CHAPTER 4

FLUID-FLOW APPLICATIONS

Two practical aspects of fluid flow in food technology are: measurement in fluids including
pressures and flow rates, and production of fluid flow by means of pumps and fans. When
dealing with fluids, it is important to be able to make and to understand measurements of
pressures and velocities in the equipment. Only by measuring appropriate variables such as the
pressure and the velocity can the flow of the fluid be controlled. When the fluid is a gas it is
usually moved by a fan, and when a liquid by a pump. Pumps and fans are very similar in
principle and usually have a centrifugal or rotating action, although some pumps use longitudinal
or vertical displacement.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE IN A FLUID

The simplest method of measuring the pressure of a fluid in a pipe is to use a piezometer
("pressure measuring") tube. This is a tube, containing the fluid under pressure, in which the
fluid is allowed to rise to a height that corresponds to the excess of the pressure of the fluid over
its surroundings. In most cases the surroundings are ambient air as shown in Fig. 4.1(a).

Figure 4.1. Pressure measurements in pipes.

In Fig. 4.1(a) the pressure of the fluid in the pipe is measured by allowing the fluid to rise in the
vertical tube until it reaches equilibrium with the surrounding air pressure, the height to which it
rises is the pressure head existing in the pipe. This tube is called the manometer tube. The height
(head) can be related to the pressure in the pipe by use of eqn. (3.3) and so we have:

P = Z11g

where P is the pressure, Z1 is the height to which the fluid rises in the tube, 1 is the density of
the fluid and g the acceleration due to gravity..

A development of the piezometer is the U-tube, in which another fluid is introduced which must
be immiscible with the fluid whose pressure is being measured. The fluid at the unknown
pressure is connected to one arm of the manometer tube and this pressure then causes the
measuring fluid to be displaced as shown in Fig. 4.1(b). The unknown pressure is then equal to
the difference between the levels of the measuring fluid in the two arms of the U-tube, Z3. The
differential pressure is given directly as a head of the measuring fluid and this can be converted
to a head of the fluid in the system, or to a pressure difference, by eqn. (3.3).

EXAMPLE 4.1. Pressure in a vacuum evaporator

The pressure in a vacuum evaporator was measured by using a U-tube containing mercury. It
was found to be less than atmospheric pressure by 25cm of mercury. Calculate the extent by
which the pressure in the evaporator is below atmospheric pressure (i.e. the vacuum in the
evaporator) in kPa, and also the absolute pressure in the evaporator. The atmospheric pressure is
75.4cm of mercury and the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

We have P = Zg
= 25 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81
= 33,354 kg m s-2
= 33.4 kPa

Therefore the pressure in the evaporator is 33.4 kPa below atmospheric pressure and this is the
vacuum in the evaporator.

For atmospheric pressure:

P = 75.4 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81
= 100.6 kPa

Therefore the absolute pressure in the evaporator

= 100.6 – 33.4
= 67.2 kPa

Although manometer tubes are used quite extensively to measure pressures, the most common
pressure-measuring instrument is the Bourdon-tube pressure gauge. In this, use is made of the
fact that a coiled tube tends to straighten itself when subjected to internal pressure and the degree
of straightening is directly related to the difference between the pressure inside the tube and the
pressure outside it. In practice, the inside of the tube is generally connected to the unknown
system and the outside is generally in air at atmospheric pressure. The tube is connected by a
rack and pinion system to a pointer, which can then reflect the extent of the straightening of the
tube. The pointer can be calibrated to read pressure directly. A similar principle is used with a
bellows gauge where unknown pressure, in a closed bellows, acts against a spring and the extent
of expansion of the bellows against the spring gives a measure of the pressure. Bellows-type
gauges sometimes use the bellows itself as the spring.

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY IN A FLUID

As shown in Fig. 4.1(c), a bent tube is inserted into a flowing stream of fluid and orientated so
that the mouth of the tube faces directly into the flow. The pressure in the tube will give a
measure of velocity head due to the flow. Such a tube is called a Pitot tube. The pressure exerted
by the flowing fluid on the mouth of the tube is balanced by the manometric head of fluid in the
tube. In equilibrium, when there is no movement of fluid in the tube, Bernouilli's equation can be
applied. For the Pitot tube and manometer we can write:

Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/1

in which subscript 1 refers to conditions at the entrance to the tube and subscript 2 refers to
conditions at the top of the column of fluid which rises in the tube. Taking the datum level at the
mouth of the tube, Z1 is zero. If Z' is the height of the upper liquid surface in the pipe above the
datum, and Z be the additional height of the fluid level in the tube above the upper liquid surface
in the pipe;
Z2 = Z + Z'
Z' may be neglected if P1 is measured at the upper surface of the liquid in the pipe, or if Z' is
small compared with Z. So:
Z2 =Z
v2 = 0 as there is no flow in the tube.
P2 = 0 if atmospheric pressure is taken as datum, the top of the tube is open to the atmosphere.
Z = 0 because the datum line is at the mouth of the tube

The equation then simplifies to:

v12/2 + P1/1 = (Z + Z')g  Zg

v12/2g + P1/1g  Z (4.1)

This analysis shows that the differential head on the manometer measures the sum of the velocity
head and the pressure head in the flowing liquid.

The Pitot tube can be combined with a piezometer tube, and connected across a common
manometer as shown in Fig. 4.1(d). The differential head, Z, across the manometer is the velocity
head plus the static head of the Pitot tube, less the static head of the piezometer tube. In other
words, the differential head measures directly the velocity head of the flowing liquid or gas. This
differential arrangement is known as a Pitot-static tube and it is extensively used in the
measurement of flow velocities.
 We can write for the Pitot-static tube:

Z = v2 /2g (4.2)

where Z is the differential head measured in terms of the flowing fluid.

EXAMPLE 4.2. Velocity of air in a duct

Air at 0oC is flowing through a duct in a chilling system. A Pitot-static tube is inserted into the
flow line and the differential pressure head, measured in a micromanometer, is 0.8mm of water.
Calculate the velocity of the air in the duct. The density of air at 0oC is 1.3kgm-3

From eqn. (4.2) we have

Z = v12 /2g

In working with Pitot-static tubes, it is convenient to convert pressure heads into equivalent
heads of the flowing fluid, in this case air, using the relationship from eqn 3.3:
1Z1 = 2Z2.

Now 0.8mm water = 0.8 x 10-3 x 1000

1.3
= 0.62 m of air

Also v12 = 2Zg

= 2 x 0.62 x 9.81
= 12.16 m2s-2
Therefore v1 = 3.5 ms-1

Another method of using pressure differentials to measure fluid flow rates is used in Venturi and
orifice meters. If flow is constricted, there is a rise in velocity and a fall in static pressure in
accordance with Bernouilli's equation. Consider the system shown in Fig. 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Venturi meter

A gradual constriction has been interposed in a pipe decreasing the area of flow from A1 to A2. If
the fluid is assumed to be incompressible and the respective velocities and static pressures are v1
and v2, and P1 and P2, then we can write Bernouilli's equation (eqn 3.7) for the section of
horizontal pipe:

v1 2/2 + P1/ 1 = v22/2+ P2/2

Furthermore, from the mass balance, eqn. (3.5)

A1v1 = A2v2
also, as it is the same fluid
1 = 2 = 
so that we have

v1 2/2 + P1/ = (v1A1/A2)2/2 + P2/

v1 2 = [2(P1 - P2)/] x [A22/(A1 2 - A22)]

By joining the two sections of a pipe to a U-manometer, as shown in Fig. 4.2, the differential
head (P1 - P2)/ can be measured directly. A manometric fluid of density m must be introduced,
and the head measured is converted to the equivalent head of the fluid flowing by the
relationship:

(P1- P2)/ = Zmg /

Z = (P1- P2)/ mg

If A1 and A2 are measured, the velocity in the pipe, v1, can be calculated. This device is called a
Venturi meter. In actual practice, energy losses do occur in the pipe between the two measuring
points and a coefficient C is introduced to allow for this:

__________________________
v1 = C  [2(P1- P2)/ ] x A22/(A1 2 - A22)

In a properly designed Venturi meter, C lies between 0.95 and 1.0.

The orifice meter operates on the same principle as the Venturi meter, constricting the flow and
measuring the corresponding static pressure drop. Instead of a tapered tube, a plate with a hole in
the centre is inserted in the pipe to cause the pressure difference. The same equations hold as for
the Venturi meter; but in the case of the orifice meter the coefficient, called the orifice discharge
coefficient, is smaller. Values are obtained from standard tables, for example British Standard
Specification 1042. Orifices have much greater pressure losses than Venturi meters, but they are
easier to construct and to insert in pipes.

Various other types of meters are used:

• propeller meters where all or part of the flow passes through a propeller, and the rate of
rotation of the propeller can be related to the velocity of flow;
• impact meters where the velocity of flow is related to the pressure developed on a vane placed
in the flow path;
• rotameters in which a rotor disc is supported against gravity in a tapered vertical tube and the
rotor disc rises to a height in the tube which depends on the flow velocity.

PUMPS AND FANS

In pumps and fans, mechanical energy from some other source is converted into pressure or
velocity energy in a fluid. The food technologist is not generally much concerned with design
details of pumps, but should know what classes of pump are used and something about their
characteristics.

The efficiency of a pump is the ratio of the energy supplied by the motor to the increase in
velocity and pressure energy given to the fluid.

Positive Displacement Pumps

In a positive displacement pump, the fluid is drawn into the pump and is then forced through the
outlet. Types of positive displacement pumps include: reciprocating piston pumps; gear pumps in
which the fluid is enmeshed in rotating gears and forced through the pump; rotary pumps in
which rotating vanes draw in and discharge fluid through a system of valves. Positive
displacement pumps can develop high-pressure heads but they cannot tolerate throttling or
blockages in the discharge. These types of pumps are illustrated in Fig. 4.3 (a), (b) and (c).
 Figure 4.3 Liquid pumps

Jet Pumps

In jet pumps, a high-velocity jet is produced in a Venturi nozzle, converting the energy of the
fluid into velocity energy. This produces a low-pressure area causing the surrounding fluid to be
drawn into the throat as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4.3(d) and the combined fluids are then
discharged. Jet pumps are used for difficult materials that cannot be satisfactorily handled in a
mechanical pump. They are also used as vacuum pumps. Jet pumps have relatively low
efficiencies but they have no moving parts and therefore have a low initial cost. They can
develop only low heads per stage.
 Air-lift Pumps

If air or gas is introduced into a liquid it can be used to impart energy to the liquid as illustrated
in Fig. 4.3 (e). The air or gas can be either provided from external sources or produced by boiling
within the liquid. Examples of the air-lift principle are:

• Air introduced into the fluid as shown in Fig. 4.3(e) to pump water from an artesian well.
• Air introduced above a liquid in a pressure vessel and the pressure used to discharge the
liquid.
• Vapours produced in the column of a climbing film evaporator.
• In the case of powdered solids, air blown up through a bed of powder to convey it in a
"fluidized" form.

A special case of this is in the evaporator, where boiling of the liquid generates the gas (usually
steam) and it is used to promote circulation. Air or gas can be used directly to provide pressure to
blow a liquid from a container out to a region of lower pressure. Air-lift pumps and air blowing
are inefficient, but they are convenient for materials which will not pass easily through the ports,
valves and passages of other types of pumps.

Propeller Pumps and Fan

Propellers can be used to impart energy to fluids as shown in Fig. 4.3 (f). They are used
extensively to mix the contents of tanks and in pipelines to mix and convey the fluid. Propeller
fans are common and have high efficiencies. They can only be used for low heads, in the case of
fans only a few centimetres or so of water.

Centrifugal Pumps and Fans

The centrifugal pump converts rotational energy into velocity and pressure energy and is
illustrated in Fig. 4.3(g). The fluid to be pumped is taken in at the centre of a bladed rotor and it
then passes out along the spinning rotor, acquiring energy of rotation. This rotational energy is
then converted into velocity and pressure energy at the periphery of the rotor. Centrifugal fans
work on the same principles. These machines are very extensively used and centrifugal pumps
can develop moderate heads of up to 20m of water. They can deliver very large quantities of
fluids with high efficiency. The theory of the centrifugal pump is rather complicated and will not
be discussed. However, when considering a pump for a given application, the manufacturers will
generally supply pump characteristic curves showing how the pump performs under various
conditions of loading. These curves should be studied in order to match the pump to the duty
required. Figure 4.4 shows some characteristic curves for a family of centrifugal pumps.
 Figure 4.4 Characteristic curves for centrifugal pumps
Adapted from Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering , 2nd. Edition, 1973

For a given centrifugal pump, the capacity of the pump varies with its rotational speed; the
pressure developed by the pump varies as the square of the rotational speed; and the power
required by the pump varies as the cube of the rotational speed. The same proportional
relationships apply to centrifugal fans and these relationships are often called the "fan laws" in
this context.

EXAMPLE 4.3. Centrifugal pump for raising water

Water for a processing plant is required to be stored in a reservoir to supply sufficient working
head for washers. It is believed that a constant supply of 1.2m3min-1 pumped to the reservoir,
which is 22m above the water intake, would be sufficient. The length of the pipe is about 120m
and there is available galvanized iron piping 15cm diameter. The line would need to include
eight right-angle bends. There is available a range of centrifugal pumps whose characteristics are
shown in Fig.4.4. Would one of these pumps be sufficient for the duty and what size of electric
drive motor would be required?

Assume properties of water at 20oC are density 998 kg m-3, and viscosity 0.001 Nsm -2

Cross-sectional area of pipe A = (/4)D2

= /4 x (0.15)2
- = 0.0177 m2
 Volume of flow V = 1.2 m3min-1
= 1.2/60 m3s-1
= 0.02 m3s-1

Velocity in the pipe = V/A

= (0.02)/(0.0177)
= 1.l3 ms-1
Now (Re) = (Dv /)
= (0.15 x 1.13 x 998)/0.001
= 1.7 x 10 5
and so the flow is clearly turbulent.

From Table 3.1, the roughness factor  is 0.0002 for galvanized iron
and so roughness ratio,
 /D = 0.0002/0.15 = 0.001

So from Fig. 3.8,

f = 0.0053

Therefore the friction loss of energy from Eqn. 3.17

= (4fv2/2) x (L/D)
= [4fv2L/2D]
= [4 x 0.0053 x (1.13)2 x 120]/(2 x 0.15)
= 10.8 J.

For the eight right-angled bends, from Table 3.2 we would expect a loss of 0.74 velocity energies
at each, making (8 x 0.74) = 6 in all. There would be one additional velocity energy loss because
of the unrecovered flow energy discharged into the reservoir.

Velocity energy = v2/2

= (1.13)2/2
= 0.64 J
So total loss from bends and discharge energy
= (6 + 1) x 0.64
= 4.5 J

Energy to move 1kg water against a head of 22 m of water is

E = Zg
= 22 x 9.81
= 215.8 J.

Total energy requirement per kg:

Etot = 10.8 + 4.5 + 215.8
= 231.1 J
and theoretical power requirement
= Energy x volumetric flow x density
 = (Energy/kg) x kgs-1
= 231.1 x 0.02 x 998
= 4613 Js-1.

Now the head equivalent to the energy requirement

= Etot /g
= 231.1/9.81
= 23.5 m of water,

and from Fig. 4.4 this would require the 150mm impeller pump to be safe at the speed of 57.5
cycles-1, and the pump would probably be fitted with a 7.5kW motor.
 SUMMARY

1. Pressure in fluids can be measured by instruments such as the piezometer tube, the U-tube
and the Bourdon tube.

2. Velocity can be measured by instruments such as the Pitot tubes - static tubes where:

v2 =2gZ

and Venturi meters where:

v1 2 = [2(P1 - P2)/] x [A22/(A1 2 - A22)]

= 2(P1 - P2) A22 / (A1 2 - A22)

3. Basic pumps for liquids include reciprocating, gear, vane and centrifugal types.
Fans for air and gases are usually either centrifugal or axial flow (propeller) types.

PROBLEMS

1. The difference in levels between a fluid in the two legs of a U-tube is 4.3cm. What differential
pressure is there between the surfaces of the fluid in the two legs if the fluid in the tube is (a)
water, (b) soyabean oil and (c) mercury?
((a) 0.42kPa (b) 0.38kPa (c) 5.74 kPa)

2. A Pitot tube is to be used for measurement of the rate of flow of steam at a pressure of 300
kPa above atmospheric pressure, flowing in a 10cm diameter pipe. If it is desired to measure
flow rates in this pipe of between 300 and 600kgh-1, what would be the differential pressures
across the tube, in mm of water?
(For 300 kgh–1, P = 3.48mm water; For 600 kgh–1, P = 13.9mm water)

3. If across a 2cm diameter orifice measuring the flow of brine of density 1080kgm-3 in a 5cm
diameter pipe, the differential pressure is 182 Pa, estimate the mass rate of flow of the brine.
Take the orifice discharge coefficient as 0.97.
(688 kgh –1)

4. A Venturi meter is being used to determine the flow of soyabean oil at 65oC in a pipe. The
particular pipe is 15cm in diameter, which decreases to 6cm in the throat of the Venturi. If
the differential pressure is measured as 14cm of water, estimate the flow rate of the soyabean
oil.
(Volume = 0.17m3h-1; mass = 153 kgh–1)
5. A volume of 0.5m3 h-1 of water is being pumped at a velocity of 1.1ms-1 from the bottom of a
header tank, 3m deep, down three floors (a total fall of 10m from the bottom of the header
tank) into the top of a water pressure tank which is maintained at a pressure of 600kPa above
atmospheric. Estimate the theoretical pump power required, ignoring pipe friction.
(0.1 hp)

6. In the pumping system of worked Example 4.3, the actual pump selected for the duty would
pump more water than the 1.2 m3min-1 needed for the duty. By plotting a capacity curve for
the system, varying the flow rate and determining the total head for each selected rate,
determine from the interaction of this curve and the pump characteristic curve, the expected
flow rate. Assume flow is turbulent.
(Flow rate = 1.44 m3min -1)

7. Using the same flow rate as in worked Example 4.3 and the same piping system, determine
the total head against which a pump would have to operate if the pipeline diameter were
halved to 7.5cm diameter.
(76.7m water)