TVs are now receiving high-definition television vision signals.
Step 5 Signal Storage: Audio technology is used in the storage and retrieval of sounds. Audio signals are
transduced or converted for storage and eventual playback or rebroadcast. The storage medium have included
glass discs, wire, vinyl, magnetic type, compact disc, video tapes, digital storage media such as digital versatile
discs (DVDs) and computer hard drives including high-capacity disc drives.
Sound cards
A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an internal expansion card that provides input and output of
audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs. The term sound card is also
applied to external audio interfaces used for professional audio applications. Typical uses of sound cards
include providing the audio component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video
or audio, presentation, education and entertainment (games) and video projection.
Sound functionality can also be integrated onto the motherboard, using components similar to those found on
plug-in cards. The integrated sound system is often still referred to as a sound card. Sound processing
hardware is also present on modern video cards with HDMI to output sound along with the video using that
connector; previously they used a SPDIF connection to the motherboard or sound card.
Image Creation and
Format options Archive Recommendations
Capture Image
1. Raw DNG (or TIFF) file if possible
Dependent on
Digital Cameras 2. Original JPEG: save archive copy on download and for
model of camera
presentation images always work on a copy of the file
Wide range once Save uncompressed/lossless format (TIFF) as archive copy
Scanners
scanned regardless of intended format
Alongside software package files (e.g Photoshop [.psd],
Wide choice of
Corel Draw [.cpt]), save draft images in uncompressed TIFF
Graphics Images formats under ‘Save
format if possible, and replace with archive TIFF of end
As…’ command
product image
Video image and animation
Animation
Animation means giving life to any object in computer graphics. It has the power of injecting energy and
emotions into the most seemingly inanimate objects. Computer-assisted animation and computer-generated
animation are two categories of computer animation. It can be presented via film or video.
The basic idea behind animation is to play back the recorded images at the rates fast enough to fool the
human eye into interpreting them as continuous motion. Animation can make a series of dead images come
alive. Animation can be used in many areas like entertainment, computer aided-design, scientific visualization,
training, education, e-commerce, and computer art.

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Animation Techniques
Animators have invented and used a variety of different animation techniques. Basically there are six
animation techniques which we would discuss one by one in this section.
Traditional Animation (frame by frame)
Traditionally most of the animation was done by hand. All the frames in an animation had to be drawn by
hand. Since each second of animation requires 24 frames (film), the amount of efforts required to create even
the shortest of movies can be tremendous.
Key framing
In this technique, a storyboard is laid out and then the artists draw the major frames of the animation. Major
frames are the ones in which prominent changes take place. They are the key points of animation. Key framing
requires that the animator specifies critical or key positions for the objects. The computer then automatically
fills in the missing frames by smoothly interpolating between those positions.
Procedural
In a procedural animation, the objects are animated by a procedure − a set of rules − not by key framing. The
animator specifies rules and initial conditions and runs simulation. Rules are often based on physical rules of
the real world expressed by mathematical equations.
Behavioral
In behavioural animation, an autonomous character determines its own actions, at least to a certain extent.
This gives the character some ability to improvise, and frees the animator from the need to specify each detail
of every character's motion.
Performance Based (Motion Capture)
Another technique is Motion Capture, in which magnetic or vision-based sensors record the actions of a
human or animal object in three dimensions. A computer then uses these data to animate the object.
This technology has enabled a number of famous athletes to supply the actions for characters in sports video
games. Motion capture is pretty popular with the animators mainly because some of the commonplace
human actions can be captured with relative ease. However, there can be serious discrepancies between the
shapes or dimensions of the subject and the graphical character and this may lead to problems of exact
execution.
Physically Based (Dynamics)
Unlike key framing and motion picture, simulation uses the laws of physics to generate motion of pictures and
other objects. Simulations can be easily used to produce slightly different sequences while maintaining
physical realism. Secondly, real-time simulations allow a higher degree of interactivity where the real person
can manoeuvre the actions of the simulated character.
In contrast, the applications based on key-framing and motion select and modify motions form a pre-
computed library of motions. One drawback that simulation suffers from is the expertise and time required to
handcraft the appropriate controls systems.
Key Framing
A key frame is a frame where we define changes in animation. Every frame is a key frame when we create
frame by frame animation. When someone creates a 3D animation on a computer, they usually don’t specify
the exact position of any given object on every single frame. They create key frames.
Key frames are important frames during which an object changes its size, direction, shape or other properties.
The computer then figures out all the in-between frames and saves an extreme amount of time for the
animator. The following illustrations depict the frames drawn by user and the frames generated by computer.

Uses of Animation
 Cartoons - One of the most exciting applications of multimedia is games. Nowadays the live internet is
used to play gaming with multiple players has become popular. In fact, the first application of multimedia

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system was in the field of entertainment and that too in the video game industry. The integrated audio
and video effects make various types of games more entertaining.
 Simulations - Computer simulation and animation are well known for their uses in visualizing and
explaining complex and dynamic events. They are also useful in the analysis and understanding of these
same types of events. That is why they are becoming increasingly used in litigation. While simulation and
animation are different, they both involve the application of 3D computer graphics and are presented in
that form with motion on a video screen. Simulation produces motion, which is consistent with the laws of
physics and relies on the inputs by the user to be consistent with the events portrayed. The motion in an
animation can be derived from a reconstruction of the event or can be taken from a simulation. Currently
available animation software is more advanced in the ability to build objects and scenes to achieve photos-
realism. Current simulation software is able to produce a dynamic visualization in a fraction of the time
required by an animation.
 Scientific Visualisation - Multimedia had a wide application in the field of science and technology. It is
capable of transferring audio, sending message and formatted multimedia documents. At the same time it
also helps in live interaction through audio messages and it is only possible with the multimedia. It reduces
the time and cost can be arranged at any moment even in emergencies. At the same time, the multimedia
is enough useful services based on images. Similarly, it is useful for surgeons as they can use images
created from imaging scans of human body to practice complicated procedures such as brain removal and
reconstructive surgery. The plans can be made in a better way to reduce the costs and complications.
 Analysis and Understanding - Another successful use of the animated information graphic is for explaining
a process or procedure. Although technical animations have been around for a long time, modern versions
use the visual language of videos, such as overlaying windows, novel transitions between segments, a
popping soundtrack, lively pace and surprising sound effects. Often the concepts and ideas are pared
down to the basics, as they should be when intended for the general public.
 Teaching and Communicating - In the area of education also, the multimedia has a great importance.
Talking particularly about the schools, the usage of multimedia is very important for children also. It is
extensively used in the field of education and training. Even in traditional method we used audio for
imparting education, where charts, models etc. were used. Nowadays the classroom need is not limited to
that traditional method rather it needs audio and visual media. The multimedia integrates all of them in
one system. As an education aid the PC contains a high-quality display with mic option. This all has
promoted the development of a wide range of computer based training.
 Architecture Visualization - Architectural Animation is a short digital architectural movie which includes
the concerned project or construction, the site, animated people and vehicles, all of which are digitally
generated through 2D or 3D animation techniques. Unlike an architectural rendering, which is a single
image from a single point of view, an architectural animation is a series of such still images. When this
series of images are put together in a sequence and played, they produce the effect of a movie, much like
a real movie except, all images in an architectural animation are digitally created by computer. It is
appropriate to add a computer-generated digital landscape around the central construction to enhance its
visual effect and to better convey its relationship to the surrounding area. Architectural animation is thus
an effective and attractive way to provide designers and stakeholders with a realistic view of what the
project will look like on completion.
Principles of Animation
Disney's Twelve Basic Principles of Animation were introduced by the Disney animators Ollie Johnston and
Frank Thomas in their 1981 book The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation. Johnston and Thomas in turn based
their book on the work of the leading Disney animators from the 1930s onwards, and their effort to produce
more realistic animations. The main purpose of the principles was to produce an illusion of characters

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adhering to the basic laws of physics, but they also dealt with more abstract issues, such as emotional timing
and character appeal.
Squash and Stretch
The most important principle is "squash and stretch" the purpose of which is to give a sense of weight and
flexibility to drawn objects. It can be applied to simple objects, like a bouncing ball, or more complex
constructions, like the musculature of a human face. Taken to an extreme point, a figure stretched or
squashed to an exaggerated degree can have a comical effect in realistic animation, however, the most
important aspect of this principle is the fact that an object's volume does not change when squashed or
stretched. If the length of a ball is stretched vertically, its width (in three dimensions, also its depth) needs to
contract correspondingly horizontally
Anticipation
Anticipation is used to prepare the audience for an action, and to make the action appear more realistic. A
dancer jumping off the floor has to bend his knees first; a golfer making a swing has to swing the club back
first. The technique can also be used for less physical actions, such as a character looking off-screen to
anticipate someone's arrival, or attention focusing on an object that a character is about to pick up.
Staging
This principle is akin to staging in theatre, as it is known in theatre and film. Its purpose is to direct the
audience's attention, and make it clear what is of greatest importance in a scene; Johnston and Thomas
defined it as "the presentation of any idea so that it is completely and unmistakably clear", whether that idea
is an action, a personality, an expression, or a mood. This can be done by various means, such as the
placement of a character in the frame, the use of light and shadow, or the angle and position of the camera.
The essence of this principle is keeping focus on what is relevant, and avoiding unnecessary detail.
Straight Ahead Action and Pose to Pose
These are two different approaches to the actual drawing process. "Straight ahead action" means drawing out
a scene frame by frame from beginning to end, while "pose to pose" involves starting with drawing a few key
frames, and then filling in the intervals later. "Straight ahead action" creates a more fluid, dynamic illusion of
movement, and is better for producing realistic action sequences. On the other hand, it is hard to maintain
proportions, and to create exact, convincing poses along the way. "Pose to pose" works better for dramatic or
emotional scenes, where composition and relation to the surroundings are of greater importance. A
combination of the two techniques is often used
Computer animation removes the problems of proportion related to "straight ahead action" drawing;
however, "pose to pose" is still used for computer animation, because of the advantages it brings in
composition. The use of computers facilitates this method, and can fill in the missing sequences in between
poses automatically. It is, however, still important to oversee this process and apply the other principles
discussed.
Follow Through and Overlapping Action
Follow through and overlapping action is a general heading for two closely related techniques which help to
render movement more realistically, and help to give the impression that characters follow the laws of
physics, including the principle of inertia. "Follow through" means that loosely tied parts of a body should
continue moving after the character has stopped and the parts should keep moving beyond the point where
the character stopped to be "pulled back" only subsequently towards the center of mass and/or exhibiting
various degrees of oscillation damping. "Overlapping action" is the tendency for parts of the body to move at
different rates (an arm will move on different timing of the head and so on). A third, related technique is
"drag", where a character starts to move and parts of him take a few frames to catch up. These parts can be
inanimate objects like clothing or the antenna on a car, or parts of the body, such as arms or hair. On the
human body, the torso is the core, with arms, legs, head and hair appendices that normally follow the torso's
movement. Body parts with much tissue, such as large stomachs and breasts, or the loose skin on a dog, are
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more prone to independent movement than bonier body parts. Again, exaggerated use of the technique can
produce a comical effect, while more realistic animation must time the actions exactly, to produce a
convincing result. The "moving hold" animates between similar key frames, even characters sitting still can display
some sort of movement, such as the torso moving in and out with breathing.
Slow In and Slow Out
The movement of the human body, and most other objects, needs time to accelerate and slow down. For this
reason, animation looks more realistic if it has more drawings near the beginning and end of an action,
emphasizing the extreme poses, and fewer in the middle. This principle goes for characters moving between
two extreme poses, such as sitting down and standing up, but also for inanimate, moving objects, like the
bouncing ball in the above illustration.
Arc
Most natural action tends to follow an arched trajectory, and animation should adhere to this principle by
following implied "arcs" for greater realism. This technique can be applied to a moving limb by rotating a joint,
or a thrown object moving along a parabolic trajectory. The exception is mechanical movement, which
typically moves in straight lines.
As an object's speed or momentum increases, arcs tend to flatten out in moving ahead and broaden in turns.
In baseball, a fastball would tend to move in a straighter line than other pitches; while a figure skater moving
at top speed would be unable to turn as sharply as a slower skater, and would need to cover more ground to
complete the turn.
An object in motion that moves out of its natural arc for no apparent reason will appear erratic rather than
fluid. For example, when animating a pointing finger, the animator should be certain that in all drawings in
between the two extreme poses, the fingertip follows a logical arc from one extreme to the next. Traditional
animators tend to draw the arc in lightly on the paper for reference, to be erased later.
Secondary Action
Adding secondary actions to the main action gives a scene more life, and can help to support the main action.
A person walking can simultaneously swing his arms or keep them in his pockets, speak or whistle, or express
emotions through facial expressions. The important thing about secondary actions is that they emphasize,
rather than take attention away from the main action. If the latter is the case, those actions are better left out.
For example, during a dramatic movement, facial expressions will often go unnoticed. In these cases it is
better to include them at the beginning and the end of the movement, rather than during.
Timing
Timing refers to the number of drawings or frames for a given action, which translates to the speed of the
action on film. On a purely physical level, correct timing makes objects appear to obey the laws of physics; for
instance, an object's weight determines how it reacts to an impetus, like a push. Timing is critical for
establishing a character's mood, emotion, and reaction. It can also be a device to communicate aspects of a
character's personality.
Exaggeration
Exaggeration is an effect especially useful for animation, as perfect imitation of reality can look static and dull
in cartoons the level of exaggeration depends on whether one seeks realism or a particular style, like a
caricature or the style of a specific artist. The classical definition of exaggeration, employed by Disney, was to
remain true to reality, just presenting it in a wilder, more extreme form. Other forms of exaggeration can
involve the supernatural or surreal, alterations in the physical features of a character; or elements in the
storyline itself. It is important to employ a certain level of restraint when using exaggeration. If a scene
contains several elements, there should be a balance in how those elements are exaggerated in relation to
each other, to avoid confusing or overawing the viewer.
Solid drawing

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The principle of solid drawing means taking into account forms in three-dimensional space, or giving them
volume and weight. The animator needs to be a skilled artist and has to understand the basics of three-
dimensional shapes, anatomy, weight, balance, light and shadow, etc. For the classical animator, this involved
taking art classes and doing sketches from life. One thing in particular that Johnston and Thomas warned
against was creating "twins": characters whose left and right sides mirrored each other, and looked lifeless.
Modern-day computer animators draw less because of the facilities computers give them, yet their work
benefits greatly from a basic understanding of animation principles and their additions to basic computer
animation
Animation file formats
There are a number of different types of animation file formats. Each type stores graphics data in a different
way. Bitmap, vector, and metafile formats are by far the most commonly used formats, and we focus on
these. However, there are other types of formats as well - scene, animation, multimedia, hybrid, hypertext,
hypermedia, 3D, virtual modeling reality language (VRML), audio, font, and page description language (PDL).
The increasing popularity of the World Wide Web has made some of these formats more popular.

File Name Description

Most popular lossy image format. Allows users to specify
JPEG/JPG (Joint Photographers Expert Group)
what level of compression they desire.
Best of lossless image formats. Widely supported across web.
PNG (Portable Network Graphic)
Allows you to include an alpha channel within file.
Would avoid if possible. They offer little to no compression
BMP (BitMaP)
which results in unnecessarily large files.
Offers both compressed and uncompressed versions.
TIFF/TIF (Tagged Image File Format) Compressed are similar to PNG and uncompressed are similar
to BMP.
Most widely used document format. Great vector image
PDF (Portable Document Format)
format. Created by Adobe.
Most common vector image format. Standard format for print
EPS (Encapsulated PostScript)
industry.
Lossless format that supports both animated and static
GIF (Graphic Interchange Format)
images. Great for webpage banner ads.
Full motion video
Full motion video, usually abbreviated as FMV, is a popular term for pre-recorded TV-quality movie or
animation in a video game. FMV differs from real-time cut scenes in that real-time cut scenes render the
surrounding environment as it appears in the actual game, whereas FMV is simply a playback of something
that was previously recorded, usually rendered by a much more powerful machine. Thus, FMV was
traditionally much higher quality than real-time cut scenes, and the two can usually be differentiated by this.
With computer games running on more modern hardware, however, the use of FMV for cut scenes has been
drastically reduced as similar quality graphics can be produced in the game engine with much less disc space
required for the source data.
Storage and retrieval technologies
A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using
virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in
phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic tape and optical discs. Data retrieval
means obtaining data from a database management system such as ODBMS. In this case, it is considered that
data is represented in a structured way, and there is no ambiguity in data. In order to retrieve the desired data
the user present a set of criteria by a query.
Multimedia Storage

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Multimedia can be stored in mediums such as Optical Disks, Hard Drives, Magnetic Storage Media and such.
Multimedia Retrieval
Multimedia retrieval depends on the type of multimedia file it is which may be continuous or discrete.
Continuous media is data where there is a timing relationship between source and destination. Video,
animation and audio are examples of continuous media. Some media is time independent or static or discrete
media: normal data, text, single images, graphics are examples.
Magnetic Media
 Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on a magnetized medium.
 Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a magnetisable material to store data and
is a form of non-volatile memory.
Optical Media
Optical media-such as the compact disk (CD) -are storage media that hold content in digital form and that are
written and read by a laser; these media include all the various CD and DVD variations, as well as optical
jukeboxes and auto changers.
Disk Spanning
Disc spanning is a feature of CD and DVD burning software that automatically spreads a large amount of data
across many data discs if the data set's size exceeds the storage capacity of an individual blank disc.
RAID Storage
RAID is a technology that is used to increase the performance and/or reliability of data storage. The
abbreviation stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks. A RAID system consists of two or more disks
working in parallel.

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