Microbiology Lab Manual

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Microbiology Laboratory Manual
Book · January 2014
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Naveena Varghese
Joy P. P.
KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

PINEAPPLE RESEARCH STATION
Vazhakulam, Muvattupuzha, Ernakulam District, Kerala, PIN-686 670
Tel. & Fax: 0485-2260832, Mobile: 9446010905
Email: prsvkm@kau.in, prsvkm@gmail.com
Web: www.kau.edu/prsvkm, http://prsvkm.tripod.com
2014
Microbiology Laboratory Manual 2
CONTENTS
Sl. Page
Title
No No.
1 Microbiology Laboratory: Basic Rules and Requirements 3
2 Methods in Microbiology
13
3 Cultural Characteristics of Microorganisms 18
4 Culture Medium 20
5 Media Preparation 24
6 Plating Techniques 28
7 Method of Isolation of Pure Culture 30
8 Culture Preservation Techniques 31
9 Bacterial Identification 33
10 Biochemical Tests for Identification of Bacteria 41
11 Fungi 57
12 Identification of Fungal Contaminants in Plant Tissue Culture Lab 60
13 Identification of Disease Causing Fungal Pathogen of Passion Fruit Nursery Plants 62
14 Identification of Disease Causing Pathogens in Passion Fruit Plants from Field 64
15 Identification of Pathogens Causing MD-2 Pineapple Fruit Rot 68
16 Microbiological Examination of Milk 69
17 Microbial Analysis of Food Items 70
18 Bacteriological Examination of Water by Multiple Tube Fermentation Test 72
19 Antibiotic Sensitivity Test (Kirby – Bauer Method) or Disc Diffusion Method 75
Units, Measurements, Conversions and Useful Data 76
Naveena Varghese & Joy P. P. 2014. Pineapple Research Station (Kerala Agricultural University), Vazhakulam-686 670, Muvattupuzha, Ernakulam, Kerala.
Tel: 0485-2260832, 9446010905; Email: prsvkm@kau.in, prsvkm@gmail.com; Web: www.kau.edu/prsvkm, http://prsvkm.tripod.com
MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY: BASIC RULES AND REQUIREMENTS
Microbiology Lab Practices and Safety Rules
 Wash your hands with disinfectants when you arrive at the lab and again before you leave.
 Wear laboratory coats in the lab. Students with long hair must put up the hair.
 At the start and end of each laboratory session, students should clean their assigned bench-top area
with a disinfectant solution provided. That space should then be kept neat, clean, and uncluttered
throughout each laboratory period.
 Eating or drinking in the laboratory is not permitted. No mouth pipetting.
 Label everything clearly. Sterilize equipment and materials.
 Avoid loose fitting items of clothing. Wear appropriate shoes in the laboratory.
 Report any breakage of equipment to the instructor.
 Report any personal accidents such as cuts to the instructor at once.
 Turn off Bunsen burner when not in use.
 Discard all cultures and used glassware into the container labeled CONTAMINATED. (This container
will later be sterilized.) Plastic or other disposable items should be discarded separately from glassware
in containers to be sterilized.
 Never place contaminated pipettes on the bench top.
 When you flame sterilize with alcohol, be sure that you do not have any papers under you.
 Before beginning your laboratory exercise, wash off the bench top with the disinfectant provided.
When exercises are completed, wash off the bench top again. Always wash your hands with soap and
water before leaving the laboratory.
 Before leaving the laboratory, see that all the equipments are in the proper location and gas and water
turned off.
 Purchase a fine point, waterproof marker and small roll of masking tape. Use them to clearly label your
cultures.
 If you should spill or drop a culture or if any type of accident occurs, call the instructor immediately.
Place a paper towel over any spill and pour disinfectant over the towel. Let the disinfectant stand for 15
minutes and then clean the spill with fresh paper towels. Remember to discard the paper towels in the
proper receptacle and wash your hands carefully.
 Disinfect work areas before and after use with 70% alcohol or fresh 10% bleach. Laboratory equipment
and work surfaces should be decontaminated with an appropriate disinfectant on a routine basis and
especially after spills, splashes or other contamination.
 Replace caps on reagents, solution bottles and bacterial cultures. Do not open petri dishes in the lab
unless absolutely necessary.
 Cultures are not to be removed from the laboratory unless the instructor gives permission.
 Always place culture tubes (broth and slants) in the upright position in a rack or basket for incubation
or disposal.
 Dispose off all solid waste materials in a biohazard bag and autoclave it before discarding in the
regular trash.
 Treat all cultures as potentially pathogenic, i.e., flood areas with disinfectant if cultures are spilled,
wash hands after contact and notify your instructor at once.
 Read the instructions carefully before beginning an exercise. Also, make sure you have all the
materials needed for the exercise at hand before you commence the experiment. Ask the instructor for
clarification of any points about which you are in doubt.
 Flame the inoculating loop or needle immediately before and after use. If viscous material is present on
the loop or needle, dry it at the side of the flame before placing it directly in the flame.
 Laboratory note books must be kept up-to-date. Illustrations should be done when requested.
 Make sure you consult the instructor to dispose of the cultures that are not needed any longer. Remove
all labels and markings from the tubes before disposing of them; do not discard anything into the sinks.
 Please inform your instructor if you have any medical condition that could potentially affect your
safety in the laboratory (eg: diabetes, epilepsy, immunosuppression etc.). This information will help
the instructor to deal with any emergency that would arise. The information will be treated
confidentially and it will not affect their ability to participate in the laboratory activities.
 Be systematic and logical. Keep a faithful record of all the experiments and observations. Update it
regularly and submit it for evaluation at the end of each exercise.
 Work either using laminar air flow chamber or light the burner at least five minutes prior to making
any inoculations and work near the burner.
Basic Record and Field Book/Lab Book

They are the permanent record of your work and hence should contain all the works related to the project.
Basic Record is the whole systematic record of the work/study/project in full detail. Field book/lab book is
for your daily use in the lab/field and for rough works, calculations, plan schedules, memoirs, etc. You should
record your work in these books systematically and regularly. All the experiments conducted in the lab must
be recorded in these books. It is a compilation of whole work done by the researcher, so it must be well
maintained. Also it can be a good reference book for those who come along. These are the property of the
research station and hence you are not supposed to keep those books in your home. When you resign from the
job you should submit them up-to-date to the lab in charge without any delay.
You should note the following points while dealing with field book.
1. Keep the book neat and tidy.

2. Utilize the book efficiently preserving the legibility of your writing.
3. Name of the experiment should be entered along with the date of carrying out that experiment.
4. Next you mention the requirements for the experiment.
5. Summarize the theory and principle. This should be followed by the procedure.
6. Mention the general calculations for the experiment. It should contain all the related works of the project
for which it is meant to.
The following points are to be taken care of:
1. Do not tear pages from the field book. Number the pages of field book.
2. Do not over write if a mistake has been committed in recording, put a line over it and write the correct
word again.
3. Complete the index, indicating the experiment, its serial number, page number on which it is written.
4. The notebook should always be up to date and may be collected by the lab in charge at any time.
5. You have to submit the field book and basic record at the end of every month on the date assigned.
Mandatory Details Required the Basic Record
1. Index: An index containing the title of each experiment with page number and Sl. No.
2. Brief title of the experiment and date: Every experiment should have a descriptive title.
3. Aim/Objective: A clear objective should be there.
4. Technical Programme: This section should include any materials required, reagent composition, protocol
and formulae. Procedure in the form of flow charts is helpful if it involves several parts. If an
experiment is a repeat of an earlier experiment, you do not have to write down each step, but can refer to
the earlier experiment by page or experiment number. If you make any changes, note the changes and
reasons why.
5. Observations: Periodical or quantitative or qualitative observations
6. Results: This section should include the final result of the experiment in accordance with the aim,
organized in statistically valid tables and figures and discussed logically and justifiably. All raw data,
including gel photographs, printouts, graphs, autoradiographs, etc if present are to be included.
7. Inference: The results obtained should be interpreted in accordance with the principle of the experiment.
8. Future Line: This section includes any suggestions from the protocol done, any refinements required etc.
It is mandatory to have clear and accurate records of all experiments conducted in the laboratory.
Basic requirements of a microbiology laboratory

A microbiology laboratory requires well-built rooms equipped with glassware, tools and equipments. Some
of the most important items of equipment are the following.
I) Common Glassware
The most important glassware used in a microbiological laboratory are test tubes, culture tubes, Petri dishes,
Measuring cylinder, pipettes, glass spreader, Flasks, screw-capped glass bottles, haemocytometer etc.
1) Test Tubes, Culture Tubes and Screw-Capped Tubes

 These are made up of glass, one end of which is closed and other end is open.
 If the side wall of the open end is slightly curved outside, it is called test tube; if the side wall is smooth,
it is called culture tube. When the side wall of the tube has screws so that a plastic cap may be fitted, it
is called screw-capped tube.
 The test tubes are used for testing the chemicals such as pH etc., culture tubes are used for preparation of
agar slants and purification of microorganisms. The open end is plugged with non-absorbent cotton
plug.
 Sometimes the microorganisms are purified and preserved in screw-capped tubes.
2) Petri dish
 R. J. Petri, a student of the most renowned bacteriologist Robert Koch devised this dish, hence called
“Petri dish”.
 It consists of two shallow glass dishes, the upper half or lid and the lower half.
 For the isolation and cultivation of different types of microorganisms these dishes are used in all
microbiological laboratories.
 According to the requirement, its diameter varies.
 Molten agar medium is aseptically poured on the lower half of the sterilized Petri dish and then covered
with the upper half.
 The petri dishes are sterilized by putting them in a Petri dish container and in turn in an oven or
autoclave.
3) Pipette
 It is a cylindrical and graduated glass apparatus.
 Its one end (lower side) tapers, while the other end (mouth piece) is normal. The middle portion is wider
or of the same size as mouth end.
 It is graduated with numbers 1, 2 . . . n. . . . . . . 10.
 It has different measuring capacity such as 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10 ml etc. Hence measures different quantities.
 It is used for transferring appropriate amount of liquid into other containers.
 It should be sterilized in an oven or autoclave before use by keeping in pipette container after being
plugged with cotton.
 For safety point, liquid should be sucked by attaching pipette-sucker at the normal end of the pipette.
 Pipettes should be sterilized by keeping them first in a steel can and is sterilized at 121°C for 30
minutes.
4) Glass Spreader
 It is made by bending a glass rod and making an L-shaped structure.
 It is used to spread evenly the microorganisms on agar surface present in liquid medium.
 The long arm is held in hand and the small arm is flame-sterilized and put on agar surface.
 It is brought forth and back so that microorganisms present in liquid may be dissociated and evenly
spread on the entire surface of agar.
5) Haemocytometer
 This is a device used to measure the blood cells.
 This is also used for counting other cells viz., spores, bacteria etc.
 It consists of a number of chambers. Each big chamber has 1 X 1 X 0.1 mm = 0.1mm3 volume with an
area of 1 X 1mm = 1mm2. The depth of chamber is 0.1mm. (1 X 1 X 0.1 mm = 0.1mm3 = 0.0001cm3 =
10-4cm3 = 10-4 ml) Hence, the bacterial cell count in the large chamber will be multiplied by 104 to give
an estimate of bacterial cell number/ml.
 Each large chamber has 9 medium-sized chambers with 0.2 mm length, 0.2 mm width and 0.1mm depth
with a volume of 0.004 mm3.
 Each medium sized chamber is divided into 25 small chambers with 0.04 mm length, 0.04 mm width
and 0.1mm depth with a volume of 0.00016 mm3.
6) Cleaning of Glass wares. Care should be taken that the glassware used in microbiology laboratory are
neat and clean. After receiving and before start of work, the glassware must be chemically cleaned so that
there should not be chemical deposits on its surface. Moreover, dirty form, then by soaking overnight in
chromic acid. If the latter is not effective, a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and sulphuric acid can be
applied. All traces of the cleaner are then removed by repeated rinsing in tap water followed by distilled
water. Sometimes, new glassware may contain some bacterial/fungal spores that come with packing
materials. The glassware from factory also contains some amount of alkali, hence to remove the alkali,
2-3 % HCl is applied for 24 hours for neutralization.
After the use of glassware the medium is removed and the former is treated with 3% commercially
available Lysol solution followed by washing with boiling water. After drying, it can be kept in oven for
3-6 hours at 140-180°C. The used pipettes, slides, cover slips, petri dishes, etc. are also cleaned by this
method.
Chromic acid is widely used as cleaning agent for glassware. It is a mixture of sodium dichromate and
concentrated sulfuric acid and possesses powerful oxidizing and solvent properties.
Preparation of Chromic acid
(i) First Method: Weigh 5g of sodium potassium dichromate and dissolve in 5ml distilled water in a beaker
(250ml). Add 100ml concentrated H2SO4 slowly and stirring it constantly. The mixture is allowed to cool at
about 40°C and then stored in a dry glass stoppered bottle.
(ii) Second Method: Weigh 1g of K2Cr2O7 or Na2Cr2O7 and mix with 100ml of concentrated H2SO4. After
stirring several times (preventing from cake formation) allow the mixture to cool at 40°C and store in a
clean, dry stoppered bottle.
II) Tools in Microbiology Laboratory

The most common equipment are inoculation needle, inoculation/transfer loop, Bunsen burner, autoclave (or
pressure cooker), incubator, hot air oven, refrigerator, centrifuge, spectrophotometer, magnetic stirrer,
orbital shaker, hot plate, Distillation water still, UV- lamp, water-bath, carbon dioxide cylinder, single-pan
balance with weights (for rough use), chemical balance, pH meter, colony counter, laminar air flow,
electrophoretic apparatus, microscopes etc.
1) Inoculation Needle & Inoculation Loop

 These are the most commonly used tools.
 Inoculation needle/loop is made up of a long platinum wire fixed into a metallic rod.
 A wire loop has a handle with steel screw shaft in which nichrome or platinum wire is to be fitted.
 The straight wire needle is used for transferring culture from solid medium. Even smaller amount of
liquid culture can be manipulated by using straight needle.
 The loop and wire are also used for picking small quantities of solid materials from a microbial colony
and can be used to inoculate either a liquid or a solid medium. Both the loop and straight wire must be
flamed immediately after use to avoid contamination.
2) Bunsen Burner
 Sterilization of tools by using spirit lamp is called incineration.
 Gas enters the burner at the base, and its supply is regulated externally by the gas cock.
 The amount of air can be controlled by rotating a sleeve that fits over the holes in the body of the burner.
 To keep the flame from blowing out special tips are frequently used to fit over the top end of the barrel.
 The proper method of lighting the burner is to close off the air supply, turn on the gas and light. The
flame will be large and yellow. Gradually open the air intake until the flame takes a blue colour.
3) Water Bath
 Water bath is an instrument that is used to provide constant temperature to a sample.
 It consists of an insulating box made up of steel fitted with electrode heating coil.
 The temperature is controlled through a thermostat.
 In some of the water baths, plate form rotates, then it is called water bath shaker. It is more useful to
microbiologists because it provides a uniform heat to the sample material meant for incubation.
 The main use of water bath is the incubation of samples at a desired and constant temperature.
4) Laminar Air Flow Chamber

 Laminar air flow is an apparatus consists of an air blower in the rear side of the chamber which can
produce air flow with uniform velocity along parallel flow lines. There is a special filter system of high
efficiency particulate air filter (HEPA) which can remove particles as small as 0.3 mm.
 In front of the blower, there lies a mechanism through which air blown from the blower produces air
velocity along parallel flow lines.
 The laminar air flow is based on flow of air current of uniform velocity along parallel flow lines which
help in transferring microbial cultures in aseptic conditions. Air is passed through the filters into the
enclosure and the filters do not allow any kind of microbe to enter in to the system.
 Inside the chamber one fluorescent tube and another UV tube are fitted. Two switches for these tubes
and a separate switch for regulation of the air flow are fitted outside the LAF. Due to uniform velocity
and parallel flow of air current, pouring of media, plating, slant preparations, streaking etc. are
performed without any kind of contamination.
 Initially, dust particles are removed from the surface of the laminar air flow with the help of smooth
cloth containing alcohol. Switch on the UV light for a period of 30 minutes so as to kill the germs, if any
present in the area of working space.
 The front cover sheet of the apparatus is opened to keep the desired material inside. The air blower is set
at the desired degree so that the air inside the chamber is expelled because the air inside the chamber
may be contaminated / bring contaminants.
 Sit properly in front of the chamber and wipe the working table with alcohol to reduce the contaminants.
All the work related to pouring, plating, streaking etc. are to be carried out in the flame zone of the
burner or spirit lamp.
 In microbiology laboratory, horizontal type of laminar air flow is used to supply the air through filter.
Precautions: Put off the shoes before entering to operate the apparatus. Wash the hands with detergents or
soap. One should not talk inside the chamber while performing microbial culture transfer, failing which
chances of contamination may be more which may come either through mouth, sneezing or air.
5. Incubator
 An incubator is an instrument that consists of copper/steel chamber around which warm water or air is
circulated by electric current or by means of small gas flame.
 The temperature of the incubator is kept constant due to its control by using thermostat.
 The incubator is made up of double walled chamber adjusted to a desired temperature. It is done by
using an external knob controlling the thermostat system. The gap between two walls is insulated to
check heat condition. A thermometer is inserted from the top for recording the temperature.
 Temperature greatly influences the microbial growth. Therefore, instrument is generally designed that
can allow the desired microorganism to grow at a particular temperature.
 It is operated to allow the microbial growth on a suitable medium under proper temperature. In an
incubator, the variation in temperature should not be more than one degree.
 Small square type incubators are better than large ones. If a lower temperature than the room is required,
the water is circulated around the chamber to pass through an ice chest.
Precautions: the door of the incubator should be opened only when necessary. If the tubes are to be
incubated for a long time or at higher temperature, the medium may become too dry due to excessive
evaporation. In such cases cotton plug should be pushed inside the neck of the tube. The tube should be
covered by a rubber cap so as to cover the plug. If the petriplates are to be incubated for a long time, they
may be placed in moist chamber with a damp sterile cotton wool at the bottom.
6. Colony Counter
 It is a device used for counting small or closely growing colonies on the surface of media.
 For accuracy, the lens fitted or mounted in it helps to see the colonies.
 The lens is movable on the box and can be adjusted to see the colonies.
 The petriplate is kept on a slanting platform meant for it and illuminated with the help of light source
from beneath.
 The numbers of colonies are read out with the support of digital reading meter.
Inoculation Loop & Needle Bunsen Burner Water Bath
Laminar Air Flow
Colony Counter
Incubator
Fig. 1. Tools in microbiology laboratory
The Microscope
A good microscope is an essential tool for any microbiology laboratory. There are many kinds of
microscopes but the type most useful in diagnostic work is the compound microscope. By means of a series
of lenses and a source of bright light, it magnifies and illuminates minute objects such as bacteria and other
microorganisms that would otherwise be invisible to the eye. This type of microscope will be used
throughout your laboratory course. As you gain experience using it, you will realize how precise it is and
how valuable for studying microorganisms present in clinical specimens and in cultures. Even though you
may not use a microscope in your profession, a firsthand knowledge of how to use it is important. Your
laboratory experience with the microscope will give you a lasting impression of living forms that are too
small to be seen unless they are highly magnified. As you learn about these “invisible” microorganisms, you
should be better able to understand their role in transmission of infection.
Instructions
 Observe that a flat platform, or stage as it is called, extends between

the upper lens system and the lower set of devices for providing light.
The stage has a hole in the center that permits light from below to pass
upward into the lenses above. The object to be viewed is positioned on
the stage over this opening so that it is brightly illuminated from
below. Note the adjustment knobs at the side of the stage, which are
used to move the slide in vertical and horizontal directions on the
stage. This type of stage is referred to as a mechanical stage.
 A built-in illuminator at the base is the source of light. Light is
directed upward through the abbe condenser. The condenser contains
lenses that collect and concentrate the light, directing it upward
through any object on the stage. It also has a shutter or iris diaphragm
which can be used to adjust the amount of light admitted. A lever is
provided on the condenser for operating the diaphragm.
 The condenser can be lowered or raised by an adjustment knob.
Lowering the condenser decreases the amount of light that reaches the
object. This is usually a disadvantage in microbiological work. It is
Fig. 2. Microscope
best to keep the condenser fully raised and to adjust light intensity
with the iris diaphragm.
 Above the stage, attached to the arm, a tube holds the magnifying lenses through which the object is
viewed. The lower end of the tube is fitted with a rotating nosepiece holding three or four objective
lenses. As the nosepiece is rotated any one of the objectives can be brought into position above the
stage opening. The upper end of the tube holds the ocular lens, or eyepiece (a monocular scope has
one; a binocular scope permits viewing with both eyes through two oculars).
 Depending on the brand of microscope used, either the rotating nosepiece or the stage can be raised or
lowered by coarse and fine adjustment knobs. These are located either above or below the stage. On
some microscopes they are mounted as two separate knobs; on others they may be placed in tandem
with the smaller fine adjustment extending from the larger coarse wheel. Locate the coarse adjustment
on your microscope and rotate it gently, noting the upward or downward movement of the nosepiece or
stage. The coarse adjustment is used to bring the objective down into position over any object on the
stage, while looking at it from the side to avoid striking the object and thus damaging the expensive
objective lens. The fine adjustment knob moves the tube to such a slight degree that movement cannot
be observed from the side. It is used when one is viewing the object through the lenses to make the
small adjustments necessary for a sharp, clear image.
Care and Handling of the Microscope
 Always use both hands to carry the microscope, one holding the arm, other under the base.
 Before each use, examine the microscope carefully and report any unusual condition or damage.
 Keep the oculars, objectives, and condenser lens clean. Use dry lens paper only.
 At the end of each laboratory period in which the microscope is used, remove the slide from the stage,
wipe away the oil on the oil-immersion objective, and place the low-power objective in vertical position.
 Replace the dust cover, if available, and return the microscope to its box.
Handling and Examining Cultures
Microscopic examination of microorganisms provides important information about their morphology but
does not tell us much about their biological characteristics. To obtain such information, we need to observe
microorganisms in culture. If we are to cultivate them successfully in the laboratory, we must provide them
with suitable nutrients, such as protein components, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and moisture in the
right composition. This mixture is called a culture medium. It may be prepared in liquid form, as a broth, or
solidified with agar, a nonnutritive solidifying agent extracted from seaweed. Agar media may be used in
tubes as a solid column or as slants, which have a greater surface area. They are also commonly used in
petri dishes, or plates.
Solid media are essential for isolating and separating bacteria growing together in a specimen collected
from a patient, for example, urine or sputum. When a mixture of bacteria is streaked across the surface of an
agar plate, it is diluted out so that single bacterial cells are deposited at certain areas on the plate. These
single cells multiply at those sites until a visible aggregate called a colony is formed. Each colony
represents the growth of one bacterial species. A single, separated colony can be transferred to another
medium, where it will grow as a pure culture. Colonies of several different species are regularly present on
the same agar plate when certain patient specimens are inoculated onto them. Working with pure cultures
permits the microbiologist to study the properties of individual species without interference from other
species.
The appearance of colonial growth on agar media can be very distinctive for individual species. Observation
of the noticeable, gross features of colonies, that is, of their colonial morphology, is therefore very
important. The colour, density, consistency, surface texture, shape, and size of colonies all should be
observed, for these features can provide clues as to the identity of an organism, although final identification
cannot be made by morphology alone.
In liquid media, some bacteria grow diffusely, producing uniform clouding, whereas others look very
granular. Layering of growth at the top, center, or bottom of a broth tube reveals something of the
organisms’ oxygen requirements. Sometimes colonial aggregates are formed and the bacterial growth
appears as small puff balls floating in the broth. Observation of such features can also be helpful in
recognizing types of organisms.
Disposal of Laboratory Wastes and Cultures

During laboratory practices, it has been noticed that the untreated waste is generally disposed off by the
laboratory staff. It happens due to their unskilled work culture. Most of the laboratories situated in the rural
area used discarded hospital material for land filling purposes. Any material which contains microorganisms
should be treated first and thereafter, with the proper treatment should be thrown properly.
The treatment is necessary due to the reasons:
a) If it contains pathogenic microorganisms, the disease may transmit or spread to the healthy persons.
b) It may contaminate soil and causes soil, water and air-pollution. Hence, to check from such hazards,
proper treatment is required to kill microorganisms.
The infected material is generally the solid or liquid culture media used for cultivation of microorganisms,
or it may also contain cotton plugs, paper, cotton or cotton swabs, gloves, pins, PCR tubes, gel material etc.
Some of the materials such as cotton plugs, paper, napkins, swabs etc. should be autoclaved first and then it
is incinerated. But the microbial contaminants containing materials should be treated with some disinfectant
and thereafter autoclaved by putting them in suitable containers. The molten material should be discarded.
Sometimes, HCl is also added to hydrolyze the agar, if present in the medium. This is added before their
safe disposal. All such laboratory materials should be disposed of after autoclaving.
METHODS IN MICROBIOLOGY
Sterilization
Sterilization is the process of destroying or physically removing all forms of microbial life including
vegetative cells, spores and viruses from a surface, a medium or an article. The principal reasons for
controlling microorganisms are:
1. To prevent transmission of disease and infection

2. To prevent contamination by undesirable microorganisms
3. To prevent deterioration and spoilage of materials by microorganisms
The methods of sterilization employed depend on the purpose for which sterilization is carried out, the
material which has to be sterilized and the nature of the microorganisms that are to be removed or
destroyed. The various agents used in sterilization can be grouped into physical and chemical agents
Physical Agents (Physical Methods)
 Sunlight
Direct sunlight has an active germicidal effect due to the combined effect of the ultraviolet radiation and
heat. This is a natural method of sterilization.
 Drying
Moisture is essential for the growth of bacteria. Drying in air has therefore a deleterious effect on many
bacteria. But spores are unaffected by drying. Hence this is very unreliable method.
 Heat
Heat has a killing effect on microorganisms and is one of the most popular reliable methods to destroy.
Microorganisms has a minimum, optimum and maximum growth temperatures. Temperature below the
minimum usually produces static (inhibition of metabolism).
Temperature above the maximum, generally kill microorganisms. This is because biochemical changes in
the cells organic molecules result in its death. These changes arise from alterations in enzyme molecules
or chemical break down of structural molecules especially in the cell membranes. Heat also drives off
water and this loss of water may be lethal to the organisms.
The killing rate of heat may be expressed as a function of time and temperature. Each microbial species has
a Thermal Death Time (TDT). It’s the minimum time required to kill a population of microorganism in a
microbial suspension at a given temperature and under defined condition. Each species also has a
Thermal Death Point (TDP), the temperature at which it dies in a given time.
In determining the time and temperature for microbial destruction with heat, the following factors are
considered.
1. Type of organism to be killed
2. Type of material to the treated
3. Presence of organic matter
4. Acidic or basic nature of the material
Nature of heat:
a) Dry heat
Many objects are best sterilized in the absence of water by dry heat sterilization; killing by dry heat is due to
protein denaturation, oxidative damage and toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes.
Methods of Sterilization by Dry Heat
1. Flaming
Inoculating loops and points of forceps may be heated in the Bunsen flame, till they are red-hot. Articles
such as mouth of the culture tubes, cotton wool plugs, glass slides etc. are passed over the flame without
allowing it to become red hot.
2. Incineration
This is an excellent method for rapidly destroying, animal carcasses, pathological material and disposables.
3. Hot Air Oven
This is the most widely adopted method of sterilization by dry heat. The hot air oven utilizes radiating dry
heat for sterilization. This type of energy does not penetrate materials easily and thus, long periods of
exposure to high temperature are necessary. For example, at a temperature of 160°C, a period of two hours
is required for the destruction of bacterial spores. Hot air oven is used to sterilize glassware, forceps,
scissors, scalpels, glass syringes, liquid paraffin, dusting powder etc. A holding period of 160°C for an hour
is used. The oven is usually heated by electricity, with heating elements in the wall of the chamber and it
must be filled with a fan to ensure even distribution of hot air and elimination of air pockets. The materials
should be arranged in a manner which allows free circulation of hot air in between the objects. It should not
be over-loaded. Glass wares should be perfectly dry
before being placed in the oven. Test tubes, flasks etc.
should be wrapped in craft paper. Oven must be
allowed to cool slowly for about 2 hours before the
door is opened, since the glasswares may get cracked
by sudden or uneven cooling.
Sterilization control: The spores of a non – toxigenic

strain of Clostridium tetani are used as a
microbiological test of dry heat efficiency. Paper
stripes impregnated with 106 spores are placed in
envelop and inserted into suitable packs. After
sterilization is over, the strips are removed and
inoculated into thioglycollate or cooked meat media
Fig. 3. Hot Air Oven and incubated for sterility test under strict anaerobic
conditions for five days at 37°C.
b) Moist heat
Moist heat kills microorganisms by coagulating their proteins and is much more rapid and effective than dry
heat because water molecules conduct heat better than air. Lower temperature and less time of exposure are
therefore required than for dry heat. Moist heat readily kills viruses, bacteria, fungi etc.
a) Temperature below 100°C
i. Pasteurization of milk
For pasteurization of milk, there are two methods
 Holding Method or Low Temperature Holding Method (LTH)
In this method, the milk is exposed to a temperature of 63°C (145°F) for 30 minutes in an appropriately
designed equipment. This is followed by sudden cooling to 13°C or below.
 Flash Process or High Temperature Short Time (HTST)
In this method, the milk is exposed to a temperature of 72°C for 15 seconds in the equipment. This is
followed by sudden cooling to 13°C or below. The finished product should be stored at a low temperature
to retard growth of microorganisms and pasteurization removes the pathogenic bacteria in milk. By these
processes all non-sporing pathogens such as mycobacteria, salmonellae and brucella are destroyed
‘Coxiella bumetic’ is relatively heat resistant and may survive the holder method.
ii. Vaccine bath
It’s used for killing non-sporing bacteria which may be present in vaccine. In vaccine bath, the vaccine is
treated with moist heat for one hour at 60°C.
iii. Serum containing coagulable proteins can be sterilized by heating for one hour at 56°C in a water bath for
several successive days.
b) Temperature at 100°C
i. Boiling
Most of the vegetative forms of bacteria, fungi etc. are killed almost immediately at 90-100°C, but sporing
bacteria required considerable periods of boiling. Boiling water is not considered as a sterilizing agent
because destruction of bacterial spores and inactivation of viruses cannot always be assured. Under ordinary
circumstances, most species of microbes can be killed within 10 minutes. However, spores of bacteria and
fungi, protozoa cysts and large concentrations of Hepatitis A viruses requires up to 30 minutes exposure or
more because inadequate information exists on the heat tolerance of many microorganisms, boiling water is
not reliable for sterilization purpose especially the sterilization of instruments and for surgical procedures.
In cases where boiling is considered adequate, the material should be immersed in water and boiled for a
period of 10-30 minutes. The lid of the sterilizer should not be opened during that period. Addition of little
acid, alkali or washing soda will increase the efficiency of the process.
ii. Steam under atmospheric pressure (100°C)
Steam under atmospheric pressure is used to sterilize culture media which may decompose if subjected to
higher temperature. A Koch or Arnold sterilizer is an instrument that generates free floating steam.
The container and the medium are simultaneously sterilized and evaporation from the medium is prevented
one exposure of 90 minutes usually ensures complete sterilization of the medium. This is an inexpensive
method.
iii. Sterilization above 100°C (steam under pressure)
Heat in the form of saturated steam under pressure is the most practical and dependable agent for
Fig. 4. Autoclave
sterilization. Steam under pressure provides temperature above those obtainable by boiling. Moreover, it has
advantages of rapid heating, penetration and moisture in abundance, which facilitates the coagulation of the
protein of microorganisms, resulting in complete destruction of all forms of microbial life, including bacterial
endospores. It is important to note that the sterilizing agent is the moist heat not the pressure. The laboratory
apparatus designed to use steam under regulated pressure is called an autoclave. It is essentially a double
jacketed steam chamber equipped with devices which permit the chamber to be filled with saturated steam
and maintained at a designed temperature and pressure for any period of time The articles to be sterilized are
placed in the sterilizing chamber and steam is maintained in the steam jacket into the sterilizing chamber,
cool air is forced out and a special valve increases the pressure to 15 pounds/square inch above normal
atmospheric pressure. The temperature rises to 121.5°C and the superheated water molecules rapidly conduct
heat into microorganisms and will be killed. The time for destruction of the most resistant bacterial spore is
reduced to 15 minutes. For denser objects, up to 30 minutes of exposure may be required.
Autoclave is an essential equipment in every microbiology laboratory. It’s used to sterilize many media,
solutions, discarded cultures, glass wares, metal wares etc.
 Filtration
Filtration is the process of removal of microorganisms from liquid or gases using a mechanical device
known as filter. This is an excellent way to reduce the microbial population in solution of thermo labile
materials such as sera, antibiotic solutions, intravenous solutions, carbohydrates solutions used in the
preparation of culture media etc. As fluid passes through the filter, microorganisms are trapped in the pores
of the filtering material. The solution that drips through the filter is collected in a previously sterilized
container. Porosity, electric charges of the filter, electric charge carried by the organisms, nature of the fluid
being filtered etc. can influence efficiency of filtration.
Types of filters: Seltz Filter, Berkefeld Filter, Membrane Filter, High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA)
filter
 Irradiation
The process of exposing organisms to anyone of the radiation such as UV-rays, X-rays, gamma rays etc. is
known as irradiation. Irradiation is an effective method of sterilization. Two types of radiations are used for
sterilization.
a) Non ionizing radiation
 UV radiation
 Infrared radiation
b) Ionizing radiation
 X rays
 Gamma rays
Chemical Methods
The physical agents for controlling microorganisms are generally intended to achieve sterilization. Instead,
they are expected only to destroy the pathogenic organisms on or in or removal of pathogenic
microorganisms is called disinfection. An agent, usually a chemical that kills the pathogenic
microorganisms on/in animate objects is known as a disinfectant. A disinfectant does not necessarily
sterilize an object because a few microorganisms and viable spores may remain. The chemical agents that
are applied to the body to prevent infection or species are called antiseptic. The antiseptic prevents the
growth or action of microorganisms either by destroying them or by inhibiting their growth and metabolism.
An antimicrobial agent is generally called as a germicide. A disinfectant or antiseptic can be particularly

effective against a specific group called as bactericides, fungicides or algaecides. Some chemicals do not
kill microorganisms, but they temporarily prevent from multiplication. Many different chemicals are
available for use as disinfectants and each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Characteristics of a desirable disinfectant
The disinfectant must be effective against a wide variety of infections/agents, at high dilutions and in the
presence of organic matter. The chemical must be toxic for infection agents but it should not be toxic to
people or corrosive for common upon storage, colourless with a pleasant odors, soluble in water and lipids
for penetration into microbes and have a low surface tension so that it can cracks in surface. If possible, the
disinfectant should be relatively inexpensive.
The factor influencing the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants:
1. Size of the microbial population

2. Nature of microbes present
3. Concentration and nature of the disinfectant
4. Duration of exposure
5. Temperature
6. Local environment
The main modes of action of disinfectant:
1. Protein coagulation
2. Disruption of cell membrane, thus resulting in exposure of the contents of the cell to the adverse
environment and loss of the constituents of the cell and changes in the composition of the contained
cytoplasm. These cause death of cell.
3. Removal of free sulfhydryl groups which are essential for the functioning of the enzymes and thus the
life of the cells.
4. Inhibition of respiration of catabolic/anabolic reactions.
5. Loss of membrane integrity resulting in leakage of essential constituents such as potassium cations,
inorganic phosphate, pentose, nucleotides and nucleosides and proteins.
Major Group of Chemical Agents: Phenol and Phenol compounds, Alcohols, Heavy metals and their
compounds, Dyes, Soaps and Detergents, Aldehydes, Gaseous agents
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS

Aim
To determine the cultural characteristics of microorganisms in identifying and classifying organisms into
taxonomic groups
Principle
When grown on a variety of media, microorganisms will exhibit the difference in the microscopic
appearance of their broth. These differences are called cultural characteristics and are used as a basis for
separating microorganism into taxonomic groups. The cultural characteristics for all taxon microorganisms
are contained in Bergey’s Manual of systematic bacteriology.
The following characters of colony are noted:
1. Size: in millimeter
2. Shape: circular / irregular
3. Surface : smooth, rough, granular
4. Elevation : flat, low convex, high convex,
raised, umbonate, umbulate
5. Edge: entire, undulate, lobate, crenated,
fimbricate, ciliate
6. Opacity : opaque, translucent, transparent
7. Colour of colony
8. Consistency : mucoid, friable
9. Other properties : hemolysis, pigmentation,
swarming
Morphology on nutrient agar slants Fig. 5. Growth on Solid Media
The isolated bacteria can be identified based on their colony characteristics in the following manner.
1. Degree of growth : scanty, moderate, abundant

2. Surface : smooth, rough, granular
3. Elevation : convex, flat, raised
4. Edge : entire, undulate, crenate
5. Opacity : opaque, translucent, transparent
6. Consistency : firm, butyrosis, powdery, mucoid,
membranous
7. Colour of Colony : creamy white, lemon yellow, bluish
green
8. Form : filiform, echinulated, beaded, effuse,
rhizoid
9. Changes in Medium : changes in colour, pitting of agar
Morphology on Nutrient Agar Plates Fig. 6. Growth on Liquid Media

These demonstrate well isolated colonies and are evaluated
in the following manner.
1. Size: pinpoint, moderate, small or large
2. Colour of the colony
a) Form: the shape of the colony:
b) circular: unbroken, peripheral edge
c) irregular: intended, peripheral edge
d) rhizoid: root like, spreading growth
3. Margin: The appearance of the outer edge of the colony is described as follows
a) entire: sharp
b) lobate: marked indentations
c) undulate: wavy indentations
d) serrate: tooth like appearance
e) filamentous: thread like, spreading edge
4. Elevation: the degree to which the colony growth is raised on the surface is described as follows:
a) flat: elevation not discernible
b) raised: slightly elevated
c) convex: dome shaped elevation
d) umbonate : raised with elevated convex
central region
Growth in Liquid Media
The liquid medium (nutrient broth, peptone water and

other liquid media) the following characteristics are
noted:
Fig. 7. Growth on Nutrient Agar Slant
1) the degree of growth : scanty, moderate, abundant
2) presence of turbidity and its nature (uniform turbidity)
3) presence of deposits, pellicle formation on surface & its quality
Morphology on Nutrient Broth Cultures
These are evaluated for the distribution & appearance of the growth as follows:
1) uniform time turbidity : finely dispersed throughout

2) flocculent: flank aggregates, dispersed throughout
3) pellicle: thick, pad like growth on the surface
4) sediment: concentration of growth at the bottom of broth cultures may be granules
Fig. 8. Growth on Plates

CULTURE MEDIUM
The food materials on which the organism is grown is known as culture medium and the growth of
organism is known as culture. Different microorganisms require different nutrient materials. Thus, culture
media vary in form and composition, depending upon the species to be cultivated. It must contain all the
ingredients required by the organism and in certain proportions. Basically there should be an energy source,
various macro and micronutrients, vitamins etc. it must have a suitable pH. Moreover, it must be sterile so
that the organism cultivated may form a pure culture.
A culture is an in vitro technique of growing or cultivating microorganisms or only other cells in a suitable
nutrients medium called culture medium in the laboratory. The primary aim of constructing a culture
medium for any microorganism is to provide a balanced mixture of required nutrients, at concentrations that
will permit good growth. Culture media give artificial environment simulating natural conditions necessary
for growth.
Characteristics of an Ideal Culture Medium
 Satisfactory growth for small inoculum – even for single cell.

 Rapid growth
 Easy to prepare
 Cheap
 Easily producible
 Demonstrate all the characteristics in which we are interested
Basic Requirements of Culture Medium
 Energy source
 Carbon source
 Nitrogen source
 Salts
 pH
 Adequate oxidation
 Growth factors
Common Ingredients of Culture Media
1. Water
It is essential for existence of living cells. They act as source of hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Peptone
Golden granular hygroscopic powder which are obtained from meat, casein fibrin or soya bean flour.
Function: nitrogen source, carbon source, buffers
3. Meat Extract
It contains protein degradation products, carbohydrates, inorganic salts, enzymes, excites and growth
factors that are rich in vitamin B complex.
Function: Source of growth factors, inorganic salts etc.
4. Yeast Extract
It contains proteins, amino acids, growth factors (Vitamin B), Carbohydrates and inorganic salts like
potassium and phosphates.
Functions: Source of growth factors and hence excellent stimulators of growth. It can be used as suitable
for meat extract.
5) Electrolyte
Mainly used are sodium chloride or other electrolytes.
Functions: Essential to maintain the osmotic pressure
6) Agar
Dried mucilaginous substance obtained from gelidium species and other algae available as long shield or
in powder form; contains mainly long chain polysaccharides, protein like material and inorganic salts.
Functions: it melts at 98°C and solidifies at 42°C, hence used as solidifying agent.
7) Fermentable Compounds
Mainly used are sugars, alcohols etc.
Function: Act as source of energy, fermentation reactions are helpful in the identification and
classification of organisms.
8) Buffers
Carbonates and phosphates are used as buffer.
Function: To resist change in pH of the medium.
Types of Media
 Liquid Media
 Semi Solid Media
 Solid Media
a) Liquid Media or Broth
No solidifying agents (eg: agar) is added while preparing the medium. The most commonly used non-
synthetic liquid media are nutrient broth, peptone solution, milk, blood, serum etc. broth is a clear
transparent straw coloured fluid prepared from meat extract or peptone. Beef infusions are rich in minerals,
organic micronutrients, protein, protein derivatives and carbohydrates. They are often supplemented with
1% peptone or yeast extract culture fluids made from beef infusion are commonly called infusion broth,
where as those made from beef extract are called extract broth.
Advantages of Liquid Media
 For obtaining bacterial growth from blood or water when large volumes have to be tested.
 For preparing bulk cultures for preparation of antigens or vaccines.
 It’s used to study growth rate and the sedimentation rate of bacterial cells.
Disadvantages of Liquid Media
 It’s difficult to isolate different types of bacteria from mixed population.
 It’s difficult to study colony characteristics.
b) Semi-Solid Media
The semi-solid medium remains in the semi-solid condition. It is prepared by adding small amount of agar
(0.5%) or gelatin. Agar is a complex carbohydrates prepared from algae like gelidium and gracillaria. Agar
forms a colloidal solution in hot water and sets in the form of a jelly when cool. Gelatin is an animal extract
prepared by hydrolysis of collagen with boiling water. When dissolved in water, it’s in the form of a liquid
when warm and sets in the form as it cools. Many bacteria, when grown on a gelatin medium, produce a
digestive enzyme gelatinase, which liquefies gelatin. This feature is important in the identification and
classification of bacteria.
The semi-solid medium may be selective which promotes the growth of one organism and retards the
growth of another organism. This type of medium can be used to study bacterial motility (semisolid media
are useful for cultivation of microaerophlic bacteria).
c) Solid Media
The solid medium is solid in consistency. It is prepared by adding 2% or 1% gelatin; agar or silica gel is
sometimes an inorganic solidifying agent for autotrophic bacteria. It’s used for colony characterization,
colony identification, etc.
Based on composition, culture media can be classified into:
 Simple Media
 Complex Media
 Synthetic or defined Media
 Semi Solid Media
 Special Media
a) Simple Media
It’s also called basal media. eg: Nutrient Broth. It consists of meat extract, peptone, Sodium Chloride and
water. Nutrient agar made by adding 2% agar to nutrient broth is the simplest and commonest medium in
routine diagnostic laboratories.
b) Complex Media
These have added ingredients for special purpose or for bringing out certain characteristics or providing
special nutrient required for the growth of certain organisms.
c) Synthetic or defined Media
These media are prepared from pure chemical substances and the exact composition of the medium is
known. They are used for research purpose.
d) Semi Solid Media
The nutritional requirements of some microorganisms include some additional ingredients of unknown
chemical composition such as peptone, meat extract, yeast extract, etc. Chemical composition is not fully
known. They are called semi solid media.
e) Special Media
No single medium or set of conditions can support the growth of all the different types of organisms that
occur in nature. To cultivate, recognize, enumerate and isolate certain types of microorganisms many
special purpose media are needed on the basis of their application or function, these special media can be
classified into different types.
 Enriched Media
 Enrichment Media
 Selective Media
 Indicator Media
 Differential Media
 Selective Media
 Sugar Media
 Transport Media
i. Enriched Media
In these media, substances like blood, serum or egg are added to a basal medium
eg. Blood Agar, Chocolate Agar, Egg Media etc
ii. Enrichment Media
Some substances are added to liquid media with the result that wanted organism grows more in number than
unwanted organism. Such media are used in mixture cultures
eg. Tetrathionate broth (inhibit coliforms and allow typhoid paratyphoid bacilli to grow freely)
iii. Selective Media
It favors the growth of particular microorganism. This is like enrichment media with the difference that
inhibiting substance is added to solid medium.
eg. Desoxycholate citrate medium for dysentery bacilli
iv. Indicator Media
These media contain an indicator which changes colour when a bacterium grows in them.
eg. Incorporation of sulphite in Wilson and Blair medium Salmonella typhi reduces sulphite to sulphide in
Wilson and Blair medium and the colonies of S. typhi have a black metallic sheen.
v. Differential Media
Media that distinguish between different groups of bacteria and even permit to identification of
microorganisms based on their biological characteristics. A medium which has substances incorporated into
it, enabling it to bring out differing characteristics of bacteria and thus helping to distinguish between them.
Such media are called differential media eg. Mac conkey medium consists of peptone, lactose, agar, neutral
red and taurocholate. It shows lactose fermenters, are colourless or pale (this may also be termed indicator
medium).
Blood agar is an enriched medium, but also differentiates between hemolytic organisms and non- hemolytic
organisms. So it also acts as a differential medium.
vi. Sugar Media
The usual sugar media consist of 1% sugar concerned. In peptone water along with appropriate indicator, a
small tube (Durham’s tube) is kept inverted in sugar tube to detect gas production.
vii. Transport Media
Delicate organisms like gonococci which may not survive the time taken which may not survive the time
taken for transporting the specimen to the laboratory or may be overgrown by non-pathogens (dysentery or
cholera organisms) require a special medium called transport medium.
eg. Stuart Medium for gonococci.
viii. Anaerobic Media
These media are used to grow anaerobic organisms.
eg. Robertson’s Cooked Meat Media
MEDIA PREPARATION
1. Peptone Broth
Peptone : 10g
NaCl : 5g
Distilled water : 1000ml
2. Nutrient Agar
Peptone : 5g
NaCl : 5g
Beef extracts : 3g
Agar : 20g
The ingredients are dissolved in warm water and pH adjusted to 7.2-7.6. Autoclaved at 121°C, 15 lbs for 15
minutes.
3. Nutrient Broth
Peptone : 5g
NaCl : 5g
Beef extracts : 3g
The ingredients are dissolved in warm water and pH adjusted to 7.2-7.6. Autoclaved at 121°C, 15 lbs for 15
minutes.
4. Mac Conkey Agar
Peptone : 20g
NaCl : 5g
Bile salt : 1.5g
Lactose : 10g
Neutral red solution : 10ml
Crystal violet : 0.001g
Agar : 13.5g
5. Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar (SDA)
Peptone : 10g
Dextrose : 40g
Chloramphenicol : 0.05g
Agar : 15g
6. Sabouraud’s Dextrose Broth
Peptone : 10g
Dextrose : 40g
Chloramphenicol : 0.05g
7. Mueller – Hinton Agar
Beef infusion form : 300g
Acid hydrolysate of casein : 17.5g
Agar : 17g
Starch : 1.5g
8. Lactose Broth
Peptone : 5g
Beef extract : 3g
Lactose : 5g
9. EMB (Eosin Methylene Blue) Agar
Peptone : 10g
Lactose : 5g
Sucrose : 5g
Dipotassium hydrogen phosphate : 2g
Eosin Y : 0.40g
Methylene blue : 0.065g
Agar : 13.50g
10. Methylene Blue Solution (1:25,000)
Methylene blue dye : 1mg
Dissolved the methylene blue in distilled water and was dispensed into regular staining bottles.
11. Carbohydrate Fermentation
Peptone : 1g
Carbohydrates : 10g
NaCl : 5g
Phenol red indicator : 10ml (0.1g in 10ml ethanol)
Mix all the ingredients, except phenol red indicator. Adjust pH to 7. Then add phenol red indicator.
Dispense the medium in 8ml test tubes containing the Durham’s tubes. Sterilize the medium at 10lbs for 20
minutes.
12. Oxidation – Fermentation
Peptone : 20g
Dipotassium hydrogen phosphate : 2g
NaCl : 5g
Bromothymol blue : 3ml (1% aqueous solution)
Agar : 13.50g
Mix all the ingredients, expect Bromothymol blue indicator. Adjust pH to 7.1. Then add Bromothymol blue
indicator. The medium is poured into the tube to a depth of about 4cm. sterilized by autoclaving at 121°C
for 20 minutes at 10 lbs. it was then allowed to set.
13. Voges – Proskauer
Reagents: Barrett’s A
α – naphthol : 5g
Ethanol : 100ml
Dissolve α – naphthol in small amount of alcohol and then add remaining alcohol to 100ml. Store in brown
bottle at 4°C.
Barrett’s B
Potassium hydroxide : 40g
Cool the volumetric flask in cold water with 80ml water, add KOH crystals, dissolve and make up to100ml.
Store in polyethene bottles at 4°C.
14. Citrate Utilization
MgSo4 : 0.2g
Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate : 1g
Dipotassium phosphate : 1g
Sodium citrate : 2g
Sodium chloride : 0.5g
Bromothymol blue : 0.08g
Agar : 15g
Dissolve the ingredients in 1000ml distilled water. Dispense in tubes and sterilize by autoclaving at 121°C
for 20 minutes at 10 lbs.
15. Nitrate Broth
Beef extract : 3g
Peptone : 5g
Potassium Nitrate : 1g
Dissolve all the ingredients and sterilize by autoclaving at 121°C for 20 minutes at 15 lbs.
Reagents: Sulphanlic acid
Dissolve 8g of sulphanlic acid in 1 l of acetic acid.
α- Naphthol amines
Dissolve 5g of α-Naphthol amines in 1 l of acetic acid. Immediately before use, mix equal volumes of
Sulphanlic acid and α- Naphthol amines to give the test reagent.
16. Urease Test
Peptone : 1g
Phenol red : 0.012g
Dextrose : 1g
NaCl : 5g
Disodium phosphate : 1.2g
Mono potassium phosphate : 0.8g
Agar : 15g
Dissolve ingredients in 950ml distilled water. Sterilize by autoclaving at 10lbs for 20 minutes. Cool to 58°C
and aseptically add 50ml of 40% urea. Sterilize the urea solution by autoclaving at 10lbs for 15 minutes,
mix well and add the Phenol red indicator. Dispense into sterilized test tubes and allow to set in a slanting
position.
17. Mannitol Motility Test
Peptone : 20g
NaCl : 5g
Potassium Nitrate : 2g
Mannitol : 64g
Agar : 6g
Phenol red : 4ml (1g in 100ml ethanol)
Mix all the ingredients, expect phenol red indicator. Adjust pH to 7. Then add phenol red indicator.
Dispense in tubes. Sterilize the medium at 10lbs for 20 minutes.
18. Triple Sugar Iron Agar Test
Peptone : 20g
Yeast extract : 3g
Beef extract : 3g
Lactose : 10g
Sucrose : 10g
Glucose : 10g
Sodium chloride : 5g
Ferrous sulphates : 0.2g
Sodium thiosulphate : 0.3g
Agar : 12g
Phenol red : 0.024g
Mix all the ingredients, expect phenol red indicator. Adjust pH to 7. Then add phenol red indicator. Sterilize
by autoclaving at 121°C for 20 minutes. Allow the medium to set in slopped form with a butt about 1 inch
long. The medium is used in the form a butt and slant.
6
PLATING TECHNIQUES
The common plating techniques employed in microbiology are Streak Plate Method, Spread Plate Method
and Pour Plate Method.
1) Streak Plate Method
This method was developed by two bacteriologists, Leoffler and Gaffkey in the laboratory of Robert Koch.
This method is routinely employed for the isolation of bacteria in pure culture. In this method a sterilized
inoculating loop or transfer needle is dipped into a suitable diluted suspension of microorganisms which is
then streaked on the surface of an already solidified agar plate to make a series of parallel, non-overlapping
streaks. The process is known as streaking and the plate so prepared is called a streak plate. The main
objective of the streak plate method is to produce well separated colonies of bacteria from concentrated
suspensions of cells.
A sterilized inoculating needle with a loop made up of either platinum or nichrome wire is used for
streaking. One loopful of specimen is transferred onto the surface of the agar plate in a sterile petridish and
streaked across the surface in the form of a zig-zag line. This process is repeated thrice to streak out the
bacteria on the agar plate so that some individual bacteria are separated from each other. The first streak
will contain more organisms than the second and the second more than the third and so on. The last streaks
should thin so on. The last streaks should thin out the culture sufficiently to give isolate colonies. The
successful isolation depends on spatial separation of single cells. Each colony usually represents the growth
from a single organism when such a plate is incubated colonies will appear on the surface of the medium.
Because of the high concentration of water in agar, some water of condensation forms in petriplate during
incubation. Moisture is likely to drip from the cover to the surface of the agar and spread out, resulting in a
confluent mass of growth and running individual colony formation. To avoid this, petriplates are routinely
incubated bottom side up. Pure colonies can be obtained from well isolated colonies by transferring a small
portion of each to separate culture media.
2) Spread Plate Method
The spread plate technique is used for the separation of a dilute, mixed population of the microorganisms so
that individual colonies can be isolated. In this technique, a small volume of dilute microbial mixture is
transferred to the center of an agar plate and spread evenly over the surface with a sterile L-shaped bent
glass rod, while the petridish is spun, at some stage, single cells will be deposited with the bent glass rod on
the agar surface. Incubate the agar plate at 37ºC for 24 hours, in the inverted position. The dispersed cells
will develop into isolated colonies. Because the number of colonies will be equal to the number of viable
organisms in the sample spread plates can be used to count the microbial population.
3) Pour Plate Method
In pour plate method, successive dilutions of the inoculum (serially diluting the original specimen) are
added into sterile petriplate to which is poured melted and cooled (42ºC - 45ºC) agar medium and
thoroughly mixed by rotating the plates which is then allowed to solidify. After incubation, the plates are
examined for the presence of individual colonies. The pure colonies may be isolated and transferred into
test tube culture media for making pure cultures. This technique is employed to estimate the viable bacterial
count in a suspension.
Fig. 9. Plating Techniques
7
METHODS OF ISOLATION OF PURE CULTURE
A culture that contains only one kind of microorganisms is called a pure culture. A culture which contains
more than one kind of microorganisms is called mixed culture. Most of the cultures obtained in nature are
mixed cultures. Pure cultures are essential to study the cultural, morphological and physiological characters
of an individual species. There are different methods for obtaining pure cultures from mixed cultures.
Streak Plate Method

Spread Plate Method Follow the procedures as discussed in chapter 6 Plating techniques
Pour Plate Method
Micromanipulator Method
 In this technique, a microscope is used to pick out a single bacterial cell with the help of a device
known as micromanipulator. A single viable cell may be transferred on the culture medium to develop
turbidity.
 Enrichment, selective and indicator media are widely used for the isolation of pathogens from
specimens such as faeces with varied flora.
 Pure culture may be obtained by pre-treatment of specimens with appropriate bactericidal substances
which destroy the unwanted bacteria. This method is the standard practice for the isolation of tubercle
bacilli from sputum and other clinical specimen.
 Obligate aerobes and anaerobes may be separated by cultivation under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
 Microorganisms can also be violated by controlling physical environment especially temperature.
Bacteria with different optimum growth temperature can be separated by incubating at different
temperature. Only thermophiles bacteria grow to 60ºC. A mixture containing vegetative and spore
forming bacteria can be separated by heating at 80ºC. In this method, the bacteria in the vegetative
state will be eliminated. This method is useful for the isolation of tetanus bacilli from dust and similar
sources.
 Separation between motile and non-motile bacteria can be effected using Craigie’s tube. This consists
of a tube of semisolid agar with a narrow tube open at both ends placed in the center of the medium in
such a way that it projects above the level of the medium. The mixture is inoculated into the central
tube, the motile bacteria alone transverse the agar and appear at the top of the medium outside the
central tube.
8
CULTURE PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
Microbiologist or laboratories concerned with microbial studies preserve cultures for a short period or many
years conserving all the characteristics of the organisms. These preserved cultures may be made available in
future for various purposes such as:
 Use in the laboratory classes

 Research work
 Use as test agents for particular procedure
Some methods used for culture preservation include refrigeration, deep freezing, freezing under liquid
nitrogen and lyophilization.
1. Refrigeration
Live cultures on a culture medium can be successfully stored in refrigerators or cold rooms maintained at
4ºC. Generally, the metabolic activities of the microorganisms will be greatly slowed down at this
temperature. Storing cultures in a refrigerator at a temperature of 4ºC, slows growing protects from damage
due to evaporation of medium and preserve the culture. Thus growth will occur slowly, nutrients will be
utilized and waste products produced, which will eventually kill the microorganisms. So subculturing of
refrigerated cultures is to be carried out at regular intervals. In the case of bacteria, subculturing should be
done at intervals of 2-3 weeks. In the case of fungi, regular subculturing is necessary at intervals of 3-4
months.
2. Deep Freezing
Cultures can be preserved for several years in glycerol at 40ºC in a deep freezer. In this method
approximately 2 ml of the glycerol solution is added onto the agar slope culture by shaking. The culture
suspension is transferred into each ampoule which is placed in a mixture of industrial methylated spirit and
CO2 and is freezed rapidly to -70ºC. Ampoules are removed from the mixture and placed directly into a
deep freezer at 40ºC. During transfer from these stock cultures, tubes are placed to water bath at 45ºC for a
few seconds or until the suspensions melt and are aseptically streaked onto agar plates.
3. Freezing Under Liquid Nitrogen

Freezing in liquid nitrogen at temperature of -196ºC also suspends metabolism of cells and these survive
unchanged for long periods. In this method, cell suspension in the presence of a stabilizing agent such as
glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide, that prevents the formation of ice crystals which may kill frozen cells, is
sealed into small ampoules and stored in liquid nitrogen refrigerator. Most species of bacteria can remain
viable for 10-30 years or even more without undergoing change in their characteristics. The liquid nitrogen
method has been successful with many species that cannot be preserved by lyophilization.
4. Lyophilization
Lyophilization or freeze drying is the rapid dehydration of organisms while they are in a frozen state. Most
of the microbes are protected from the damage caused with water loss by this method. Because metabolism
requires water, the organisms are in a dormant state and can retain viability for over 30 years unchanged in
their characteristics. In this technique, the culture is rapidly frozen at -70ºC and then dehydrated by vacuum
and the tubes containing freeze dried cultures are sealed and stored in the dark at 4ºC in refrigerators.
It is the most satisfactory method of long term preservation of microorganisms. It’s universally used for the
preservation of bacteria, viruses, fungi etc. Lyophilized cultures are revived by opening the vials adding
liquid medium and transferring the culture to a suitable growth medium.
Deep Freezer
Refrigerator
Lyophilizer
Fig. 10. Culture Preservation Techniques
BACTERIAL IDENTIFICATION
Simple Staining
Aim
To compare the morphological shapes and arrangements of bacterial cells
Principle
In simple staining, bacterial smear is stained with a single reagent, which produces a distinctive contrast
between the organism and its background. A simple stain that stains the bacteria is the direct stain. The
purpose of simple staining technique is to determine cell shape, size arrangement of bacterial cells. Simple
staining is performed by using basic stains which have different exposure time (Crystal Violet 20-60 s,
Carbol fuschin 15-30 s and Methylene blue 1-2 miutes).
Procedure
 Clean glass slide was taken and was washed and dried.
 Bacterial smears were prepared from the bacterial cultures.
 The slide was kept on the staining tray and 5 drops of stain was added for a designed period.
 The extra stain was poured off and the smear was washed gently under slow running tap water.
 The slide was then blot dried using blotting paper.
 The slide was then examined under 10X, 45X and oil immersions objects respectively.
Observation
On the basis of microscopic observation, bacteria appeared blue, violet and red respectively depending on
the stain taken.
Differential staining
Differential staining requires the use of at least 3 chemical reagents that are applied sequentially to a heat
fixed smear. Its function is to impart its colour to all cells. In order to establish a colour contrast, the second
reagent used is the decolorizing agent. Based on the chemical composition of cellular components the
decolorizing agent may or may not remove the primary stain from the entire cell or from any cell structure.
The final reagent is the counter stain. Following discoloration, if the primary stain is not washed out, the
counter stain cannot be absorbed and neither the cell nor its components will retain the colour of the
primary stain. If the primary stain is removed, the decolorized cellular components will accept and assume
the contrasting colour of the counter stain. In this way, cell type or their structure can be distinguished from
each other. On the basis of the stain that is retained the most important differential stain used in
bacteriology is the Gram stain.
Gram Staining
Aim
To differentiate two principal groups of bacteria
Principle
The Gram stain, a differential stain was developed by Hans Christian Gram, a Danish physician, in 1884.
Gram staining classifies bacteria into 2 major groups, Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. The Gram
stain reaction is based on the difference in the chemical and physical composition of bacterial cell wall.
Gram positive cells have a thick peptidoglycan layer, whereas peptidoglycan layer in Gram negative cells is
much thinner and surrounded by outer lipid containing layer.
In Gram negative, the higher amount of lipid in the formation of large pores thus facilitating the leakage of
crystal violet-iodine complex and resulting in the decolonization of the bacterium which later takes this
complex counter stain. In contrast, the Gram positive cell wall are thick and composed mainly of proteins
and cross linked mucopeptide, when treated with alcohol it causes dehydration and closure of the cell wall
pores thereby not allowing the loss of complex and cell retains primary stain. The bacteria which retain the
primary stain appear dark blue or violet and not decolorized when stained with Gram’s method are called
Gram positive, where as those that lose the crystal violet used counter stain, saffranin appear red are called
as Gram negative.
The Gram stain uses different reagents in the order, crystal violet, iodine solution, alcohol and saffranin.
Procedure
 Thin smear was prepared of the given bacterial species on a clean glass slide.
 Let the smear dry.
 Heat fixed smear.
 Hold the smear using the slide rack.
 Covered each smear with crystal violet for 1 minute.
 Washed each slide with distilled water for few seconds using wash bottles.
 Covered each smear with Gram’s iodine solution for 1 minute.
 Gently washed with distilled water.
 Decolorized with 95%.
 Washed the slide with distilled water and drained.
 Counter stain was applied saffranin for 30 seconds.
 Washed with distilled water and blot dried with absorbent paper.
 The stained slides were air dried and observed under the microscope.
Observation
 Examined the slides microscopically using oil immersion objective.

 Identified the Gram reaction of the given cultures and classified it and described the morphology and
arrangement of cells.
Those bacteria that appear blue are referred to as Gram positive and these appearing pink are described as
Gram negative.
Gram Positive Gram Negative

Fig. 11. Gram Staining
Hanging-Drop and Wet-Mount Preparations
Procedure
 Take a cover glass and clean it thoroughly, making certain it is free of grease (the drop to be placed on
it will not hang from a greasy surface). It may be dipped in alcohol and polished dry with tissue, or
washed in soap and water, rinsed completely and wiped dry.
 Take one hollow-ground slide and clean the well with a piece of dry tissue. Place a thin film of
petroleum jelly around (not in) the concave well on the slide.
 Gently shake the broth culture of Proteus until it is evenly suspended. Using good aseptic technique,
sterilize the wire loop, remove the cap of the tube, and take up a loopful of culture. Be certain the loop
has cooled to room temperature before inserting it into the broth or it may cause the broth to “sputter”
and create a dangerous aerosol. Close and return the tube to the rack.
 Place the loopful of culture in the center of the cover glass (do not spread it around). Sterilize the loop
and put it down.
 Hold the hollow-ground slide inverted with the well down over the cover glass, and then press it down
gently so that the petroleum jelly adheres to the cover glass. Now turn the slide over. You should have
a sealed wet mount, with the drop of culture hanging in the well.
 Place the slide on the microscope stage, cover glass up. Start your examination with the low-power
objective to find the focus. It is helpful to focus first on one edge of the drop, which will appear as a
dark line. The light should be reduced with the iris diaphragm and, if necessary, by lowering the
condenser. You should be able to focus easily on the yeast cells in the suspension. If you have trouble
with the focus, ask the instructor for help.
 Continue your examination with the high-dry and oil-immersion objectives (be very careful not to
break the cover glass with the latter). Although the yeast cells will be obvious because of their larger
size, look around them to observe the bacterial cells.
 Make a hanging-drop preparation of the Staphylococcus culture following the same procedures just
described.
 Record your observations of the size, shape, cell groups, and motility of the two bacterial organisms in
comparison to the yeast cells.
 Discard your slides in a container with disinfectant solution.
Fig. 12. Hanging Drop Method
Some Special Features of Common Microorganisms in Laboratory
1. Escherichia coli
Section : Facultative, Gram negative rods

Family : Enterobacteriaceace
Genus : Escherichia
Species : coli
 Common coliform bacterium used in laboratory practices
 The bacterium is rod shaped generally 1.3 x 2.5 µm in size
 Gram negative, facultatively anaerobe, motile having peritrichous flagella
 It causes diarrhea due to the presence of enterotoxins.
 It is catalase positive and oxidase negative
Colony Characteristics
a) On Nutrient Agar
Small, regular, circular, translucent colonies
b) On Mac conkey Agar
Small, regular, circular, lactose fermenting colonies
Biochemical Tests
Table 1. Biochemical tests of E.coli

1 Sugar Fermentation Tests
a Glucose Fermented with acid & gas production
b Lactose Fermented with acid & gas production
c Sucrose Fermented with acid & gas production
2 Oxidation – Fermentation test Fermentative
3 Mannitol Motility Test Motile with diffused growth
4 Indole Production +
5 Methyl Red +
6 Voges – Proskauer -
7 Citrate Utilization -
8 Nitrate Reduction +
9 Urease test -
10 Triple Sugar Iron Agar A/A with gas production & no H2S production
2. Klebsiella
Section : Facultative, Gram negative rods

Genus : Klebsiella
 No specific growth requirements and grow well on standard laboratory media
 Grows best between 35 and 37ºC and at pH 7.2
 The bacterium is rod shaped, non-motile
 Gram negative, facultatively anaerobe
 It is catalase positive and oxidase negative
a) On Nutrient Agar
Large, regular, convex, opaque, mucoid colonies
Large, regular, convex, opaque, mucoid, lactose fermenting colonies
Biochemical Tests
Table 2. Biochemical tests of Klebsiella

c Sucrose Fermented with acid & gas production
2 Oxidation – Fermentative with gas production

Fermentation test
3 Mannitol Motility Test Motile , growth only on stab line
4 Indole Production -
5 Methyl Red -
6 Voges – Proskauer +
7 Citrate Utilization +
9 Urease test +
10 Triple Sugar Iron Agar A/A with gas production & no H2S production
3. Pseudomonas
Section : Facultative, gram negative rods

Genus : Pseudomonas
 The cells are straight or slightly curved of 1.5 – 5.0 x 0.5-1.0 µm in size
 Aerobic and motile
 Some species are pathogenic to human, animals and plants
 They are catalase and oxidase positive
a) On Nutrient Agar
Medium, regular, flat, translucent colonies with greenish pigmentation

Small, irregular, flat, translucent, non-lactose fermenting colonies
Biochemical Tests
Table 3. Biochemical tests of Pseudomonas

a Glucose Fermented with acid & no gas production
b Lactose Non-fermentative
c Sucrose Non-fermentative
2 Oxidation – Oxidative
Fermentation test
3 Mannitol Motility Test Fermented with diffused growth
5 Methyl Red -
7 Citrate Utilization +
9 Urease test -
10 Triple Sugar Iron Agar K/K with gas production & H2S production
4. Staphylococcus aureus
Section : Facultative, gram positive cocci

Family : Staphylococcaceae
Genus : Staphylococcus
Species : aureus
 They appear round (cocci) and form in grape-like clusters.
 Non-Motile
 It is a common cause of skin infections, respiratory disease and food poisoning.
 It is catalase and coagulase positive
a) On Nutrient Agar
Small, regular, circular, entire, smooth, convex, opaque, golden yellow colonies

Small, regular, circular, entire, smooth, convex, opaque, lactose fermenting colonies
Biochemical Tests
Table 4. Biochemical tests of S. aureus

a Glucose Fermented with acid only
b Lactose Fermented with acid only
c Sucrose Fermented with acid only
2 Oxidation – Fermentative
Fermentation test
3 Mannitol Motility Test Fermentative and non - motile
5 Methyl Red +
6 Voges – Proskauer +
9 Urease test +
10 Triple Sugar Iron Agar A/A without gas production & H2S production
10
BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA
1) Carbohydrate Fermentation
Aim
To determine the ability of microorganisms to degrade and ferment carbohydrate with the production of
acid and gas
Principle
Most microorganisms use carbohydrate differently depending on their enzymes components. In
fermentation, substrate and alcohols undergo anaerobic dissimilation and produce an organic acid (For
example lactic acid, formic acid or acetic acid). The pH indicator Phenol Red is used to detect the
production of acid, which is red at a neutral pH 7 and changes to yellow at a slightly acidic pH of 6.8. This
indicates a positive reaction.
Glycolysis
Carbohydrates + Bacteria Aldehyde or acid + CO2 + H2
pH indicator (Colour Change)
In some cases, acid production is accompanied by the evaluation of gas such as Hydrogen or Carbon
dioxide. To detect the presence of gas produced or Durham’s tube (an inverted inner vial) is placed in the
fermentation broth, in which the evaluation of gas will be visible as a bubble.
Cultures that are not capable of fermenting any carbohydrate and not producing concomitant evolution of
gas are noted. This is a negative reaction.
Materials Required
8 ml Test Tube, Durham’s Tube, Phenol Red Indicator, Sugar (Glucose, Lactose, Sucrose)
Procedure
 Using sterile technique, culture was inoculated into its appropriately labeled medium by means of loop
inoculation.
 Care was taken during this step not to shake the fermentation tube.
 1 tube of each fermentation broth was kept uninoculated as a comparative control.
 All the tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours and the reaction was observed.
Observation
All carbohydrate broth cultures were observed for colour and presence or absence of gas bubble by
comparing with the uninoculated tube (control).
Fig. 13. Carbohydrate Fermentation Test
Note
A – Only acid is formed; the broth has turned yellow
AG – Acid & Gas formed, the broth turned Yellow and gas bubble is trapped
-ve – No change
Sugar fermentation test
Table 5. Carbohydrate – Fermentation Test
Glucose Lactose Sucrose

Fermented with acid Fermented with acid production only Fermented with acid
production only Eg: S. aureus production only
eg. S. aureus Eg: S. aureus
Fermented with acid Fermented with acid and gas production Fermented with acid
and gas production Eg: E. coli, Klebsiella and gas production
eg. E. coli, Klebsiella Eg: E. coli,
Klebsiella
Non- Fermenting Non- Fermenting Non- Fermenting
eg. Acinoetobacter Eg: S. typhi Eg: S. typhi
S. paratyphi S. paratyphi
Pseudomonas sp. Pseudomonas sp.
2) Oxidation – Fermentation Test
Aim
To determine the oxidation fermentation characteristics of microorganisms
Principle
This method depends upon the use of semisolid tube
medium containing the carbohydrate (Glucose) together
with a pH indicator. The acid is produced only at the
surface of medium where conditions are aerobic the attack
on the medium where conditions are aerobic the attack on
the sugar is oxidative. If acid is produced throughout the
medium including lower layers and where the conditions
are aerobic breakdown is fermentative.
Fermenting organism (Enterobacteriaceace, Vibrio)
produce an acidic reaction throughout the medium in the
covered (anaerobic) as well as open (aerobic) tube.
Oxidizing organisms (Pseudomonas) produce an acidic
reaction only in the open tube. Organisms that cannot Fig. 14. Oxidation Fermentation Test
breakdown carbohydrate aerobically/anaerobically (alkali
genes faecalis) produce an alkaline reaction in the open
tube and no change in the covered tube. This medium may
be used for detecting gas production and motility.
Materials Required
Bacterial broth culture, D-F medium, liquid paraffinaol
Procedure
 Using sterile technique, two tubes of medium were inoculated by stabbing with sterile urine.
 Two inoculated tubes were used as control.
 Liquid paraffin was poured over the medium to form a layer about 1cm in depth into one of
the tube of each pair.
 The tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24-48hrs was observed.
Observation
The tubes were observed for the colour of the medium and the type of metabolism was recorded.
Table 6. Oxidation – Fermentation Test

OXIDATIVE FERMENTATIVE
Eg. Pseudomonas Eg. Klebsiella
S. typhi
S. paratyphi A
E. coli
3) Indole Production Test
Aim
To determine the ability of microorganisms to decompose the
amino acid tryptophan to indole
Principle
Tryptophan an essential amino acid oxidized by some bacteria
by the enzyme tryptophanase resulting in the formation of
indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. In this experiment, the
medium contains the substrate tryptophan which is utilized by
the microorganisms.
Fig. 15. Indole Production Test
Enzymatic Degradation of Tryptophan
This ability to hydrolyse tryptophan with the production of indole is not a characteristic of all
microorganisms and therefore serves as a biochemical mask. The presence of indole is detected by adding
Kovac’s reagent, which produces a cherry red reagent layers. This colour is produced by the reagent which
is composed of Paradimethyl aminobenzaldehyde yielding the cherry red colour
Indole Reaction with Kovac’s Reagent
Culture producing a red reagent layers following addition of the Kovac’s reagent are indole positive. The
absence of red colouration demonstrates that the substrate tryptophan was not hydrolyzed and indicating
indole negative reaction.
Another reagent used is Ehrlisch’s reagent. It’s believed to be more sensitive than Kovac’s reagent and is
recommend for the detection of indole production by anaerobic and non-fermentative Gram negative
organism Kovac’s reagent was used usually initially to classify the members of Enterobacteriaceace family.
Materials Required
15 ml test tubes, bacterial culture, peptone water, Kovac’s reagent
Procedure
 The peptone water tubes were inoculated with bacterial broth culture using sterile needle technique.
 An uninoculated tube was kept as control.
 Both tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours.
 After proper incubation, 1 ml of Kovac’s reagent was added to both tubes including the control.
 The tubes were shaken gently after an interval for 10 – 15 minutes.
Observation
The tubes were observed for the colour in the top reagent layer.
Note
Development of cherry red colour in the top layer of the tube is a positive test. Absence of red colouration is
indole negative.
Examples
Positive: E. coli, Proteus vulgaris
Negative: Klebsiella sp., Proteus mirabilis
4) Methyl Red Test

Aim
To determine the ability of microorganism to oxidize glucose with
the production and stabilization of high concentrations of acid end
products
Principle
All enteric organisms oxidize glucose for energy production and
the end products of this process will vary depending on the specific
enzymatic pathway present in the bacteria. In this test, the pH
indicator methyl red detects the presence of large concentrations of
acidic red detects the presence of large concentrations of acidic
products. The test can be used in differentiating Escherichia coli
and Enterobacter aerogenes (both coliform bacteria) that are used
as indicator of the sanitary quality of water, foods etc. Fig. 16. Methyl Red Test
Both of these organisms initially produce organic acid end products
during the early incubation period. The low acid end products produce acidic pH (4) which is stabilized and
maintained by E. coli at the end of incubation. During the later incubation period Enterobacter aerogenes
enzymatically converts these acids into nonacid end products such as 2,3 butanedial and acetyl methyl
carbinol (pH 6).
Lactic Acid
Glucose + H2O Acetic Acid + CO2 + H2 (pH 4)
Formic Acid (MR Indicator)
At a pH of 4, Methyl red indicator will turn red throughout the tube, which is indicating of a positive test.
At pH 6, still indicating the presence of acid but with a lower hydrogen ion concentration, the indicators
turn Yellow, which is indicating the negative test.
Materials Required
MR broth, 24 hours broth cultures, Methyl red indicator, inoculating loop
Procedure
 Using sterile technique experimental organisms were inoculated into appropriately labeled tubes
containing MR broth by means of loop inoculation.
 Uninoculated tube was kept as control
 After proper incubation 5 drops of MR indicator was added to both tubes including control.
 It was mixed well and colour was observed.
Observation
The tubes were observed for changes in the colour of Methyl Red.
Interpretation
The colour of MR reagents remaining red is a positive test and the colour turning to yellow is negative.
Examples
MR positive – E. coli, Proteus sp; Salmonella sp.
MR negative – Klebsiella, Enterobacter sp.
5) Voges – Proskauer Test
Aim
To determine the ability of many microorganisms to produce acetone (acetyl methyl carbinol) during
fermentation of glucose
Principle
This determines the ability of many bacteria to ferment carbohydrates with the production of non- acidic /
neutral end products, acetyl methyl carbinol or its reduction product, acetyl methyl carbinol or its reduction
products, acetyl- methyl carbinol or its reduction product 2,3 Butylene glycol from the organic acids.
The reagent used in this test, Barrett’s reagent, consists of a mixture of alcoholic α- naphthol and 40%
potassium hydroxide solution. Detection of the acetyl methyl carbinol requires this end product to be
oxidized to a diacetyl compound. This reaction will occur in the presence of α- naphthol catalyst and a
guanidine group that is present in the peptone. At a result, a pink complex a guanidine group that is present
in the peptone. As a result, a pink complex is complex is formed imparting a rose colour to the medium.
Acetyl Methyl Carbinol reaction with Barrett’s reagent
Development of deep rose colour in culture with in a minute following the addition of Barrett’s reagent is
indicative of presence of the acetyl methyl carbinol and represents a positive result. The absence of rose
colouration is a negative result.
Procedure
 Using sterile technique, the experimental organism was
inoculated into VP broth by means of loop inoculation.
 One tube is kept uninoculated as control.
 The tube will be incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours.
 After proper incubation, about 3 ml of Barrett’s reagent
A & 1 ml of Barrett’s reagent B was added into both
tubes including control.
 The tubes were shaken gently for 30 seconds with the
caps off to expose the media to oxygen.
 The reaction was allowed to complete in 15 – 30
minutes and tubes were observed.
Observation
The tubes were observed for the development of crimson red

Fig. 17. Voges Proskauer Test
colour.
Note: the colour may be more intense at the surface.
Interpretation
Red colour formation indicates a positive test and colour change is negative.
eg. Positive – Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter
Negative – E. coli, Proteus sp.
6) Citrate Utilization Test
Aim
To determine the ability of a microorganism to utilize citrate as the sole source of carbon and as energy
source for the growth and ammonium salt as a sole source of nitrogen
Principle
Citrate test is used to differentiate among enteric bacteria on the basis of their ability to utilize / ferment
citrate as the sole carbon source. In the absence of glucose or lactose some microorganisms utilize citrate as
a carbon source. This ability depends on the presence of citrase enzyme that facilitates the transport of
citrate in the cell. Citrate, the first major intermediate in Krebs’s cycle is produced by the condensation of
active acetyl CoA with oxalo acetic acid and acetate. These products are then enzymatically converted to
pyruvic acid and carbon dioxide. During this reaction the
medium becomes alkaline; CO2 combines with sodium and
water to form carbonate, an alkaline product. This changes the
bromothymol blue indicator in the medium from green to
Prussian blue.
Citrate test is preferred / performed by inoculating the
microorganisms in to an organic synthetic medium. Simmons
citrate agar (solid) or Koser’s citrate medium (liquid) in which
sodium citrate is the only source of carbon and energy.
Bromothymol blue is green when acidic (pH 6.8 and below).
When alkaline (pH 7.6 and above). Formation of blue colour
constitutes a positive test. Citrate negative culture will show no
growth and the medium will remain green.
Materials Required
Bacterial broth, Simmons Citrate Agar Slants, Inoculation Fig. 18. Citrate Utilization
Loop
Procedure
 Using sterile technique Simmons citrate agar slant was inoculated with the test organism by means of a
stab and streak inoculation.
 Both tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24 – 48 hours & was observed
Observation
The tubes were observed for growth and colouration of the medium.
Interpretation
Colour of the medium if turned blue, a positive result is indicated. Colour of the medium remains as green,
indicates a negative result.
7) Nitrate Reduction Test
Aim
To determine the ability of bacteria to produce an enzyme nitrate reductase
Principle
The reduction of nitrate by some aerobic and facultative anaerobic microorganisms occur in the absence of
molecular oxygen an anaerobic process whereby the cell uses in organic substances such as nitrates or
sulphates to supply oxygen that is subsequently utilized as a final hydrogen acceptor during energy
formation. The biochemical transformation may be utilized as follows:
Nitrate reductase
NO3- + 2H+ + 2e- NO2+ H2O
Some organisms possess the enzymatic capacity to act further on nitrates to reduce them to ammonia or
molecular nitrogen. These reactions may be described as follows:
NO2- NH3+
Nitrate reduction can be determined by cultivating organisms a nitrate broth medium. The medium is
basically a nutrient broth supplemented with 0.1% potassium nitrate (KNO3) as the nitrate substrate. In
addition, the medium is made into a semisolid by the additional of 0.1% agar. The semisolid impedes the
diffusion of oxygen in to the medium, there by favoring the anaerobic requirement necessary for nitrate
reduction. An organisms ability to reduce nitrate to nitrite is determined by the addition of two reagent
solution A, which is sulphanlic acid followed by solution B, which is α-napthylamine followed reduction,
the addition of solution A and B will produce an immediate cherry red colour.
Nitrate Reductase
NO3 – NO2 -
Cultures not producing a colour change suggest one of two possibilities

 Nitrates were not reduced by the organism
 The organism possessed such potent nitrate reductase enzymes that nitrate were rapidly reduced
beyond nitrates to ammonia or even molecular nitrogen.
This test determines the production of an enzyme called nitrate reductase, resulting in the reduction of
nitrate (NO3). With this enzyme, nitrate is reduced to nitrite (NO2). It then forms nitrous acid that reacts
with the first reagent sulphanlic acid, and that reacts with the other reagent α-napthylamine to form a red
colour. The development of red colour, therefore, verifies that nitrates were not reduced to nitrites by the
organism. If nitrites were reduced a negative nitrate reduction had occurred. If the addition of zinc does not
produce colour change, the nitrates in the medium were reduced beyond nitrites to ammonia or nitrogen gas.
This is a positive reaction or result. Reduction of nitrate is generally an anaerobic respiration in which an
organism derives its oxygen from nitrate.
Materials Required
Bacterial broth, Nitrate broth, Nitrate reagent and inoculation loop.
Procedure
 Using sterile technique the test organism was inoculated in to nitrate broth by means of loop inoculation.
 An uninoculated broth was kept as control.
 After proper incubation equal amounts of
nitrate reagent (solution A & B) were added
to nitrate broth Cultures and to the control
tube and the reaction was observed
Observation
The tubes were observed to see a red colour has

been developed or not.
A minute quantity of zinc was added to cultures

in which no red colour was developed and it was
observed to see if red colour has been developed
or not. Fig. 19. Nitrate Reduction Test
Interpretation
Development of red colour indicates nitrate positive and no colour change indicates a negative test.
Eg: Positive: all members of Enterobacteriaceace
Negative: Haemophilus duceryi.
8) Urease Test
Aim
To determine the ability of microorganism to degrade urea by
means of the enzyme urease
Principle
Urease is a hydrolytic enzyme that attacks nitrogen and
carbon bond in amide compounds such as urea and forms the
alkaline end products ammonia. The presence of urease is
detectable when the organisms are grown in a urea broth
medium containing the pH indicator phenol red. As the
substrate urea is split into its products, the phenol red to turn
to a deep pink. This is a positive reaction for the presence of
urease. Failure of deep pink colour to develop is evidence of
negative reaction. Fig. 20. Urease Test
Materials Required
Bacterial broth cultures, Christener’s urea agar slant and the inoculation loop
Procedure
 Using sterile technique, the test organism was inoculated the media by means of loop of inoculation.
 The tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24-24 hours and the reaction was observed.
Observation
The tubes were observed to see if pink colour has developed or not
Interpretation
Development of pink colour indicator a positive test and no colour change shows a negative test,
Eg Urease Positive – Klebsiella sp., Proteus sp.
Urease Negative – E. coli, Salmonella sp.
9) Mannitol Motility Test

Aim
To detect whether the given organism is motile and also mannitol is fermenting or not
Principle
Mannitol motility test medium is an example of semisolid agar media; motile bacteria swarm and give a
diffused spreading growth that is easily recognized by the naked eye. The final sterile medium should be
quite clear and transparent. After incubating the stabbed culture, non-motile bacteria generally give growth
that are confined to stab line and have sharply defined margins leaving the surrounding medium clearly
transparent. Motile bacteria typically give diffused, hazy growth that spreads throughout the medium
rendering it slightly opaque. This test also helps to identify whether the microorganisms ferment Mannitol
or not. It produces acidic end products which in turn change the red colour of phenol red indicator to
yellow.
Materials Required
Bacterial culture broth, mannitol fermentation media (semisolid) and inoculation loop
Procedure
 Using sterile technique the test organism was inoculated in to the medium using stab inoculation
method.
 Both tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours and the reaction was observed.
Observation
The tubes were observed for motility and also for

colour changes from red to yellow.
Interpretation
Diffused growth – Motile bacteria eg:

Pseudomonas sp.
Growth at stab line only – Non-motile bacteria

eg: Staphylococcus aureus only
Red colour – Mannitol non-

fermenting eg: Bacillus cereus
Fig. 21. Mannitol Motility Test
Yellow colour - Mannitol fermenting
eg: E. coli
10) Triple Sugar Iron Agar Test
Aim
To identify the microorganisms based on the ability to ferment the carbohydrates (Glucose, Sucrose and
Lactose)
Principle
The triple sugar- iron agar test is designed to differentiate among the different groups or genera of the
Enterobacteriaceace, which are all Gram negative bacilli capable of fermenting glucose with the production
of acid and to distinguish them from other gram negative intestinal bacilli. This differentiation is based on
the differences in carbohydrate fermentation patterns and hydrogen sulfide production by the various groups
of intestinal organisms. Carbohydrate fermentation is indicated by the presence of gas and a visible colour
change of the pH indicator, phenol red. The production of hydrogen sulphide in the medium is indicated by
the formation of a black precipitate that will blacken the medium in the butt of the tube.
To facilitate the observation of carbohydrate utilization patterns, TSI Agar contains three fermentative
sugars, lactose and sucrose in 1% concentrations and glucose in 0.1% concentration. Due to the production
of acid during fermentation, the pH falls. The acid base indicator Phenol red is incorporated for detecting
carbohydrate fermentation that is indicated by the change in colour of the carbohydrate medium from
orange red to yellow in the presence of
acids. In case of oxidative decarboxylation
of peptone, alkaline products are produced
and the pH rises. This is indicated by the
change in colour of the medium from
orange red to deep red. Sodium thiosulfate
and ferrous ammonium sulfate present in
the medium detects the production of
hydrogen sulfide and is indicated by the
black colour in the butt of the tube.
Carbohydrate fermentation is indicated by

the production of gas and a change in the
colour of the pH indicator from red to
yellow. To facilitate the detection of
organisms that only ferment glucose, the
glucose concentration is one-tenth the
concentration of lactose or sucrose. The
amount of acid production in the slant of Fig. 22.Triple Sugar Iron Agar Test
the tube during glucose fermentation
oxidizes rapidly, causing the medium to remain orange red or revert to an alkaline pH. In contrast, the acid
reaction (yellow) is maintained in the butt of the tube since it is under lower oxygen tension.
After depletion of the limited glucose, organisms able to do so will begin to utilize the lactose or sucrose.
To enhance the alkaline condition of the slant, free exchange of air must be permitted by closing the tube
cap loosely. If the tube is tightly closed, an acid reaction (caused solely by glucose fermentation) will also
involve the slant.
Materials Required
Bacterial broth cultures, TSI agar slants, Inoculation Loop.
Procedure
 Using sterile technique, the test organism was inoculated into the media by means of stab and streak
inoculation.
 An uninoculated tube was kept as control
 Both tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours and the reaction was observed
Observation
The tubes were observed for the colour of both the butt and slant and also gas production by means of
cracks or bubble or blackness of butt.
Observation Interference Examples

A/A without gas and H2S Acid Slant / Acid butt Staphylococcus aureus
production without gas & H2S
production
A/A with gas and without Acid Slant / Acid butt with E. coli, Klebsiella
H2S production gas & without H2S
production
K/A with gas and without Alkaline slant / Acid butt Salmonella paratyphi A
H2S production with gas & without H2S
production
K/K without gas and H2S Alkaline slant / Acid butt Pseudomonas sp.
production without gas & H2S
production
K/A with H2S production Alkaline slant / Acid butt Salmonella typhi
with H2S production
Interpretation
 A/A: ferments glucose and either sucrose, lactose, or both.
 K/A: does not ferment lactose or sucrose; does ferment glucose.
 K/K: a non-fermenter.
 Black precipitate in stab: produces H2S (and ferments glucose).
11) Catalase Test
Aim
To demonstrate the presence of

catalase in an organism.
Principle
Catalase is an enzyme, which is

Fig. 23. Catalase Test
produced by microorganisms that live
in oxygenated environments to
neutralize toxic forms of oxygen metabolites and H2O2. The catalase enzyme neutralizes the bactericidal
effects of hydrogen peroxide and protects them. Anaerobes generally lack the catalase enzyme.
Catalase mediates the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide H2O2 into oxygen and water. To find out if a
particular bacterial isolate is able to produce catalase enzyme, small inoculums of bacterial isolate is mixed
into hydrogen peroxide solution (3%) and the rapid elaboration of oxygen bubbles occurs. The lack of
catalase is evident by a lack of or weak bubble production.
Catalase-positive bacteria include strict aerobes as well as facultative anaerobes. They all have the ability to
respire using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor.
Catalase-negative bacteria may be anaerobes, or they may be facultative anaerobes that only ferment and do
not respire using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor (ie. Streptococci).
Uses
 The catalase test is primarily used to distinguish among Gram-positive cocci: Member of the genus
Staphylococcus is catalase-positive, and members of the genera Streptococcus and Enterococcus are
catalase-negative.
 Catalase test is used to differentiate aero tolerant strains of Clostridium, which are catalase negative,
from Bacillus species, which are positive.
 Semi quantitative catalase test is used for the identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Catalase test can be used as an aid to the identification of Enterobacteriaceace. Members of
Enterobacteriaceace family are Catalase positive.
Materials Required
24 hours old bacterial culture, glass slide, petridish, 3% H2O2, applicator sticks
Procedure
 Transfer a small amount of bacterial colony to a surface of clean, dry glass slide using a loop or sterile
wooden stick
 Place a drop of 3% H2O2 on to the slide and mix.
 A positive result is the rapid evolution of oxygen (within 5-10 s) as evidenced by bubbling.
 A negative result is no bubbles or only a few scattered bubbles.
 Dispose of your slide in the biohazard glass disposal container.
Precautions
 Do not use a metal loop or needle with H2O2; it will give a false positive and degrade the metal.
 If using colonies from a blood agar plate, be very careful not to scrape up any of the blood agar as
blood cells are catalase positive and any contaminating agar could give a false positive.
Observation
The release of bubbles was observed and compared with control.
Interpretation
Bubble Formation : Catalase Positive
No Bubble Formation: Catalase Negative
Examples
Catalase Positive : Staphylococcus aureus
Catalase Negative: Streptococcus pyogenes
Note
Care must be taken while performing catalase test of growth from blood agar plate because blood (RBC)
contains RBC catalase.
12) Oxidase Test
Aim
To test the production of oxidase bacteria
Principle
The oxidase test is a key test to differentiate
between the families of Pseudomonadaceae
(ox +) and Enterobacteriaceace (ox-), and is
useful for speciation and identification of
many other bacteria those that have to use
oxygen as the final electron acceptor in
aerobic respiration. The enzyme cytochrome
oxidase is involved with the reduction of
oxygen at the end of the electron transport
chain.
There may be different types of oxidase
enzymes produced by bacteria. The colorless
Fig. 24. Oxidase Test
redox reagent, tetra methyl-p-
phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (or dimethyl) used in the test will detect the presence of the enzyme
oxidase and reacting with oxygen, turn a colour. The oxidase reagent contains a chromogenic reducing
agent, a compound that changes color when it becomes oxidized, so it acts as an artificial electron acceptor
for the enzyme oxidase. The oxidized reagent forms the coloured compound indophenol blue.
Materials Required
Oxidase disc, 24 hours old test organism, applicator stick or glass rod.
Procedure
 The test organisms was rubbed over the reagent impregnated, filter paper disc using sterile applicator
sticks or glass rod.
 Controls were also kept along with the test and the reaction was observed within 10 seconds.
Observation
The colour changes to purple were observed with the prescribed time.
Important
Acidity inhibits oxidase enzymes activity therefore the oxidase test must not be performed on colonies that
produce fermentation on carbohydrates containing media like Mac Conkey Agar.
Interpretation
Formation of purple colour indicates a positive test. No colour changes show a negative test.
eg. Oxidase Positive: Pseudomonas sp., Vibrio sp.
Oxidase Negative: E. coli, Klebsiella
Precautions
 The test reagent is to be freshly prepared
 Nichrome wire is not used to take bacterial growth
 Cultures should not be very cold
 Culture from selective media should not be used
 The colour changes should be observed within the prescribed time
13) Coagulase Test
Aim
To distinguish coagulase producing Staphylococcus aureus from other species of Staphylococcus
Principle
Staphylococcus aureus is known to produce coagulase,

which can clot plasma into gel in tube or agglutinate
cocci in slide. This test is useful in differentiating S.
aureus from other coagulase-negative staphylococci.
Most strains of S.aureus produce two types of
coagulase, free coagulase and bound coagulase. While
free coagulase is an enzyme that is secreted
extracellular, bound coagulase is a cell wall associated
protein. Free coagulase is detected in tube coagulase
test and bound coagulase is detected in slide coagulase
test. Slide coagulase test may be used to screen isolates
of S. aureus and tube coagulase may be used for
confirmation. While there are seven antigenic types of
free coagulase, only one antigenic type of bound
coagulase exists. Free coagulase is heat labile while
bound coagulase is heat stable. Fig. 25. Coagulase Test
Slide Coagulase Test: The bound coagulase is also known as clumping factor. It cross-links α and β chain
of fibrinogen in plasma to form fibrin clot that deposits on the cell wall. As a result, individual coccus sticks
to each other and clumping is observed.
Tube Coagulase Test: The free coagulases secreted by S. aureus act with coagulase reacting factor (CRF)
in plasma to form a complex, which is thrombin. This converts fibrinogen to fibrin resulting in clotting of
plasma.
Materials Required
EDTA anticoagulant human plasma, clean glass slide, test tubes, pipettes, distilled water and inoculation
loop.
Procedure
Slide Coagulase Test: Dense suspensions of Staphylococci from culture are made on two ends of clean
glass slide. One should be labeled as “test” and the other as “control”. The control suspension serves to rule
out false positivity due to auto agglutination. The test suspension is treated with a drop of citrated plasma
and mixed well. Agglutination or clumping of cocci within 5-10 seconds is taken as positive. Some strains
of S. aureus may not produce bound coagulase, and such strains must be identified by tube coagulase test.
Observation
The slides were observed for clumping or not within prescribed time.
Interpretation
Clumping formation - Positive reaction
No clumping formation – Negative reaction
Tube Coagulase Test
Three test tubes are taken and labeled “test”, “negative control” and “positive control”. Each tube is filled
with 0.5 ml of 1 in 10 diluted rabbit plasma. To the tube labeled test, 0.1 ml of overnight broth culture of
test bacteria is added. To the tube labeled positive control, 0.1 ml of overnight broth culture of known
[[S. aureus is added and to the tube labeled negative control, 0.1 ml of sterile broth is added. All the tubes
are incubated at 37°C and observed up to four hours. Positive result is indicated by gelling of the plasma,
which remains in place even after inverting the tube. If the test remains negative until four hours at 37°C,
the tube is kept at room temperature for overnight incubation.
Observation
The tubes were observed for clotting in the prescribed time.
Interpretation
Clot formation - Positive reaction
No clot formation – Negative reaction
Examples
Coagulase Positive: Staphylococcus aureus
Coagulase Negative: E. coli
11
FUNGI
Fungi are unicellular or multi cellular organisms which live either as saprophytes or parasites.
They are the major contaminating organisms in the tissue cultures because of their simple rapid
reproductive processes through asexual and sexual spores. Elimination of contaminants is crucial
for the successful tissue culture production as the fungi species during their rapid growth, utilize
the culture media and destroy the explants.
Techniques
1) Lacto Phenol Cotton Blue
Lacto Phenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) of tear mount staining technique was employed for identification. Two
methods are employed for LPCB staining, namely, Tear mount method and slide culture method. In LPCB
staining, cotton blue stain gives dark blue colour to the fungal structure against light blue background. The
cytoplasm will also be in light blue colour. Phenol acts as fungicide and lactic acid acts as clearing agent.
To perform tear mount method, one or two drops of Lacto phenol cotton blue stain was added to a clean
slide. Using a flame sterilized needle a few fungal mycelia was placed on the stain and the mycelia was
gently teased and spread using a sterile needle. Cover glass was carefully placed taking extra caution to
avoid air bubbles. Excess stain was removed using tissue paper and observed under 10X and 45X objective
of microscope.
2) Slide Culture Techniques
Contaminations were also studied using slide culture

method for a double confirmation. Slides were
arranged over the V- shaped tube in a petriplate. 1
cm X 1 cm square block of Sabouraud’s dextrose
agar (SDA) was carefully placed on the center of the
glass slide block. Cover slip was placed with sterile
forceps and moistened cotton in petriplate was kept
for promoting the fungal growth. After two to three
days incubation, agar block was carefully placed on
a glass slide containing Lacto phenol cotton blue
staining. Block was later observed under 10X and
Fig. 26. Slide Culture Technique
45X magnification of microscope.
3) Germ Tube Test

It is used for the observation of germ tubes in Candida sp. Using micropipette, dispense 3drops of fresh
pooled human serum into test tubes with a sterile wooden applicator sticker/ needle touch a yeast (suspected
sample) place the stick into serum. Incubated the sample 35°C for 2-3hours. By placing on clean glass slide,
examine it with microscope.
Study of Characteristics of Some Common Fungi
1) Aspergillus species
Colony Morphology
Colonies are wooly at first, white to yellow, then turning dark brown to black. Reverse is white to yellow.
Microscopic Morphology
Conidiophores are smooth and colourless and turned dark toward vesicles. The vesicle was globes and
bearing phialides mycelium septate.
2) Penicillium species
Colony Morphology
Colony appeared as bluish green mycelium was septate and ridged
Penicillium has brush like appearance formed of chains of spores extending from the ends of phialides borne
on short branches of conidiophores on the hyphae.
3) Mucor species
Colony Morphology
Colony was rapidly growing, filling the test tube or petridish in 5-7 days with a fluffy asexual mycelia ie, at
first white but later become gray to brown.
Mycelium was broad, non-septate, and colourless without rhizoids shows few irregular cross wall,
sporangiophores arose singly from them the mycelium forming a thick fluff. They were either unbranched
with terminal sporangia or branched with spherical multispored sporangia on cell at the end of the hyphae.
4) Rhizopus species
Colony Morphology
Colonies are columnar, fast growing and cover an agar surface with a dense cottony growth that is at first
white becoming grey or yellowish brown with sporulation.
Sporangiophores up to 1500 µm in length and 18 µm in width, smooth walled, non - septate, simple or
branched, arising from stolons opposite rhizoids usually in groups of 3 or more. Sporangia are globose,
often with a flattened base, grayish black, powdery in appearance, up to 175 µm in diameter and many
spored.
5) Fusarium species
Colony Morphology
Colony was fluffy to cottony, owing to extensive mycelium some diffusible pigment produced on reverse
side (orange).
Conidiophores singly or grouped, septate, micro conidia are one walled and often numerous in chain or
balls. Macroconidia were elongate and cylindrical.
6) Candida species
Colony Morphology
Colonies were creamy white, pasty, smooth, dull with foul odour and yeast-like in appearance.
All Candida species produce blastoconidia singly or in small clusters. Blastoconidia may be round or
elongate. Most species produce pseudohyphae which may be long, branched or curved. True hyphae and
chlamydospores are produced by strains of some Candida spp.
7) Phytophthora species
Colony Morphology
White cottony colonies, media colour changed into red
Highly branched, septate and nucleated
Fig. 27. Microscopic View of Some Fungi
12
IDENTIFICATION OF FUNGAL CONTAMINANTS IN PLANT TISSUE
CULTURE LAB
Objective
To identify various fungal contaminants in plant tissue culture lab
Technical Programme
Lacto Phenol Cotton Blue (LPCB) of tear mount staining technique was employed for identification. Two
methods are employed for LPCB staining, namely, tear mount method and slide culture method. In LPCB
staining blue colour gives to cytoplasm against light blue background walls of hyphae can be visualized
easily. Phenol act as fungicide and lactic acid act as clearing agent. To perform tear mount method, one or
two drops of Lacto phenol cotton blue stain was added to a clean slide. Using a flame sterilized needle a
few fungal mycelia was placed on the stain and the mycelia was gently teased and spread using a sterile
needle. Cover glass was carefully placed taking extra caution to avoid air bubbles. Excess stain was
removed using tissue paper and observed under 10X and 45X objectives of microscope. Various fungal
smears were identified based on their morphological characteristics from the banana, pineapple and passion
fruit tissue culture bottles.
Contaminations were also studied using slide culture method for a double confirmation. Slides were
arranged over the V- shaped tube in a petriplate. 1 cm X 1 cm square block of Sabouraud’s dextrose agar
(SDA) was carefully placed on the center of the glass slide block. Cover slip was placed with sterile forceps
and moistened cotton in petriplate was kept for promoting the fungal growth. After two to three days
incubation, agar block was carefully placed on a glass slide containing Lacto phenol cotton blue staining.
Block was later observed under 10X and 45X magnification of microscope.
Observation
Table 7. Tissue Culture Contaminants

Macroscopic Microscopic Observation Organism
Observation
White color, creamy Pink color large cells obtained by Yeast sp.
growth on the media Gram’s Staining large, oval,
surface budding cells obtained by
LPCB staining
Blackish- brown, rough Mycelium is septate and Aspergillus
colonies spread all over branched. Conidia developed as a sp.
the media stalk and heads from foot cells
Greyish - green colour Brush like conidiophores and Penicillium
colonies, smooth branched mycelium spores sp.
colonies arranged on conidiophores
Result
A wide range of microorganisms cause contamination in tissue culture laboratory, fungi, yeast, molds and
bacteria were the predominant microbes. Among them fungi were the major contaminants, 73.135% of
consisting of fungal contamination and of bacteria were 26.87%.
Fig. 28. Macroscopic and Microscopic observations of some fungal contaminants
13
IDENTIFICATION OF DISEASE CAUSING FUNGAL PATHOGEN OF
PASSION FRUIT NURSERY PLANTS
Objective
To identify the infective agent on passion fruit seedling from roof top nursery
Technical Programme
The soil and plant samples were collected from the roof top nursery and weighed 1g of sample and
suspended in 9 ml sterile distilled water in tubes (10ˉ¹). Arranged 5 sets of tubes, each set contained 9 ml of
sterile distilled water. Shaked and homogenized the first and transferred 1 ml from it to the second.
Similarly, 1ml sample was serially transferred 10ˉ² dilutions into third tube containing 9ml of sterile water to
get a final dilution of 10ˉ³. Repeated the procedure for 10ˉ⁴, 10ˉ5, 10ˉ6 dilutions. The same procedure was
followed in plant samples. Aseptically poured 1 ml soil suspension from 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5 into sterile
petriplate mixed with 15 ml of SDA at 45-50°C and mixed well. Incubate the plates at room temperature for
4-5 days. After proper incubation stained the colonies using LPCB stain method.
Results
Table 8. Soil Sample observations in different dilutions
Dilution Macroscopic Microscopic
10ˉ¹ White cottony appearance Fusarium sp.
10ˉ² White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
10ˉ³ White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.

Green colored colonies Penicillium sp.
10ˉ⁴ White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
Black powdery colonies Aspergillus sp.
10ˉ5 White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
Table 9. Plant samples in different dilutions
Dilutions Macroscopic Microscopic
10ˉ¹ White cottony appearance Fusarium sp.

10ˉ² White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
10ˉ³ White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
10ˉ⁴ White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
10ˉ5 White fluffy large colonies Fusarium sp.
Black powdery colonies Aspergillus s.
Result
Fusarium sp. was found to be in large number in both plant and soil samples studied. This is the reason for
the damping off disease of seedlings in passion fruit planted in roof top nursery.
Fig. 29. Fusarium sp. (45X)
14
IDENTIFICATION OF DISEASE CAUSING PATHOGENS IN PASSION
FRUIT PLANTS OF PRS FIELD
Aim
To identify the disease causing pathogens for infected plants 55-8, 55-9,Vazhakulam purple variety plants
12, 10, 9, 8, 7 and 6, 86-7, 134-4, 55-5 and 125
Materials Required
SDA, Nutrient Agar (NA) plates, sterile distilled water, test tubes and routine lab equipments
Technical Programme
As per the information from the field, that the passion fruit plants started to wilt, plant pathologist visited the
field and collected the soil samples, stem samples etc. Aseptically collected the samples and packed well.
Checked the symptoms of the disease.
Symptoms
Sample varieties showed wilting, root rot, stem rot, and stem discoloration. During that time leaves were
falling from the plant. When removed the soil nearby the root system had shown rotting except tap root.
Techniques Include
1. Surface sterilization of the sample
2. Serial dilution of the soil sample
 Serial dilution
 Plating (Spread plate)
 Colony Counting
 Sub culturing (Streaking)
 Gram’s Staining
 Biochemical tests (if applicable)
3. Inoculation of leaf, stem, root samples on SDA plates
 Preparation of SDA
 Inoculation of samples
 LPCB for fungal identification
4. Gram Staining
5. Hanging Drop Motility
Surface Sterilization of the Samples
 Washed the samples (root & stem samples collected from the diseased plants) in running tap water
for few minutes.
 Washed again using sterile distilled water.
 Rinsed the samples using 70% alcohol.
 Washed again using distilled water for removing the alcohol.
 Rinsed the samples using 0.1% Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) for 1 minute
 Washed the samples with distilled water for removing the excess mercuric chloride
Serial Dilution
Weigh 1 g of soil sample and add it to 10 ml sterile distilled water and mix well. The sample was serially
diluted up to 10ˉ⁴ by transferring 1ml. first three dilutions spread on 3 Nutrient Agar (NA) and 3 SDA
plates by transferring 0.1ml of each dilution. Incubate NA plates in incubator at 37°C for 24 hrs and also
incubate SDA plates at room temperature for 3-4 days.
Table 10. Serial dilution of 55-8, 55-9 on NA plates
Sample Dilutions No. of Colonies Cultural Characters

10ˉ¹ TNTC
55-8 10ˉ² 110 Colonies Off White, Mucoid,
10ˉ³ No Growth Round, Small, Opaque,
Flat Colonies
10ˉ¹ TNTC
55-9 10ˉ² TFTC
10ˉ³ TFTC
N B: TNTC – Too Numerous to Count
TFTC - Too Few to Count
Sub cultured the colonies for getting pure culture by streak plate method and performed Gram staining.
Gram Staining Result
Purple-rods were obtained by gram staining, Gram positive bacteria. Both 55-8 and 55-9 have the same
bacteria. It’s a common soil microbe, which is not responsible for this infection.
Table 11. Serial Dilution of 55-8, 55-9 on SDA plates
Sample Dilutions No: of Cultural characters

colonies
55-8 10ˉ¹ TNTC white puffy, yellow puffy, blackish-

brown, off- white, large, fibrous
10ˉ² TNTC colonies
10ˉ³ TNTC
55-9 10ˉ¹ TNTC
10ˉ² TNTC
10ˉ³ TNTC
NB:– TNTC-Too Numerous to Count
TFTC - Too few to Count
Performed LPCB for the fungal growths obtained from leaf and root samples on SDA plates. Macroscopic
observations of the fungal growth obtained from leaf and root samples on SDA plates are discussed below:
Table 12. Macroscopic and Microscopic Observations of Different

Passion Fruit Samples on SDA plates
Macroscopic observations Microscopic observations

Off white colored, fibrous, Mycelium with highly branched
spreading colonies all over the hyphae, single or many branched
surface with yellowish base sporangiospores are present.
Lemon or egg shaped sporangia.
LPCB Results
The fungal pathogen was Phytophthora sp.
Phytophthora sp. (45X) Fusarium sp. (45X)

Fig. 30. Microscopic view of Phytophthora & Fusarium sp.
Table 13. Results of 86, 134 and 55 varieties of passion Fruits

Sample LPCB Result Gram’s Staining Hanging drop
86Y-R2 Root Fusarium sp. Gram +ve cocci Non Motile
86Y-R2 Leaf Fusarium sp. Gram +ve rods Non Motile
134P-R1 Root Mucor sp.+ Gram +ve cocci Motile
Fusarium sp.
134P-R1 Leaf Fusarium sp. Gram +ve cocci Non Motile
134P-R1 Root Fusarium sp. Gram +ve rods Motile
134P-R1 Leaf Fusarium sp. Gram +ve cocci Motile
125Y-R1 Leaf Fusarium + Mucor Gram +ve cocci Non Motile
sp.
55Y-R2 Root Fusarium sp. Gram +ve cocci Non Motile
66Y-R1 Root Fusarium sp. Gram +ve rods Motile
Table 14. Macroscopic and Microscopic observations of 86, 134

and 55 varieties of passion Fruits
Macroscopic Observation Microscopic Observation
White, cottony, rhizoid, Short and branched
irregular growth all over the conidiophores are present.
media Microconidia, Microconidia and
kidney shaped spores are
present. Chlamydospore are
produced at terminal position
with dark, thick wall
15
IDENTIFICATION OF PATHOGENS FROM MD-2 PINEAPPLE FRUIT ROT
Objective
To identify the causative agent of pineapple fruit rot.
Materials Required
Slide, Staining Kit, Cover slip, Needle, Loop, Petriplates
Technical Programme
The sample was inoculated on SDA plates and NA plates and incubated at 25°C for 3-4 days and at 37°C
for 24 hours, respectively. The growth was observed on the plates and further subjected to the following
tests for identification of the organism.
Techniques Include
 Gram staining
 LPCB staining
 Hanging drop method
 Biochemical tests
 Germ tube test
 Urea hydrolysis
 Starch Hydrolysis
 Phenylalanine Agar
Observation
Table 15. Observations of samples
1 On SDA plates White coloured large colonies
2 Gram staining Gram Positive Rods
3 LPCB staining Yeast like cells, round/ovoid in nature
4 Hanging drop method Motile rods
5 Catalase test -
6 Oxidase test -
7 Urea Hydrolysis +
8 Starch Hydrolysis +
9 Phenylalanine Test -
10 Germ Tube Test +
Biochemical tests
c Sucrose Non-fermented
5 Methyl Red -
8 Urease test No change
9 Triple Sugar Iron Agar Pink – yellow, No H2S production
Result
The sample may be Candida sp.
16
MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF MILK
Methylene Blue Reductase Test
Principle
This reductase test is based on the oxidation-reduction activities of the bacteria present in the milk sample.
The indicator used in the reaction is methylene blue which is color sensitive to oxygen concentration. The
indicator is blue in the oxidized state and leuco or white in the reduced conditions. The speed of color
disappearance of methylene blue is proportional to the microbial load in the milk sample. The more the
bacteria present the faster will be the reduction.
The classification of milk as per methylene blue reductase test is as follows.
1. Class I- Excellent, not decolorized in 8 hours (<500 bacteria/ml)

2. Class II-Good, decolorized in less than 8 hours but not less than 6 hours (>500 bacteria/ml)
3. Class III-Fair, decolorized in less than 6 hours but not less than 2 hours (>40,00,000 bacteria/ml)
4. Class IV- Poor, decolorized in less than 2 hours. (> 2,00,00,000 bacteria/ml)
Materials Required
Milk sample, methylene blue solution, Mc Cartney bottles, pipettes, water bath set at 37oC, distilled water,
Bunsen burner.
Note
All the glass wares were sterilized before use.
Procedure
 Methylene blue solution was prepared by dissolving 1 mg methylene blue powder aseptically in 25 ml
of distilled water.
 Transferred 10 ml of milk sample into sterile Mc Cartney bottle using sterile pipettes.
 Added 1 ml of methylene blue solution to the milk sample using a separate sterile pipette.
 The bottle was closed with the stopper.
 The contents of the tube were mixed by gently inverting it 2-3 times.
 Incubate the Mc Cartney bottle in a water bath at 37oC for 6 hours.
 Controlled tubes containing 10 ml boiled milk and 1 ml of methylene blue was also incubated.
 Recorded the time for discoloration.
17
MICROBIAL ANALYSIS OF FOOD ITEMS
Microbial analysis of ice cream and soft drink

Principle
The bottled beverages including non-pasteurized non-carbonated soft drink should confirm as a minimum
requirement for microbiological criteria of the WHO standard. Only pasteurized milk was used in the
manufacture of ice cream. Samples were received in the frozen state molted one were rejected. The frozen
samples were melted immediately before examination. The spread plates ensure an aerobic environment for
microorganisms present in the food sample.
Materials Required
Ice cream sample, soft drink sample, nutrient agar, pipettes, petriplates, test tubes, L rod, alcohol.
Procedure
a) Ice cream sample:
 1 g of ice cream sample was weighed and added to 10 ml sterilized distilled water blanks and was
labeled as 10-1 dilution.
 Mixed gently by inverting the test tubes for several times.
 Prepared serial dilutions of ice cream sample by transferring 1 ml from first dilution to sterile distilled
water and mixed well.
 This test tube was labeled as 10-2.
 The procedure was repeated up to 7th test tube with respective dilution 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, 10-6, 10-7 using
different sterile pipettes.
 Discarded 1 ml of the sample from 10-7 dilution.
 0.1 ml of the diluted sample from particular dilution were pipetted out into nutrient agar plates and was
spread uniformly using a sterilized L-rod.
 Kept the plates in an upright position for few minutes.
 Incubated the plates in an inverted position at 37°C for 24 hours.
 Examined the plates for bacterial colonies.
b) Soft drink sample:
 1 ml of soft drink was added to 9 ml sterilized distilled water blank and was labeled as 10-1 dilution.
 Mix gently by inverting the test tubes for several times.
 Prepared serial dilution of the soft drink sample by transferring 1 ml from first dilution to sterile distilled
water blank and mixed well.
 This test tube was labeled as 10-2 dilution.
 0.1 ml of the diluted sample from particular dilution was pipetted out into nutrient agar plates and was
spread uniformly using a sterilized L-rod.
 Incubated the plates in an inverted position at 37°C for 24 hours.
Observation
The number of colonies formed in each plate was counted for both ice cream and soft drink samples. Plates
with fewer than 30 colonies were designated as “too few to count” (TFTC) and plates with more than 300
colonies as “too numerous to count” (TNTC).
Microbiological analysis of fruits and vegetables
Principle
Fruits and vegetables are readily susceptible to microbial decomposition, and hence considered as
perishables. The total number of bacteria present in the sample of fruits and vegetables and other frozen
food can be enumerated by traditional pour plate or spread plate technique. A sterile food blender is
essential to obtain the microorganism in suspension.
Materials Required
Nutrient agar, fruit sample, vegetable sample, petriplate, pipettes, L-rod, Homogenizer (food blender),
alcohol
Procedure
a) Fruit sample
 Using aseptic technique, 1 g of fruit was weighed.
 Weighed food sample was transferred into 10 ml sterile distilled water blank and was labeled as 10-1
dilution.
 Using a sterile pipette, 1 ml of sample was transferred from 10 -1 dilution to sterile distilled water
blank and was labeled as 10-2 dilution.
 Mixed gently.
 0.1 ml of the diluted sample from particular dilution was pipetted out into nutrient agar plates and
was spread uniformly using a sterilized L-rod.
 Incubated the plates in an inverted position at 37oC for 24 hours.
b) Vegetable sample
 Using aseptic technique, 1 g of vegetable was weighed.
 Weighed sample was transferred into 10 ml sterile distilled water blank and was labeled as 10 -1
dilution.
 Using a sterile pipette, 1 ml of sample was transferred from 10 -1 dilution to sterile distilled water
blank and was labeled as 10-2 dilution.
 Mixed gently.
 0.1 ml of the diluted sample from particular dilution were pipetted out into nutrient agar plates and
was spread uniformly using a sterilized L-rod.
 Incubated the plates in an inverted position at 37oC for 24 hours.
Observation
The number of colonies formed in each plate were counted for both fruit and vegetable samples. Plates with
fewer than 30 colonies were designated as “too few to count” (TFTC) and plates with more than 300
colonies as “too numerous to count” (TNTC).
18
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER BY MULTIPLE TUBE

FERMENTATION TEST
Aim
To determine the presence of coliform bacteria in the given water sample and to estimate the number of
coliforms present in the same
Principle
With increasing industrialization, water sources available for consumption and recreation have been
polluted with industrial as well as animal and human wastes. As a result, water has become a formidable
factor in disease transmission. Polluted water contains vast amount of organic matter that serves as excellent
nutritional sources for the growth and multiplication of microorganisms. The presence of non-pathogenic
organisms is not of major concern, but intestinal contaminants of fecal origin are important. These
pathogens are responsible for intestinal infections such as bacillary dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera and
paratyphoid fever. Since Escherichia coli are always present in the human intestine, its presence in water
indicates the presence of other human or animal intestinal pathogens. Both qualitative and quantitative
methods are used to determine the sanitary conditions of water.
Multiple tube fermentation tests are used to detect coliform bacteria which are used as indicator of fecal
contamination. This test is performed as sequentially in 3 stages: Presumptive, Confirmed and Completed
tests. Coliform bacteria are aerobic or facultative anaerobic, gram negative, rod shaped, and non-endospore
forming, capable of fermenting lactose with the production of acid and gas within 24 hours of incubation at
37°C.
a) Presumptive Test
The presumptive test is specific for detection for coliform bacteria. It is used to detect and estimate the
coliform population of a water sample. Measured the water sample to be added to a lactose fermentation
broth containing an inverted glass vial. Because these bacteria are capable of using lactose as the carbon
source, this detection is facilitated by use of this medium. In addition to lactose, the medium also contains a
surface tension depressant, bile salt, used to suppress the growth of organisms other than coliform bacteria.
The presumptive test also enables to obtain the number of coliform organisms present by means of most
portable number test (MPN). The MPN is estimated by determining the number of tubes in each group that
show gas following the incubation period.
Procedure
 Arranged three double strength broth (each tube with 10 ml medium) and six single strength broth
(each tube containing 5 ml medium) with inverted Durham’s tube.
 Added 10 ml, 1 ml and 0.1 ml water sample to three test tubes with 10 ml double strength broth, 3
tubes with 5 ml single strength broth and three tubes with 5 ml single strength broth respectively using
 Mixed it gently
 Incubated the tubes at 37°C for 24-48 hours.
 After incubation, the tubes were observed for more gas production.
Observation
After incubation, the tubes were observed for 10% or more gas production
 Positive: 10% or more gas production in the Durham’s tube after 24 hours of incubation.
 Doubtful : gas developed after 48 hours of incubation
 Negative: No gas production after 48 hours.
b) Confirmed Test
This test is used to confirm the presence of coliforms in water samples showing positive or doubtful
presumptive tests. Confirmation of these results is necessary, since positive presumptive tests may be the
result of organisms of non-coliform bacteria that are not recognized as indicators of fecal pollution. The
confirmed test requires selective and differential media such as Eosin Methylene Blue. EMB contains the
dye methylene blue, which inhibits the growth of gram positive organisms. In the presence of an acid
environment, EMB forms a complex that precipitates out in to the coliform colonies, producing a dark
centre and green metallic sheen. This reaction is characteristic for Escherichia coli, the major indicator of
fecal pollution.
Procedure
 Sterilized, dried EMB agar plates were inoculated with positive 24 hours broth culture selected from
presumptive tests by using sterile loop
 The inoculated plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours
 Examined the inoculated plates for E. coli colonies
Observation
Appearance of green metallic sheen with dark centers indicates the presence of Escherichia coli in the water
sample.
c) Complete Test
The completed test is the final analysis of water sample. It is used as a confirmatory test for the presence of
E. coli in a water sample. It’s used to examine the coliform colonies that appeared on the EMB plates used
in the confirmed test. An isolated colony is picked from the confirmatory test plate and inoculated onto a
tube of lactose broth and the presence of gram negative bacilli on microscopic examination are further
confirmation of the presence of E. coli and they are indicative of positive completed test.
Procedure
 The broth and nutrient agar slants were inoculated with the organism obtained from the EMB agar
plates of confirmed test using sterile loop.
 Incubated the inoculated media at 37°C for 24 hours
 Examined the Brilliant green lactose broth for gas production
 Preformed gram stain from nutrient agar slant
Observation
 Gas production was seen in broth

 Gram negative bacilli were observed on Gram staining.
MPN Procedure
E.coli on EMB Agar Plate
MPN Index Chart
Fig. 31. Most Probable Number
19
ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY TEST

(KIRBY – BAUER METHOD OR DISC DIFFUSION METHOD)
Aim
To determine the susceptibility of a pathogen to a range of antibiotics
Principle
Antibiotics are natural antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms. One type of penicillin, for example, is
produced by the mold Penicillium notatum. The Kirby-Bauer test, also called the disc diffusion test, is a valuable
standard tool for measuring the effectiveness of antimicrobics against pathogenic microorganisms. In the test,
antimicrobics-impregnated paper disks are placed on a plate that is inoculated to form a bacterial lawn. The
plates are incubated to allow growth of the bacteria and time for the agent to diffuse into the agar. As the drug
moves through the agar, it establishes a concentration gradient. If the organism is susceptible to it, a clear zone
will appear around the disk where growth has been inhibited.
The size of this zone of inhibition depends upon the sensitivity of the bacteria to the specific antimicrobial agent
and the point at which the chemical’s minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is reached. Some drugs kill the
organism and are said to be bactericidal. Other drugs are bacteriostatic; they stop growth but don’t kill the
microbe.
Materials and Methods
Broth culture, Muller- Hinter agar Plates, antibiotic disc, cotton swab and sterile forceps
Procedure
 The test organism was inoculated on to sterile peptone water and was incubated at 37°C for 2-4 hours.
 After proper incubation, the suspension was then swabbed on to sterile Muller – Hinter Agar using sterile
cotton swab and kept in position for some time.
 The antibiotic discs of known potency were placed on to agar
surface using sterile forceps and gently pressed it
 Incubated the plates at 37°C for 24 hours and observed it carefully.
Observation
Observed the zone of growth inhibition around the disc and

measured it and compared the value with standard antibiogram.
Based on the comparison the organism can be differentiated in to
sensitive, intermediate sensitive and resistant.
Fig. 32. Antibiotic Sensitivity Test
UNITS, MEASUREMENTS, CONVERSIONS AND USEFUL DATA
SI prefixes and multiplication factors SI base, derived and other units

Multiplication factor Prefix Symbol Phisical quantity Unit Symbol
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 =1024 yotta Y length metre m
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 =1021 zetta Z mass kilogram kg
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 =1018 exa E time second s
1 000 000 000 000 000 =1015 peta P electric current ampere A
1 000 000 000 000 =1012 tera T thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
1 000 000 000 =109 giga G amount of substance mole mol
1 000 000 =106 mega M luminous intensity candela cd
1 000 =103 kilo k time minute min
100 =102 hecto h time hour h
10 =101 deca da time day d
0.1 =10-1 deci d plane angle degree o
0.01 =10-2 centi c plane angle minute ’

0.001 =10-3 milli m plane angle second ’’
0.000 001 =10-6 micro  length foot ’
0.000 000 001 =10-9 nano n length inch ’’
0.000 000 000 001 =10-12 pico p length angstrom A
0.000 000 000 000 001 =10-15 femto f area barn b
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 =10-18 atto a volume litre l
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 =10-21 zepto z mass tonne t
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 =10-24 yocto y pressure bar bar
SI Units Conversion Table

Length and area fps Units SI Units Reciprocal
Micron (m, ) =10-6 m Length
Angstrom (A) =10-10 m 1 inch (in) =2.54 x 10-2m 39.370079
Fermi (fm) =10-15 m 1 foot (ft) =0.3048 m 3.280839
Are (a) =100 m2 1 yard (yd) =0.9144 m 1.093613
Barn (b) =10-28 m2 1 fanthom =1.8288 m 0.546806
Mass 1 chain =20.1168 m 4.97097 x 10-2
Tonne (t) =106g=1000kg 1 furlong =2.01168 x 102 m 4.97097 x 10-3
fps Units 1 mile (mi) 1.609344 x 103 m 6.213712 x 10-4
Length Area
12 inches =1 foot (ft) 1 in2 =6.4516 x 10-4m2 1.550003 x 103
3 feet =1 yard (yd) 1 ft2 =9.290304 x 10-2m2 10.763910
22 yards =1 chain 1 yd2 =0.836127 m2 1.195990
2
10 chains =1 furlong 1 mi =2.589988 x 106 m2 3.861022 x 10-7
8 furlongs =1 mile (mi) 1 acre =4.046856 x 103 m2 2.471054 x 10-4
6 feet =1 fanthom Volume
6080 feet =1UK nautical mile 1 in3 =1.638706 x 10-5 m3 6.102374 x 104
3
Area 1 ft =2.831685 x 10-2m3 35.31467
4840 yard2 =1 acre 1yd 3
=0.764555 m3 1.307950
640 acres =1 mile2 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) =2.841306 x 10-5m3 3.519508 x 104
Mass 1 pint (pt) 5.682613 x 10-4m3 1.759754 x 103
16 ounces (oz) =1 pound (lb) 1 quart (qt) =1.136523 x 10-3m3 8.798770 x 102
14 pounds =1 stone 1 gallon (gal) =4.54609 x 10-3m3 2.199692 x 102
28 pounds =1 quarter 1 bushel (bu) =0.036369 m3 27.495944
4 quarters =1 hundredweight 1 US gallon (=231in ) =3.785412 x 10-3 m3
3
2.641721 x 102
20 hundredweight =1 ton Mass
Volume 1 ounce (oz) =2.834952 x 10-2 kg 35.273962
20 fluid ounces =1 pint (pt) 1 pound (lb) =0.45359237 kg 2.204623
2 pints =1 quart (qt) 1 stone =6.350293 kg 0.158473
4 quarts =1 gallon 1 quarter =12.700586 kg 7.873652 x 10-2
1 hundredweight =50.802345 kg 1.968413 x 10-2
1 ton =1.016047 x 103 kg 9.842065 x 10-4
Electromagnetic and visible spectra Designation of large numbers
-12
10 USA UK
cm Cosmic rays 106 million million
10-10 4000 Violet 109 billion milliard
Gamma rays A 1012 trillion billion
10-8 X-rays Indigo 1015 quadrillion billiard
Blue 1018 quintillion trillion
10-6 Ultraviolet rays 5000
Green Conversion Factors
10-4 Visible light Parameter Conversion Reciprocal
Yellow P 2O 5 =P x 2.29 0.43668
10-2 Infrared rays 6000 Orange K2O =K x 1.2 0.83333
Red Urea =N x 2.174 0.46
10 Short hertzian waves SSP =P2O5 x 6.25 0.16
MOP =K2O x 1.67 0.275438
102 7000 Deep red Organic =C x 1.74 0.5747
matter %
104 Radio waves and long Soil test rating
electrical oscillations Parameter Low Medium High
6 O.C. % < 0.5 0.5-0.75 > 0.75
10
N kg/ha < 280 280-560 > 560
108 P kg/ha < 10 10-25 > 25
K kg/ha < 110 110-280 > 280
Useful data
1 atmo = 764 mm Hg = 1036 cm water = 1013 mbar = pF 3 = 1.03329 kg/cm2 = 1013231 dynes/cm2
1 ha = 0.01 km2 = 10000 m2 = 2.471 ac = 0.003861 mile2
1 ac = 100 cents = 0.4 ha = 4047m2 = 43560ft2
1 cent = 40.47m2 = 436ft2
1 mile = 8 furlong = 80chains = 1760yards = 5280ft
1 ton = 20 hundredweight (cwt) = 80 quarter = 2240 pounds = 35840 ounces
1 HP = 76.0404 kg.m/s = 745.7 watts = 550 ft.lb/s
Erosion: v velocity, v2 erosive power, v5 amount eroded, v6 size of materials carried away.
When slope is increased 4 times: increase in velocity 2 times, erosivity 4 times, quantity 32 times, size 64 times.
Construct bunds every 3 ft vertical drop or 300 ft length whichever is less
Solar constant: 2cal/cm2/minute. Average energy received on earth from sun.
Plants use only 0.4-0.5% energy. Algae use the maximum, 2.5%
Beer’s law I=Ioe-KL
Hopkins bioclimatic law: Crop phenological events are delayed by 1 day for every 1 o latitude, 5o longitude and 400 ft altitude.
15 cm 1 ha furrow slice = 2.2 million kg
1 ha 1 mm water = 10 m3
1 cusec (cubic foot/s) = ft3/s = 28.3 l/s = 1 acre inch/hour
1 cumes (cubic metre/s) = m3/s = 35.3 cusecs
o
C = (oF – 32) 5  9 ; oF = 1.8oC + 32
Balanced fertilizer application based on balanced ratio of NPK 4:16:1 in the economic part.
Protein contains 16% N, Protein % =N% x 6.25
Organic matter contains 58% carbon, Organic matter % =C % x 1.724
Soil water potential,  =m/p +  o/s + g + a
Pan evaporation, Eo=4-6 mm/day, Eto=Eo x 0.6-0.8
Irrigation requirement: depth=3-8cm, interval=8-10days, IW/CPE=0.9 for sensitive crops, 0.6 for hardy crops
N x Eq. wt=g/l, N=Eq. wt/l, ppm=g/ml=mg/l=me/l x Eq. wt.
mmhos/cm, EC x 640=TSS, ppm; EC x 0.064=TSS%; EC x 10=TSS, me/l; EC x –0.36= o/s (+ osmotic pressure)
NPK recovery by crop: <40, <20, 80-90%
Cation adsorption to clay: Al>Fe>Si>H>Ca>Mg>K>Na
Anion adsorption to clay: SiO4>PO4>MO4>SO4>NO3>Cl
(Cation and anion leaching in reverse order)
Anion toxicity to crops: HCO3>CO3>Cl>SO4>NO3
Anaerobic reduction during flooding: O>NO3>Mn>Fe>S>C
Lyophilic series/Displacement capacity of anions: F>OH>HCO3>PO4>SiO4
Plant mobile nutrients: N, P, K, Mg, Cl, S
Plant immobile elements: Ca, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B
Particle size: solution < 10A colloid 1000A > suspension
Neutralising value (Ca equivalent): CaCO3 100, MgCO3 119, Ca(OH)2 136, CaO 179
Residual (equivalent) acidity: CaNH4NO3 zero, Urea 80, NH4NO3 60, (NH4)2SO4 110, (NH4)3PO4 86, NH4Cl 128, anhydrous NH3 148
Essential elements: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Cl, Co
Soils having >20% o.m. = organic; >70% sand = sandy; >40% clay = clayey; 27-52% silt = silty soil
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Microbiology Laboratory Manual

Book · January 2014

Naveena Varghese P.P. Joy

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KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

1 Microbiology Laboratory: Basic Rules and Requirements 3

3 Cultural Characteristics of Microorganisms 18

7 Method of Isolation of Pure Culture 30

8 Culture Preservation Techniques 31

10 Biochemical Tests for Identification of Bacteria 41

13 Identification of Disease Causing Fungal Pathogen of Passion Fruit Nursery Plants 62

14 Identification of Disease Causing Pathogens in Passion Fruit Plants from Field 64

15 Identification of Pathogens Causing MD-2 Pineapple Fruit Rot 68

16 Microbiological Examination of Milk 69

17 Microbial Analysis of Food Items 70

18 Bacteriological Examination of Water by Multiple Tube Fermentation Test 72

19 Antibiotic Sensitivity Test (Kirby – Bauer Method) or Disc Diffusion Method 75

Units, Measurements, Conversions and Useful Data 76

MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY: BASIC RULES AND REQUIREMENTS

Microbiology Lab Practices and Safety Rules

Basic Record and Field Book/Lab Book

1. Keep the book neat and tidy.

Basic requirements of a microbiology laboratory

1) Test Tubes, Culture Tubes and Screw-Capped Tubes

Preparation of Chromic acid

II) Tools in Microbiology Laboratory

1) Inoculation Needle & Inoculation Loop

4) Laminar Air Flow Chamber

Inoculation Loop & Needle Bunsen Burner Water Bath

Laminar Air Flow

Fig. 1. Tools in microbiology laboratory

 Observe that a flat platform, or stage as it is called, extends between

Handling and Examining Cultures

Disposal of Laboratory Wastes and Cultures

1. To prevent transmission of disease and infection

Physical Agents (Physical Methods)

Sterilization control: The spores of a non – toxigenic

An antimicrobial agent is generally called as a germicide. A disinfectant or antiseptic can be particularly

The factor influencing the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants:

1. Size of the microbial population

The main modes of action of disinfectant:

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS

The following characters of colony are noted:

Morphology on nutrient agar slants Fig. 5. Growth on Solid Media

1. Degree of growth : scanty, moderate, abundant

Morphology on Nutrient Agar Plates Fig. 6. Growth on Liquid Media

Growth in Liquid Media

The liquid medium (nutrient broth, peptone water and

Morphology on Nutrient Broth Cultures

1) uniform time turbidity : finely dispersed throughout

Fig. 8. Growth on Plates

Characteristics of an Ideal Culture Medium

 Satisfactory growth for small inoculum – even for single cell.